Reviewed by

Central Administration for Curriculum Development

Dr. Sahar Ibrahim Mohsen Mrs. Monda Abd Elrahman Salam
Mr. Ayman Shawky Elsaid Mrs. Hanaa Mohamed Abo Bakra
Head of the Science Department Science Consultant
Dr.Hanan Abou Elabbas Mohamed Dr. Aziza Ragab Khalifa

Supervision
Dr. Akram Hassan Mohamed
The Minister’s Assistant for Educational Curricula Development
Supervisor of the Central Administration for Curriculum Development
Sun
Even though all plants look different, they have
similar parts. The roots of the plant perform some
very important functions. Roots anchor the plant in
the soil. They draw water and nutrients from the soil,
which are needed to make food. Plant roots have
hairlike features called root hairs. Root hairs increase
the amount of water and nutrients the plant can take
in. Nutrients pass from the soil to the root.

Nutrients are transported to the rest of the plant

through the stem in the tubes called vessels. Stems
give the plant support and come in a variety of
forms. Tree trunks and shrubs have a wood stem.
Most flowers have upright stems. Some stems climb, such as vines. Some stems,
known as tubers, extend underground, such as the potato plant. Other stems,
called runners, run along the ground and help to form new plants.

There are many kinds of leaves. Some are narrow and look like needles, like those
on pine trees. Other leaves are flat and much wider. All leaves have tubes running
through them called xylem. Xylem helps carry water from the roots to the stem
and leaves. The most important function of leaves is to make food for the plant.
Leaves need water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to make food. This process of
making food is called photosynthesis.

Structure and Function of Plant

A plant’s roots absorb water from the soil and carry the water to the rest of the
plant. Roots also carry nutrients from the soil to the plant. Water and nutrients
move up a plant’s stem through tubes called vessels. These vessels are also called
xylem. Smaller vessels connect the stem to the leaves. This system helps feed and
water all the parts of the plant. The air that plants need moves into leaves through
tiny openings called stomata. Leaves also collect sunlight.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process that takes place inside the leaves. Leaves contain
chlorophyll, which gives them their green color. Chlorophyll captures energy from
sunlight. Green leaves use the light energy from the sun to combine the carbon
dioxide from the air with water to manufacture nutrients (such as sugars, starches,
fats, and proteins) that the plant needs to live. Another set of tubes, phloem,
transport the food materials downward, from the leaves to the other parts of the
plant. In addition to producing food for the plant, photosynthesis also produces
oxygen that animals and people need to breathe. Life on Earth without plants
would be impossible.
Xylem
You already learned that plants have structures that take in water and nutrients
from the soil and move them to other parts of the plant. Plants also have structures
that capture sunlight and take in air. Plants then combine the water with carbon
dioxide to make a sugar called glucose. Plant cells use this glucose for food. This
process happens in a plant’s leaves. Sunlight provides the energy needed for this
food-making process. Remember that energy can be transformed from one form to
another. During this process, light energy absorbed from sunlight is transformed
into chemical energy that is found in glucose. This process by which plants use
sunlight to manufacture food within the leaf is called photosynthesis.

Glucose for Energy

Phloem moves glucose from the leaves to the other parts of the plants. Plant cells
use glucose as a source of energy to live and grow. As they use glucose, they release
oxygen and water into the air. These materials are considered waste products of
the photosynthesis process. Other living things, such as animals, depend on the
oxygen that plants release during this process of food production.
When you think of flowers, you probably imagine
large colorful plants seen in gardens. But some
plants, such as grasses, have very small flowers that
are hardly noticeable, and some flowers are not
very colorful. Regardless of the shape, size, or color
of flowers, they all have the same main job: to help
plants reproduce. Plant reproduction is the process
of making new plants. Flowers are the reproductive parts of many plants. Have
you ever seen a sunflower? The small dark-colored objects in the center of the
flower are seeds. If seeds receive air, water, and the correct temperature, they can
grow into a new plant.
How Do We Get Energy?
How do you get the energy you need to
think, breathe, move, or do anything
else? Some activities, such as hard work or
exercise, require a lot of energy. Your body
still uses some energy even when you
sleep. Food and the oxygen we breathe
provide the energy we need throughout
the day.

