APPLICATION NOTE

Time Domain Analysis Using

a Network Analyzer
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3

2.0 Time Domain and the Network Analyzer ................................................................................................ 6

3.0 Theoretical Issues with Time Domain ..................................................................................................... 8

4.0 Time Domain Modes with a VNA .......................................................................................................... 12

5.0 Windowing ............................................................................................................................................. 19

6.0 Gating .................................................................................................................................................... 21

7.0 Masking ................................................................................................................................................. 27

8.0 Measurement Range............................................................................................................................. 30

9.0 Resolution ............................................................................................................................................. 32

10.0 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 39

Appendix A .................................................................................................................................................. 40

Appendix B .................................................................................................................................................. 46

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 53

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1.0 Introduction
Time domain analysis is useful for measuring impedance values along a transmission line and for
evaluating a device problem (discontinuity) in time or distance. Time domain display provides a more
intuitive and direct look at the device under test (DUT) characteristics. In addition, it gives more
meaningful information concerning the broadband response of a transmission system than other
measuring techniques by showing the effect of each discontinuity as a function of time or distance. This
document will focus on time domain analysis (displays) generated from vector network analyzers (VNAs).
The intent is to provide engineers with frequency domain background, an in-depth view of how a time
domain display is created from frequency domain data (S-parameters) and how to apply the time domain
display to common problems in RF systems.

Keysight Technologies offers other documents that cover in detail the use of time domain displays (using
data captured with either a time domain reflectometer (oscilloscope) or VNA). See the bibliography for
more details.

1.1 A note on naming conventions

The term time domain can mean different things, depending on the context. For the purposes of this
application note, the following conventions will be used:

Time domain: refers to time domain analysis or display(s), as defined by an X-Y graph where the X-axis is
either distance (electrical length) or time and the Y-axis is magnitude (typically impedance or voltage).

Time domain reflectometry (TDR): refers to the method of measurement using a fast step generator and a
receiver to measure either transmission or reflection. TDR is the common name for an oscilloscope with
this capability. Note that a TDR with appropriate software can generate S-parameters (see Figure 1).

Vector network analyzer (VNA): refers to ratioed measurements where a swept CW source is tracked by
a reflection or transmission receiver and results are typically displayed as S-parameters. This document
will focus on how S-parameter data captured using a VNA can be transformed into a time domain display.

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1.2 History of TDR and time domain analysis
The measurement technique of time domain reflectometry (TDR) was introduced in the early 1960’s and
works on the same principle as radar. A pulse of energy is transmitted down a cable (or other device - not
necessarily a good conductor). When that pulse reaches the end of the cable, or a fault along the cable,
part or all of the pulse energy is reflected back to the instrument. TDR measurements are made by
launching an impulse or a step into the test device and observing the response in time. Using a step
generator and a broadband oscilloscope, a fast edge is launched into the transmission line. The incident
and reflected voltage waves are monitored by the broadband oscilloscope at a particular point on the line.
By measuring the ratio of the input voltage to the reflected voltage, the impedance of simple
discontinuities can be calculated. The position of the discontinuity can also be calculated as a function of
time by applying the velocity of propagation along the transmission line. The type of discontinuity
(capacitive or inductive) can be identified by its response.

While the traditional TDR oscilloscope was useful as a qualitative tool, there were limitations that affected
its accuracy and usefulness; a) TDR output step rise time – the spatial resolution of the measurement
depends upon the step rise time; b) poor signal-to-noise ratio due to the wideband receiver architecture.8

Then, in the 70’s, it was shown that the relationship between the frequency domain and the time domain
could be described using the Fourier Transform. The Fourier Transform of the network reflection coefficient
as a function of frequency is the reflection coefficient as a function of time; i.e., the distance along a
transmission line. It was possible to measure the response of a DUT in the frequency domain and then
mathematically calculate the inverse Fourier Transform of the data to give the time domain response.

A high performance VNA combined with fast computation power created unique measurement
capabilities. Using error-corrected data measured in the frequency domain, the response of a network to
step and impulse time stimuli can be calculated and displayed as a function of time. This gives traditional
time domain reflectometry capability in reflection and transmission and adds measurement capability of
band-limited networks. By locating network elements in time and removing their effects from measured
data, the vector network analyzer makes more precise frequency domain measurements possible.

