Fixed Assignment Protocols
Fixed assignment protocols are a class of Medium Access Control (MAC)
strategies where the communication channel is divided into predefined,
non-overlapping segments assigned to users. Unlike contention-based or
demand-based methods, fixed assignment ensures that each user has
guaranteed access to a portion of the channel, eliminating collisions.
However, this approach may lead to inefficiencies when some users are
idle.
Key Characteristics of Fixed Assignment Protocols
Static Allocation: Resources (frequency, time, or code) are pre-
assigned.
Deterministic Access: No contention or delays due to arbitration.
Predictable Performance: Suitable for real-time applications.
Potential Inefficiency: Wastage of bandwidth if assigned users are
not transmitting.
These protocols are widely used in traditional telecommunication systems,
broadcasting, and cellular networks.
2. Types of Fixed Assignment Protocols
Fixed assignment protocols can be categorized based on how the channel
is partitioned:
(a) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Concept
The available bandwidth is divided into multiple non-overlapping
frequency bands.
Each user is allocated a fixed frequency band for the entire duration
of communication.
Working Principle
1. The total spectrum is split into sub-channels (e.g., in radio
broadcasting, each station has a unique frequency).
2. Users transmit and receive only within their assigned frequency
band.
3. Guard bands (small unused frequency gaps) prevent interference
between adjacent channels.
Examples
AM/FM Radio Broadcasting: Each radio station operates at a
different frequency (e.g., 98.5 MHz, 101.1 MHz).
Analog TV Channels: Different TV stations broadcast on separate
frequencies.
First-Generation (1G) Cellular Networks: Early mobile phones
used FDMA (e.g., Advanced Mobile Phone System - AMPS).
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
No collisions (dedicated frequency). Inefficient if a user is idle.
Simple to implement. Limited scalability (finite spectrum).
Requires guard bands, reducing
Suitable for continuous data streams.
efficiency.
(b) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Concept
The channel is divided into time slots, and each user transmits in a
cyclic, repeating frame.
Users take turns transmitting in their assigned slots.
Working Principle
1. Time is divided into frames, and each frame is split into fixed-length
slots.
2. A scheduler assigns slots to users (e.g., in GSM, each user gets one
slot per frame).
3. Users must synchronize their transmissions to avoid overlap.
Examples
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): 2G cellular
networks use TDMA where each user is assigned a time slot (e.g., 8
slots per frame).
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB): Multiple audio streams share
the same frequency using time slots.
T1/E1 Telephone Lines: Each voice call is assigned a time slot in a
multiplexed frame.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Efficient for periodic traffic
Requires precise synchronization.
(voice).
No frequency interference. Wastes slots if a user has no data.
Scalable (supports many users). Fixed slot size may not suit bursty data.
(c) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Concept
All users transmit simultaneously over the same frequency but are
separated by unique codes.
Uses spread-spectrum technology to differentiate signals.
Working Principle
1. Each user is assigned a unique spreading code (e.g., Walsh codes in
CDMA2000).
2. The receiver uses the same code to decode the intended signal
while rejecting others.
3. Signals appear as noise to non-intended receivers.
Examples
3G Cellular Networks (CDMA2000, WCDMA): Multiple users
share the same frequency band.
GPS Systems: Satellites transmit on the same frequency but with
different codes.
Military Communications: Secure transmissions using spread
spectrum.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
No frequency or time slot
Complex signal processing required.
restrictions.
Supports more users dynamically. Near-far problem (strong signals drown weak ones).
Secure (hard to intercept). Higher power consumption.
Random Assignment Protocols
Random access protocols are decentralized, meaning no master device
controls transmissions. Instead, each node independently decides when to
transmit. These protocols are simple and efficient for networks with bursty
traffic but suffer from collisions when two or more devices transmit
simultaneously.
2.1 Key Characteristics
No coordination: Nodes transmit without explicit scheduling.
Collision-prone: Multiple transmissions may overlap, corrupting
data.
Collision resolution: Protocols implement methods to detect and
recover from collisions.
Efficiency trade-off: High throughput in low-traffic networks but
degrades under heavy load.
2.2 Common Random Assignment Protocols
1. ALOHA (Pure & Slotted)
2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
3. CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
4. CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
3. ALOHA Protocol
The ALOHA protocol, developed in the 1970s, was one of the earliest
random access methods.
3.1 Pure ALOHA
Operation: Nodes transmit whenever they have data.
Collision Handling: If a collision occurs, the node waits for
a random backoff time before retransmitting.
Vulnerability Period: Two frames will collide if they overlap in any
way (up to 2 × frame transmission time).
Efficiency: Maximum throughput is only 18%.
Example:
Node A sends a frame at time t=0.
Node B sends a frame at t=0.5 (assuming frame duration = 1 sec).
The two frames collide, and both nodes wait for random times
before retrying.
3.2 Slotted ALOHA
Improvement over Pure ALOHA: Time is divided into discrete
slots.
Rule: Nodes can only transmit at the start of a slot.
Vulnerability Period: Reduced to 1 × frame time (only exact
overlaps cause collisions).
Efficiency: Maximum throughput improves to 37%.
Example:
Slot duration = 1 sec.
Node A transmits at t=0.
Node B transmits at t=1 (no collision).
If Node C also transmits at t=1, a collision occurs.
4. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA improves upon ALOHA by listening to the channel before
transmitting.
4.1 Basic CSMA
1-Persistent CSMA: If the channel is idle, transmit immediately. If
busy, keep sensing until idle.
Non-Persistent CSMA: If busy, wait a random time before sensing
again.
P-Persistent CSMA (for slotted channels): Transmit with
probability p if idle.
Example (1-Persistent CSMA):
Node A senses the channel and finds it idle → transmits.
Node B also senses at the same time → transmits → collision
occurs.
4.2 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
Used in Ethernet (wired networks).
Nodes detect collisions while transmitting and abort immediately.
Backoff Algorithm: After a collision, nodes wait exponentially
increasing times.
Example:
Node A and Node B sense idle and transmit simultaneously.
They detect the collision via voltage spikes → stop transmission.
Both wait for random times (e.g., 0 or 1 slot) before retrying.
4.3 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
Used in Wi-Fi (wireless networks) where collision detection is
hard.
RTS/CTS Handshake:
o Request-to-Send (RTS): Node requests channel access.
o Clear-to-Send (CTS): Access point grants permission.
Virtual Carrier Sensing: Nodes reserve the channel for a duration
(NAV).
Example:
Node A sends RTS to the AP.
AP replies with CTS, blocking other nodes.
Node A transmits data without collisions.