The Primary Source of Energy

All living things need energy to live, grow, and carry out life processes. The
primary source of energy for all organisms on Earth is the sun. Plants absorb
sunlight through their leaves and use the sun’s energy to make their own food.
Sunlight provides the energy for plants to convert water and carbon dioxide
from the air into glucose. Glucose is the sugar that plants use to sustain life. This
process, known as photosynthesis, is fundamental to life on Earth.

Energy from the Environment

Living organisms can either produce their own food or get food from other
organisms. Animals, including humans, cannot make their own food. Instead,
animals get energy from the environment in which they live. Some animals eat
plants as food. Some eat other animals that eat plants. Some eat both plants and
animals. In this way, energy produced from the sun passes through all life on Earth.
Energy for Life
All organisms need energy to live. While some living things can produce their
own food, but the most cannot. This means that most organisms need to eat to
get the energy they need to survive. Living organisms feed on one another. In an
ecosystem energy is passed on through food chains of organisms.

Producers
The first link in any food chain is the food producers. Plants use energy from
the sun to produce food. Producers are able to produce food in the form of energy-
rich glucose. Nearly all of the producers on Earth are plants.

Consumers
The second link in a food chain is the primary consumers. These are animals
that eat plants (herbivores). In this way, energy begins to move up the food chain.
Many insects are primary consumers.
Next are the secondary consumers that eat the primary consumers. Such as
birds, which birds are secondary consumers because they eat insects and other
organisms that live on a diet of plants.
The next level of consumers is the tertiary consumers that eat the secondary
consumers. Tertiary consumers are often large meat-eating animals, like alligators.

Decomposers
The final link in the food chain is the decomposers. Fungi and bacteria are two
examples of decomposers. Decomposers recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem
through the process of decomposition. Animals such as worms and millipedes eat
dead matter. The waste they produce is rich in nutrients. This makes the soil fertile
for plant growth.
All Organisms Need Energy
Organisms that do not capture energy directly from the sun need other organisms
to obtain energy. Food chains show how energy passes from one organism to
another in an ecosystem. The food chain shows the food, or energy, relationships
among organisms within specific ecosystems.

One Example of a Food Chain

Grass makes its own food using energy from sunlight. A mouse eats the grass to get
energy. A snake then eats the mouse, and a hawk then eats the snake. The energy
from the sun passes to the grass, then to the mouse and snake, and finally to the
hawk. Unlike grass, animals like the mouse, snake, and hawk cannot make their
own food from sunlight. The following food chain shows the relationship among
these organisms.

Predator and Prey

In this food chain, the hawk and the snake are predators. They also hunt other
animals as prey. The snake and the mouse are prey. They are hunted by other
animals for food. Both predators and prey pass food and energy through the food
chain.
Interactions Among Organisms
Think about the different foods you eat. Imagine those foods are connected to you
by lines in a web. All living organisms, including you, interact in food webs. We
can draw these webs to show how organisms are connected within ecosystems.

Interconnected Food Chains

A food web is made up of several interconnected
food chains. Food chains show the relationship of
food and energy that passes from one organism
to another. All food chains begin with an energy
source, like the sun. The sun provides energy for
the producers. Plants are producers. Plants provide
food for a series of consumers, which may eat
only plants or may eat both plants and animals.
Consumers who eat other animals are predators
and the animals they eat are the prey. The ways in which many food chains intersect
within an ecosystem form a food web.
Palau is an island that uses various
programs to protect the marine environment and its
resources. On an island, it is impossible to separate
what happens on land from what happens in the
marine environment. Therefore, Palau must closely
manage land activities in order to control the
quality of the marine environment.