Figure 1 shows how both time domain and frequency domain (S-parameter) displays can be generated
by either a time domain reflectometer (TDR) oscilloscope or a vector network analyzer (VNA). Data
captured using either a TDR or VNA can be transformed into both displays.2

4
Figure 1. Relationship between time domain, frequency domain, TDR, and VNA.

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2.0 Time Domain and the Network Analyzer
Even though the VNA provides a TDR-like display, there are differences between traditional TDR and
VNA time domain techniques. Traditional TDR measurements are made by launching an impulse or step
into the test device and observing the response in time with a wideband receiver such as an oscilloscope.
The transform used by the VNA resembles time domain reflectometry, however, the analyzer makes
swept frequency response measurements and mathematically transforms the data into a TDR-like
display. In low-pass mode, the VNA measures discrete positive frequency points, extrapolates DC, and
assumes that the negative frequency response is the conjugate of the positive, i.e., that the response is
hermitian2. In the bandpass mode, the VNA measures discrete frequency points centered between the
start and stop frequencies and will work over any frequency range. Utilizing a narrowband receiver (an
architecture with down-conversion and filtering to result in an intermediate frequency or IF), the VNA
allows for greatly reduced system noise levels. This translates into enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and
therefore superior dynamic range to a TDR. This is significant in applications where low levels of crosstalk
need to be measured in the gigabit per second range and higher.

In any case, time domain analysis continues to be an effective tool and has a wide variety of applications
including fault location, identifying impedance variations in connectors, selectively removing unwanted
responses, and simplifying filter tuning.

2.1 Fault location

Fault location is a powerful example of the bandpass mode of a VNA. When viewing the frequency
domain response, there are ripples due to mismatches but it is impossible to tell where the major
reflections are within the cable. What is seen are all the reflections in the cable added together at each
frequency point to give the composite response of all the elements in the transmission line. When viewed
in the time domain, not only are the large connector responses obvious, but any discontinuities due to
bends or mismatches within the cable are seen as discrete inductive or capacitive impedance
discontinuities. Any positive or negative reflection that deviates from the characteristic impedance is
clearly apparent. The locations and magnitudes of these discontinuities are easily determined. Herein lies
the intuitive nature of time domain analysis.

2.2 Identify impedance variation in connectors

Time domain analysis can be useful to see the effects of mismatches in a transmission line. When
measuring the reflection coefficient, r, or S11, of a DUT, the amount of reflected signal is proportional to
the input impedance of the DUT. The S11 is a measurement of how different the DUT’s impedance is
from the characteristic impedance of the measurement system, Z0. Once the frequency data is
transformed to the time domain, the time response to a step or impulse function can be examined. The
time domain response can yield both the position of the individual circuit components and the actual
impedances of each element. All of this information is available immediately from the analyzer’s display.

6
2.3 Use gating to remove effects of unwanted
discontinuities
The VNA has a powerful feature called gating that provides the flexibility to selectively remove reflection
or transmission responses. Once the gate has been applied to the time domain data, the data can be
converted back to the frequency domain. The time-gated response can now be evaluated in the
frequency domain. This can be useful when designing and troubleshooting cable assemblies. The
location of the gate in time can be controlled by setting the center positions and time span or the start and
stop position of the gate with several gate shapes available for optimizing the measurement. There are
different methods available to remove errors due to mismatch. Gating is one alternative and is often the
simplest to use especially if there is no good precision standard available for calibration. De-embedding
test fixture S-parameters, Thru-Reflect-Line (TRL) calibration and Line-Reflect-Match (LRM) calibration
are advanced error-correction techniques that have proven to be extremely accurate in demanding low
loss measurements.

2.4 Simplify filter tuning5, 13

Since time domain measurements can distinguish the individual responses of resonators and coupling
apertures, each resonator of a filter can be tuned individually. Such clear identification of responses is
extremely difficult in the frequency domain because the interactive nature of coupled-resonator filters
makes it challenging to determine which resonator or coupling element needs to be tuned. A major
benefit of using the time domain method is that it allows inexperienced tuners to successfully tune
complex filters after only brief instruction. This technique can greatly simplify and accelerate the filter
tuning process.

7
3.0 Theoretical Issues with Time Domain4
Figure 2 shows the analytically derived transform of the return loss of a 3-pole Butterworth filter along with
the VNA time domain transform of the same function. In the analytic transform, the frequency response is
calculated using standard network theory, and the Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT) is performed to get the
time response. The differences between the analytic transform (IFT calculated) and the VNA transform are
caused by the effects of discrete data sampling, frequency truncation, windowing, and renormalization.