Palau also needs well-designed, protected marine environments in place. One way
to create these protected environments is to work with fishers to make sure they are
not overfishing the coral reefs.
Seabirds nest on top of mountain cliffs. They dive
deep down into the sea to feed on small fish. The fish
feed on microorganisms floating on the surface
of the sea. These fish are the main source of food for
many seabirds. Microorganisms can make their own
food.

They are found in cold water habitats. These microorganisms are the producers in
the marine food web. Small fish feed on these microorganisms. The microorganisms
need cold water to survive. If the climate changes and the water becomes warm,
they will move toward an area where the water is cooler. The small fish that feed
on microorganisms will also move to a new habitat. The seabirds will then no
longer have a food source. Some will find a new habitat, while others will die.
Habitats provide organisms with all the things
they need to survive. Humans change habitats.
They do this when they add buildings and roads.
They do this when they add substances to the
water or overfish in the ocean. Human activity
can also impact the weather and nonliving
factors in an ecosystem, such as the temperature
of ocean water. All of these changes can cause
habitat loss. Habitat loss is one of the main causes
of extinction.

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth. Coral reefs
support large numbers of species, including fish, other corals, and a variety of other
sea life. Coral reefs are important habitats for living organisms. Coral reefs are also
important for tourism. People travel to coral reefs for fishing or diving, providing local
hotels, restaurants, and other businesses with visitors and income.

Coral Bleaching
Coral bleaching happens when water temperatures rise. When water is too warm,
corals will get rid of the algae living in their tissues. This causes the coral to turn
completely white. Bleaching events stress corals and often they do not survive.
Large amounts of plastic are thrown in the marine
environment every year. Most of it comes from land,
plastics affect marine life. Whales, turtles, seabirds,
and fish cannot often tell the difference between real
food and plastic. For example, a sea turtle cannot
see the difference between a jellyfish and a piece of
plastic in the water. So, sea turtles eat a lot of plastic
thinking that it is jellyfish. Plastic is not nutritious. It can also be toxic and sharp,
so it is really bad for animals.

Plastic products get broken down into smaller pieces. Some pieces are even smaller
than a grain of rice. We call them microplastics. Coral filters the seawater to get its
food. When coral does this, it also ingests the microplastics that are as small as the
pieces of food that it is getting from the water.
Human activity can cause major changes to the
environment. Riverbanks erode when too many
plants are removed. Floods may reach farther inland
when wetlands are drained. Once harm has been
done to the environment, scientists, engineers,
and concerned citizens work on restoration. This
involves restoring the land and water back to how
it was before harm was done. Restoration projects try to repair all parts of the
habitat. They try to bring back food and water sources. They also look to recover
shelter and space. Most projects are a lot of work and take a long time, but they
can have very positive results.

Protecting and Rebuilding Coral Reefs

One example of restoring a habitat is a coral reef rehabilitation project happening
in the Arabian Gulf. Scientists are harvesting small fragments of various coral
species and they are moving them to a nursery. The nursery is an area in the
ocean where the small pieces of coral are nurtured until they can be moved back
to the reefs where they were dying. The healthy coral can then continue growing
and reproducing to make a thriving reef again. These scientists in the Arabian Gulf
also conduct research and study the best coral species to use for future restoration
projects. Coastal communities near the reefs have adopted a “zero plastics” way of
life in Egypt. By limiting single-use plastics on land.
Waste Not, Want Not
How Bad Is Plastic Pollution?
How did you use plastic today? People use plastic for everything from food storage
to medical devices. However, much of the plastic we use ends up getting thrown
away. Plastic bags and water bottles are items that often get tossed into the
environment. Plastic, as one form of discarded waste, is especially dangerous to
animals. Animals can get tangled in plastic rings or suffocate from eating plastic
parts.

Minimizing the Impact of plastic pollution

Plastic is a common material that we use to package our food, help us transport
water, and build structures. We know that we will always use plastic in some form
in our lives. This is why humans are considering ways to minimize the impact of
plastic on the environment in other ways.

Earlier in this concept, you learned about areas in Egypt that have banned single-
use plastic. In many places, conservation groups organize volunteers in beach and
river cleanups. Volunteers and other people collect plastic trash along the shore.
Some people think of ways to reuse their plastic items and containers so that they
do not get thrown out to start with. How could you reuse a plastic item in your
home and turn it into something you could use again? What other problems could
you help solve with your repurposed plastic item?

Many Egyptians advocate for people to recycle more of their plastic to help this
problem
How are different states of matter unique? How can models help us to understand
changing states of matter? How can matter be described and measured?
What Is Matter?
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. The computer or book
that you are using is matter. The juice you drink at
breakfast is matter. The air you breathe is matter.
Even you are matter. All matter is made up of tiny
particles that are in continuous motion.

Matter is usually something that we can feel, see, or

even smell. Matter takes up space, which means that
most of the time we can observe matter to learn more about it. Some matter is too
small to see with the human eye. Even things we cannot see, like air or germs, are
made up of matter. So, what is matter actually made of?

Matter is made up of tiny particles. Your hand, desk, and pencil, for example, are
all made up of millions of tiny particles.

States of Matter
How much the particles are moving determines the state of matter. Light and
sound are two examples of things that are not matter. Both of these are considered
forms of energy. Common states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. In solid
matter, each particle is packed tightly with the others and moves only a little bit.
In liquid matter, the particles have more space, have more energy, and move more
freely.

In a gas, the particles have a lot of space and energy and move very freely. Matter
can change from one state to another, and these changes, such as ice melting into
water or water freezing into ice, happen all the time.

All matter is made up of particles. Matter can exist in three different states. Tables
and walls in a classroom are examples of matter in a solid state. Solids keep their
shape unless something is done to change them. Liquids can be poured. Liquids
do not have a shape of their own but rather take the form of their container. Some
matter is found in the form of a gas. The air that we breathe is a gas. The air in a
balloon is gas. All gases will completely fill a closed container. An example is when
you pump air into a bicycle tire tube. Matter in any form—solid, liquid, or gas—
takes up space. No two objects can take up the same space at the same time.

Measuring and Observing Matter

All matter can be measured and observed. For example, you can measure how
tall you are with a meterstick or a measuring tape. You can measure how much a
puppy weighs using a scale. You can observe air filling up a balloon, and you can
measure how much the balloon expands as it fills. You can observe milk being
poured into a glass and measure the amount and temperature of that milk.
Everything Is Made of Matter
Everything around you, even your body, is made up of matter. We define matter as
anything that has mass and takes up space. Solids, liquids, and gases are all states
of matter.

Particles Are Extremely Small

Imagine what would happen if you could break down
a chunk of matter, like a piece of gold, into pieces.
The pieces would get so small you could no longer see
them, even with a microscope. You would end up with
extremely small pieces of matter called particles. There
are many different types of particles.

Particles in Solids
Solids are made of particles. The particles are
packed closely together and cannot move past each
other or escape into space. Particles in a solid are packed in a neat and ordered
arrangement that maintain their shape from change as these particles mountain
their cohesion in the event of movement or vibration and they do not usually move
from one place to another.

Particle in liquid
Liquid materials consist of particles that are linked with each other by less bonds
than in the solid state allowing them to move and move a way from each other
which allows the liquids to take the shape of the container in which they are
placed and the particles in the liquid state move much faster than the particles in
the solid state.

Particles in gases
Gaseous substances consist of incoherent particles , that can spread to fill any
container they are placed in and the particles in the gaseous state move very quickly.
Tiny Particles
The exact size of a particle depends on the type
of particle and how it connects with neighboring
particles. The average size of a particle is so
tiny that one of your hairs is about 150,000 to
300,000 particles thick.

How Can We See Each Particle?

Scientists can use special microscopes called
electron microscopes to see individual particles. The microscopes you have in a
regular science classroom are not powerful enough to see them. If the tiny size of
particles makes them too small to see, even with microscopes, how can we tell they
are actually there?