A. The ringing is caused by the frequency truncation

B. The differences in the width are caused by

windowing (between the gray and black traces)

C. The finite impulse is determined by the frequency

range of the VNA

D. The difference in magnitude is caused by

renormalization (between the gray and black traces)

Figure 2. Comparing IFT calculated (analytic transform) and VNA time domain transform of the same function

3.1 Effects of discrete sampling

The Fourier Transform operates on continuous functions, while the VNA time domain transform must
operate on discrete data. One way to look at this is to assume the measured data is a sampled version of
a continuous response. The frequency sampling can be visualized as data points evenly distributed over
the frequency range of the measurement as shown in Figure 3a. This also creates images of the original
function called aliases which occur at repetitive intervals of 1/(frequency step size). Figure 3b illustrates
both the discrete data sampling and the alias responses.

Figure 3a. Continuous function and discrete (sampled) Figure 3b. Alias responses due to discrete sampling
function

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3.2 Effects of truncated frequency
For real world measurements, the data samples available are limited by the frequency response of the
measuring equipment. Since the VNA is a real-world instrument with a specific frequency range rather
than infinite range, the data is truncated at the ends of the data samples as shown in Figure 4a. (Taking
the Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT) of the product of the original function and a rectangular window can
represent the effect of truncated data in the VNA time domain transform.) The truncation causes ringing in
the time domain and has a sin(x)/x response as shown in Figure 4b. The truncated time response is
compared to the unit step function in Figure 4c.

Figure 4a. Sample of truncated response in frequency Figure 4b. Truncation causes ringing in time domain
domain

Figure 4c. Comparing truncated time response to the unit step function

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3.3 Windowing to reduce the effects of truncation
Data truncation adds ringing to the time domain data and the resulting sidelobes are high enough that
they could obscure some responses of the device under test (DUT). A windowing function can be applied
which gradually reduces the frequency response and controls the sidelobes created during the truncation
process. However, the windowing function tends to reduce the sharpness of the response, spreading
pulses, and stretching out slopes, thereby reducing the resolution of the transform and distorting the
transitions of the frequency response. There is a trade-off between sidelobe height and resolution when
determining the windowing function. Figure 5a shows windows with different β values, Figure 5b shows
these windows applied to a 1-pole filter response, and Figure 5c shows the time response of windowed
functions as well as the unit step function (gray trace).

Figure 5a. Applying windowing functions with different b Figure 5b. Windowing functions applied to a 1-pole
values. Higher values of b reduce the height of the filter response
sidelobes. (KB stands for Kaiser-Bessel and is a
commonly used window function.)

Figure 5c. Time response of windowed functions and the unit step function

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3.4 Scaling and renormalization
There is also some scaling and renormalization that takes place to ensure the value of the time domain
transform retains its physical meaning. For example, the frequency response of the S11 of an ideal open
circuit, with no delay, has a value of 1 for all frequencies; its inverse transform is a delta function.
However, when the data is sampled and windowed, the time domain transform of the response of an
open circuit will be spread by the windowing function and does not return an impulse of unity height.
Therefore, it is necessary to renormalize to ensure that the time domain response of the open circuit has
a value of unity.

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4.0 Time Domain Modes with a VNA
The VNA measures the frequency response of the device and mathematically calculates a time domain
transform of the data to convert the frequency domain information into the time domain, with time as the
horizontal display axis. The VNA makes this mathematical calculation using the chirp-Z Fast Fourier
Transform technique3.

In the reflection mode, a network analyzer measures reflection coefficient as a function of frequency. The
reflection coefficient can be viewed as the transfer function relating the incident voltage and reflected
voltage. An inverse transform converts the reflection coefficient to a function of time (the impulse
response). Step and impulse responses can be calculated by convolving the input step or pulse with this
reflection coefficient impulse response.

In the transmission mode, a network analyzer measures the transfer function of a two port device as a
function of frequency. An inverse transform converts the transfer function to the impulse response of the
two port device. Step and impulse responses can be calculated by convolving the input step or pulse with
the impulse response.

The resulting measurement is a fully-corrected time domain reflection or transmission response of the test
device, displayed in near real-time. Response values (measured on the vertical axis) now appear
separated in time or distance, providing valuable insight into the behavior of the test device beyond
simple frequency characteristics.

Figures 6a and 6b illustrate the frequency and time domain reflection responses of the same cable. The
frequency domain reflection measurement (Figure 6a) is the composite of all the signals reflected by the
discontinuities present in the cable over the measured frequency range. It is difficult to estimate the
locations of those mismatches. However, the time domain measurement (Figure 6b) shows the effect of
each discontinuity as a function of time (or distance) and easily allows one to determine the location and
magnitudes of the mismatches.