How Can We Show That Particles Exist?

Examining gases can help demonstrate that these invisible particles really do
exist. Think about what happens when you blow up a balloon. Even though the
gas in the balloon is invisible, it still is made up of particles of air. The particles in
a gas move very quickly. They bounce against the inside of the balloon. This exerts
a force that inflates the balloon and creates its round shape. If you squeeze the
balloon, you can make it smaller by pushing the particles closer together. But if
you squeeze it too hard, the balloon pops, and the particles that were inside escape
into the air.
A Globe Is a Model
All of Earth is too big to see while standing on it.
Astronauts can see most of Earth while riding in a
spaceship. A globe is a model of Earth. It is not a real
planet. A model is a copy that is similar to the real
thing. Models look like, move like, or work like what
they copy. A globe shows you the shape of Earth. On
a globe you can see how much of Earth is covered in
ocean and where different countries are located.

How Do Models Help Us Look at Big Things?

Lots of gigantic things are hard to see. Models can bring them down to size. The
solar system is a very big place. Planets are very big objects. A solar system model
shows us all the planets at once. It helps us compare them. We can see which
planet is biggest and which one is closest to Earth.

How Do Models Help Us Look at Small Things?

Very tiny things are hard to see too, such as a single grain of sand. Germs are also
very tiny. Germs make you sick. We spread germs around, but we can only see
them with microscopes. Models of germs can show you what they look like without
a microscope. You can see the different parts that help germs spread from one
person to another.

Models Help Us Understand How Things Work

What makes a volcano explode? Why does an airplane fly? Models can show us.
Model volcanoes ooze liquid to model what happens during a real eruption. A
model airplane flies up into the air. So does a real airplane. Models are not the
same as the real thing, but every model teaches us something about the real thing
it copies. Models help us see and understand how things work. They show us what
we could not otherwise see. Models are a great way to see and learn about many
things at just the right size.
Think about the times you have seen or helped
prepare food by cooking. Perhaps you have seen an
adult boil some water to cook pasta or rice. Did you
see the steam? That is water as a gas. Maybe there
were some frozen vegetables added to the meal.
Freezing vegetables keeps them fresh and ready to
use for longer periods of time. Have you ever guessed
what was for dinner just by the smell, or aroma, coming from the kitchen? Think
about what state of matter helps us perceive aromas.

Scientist Chef
Chefs use science to help prepare creative and delicious dishes. Notice how the
chefs use the different states of matter to change ingredients. Like a professional
chef, you can experiment with different states of matter in your kitchen. Think
about what happens when you add
boiled vegetables to a bowl of cold ice water. What happens to the ice in the water?
What happens to the hot vegetables? Have you ever taken a plate of hot food and
placed it into the refrigerator or freezer to cool down? How long would you need to
leave a cup of juice or milk in the freezer before the state of matter changed from
liquid to solid? What other ways can you use ingredients representing different
states of matter to prepare or cook food for a meal?
Physical Properties of Matter
Matter has many properties that
you can describe. Color, shape,
odor, and texture are examples
of physical properties that
you can observe with your five
senses. You can use words such
as rough, blue, floral, round,
and sweet to describe these
properties.

Chemical Properties of Matter

The ability to burn and the ability to rust are properties that describe how matter
interacts with other matter. These are called chemical properties. An important
feature of chemical properties is that they are only measurable by changing the
material. For example, a chemical property of paper is that it is flammable. When
paper is lit on fire, it becomes ash. The image shows a burning match. What kind of
property is the ability to burn?
Properties of Matter, continued

Volume and Mass

Volume and temperature are properties of matter that you can measure. Volume
is the amount of space that matter takes up. Scientists measure volume in liters
(L), milliliters (mL), or cubic centimeters (cm3). One liter equals 1,000 milliliters or
1,000 cubic centimeters (1 L = 1,000 mL = 1,000 cm3). A big bottle of soda or juice
that you might buy for a party can hold 1L or more.