Figure 6a. Reflection responses of a cable in frequency Figure 6b. Reflection responses of the same cable in
domain time domain

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4.1 Time domain low-pass mode
The time domain low-pass mode simulates a traditional TDR measurement and supports both the step
and impulse excitation. There are some specific limitations on the frequency range of the measurement. It
is required that the measured, positive data points be linearly spaced so that they are harmonically
related from DC to the stop frequency. The measurement frequencies must be set so that the stop
frequency is equal to the product of the start frequency and the number of points (which would yield
harmonically related frequencies). The VNA has a function that performs this automatically. From this, the
rise time is determined by the maximum slope of the highest frequency measured, although it varies with
the window factor. Also, since the Fourier Transform includes effects of the DC value on the frequency
response and VNA’s do not measure the DC response, the DC value must be extrapolated. The DC value
is required to generate the step stimulus. This limitation also exists for traditional TDR measurements.
The remainder of the data is calculated from taking a mirror image of the original measured response.
The assumption is that the response is hermitian2, in that the negative frequency response is the
conjugate of the positive frequency response and thus, the time domain response must be pure real-
valued (not complex). The low-pass mode contains information that is useful in determining the type of
impedance, resistive, capacitive, or inductive that is present at the discontinuity. Because the DC value is
included and the data is mirrored, both step and impulse low-pass modes yield better time domain
resolution for a given frequency span than the bandpass mode.

Figure 7 illustrates the low-pass responses of known discontinuities using the Real format. Each circuit
element was simulated to show the corresponding low-pass time domain S11 response waveform.

Figure 7. Low-pass
responses, both step and
impulse, of known
discontinuities

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4.1.1 Analyzing the low-pass reflection response
The real power of low-pass mode is that the response to the step and the impulse stimulus contains
information describing both where the impedance discontinuity is located as well as what type of
impedance change is present.

The horizontal axis for the low-pass measurement is the 2-way travel time of the impulse. The marker
function on the VNA displays both the time and distance to a discontinuity and automatically accounts for
the two-way response in computing the distance readout in the marker display. The distance displayed is
based on the assumption that the signal travels at the speed of light (in seconds) 2.997925 x 108 m/s. In
actuality, the signal travels slower than the speed of light in most media such as coax cables. The VNA
has a velocity factor function which can be used to adjust for the velocity of the propagation medium.
Common velocity factors are: 0.66 for polyethylene dielectric and 0.7 for Teflon dielectric.

The vertical axis representation depends upon the format chosen. Since the frequency domain data is
taken at harmonically related frequencies down to DC, the IFT has only a real part (the imaginary part is
zero). Therefore, the most useful format is Real, which displays the response in reflection coefficient, ρ. In
the PNA, the default marker reading may be changed in the advanced menu to display impedance
directly.

The circuit in Figure 8 shows a low-pass step and impulse responses of impedance changes from Z0 to
Z0/2 and back to Z0. The step response is shown by the black trace and the impulse response is shown
by the gray trace. There is enough information to determine where (in time) the discontinuities are located
and what type of discontinuity it is. The discontinuity at the first connection is a change in line impedance,
where ZL1 < Z0. The second discontinuity shows that ZL2= Z0. Looking at the step trace, the response
does not quite return to zero even though the impedance has changed back to Z0. Analyzing the impulse
trace, the second discontinuity does not have quite the same absolute magnitude as the first
discontinuity. Both of these illustrate the effects of masking. The section on masking explains why these
apparent differences in impedance at the second discontinuity occur.

14
Figure 8. Showing a low-pass step and impulse responses of impedance changes (circuit shown above)

15
4.2 Time domain bandpass mode
The bandpass mode is the more general-purpose mode of operation. It gives the impulse response of the
device, works on any device over any frequency range, and is relatively simple to use. It is especially
helpful for measuring band-limited devices and for making fault location measurements. Since the
bandpass mode is the only mode that can be used over an arbitrary set of start and stop frequencies, it is
useful for devices that have a limited range of operating frequencies. Not having any restrictions on the
frequency range of the measurement is a distinct advantage over traditional TDR measurements (which
require the DUT to be able to operate at DC). Since the bandpass mode does not include a DC value,
only the impulse excitation is supported.

The bandpass mode simulates a narrow-band TDR. It allows you to identify locations of mismatches but
does not indicate whether the mismatches are capacitive, inductive, or resistive. However, it is suitable for
displaying the magnitude of the response.

The IFT is calculated only on the data points measured, rather than taking the negative frequency
response to be the conjugate of the measured data as in the low-pass mode. This calculation gives a
complex (real and imaginary parts) time domain response and the magnitude (linear or log mag) of the
response is the most commonly displayed. In the bandpass mode, the window is centered between the
start and stop frequencies. The IFT is applied from minus one-half of the frequency span to plus one-half
of the span. This windows both sides of the data which increases the impulse width and reduces the
effective bandwidth. The fact that the response is centered around the VNA center frequency has the
effect of multiplying the normal time domain response by a “modulation” function producing a sinusoidal
wave on top of the normal response. This is apparent in bandpass mode, real or imaginary formats, but is
eliminated in the log mag or lin mag format. In contrast, the center of the windowing function in the low-
pass mode is the DC term, or the first point of the data set. Compared to the low-pass mode, for the same
frequency span and number of points, bandpass mode has twice the impulse width, which may obscure
closely spaced responses.

4.2.1 The bandpass reflection response

In the bandpass reflection measurement, the horizontal axis represents the amount of time that it takes
for an impulse, launched at the test port, to reach the discontinuity and return. The marker function
available on the VNA reads out both the time and the distance to the discontinuity. The electrical length is
obtained by multiplying the time (in seconds) by the velocity of light in free space (2.997925 x 108 m/s).
This assumes a velocity factor of 1. To get the actual physical length, you must use the velocity factor
function on the VNA or multiply the distance number by the relative velocity of the transmission medium.

The vertical axis representation depends on the format selected. The linear magnitude format displays
the response in reflection coefficient, ρ, which is the average reflection coefficient of the discontinuity over
the frequency range of the measurement. It is most useful when viewing responses that are close in
amplitude. The log magnitude format displays return loss in dB. The value displayed represents the
average return loss of the discontinuity of the frequency range of the measurement. It is most useful when
examining responses that are very different in amplitude. The lin mag format is the average linear
magnitude of the reflections over the frequency range that it has been measured. SWR format gives the
average standing wave ratio of the discontinuity over the frequency range of the measurement.

16
4.3 The transmission response (low-pass and bandpass)
In time domain transmission measurements, the horizontal axis is displayed in units of time. The
response of the through connection used in the calibration is an impulse at t = 0 seconds and with unit
height, indicating that the impulse made it through in zero time and with no loss. When a device is
inserted, the time axis indicates the propagation delay or electrical length of the device. Note that in time
domain transmission measurements, the value displayed on the x-axis of the VNA is the actual electrical
length, not two-way travel time as in reflection measurements. The marker still reads out the electrical
length in both time and distance. The VNA allows for the entry of the velocity factor otherwise you must
multiply the distance by the relative velocity of the transmission medium to get the actual physical length.

The quantity displayed in the vertical axis depends on the format selected. In lin mag format, the vertical
scale is transmission coefficient units. It represents the average transmission coefficient for the
transmission path over the frequency range of the measurement. Log mag format displays the response
in units of transmission loss or gain in dB. It represents the average loss or gain in the transmission path
over the frequency range of interest.

For a 20 dB attenuator, the bandpass response has a magnitude of −20 dB insertion loss as shown in
Figure 9a and 0.10 transmission coefficient units shown in Figure 9b.

(a) (b)

Figure 9. The bandpass response of a 20 dB attenuator displayed (a) in log mag format showing insertion loss in
units of dB, and (b) in lin mag format showing transmission coefficient units.

17
4.4 Summary on modes
Table 1-1. Mapping modes

Modes
Low-pass Bandpass
• Simulates traditional TDR • Same as narrow-band time domain
• DC value extrapolated • Most general purpose mode
• Start frequency harmonically related
• Any arbitrary frequency range
throughout span
• Higher (twice) resolution than bandpass
Step excitation Ideal for identifying discontinuities (location and
type) in devices that pass low frequencies.
Impulse excitation Ideal for measuring band-limited devices such
Ideal for seeing small responses in devices that as filters. Also useful for fault location (but not
pass low frequencies, such as cables. type) especially when system cannot pass low
frequencies.
Reflection Horizontal axis shows 2-way travel time.
Transmission Horizontal axis shows 1-way (actual) travel time.

The low-pass impulse mode has higher resolution than the bandpass mode and is most useful for seeing
small responses in devices that pass low frequencies, such as cables. The start frequency is adjusted to
be harmonically related throughout the frequency span. Be sure to calibrate after completely setting up
the measurement.