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter. Scientists often measure mass

in grams (g) or kilograms (kg). A paperclip has a mass of about 1 gram. One
kilogram is equal to 1,000 grams (1 kg = 1,000 g). One liter of water has a mass of
1 kilogram.

Temperature
Recall that matter is made up of particles in motion. Temperature is a measure of
how quickly the particles in a substance are moving. Quickly moving particles can
give off more heat energy than slower moving particles.
Helium
Have you ever seen a party balloon, such as the one
pictured? Helium is a gas that is used to fill balloons.
Its properties make it useful for this purpose. For
example, a balloon filled with helium gas is lighter
than air. This means balloons filled with helium rise
up in the air. This is a physical property of helium.
Also, helium is not poisonous or flammable, so it is
safe to use. (A flammable material is easily set on
fire.) Both of these are examples of chemical properties.

Copper
Maybe you have seen a copper cooking pot or a copper wire. Copper is a metal
commonly used to make electrical wires. Its physical properties make it useful for
this purpose. Copper can be stretched into a thin, flexible wire, which is a physical
property. Copper also conducts electricity well, which is another physical property
called conduction. Conduction is when heat or electricity can easily pass through
a substance. In contrast, it would not be useful to make wires out of a material
like wood. Unlike copper, wood cannot be easily stretched and does not conduct
electricity well.

Glass
Glass is used to make windows and light bulbs. You have probably seen numerous
other objects made of glass. Think of other uses for glass objects. What properties
of glass make it useful for these purposes?
Imagine you have invited some friends over to your house. You realize that the
juice box drinks you want to serve them are warm.
You go into the kitchen. Your aunt is making hot tea
on the stove. She gives you a metal bowl. You set the
bowl next to the stove, fill it with ice, and place the
juice box drinks into the ice. The problem is solved.
Or is it? You come back 15 minutes later and find
the juice boxes floating in a bowl full of water. What
happened? Why did the ice melt so quickly?
Particles in Motion
Thermal Energy
Heat is a form of energy you use every day. You heat your hands in front of a
fireplace and cook bread in a hot oven. You use heat to warm your home. Heat
from the sun keeps living things on Earth alive. Heat is not a physical thing or
material, like a cup of hot tea. It is simply a form of energy that can make tea hot.
Heat is also known as thermal energy.

Matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and
has mass. Tea, like all matter, is made of
extremely small particles. These particles
have energy. This energy makes the
particles move, vibrate, and spin around.
When light energy or thermal energy is
absorbed by matter, the particles in the
matter move and vibrate faster. The faster
this movement, the more thermal energy
the object has. The more thermal energy the
object has, the warmer it is to the touch. It is
important to remember that the particles that make up matter are always moving
in some way.
A substance’s state depends partly on its
temperature. A substance’s temperature is a measure
of how much energy the particles in that substance
have. It is the energy of the particles that determine
how much they move and, therefore, the state of the
matter.

How Water Changes State

For example, water is a liquid between 0ºC and 100ºC. Water becomes a solid
when it is cooled below 0ºC, which is its freezing point. Its state changes from
liquid to solid. As the particles of liquid water lose energy, they slow down until the
liquid water becomes solid ice.

Melting
Melting is the opposite process.
Melting is the change of state from
solid to liquid. It happens when
energy is transferred to a solid. For
example, as particles of solid ice
gain energy, they move around
more. Eventually they move
around enough that the ice begins
to melt. Melting happens when
the temperature of ice rises above
0ºC.
Physical Changes
Changes of state are often caused by changes in temperature. Changes of state
are physical changes. Physical changes do not change the makeup of a substance.
They are also usually reversible. For example, melting is a physical change
that can be reversed by cooling liquid water until it freezes again. The water is
still water. It is the same substance whether it is liquid or solid, even though it
looks different. Increasing or decreasing temperature can also cause chemical
changes.
Water can exist in three states: solid, liquid, or gas. Water as a solid is called
ice. Water as a gas is called water vapor or steam. When the temperature of a
substance goes up, the particles move and vibrate a lot more. The extra energy
allows the particles to change to a different state. When the temperature goes
down, the particles slow down and move together.