The low-pass step mode allows the user to easily identify location of the discontinuity as well as the type
of discontinuity. It also has higher resolution than the bandpass mode. It is most useful for identifying
discontinuities in devices that pass low frequencies. In both low-pass modes, frequencies down to DC,
and negative frequencies are extrapolated.

The bandpass impulse mode is the most general-purpose mode and does not require that the
frequencies be harmonically related. It can be used over any arbitrary frequency range. It is most useful
for measuring band-limited devices such as filters. It is also used for fault location. While it cannot be
used to identify the type of discontinuity present, it is suitable for showing magnitude of responses.

18
5.0 Windowing
Ideally, the frequency domain measurement would be continuous over an infinite frequency range.
Because the VNA is capable of measuring over a finite frequency range, methods have been developed
to help us deal with real-world limitations. A feature that is designed to enhance time domain
measurements in the VNA is windowing. Windowing improves the dynamic range of the time domain
measurement by modifying (filtering) the frequency domain data prior to conversion to the time domain to
produce an impulse stimulus with lower sidelobes. This greatly enhances the effectiveness in viewing
time domain responses that are very different in magnitude; however, the sidelobe reduction is achieved
with the trade-off of increased impulse width.

Because of the limited bandwidth of the measurement system, there are abrupt transitions in the
frequency domain measurement at the start and stop frequencies. It is this band-limiting (or data
truncation) that causes overshoot and ringing in the time domain response and is seen as a sin(x)/x
shape in the unwindowed impulse stimulus. This non-ideal impulse has two effects which limit the
usefulness of the time domain response.

First, the finite impulse width, caused by the band-limited nature of the test system, limits the ability to
resolve between two closely spaced responses. The impulse width is inversely proportional to the
frequency span of the measurement, and the only way that the impulse width can be made narrower is to
increase the frequency span.

Second, the impulse sidelobes, caused by the abrupt cutoff at the stop frequency, limit the dynamic range
of the time domain measurement by hiding low level responses within the sidelobes of adjacent higher
level responses.

If the resulting sidelobes are too high, they can obscure the smaller responses from the DUT and limit the
dynamic range of the time domain measurement. A windowing function may be applied to modify the data
in the frequency domain, thus controlling the sidelobes created during the truncation process. This makes
the response more useful in isolating and identifying individual responses. While the windowing process
tends to reduce the sharpness of the original response thus reducing the ringing in the time domain, it can
cause the impulse width to increase, or the step rise time to decrease. As mentioned before, the finite
impulse width (or rise time) limits the ability to resolve between two closely spaced responses and the
effects of the finite impulse width cannot be improved without increasing the frequency span of the
measurement.

A window function used commonly is the Kaiser-Bessel window where ß controls the amount of roll-off of
the window function. Higher values of ß reduce the height of the sidelobes. Figure 10 shows various
window factors.

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Figure 10. Various Kaiser-Bessel (KB) windows each with a different ß value

Table 1-2. Approximate formulas for the relationship between step rise time, impulse width, and span

Impulse Sidelobe Low-pass Impulse Step Sidelobe Step Rise Time

Window
Level (dB) Width (50%) Level (dB) (10% to 90%)
Type −13 0.60 / Freq Span −21 0.45 / Freq Span
Minimum −44 0.98 / Freq Span −60 0.99 / Freq Span
Normal −75 1.39 / Freq Span −70 1.48 / Freq Span

Note: Bandpass impulse width is twice that of low-pass impulse width. The bandpass impulse sidelobe
levels are the same as low-pass impulse sidelobe levels.

Windowing affects only the time domain response. It is turned off when viewing the frequency domain
response. Figure 11 shows the effect of windowing on the time domain response of a short circuit.

Figure 11. Effects of windowing on the time domain response of a short circuit.

20
6.0 Gating
Gating provides the ability to selectively remove or include responses in time. The remaining time domain
responses can then be transformed back to the frequency domain with the effect of the ‘gated-out’
responses being removed. This should improve the quality of the response, in that the gated frequency
response should more closely resemble the device response as if it were measured with no other
reflections. However, previous reflections do have some effect even when the measurement has been
time-gated.

In the real world, the gating is not a “brick-wall” function. If it were, there would be sharp transitions in the
time domain causing ringing in the frequency domain. To avoid this, the gating function is windowed in
the frequency domain before being transformed to the time domain. It is the Kaiser-Bessel window that
sets the maximum gate transition slope in the time domain.

Also, if a simple gating function was used, a curious effect would occur at the endpoints of the time-gated
frequency domain response in that the endpoints would be lower by 6 dB. Gating is performed solely in
the frequency domain. The start and stop gate times define gate width from which the equivalent
frequency domain gating function can be directly determined. Over the frequency range of interest, the
gated value at any point is determined by multiplying the original frequency response by the reverse of
the gating frequency function centered at that frequency and then summing the result (convolving). At the
last data point, the gate response center is at the endpoint of the band of interest. Any frequencies
beyond the endpoint of the band will return zero so half of the gate function will be multiplied by zero and
does not add to the sum. This creates the result that any gating will distort the endpoints of the gated
frequency response by lowering them by 6 dB.

The VNA time domain algorithm compensates for this roll-off through post-gate renormalization. This
compensation function works perfectly for a unit time response at the center of the gate. However, if the
gate is not symmetrical around the time function, then the result will show some errors in approximately
the last 10 percent of the gated response when compared to the original frequency response. In the
bandpass mode, these errors will show up in the first and last 10 percent (approximately) of the gated
frequency response.

Figure 12a shows the gating function for various gate center times. Figure 12b shows a unit frequency
response in the time domain, with gates applied at various gate times. Note that the time domain
response is nearly unchanged as the time-gate fully encompasses the impulse at all three center times.
(The abrupt changes in the sidelobe levels of Figures 12a and 12b are likely due to the renormalization
effect. Without renormalization, one would expect the sidelobe levels to be greatly reduced outside of the
gate window.)

Figure 12c shows the frequency response after gating. Here, there is a substantial difference in the
response at high frequency for the different gate center times. It is clear that normalization is optimal
when the gate is centered on the response being gated. For best results, the time domain response
should be viewed in order to assign the proper gating start and stop values.

21
Figure 12a. Gating function for various gate center Figure 12b. A unit frequency response in the time
times domain with gates applied at various gate times

Figure 12c. Frequency response after gating

22
6.1 Gating operation in the VNA
Figure 12 illustrated the sequence of the gating operation. Figure 13a shows the frequency response of a
cable. The time domain response is shown in Figure 13b. The discontinuity on the left is due to the input
connector and the discontinuity on the right is due to the output connector. By using the gate function, the
effect of the mismatch can be removed in order to see the frequency response of just the output
connector. Figure 13c shows the gate applied. Figure 13d shows the frequency response of the output
connector with the other connector “gated out”. If the first reflections are small, this response closely
resembles the response one would see if it were possible to measure only the second connector.

Figure 13. Sequence of the gating operation: (a) frequency response of a cable, (b) time domain response, (c) gating
applied to remove the first discontinuity, and (d) frequency response with gating on and off.

Think of a gate as a filter in the time domain. Figure 14 shows the gate shape. The gate has a passband
ripple, a cutoff rate, and sidelobe level just like a filter in the frequency domain. The gate’s passband can
be selected by the start and stop gate controls. The location of the gate in time can be controlled by
setting the center and span times or the start and stop times, which are the –6 dB cutoff times. The gate
shape controls the flatness, roll-off rate and sidelobe level of the gate. The minimum gate shape has the
highest passband ripple and sidelobe level but has the fastest cutoff rate for separating closely spaced
time domain responses. The maximum gate shape has extremely low sidelobes with almost no passband
ripple but the cutoff rate is not fast.

23
Figure 14. Sample of a gate shape and its parameters.

The unwanted time domain responses will be reduced by the gate but not totally removed. Even the most
simple impulse response is not localized in time, but may spread out and have sidelobe ripples that
cannot be completely eliminated by gating.

In the PNA and ENA, there are two types of gates, bandpass and notch. The bandpass gate is used to
remove the responses outside the gate span. The notch gate is used to remove the responses within the
gate span. The direction of the gate markers will define the region where gating is enabled. Figure 15
illustrates the gate markers. For best results, use the front panel knob to manually position the gate
markers around the desired portion of the time domain trace. Gating flags indicate response removal
outside the gate span.

(a) (b)

Figure 15. Sample of gate markers

24
Figure 16 shows the time domain response of two capacitive discontinuities and is the circuit used to
illustrate the effectiveness of gating in the following examples.

Figure 16. Time domain response of two capacitive discontinuities (circuit shown above)

6.2 Gating the first discontinuity

Figure 17 shows the original frequency response in light gray, with the characteristic ripple pattern
resulting from two discontinuities separated by a length of line. The dark gray trace is the calculated
display of the ideal S11 of a single capacitive discontinuity terminated in Z0. Almost completely overlaying
the dark gray trace is the response of gating around the first discontinuity, the black trace. The only
difference is at the high frequencies. In this case, gating about the first discontinuity is very effective in
removing the effects of other elements.