Changing a Liquid to a Gas

Imagine you are in a kitchen. Picture a container of water sitting on a counter. If
you add heat, or thermal energy, by placing the container of liquid water on a
hot stove burner, the particles vibrate and separate. The liquid water boils away.
It changes to water vapor and is invisible in the air. The white, cloudlike mist
coming from boiling water is steam. After the hot water vapor hits the cooler air, it
condenses into tiny water droplets, forming a small cloud, which we call steam.
Changing a Gas to a Liquid
To change the gas, water vapor, back into a liquid, you must cool the gas. Cooling
the gas transfers the energy back to the cooler environment. The particles slow
down and form a liquid. If it is cold outside, you can see water droplets from the
steam form on a window. You can use a rubber wiper to collect the water droplets
into a container.

Changing a Liquid to a Solid

Take the liquid water container and place it into the freezer. By transferring energy
from the liquid water to the space in the freezer, the particles slow down and move
even closer together. You just changed liquid water to solid water, or ice.

Changing a Solid to a Liquid

Place the container with ice cubes back onto the hot stove burner. The thermal
energy, in the form of heat from a stove burner, causes the particles to move more
and separate. This changes the solid to a liquid. Matter can change from one state
to another when thermal energy is gained or lost.
A mixture is a form of matter made of two or more substances. A mixture is
different from a compound. A compound is also a form of matter made of two
or more substances, but the parts combine chemically to form a completely new
substance. In a mixture, each substance keeps its own identity. In other words,
mixing the substances does not change them into new substances. A mixture can
be made of solids, such as a mixture of sand and small rocks. Or it can include a
combination of a solid and a liquid, such as salt water. Earth’s atmosphere is a
mixture of many gases.
Mixture of Nuts
Compare a mixture of different types
of nuts with a mixture of gases.
Both are types of mixtures, and
both have different parts. But you
can easily see the different parts
in the mixture of nuts. You would
need special equipment to see the
parts in a mixture of gases. Can you
think of other common mixtures you
encounter in your daily life?

Properties of Mixtures
When materials are mixed and form
a mixture, they do not combine
chemically. Each material keeps
the properties that you can use to
identify it. For example, sugar does
not lose its sweetness when it is mixed
with water.

Separating Mixtures
You can separate the parts of a
mixture. There are different methods to separate mixtures. Filtration can separate
mixtures. A filter works if one material is a solid that does not dissolve in the
liquid. Evaporation can separate solids dissolved in a liquid. This works because
the liquid will evaporate at different temperatures.
Last weekend, we went to the Khan
Al-Khalili market in Cairo. There
were so many things to see and buy.
My mother looked at a gallebaya.
The sleeves were too long, but she
said it was easy to cut off some
material.

Food in the Market

Next, we found a market with
some fresh fruits and vegetables.
We bought lemons, tomatoes, bell
peppers, red peppers, and red onion.
At home, we will cut the fruits and
vegetables into small pieces for
a salad. All the walking made us
hungry, so we stopped for a falafel.
They were making the pita bread
there. I watched as the baker mixed
flour, water, sugar, and yeast. Then,
he put it in an oven. The baked
bread did not look anything like the
ingredients when it came out of the
oven.
Gifts
We passed by some pretty lamps for sale. Some had black spots on the metal.
My mother said that sometimes when the metals mix with oxygen in the air, it
forms black spots called tarnish. Some of the lamps had candles. You could see
where some of the wax melted and dripped down the sides of the candle. As we
continued, we found the perfect gift for my aunt’s birthday. It was a small box
with pieces of shells on it. The artist broke the shells into tiny pieces that he very
carefully put into the wood in a special design. Now that we had everything we
needed, we headed back home.
A chemical change produces a new kind of substance. The new substance is
different physically from the original substance. However, it also has different
chemical properties.

Examples of Chemical Changes

For example, the elements iron and
oxygen combine to form rust. Rust is
a flaky, reddish chemical called iron
oxide. You may have seen rust on
the outside of a vehicle or on an old
nail. When oxygen combines with
carbon and hydrogen, they release
heat that can start a fire. The fire can
change a substance such as wood
into ash. Mixing vinegar with baking
soda produces a gas as bubbles form.
Chemicals produced in your body help
food digest. Unlike physical changes, chemical changes are not reversed easily.
You may have heard about people stranded at sea.
They have water all around them, but they are still
in danger of dying from thirst. The reason that they
cannot just take a big sip from the sea is simple:
seawater is salt water. Drinking salt water makes a
person dehydrate, or lose water, faster. However, if
the stranded people were able to separate a mixture,
they would have all the drinking water they need.

A Tricky Mixture
You know that a mixture is a combination of materials. Seawater is a mixture of
water, salt and other minerals, gases, and living and dead organisms. The only
component that a living organism wants is fresh water.

So, how do you separate the water from all the other materials? First, it would be a
good idea to filter the seawater. Filtering removes any large materials that might
be in the mixture. These materials might be pieces of seaweed, shells, and fish. The
water, salts, minerals, and gases would still pass through the filter, though, so the
mixture would still be undrinkable.
The next step is to boil the seawater that passes through the filter. As it boils, the
water turns to vapor and rises out of the mixture. The salts and other minerals
stay behind. You can use a sponge to trap the water vapor that rises into the air
from the boiling water. When the water vapor cools, it turns back into a liquid. The
water in the sponge is safe to drink.

Problem Solver or Problem Starter?

The process of removing salt from water
is called desalination. Desalination is
important, and not just to people who
are stranded at sea. In some countries
that do not have access to fresh water,
desalination plants separate billions of
liters of drinking water from seawater
daily. For example, Egypt currently has
over 80 desalination plants.

Many people around the world lack

access to fresh water. On a planet with a surface around 70 percent covered
by oceans, it would be great if we could just turn salt water into fresh water
everywhere. However, desalinization requires a lot of energy. It is very expensive.
There are also environmental problems that can come from turning salt water
into drinking water. Small sea life can be sucked up with the water. Pumping the
excessively salty water back into the ocean can be dangerous to marine life.
Slippery Sands
How did the ancient Egyptians move very heavy,
large blocks of stone across the desert sands? Today,
we use cranes or other heavy machinery to lift and
move heavy objects. How was it done before these
machines existed? Many scientists and historians
have tried to find the answer to this question.

Historians
Historians have looked at the hieroglyphics and
paintings of ancient Egyptians for clues. One wall painting of the moving of
Djehutyhotep’s colossus may offer a theory. In the painting, a person is seen
pouring a liquid from a jar in front of the sled. For years, historians believed that
this was related to a holy cleansing ceremony.

Scientists
Scientists looked at the painting in a different way. What if the person pouring the
liquid in front of the sled was doing it for another reason? Scientists had a theory
that maybe they were adding water to the sand to make the sand more slippery, so
they could move the statue more easily. Pushing a sled in the sand typically causes
the sand to pile up in front of the sled. When one substance rubs over another,
there is friction. Friction can slow objects down by resisting movement.

Properties of Sand
So, why would adding water reduce friction? Sand particles are often rough with
strong angles and edges. When water is added to sand, it forms bridges that
connect the particles to one another. This is why damp sand sticks together and
you can shape and curve it. You can even make sandcastles with it. If you pack
down wet sand, water will drain quickly out of it, creating a more solid clump.

Testing the Theory

Scientists from the Netherlands, France, Germany, Iran, and India came together
to conduct an experiment to test this theory. They searched for just the right
amount of water to make moving a heavy object on sand easier.
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