Figure 17. Gating out the first discontinuity (circuit shown in Figure 16)

25
6.3 Gating the second discontinuity
Figure 18 looks at what happens when the gate is applied to the second discontinuity. In this example,
the time-gated response is quite different. The differences here are quite substantial, and the response
deviates from the expected response more as the frequency increases. This deviation is due to the
masking effect of the discontinuity associated with the first capacitor. From this, one can see that using
gating about a response that occurs after a substantial reflection can lead to quite erroneous results. The
next section describes in detail the effects of masking.

Figure 18. Gating out the second discontinuity (circuit shown in Figure 16)

26
7.0 Masking
Masking occurs when the response of one discontinuity affects or obscures the response of subsequent
discontinuities in the circuit. This is because the energy reflected from the first discontinuity never reaches
subsequent discontinuities. For example, if a transmission line has two discontinuities that each reflect 50
percent of the incident voltage, the time domain response shows the correct reflection coefficient for the
first discontinuity, 50 percent (ρ= 0.50). However, the second discontinuity appears smaller because only
some of the incident voltage reached the second discontinuity, and some of that reflected energy is
reflected off the first discontinuity as it returns. The exact change in the apparent reflection depends in
part on the type of discontinuity that precedes it. Discontinuities due to changes in line impedance will
appear somewhat differently than discontinuities due to discrete reflections on the line.

7.1 Changes in line impedance

For the circuit in Figure 19, the apparent reflection coefficient of the second transition, ρ2a, is only about 90
percent of the actual value. This shows the effect that the first discontinuity has on the second discontinuity
in that there is some energy reflected from the first discontinuity that never reaches the second discontinuity.
In this example, the low-pass step response shows a –0.33 reflection coefficient at the first discontinuity,
which is the correct value for an impedance of 25 Ω. However, at the end of the 25 Ω impedance section,
the response does not return to zero reflection coefficient, which would be expected for a 50 Ω impedance.
The reason is that the step incident on the second response is of less than unity amplitude because of the
energy reflected in the first mismatch. The masking error for changes in line impedance are computed
differently than for discrete discontinuities, and the response of the second impedance step, from Z1 back to
Z0, is approximately modified as 4xZ1xZ0 /(Z1+Z0)2.

Figure 19. Apparent reflection

coefficient of the second transition is
only about 90 percent of the actual
value because some energy reflected
from the first discontinuity never
reaches the second discontinuity.

27
7.2 Discrete discontinuities
The circuit in Figure 20 shows a Z0 followed by a capacitive discontinuity, followed by a Z0 line and then a
second identical capacitive discontinuity, and then terminated in a Z0 load. The low-pass step response of
this network is shown below. Even though the responses are caused by identical discontinuities, the
response of the second discontinuity appears smaller than the first. The second response is somewhat
masked by the first, though in a different manner than in the example of Figure 19. The energy reflected
from the first capacitor is not available to be incident on the second, further, this energy loss is higher as
frequency increases. Methods in [4] have been described, which compensate for this loss. Without
compensation, the error vs. frequency in the second response approaches 1/(1-r(w)2), where r(w) is the
reflection of the first discontinuity. Thus, as r(w) approaches 1, the error becomes very large.

For two discrete discontinuities, the apparent reflection of the second discontinuity appears as
approximately: ρ2a = (1 – ρ12) * ρ2 , where ρ2a is the apparent reflection of the second discontinuity, ρ1 is
the reflection of the first discontinuity, and ρ2 is the reflection of the second discontinuity. Using values
from the above example, 1 = 2 = 0.50 (two discontinuities that each reflect 50 percent of the incident
voltage), ρ2a = 0.375 (apparent reflection of the second discontinuity).

Figure 20. For two discrete identical discontinuities, response of the second discontinuity is somewhat masked by the
first because not all energy reflected from the first discontinuity is available to the incident on the second.

28
7.3 Multiple discontinuities
It is seen that two mismatches produce reflections that can be analyzed separately. The mismatch at the
junction of the two transmission lines generates a reflected wave. Similarly, the mismatch at the load also
creates a reflection due to its reflection coefficient. The part of the wave reflected from the junction is again
reflected off the load and heads back to the monitoring point only to be partially reflected at the next
junction. This continues indefinitely, but after some time the magnitude of the reflections approaches zero.

7.4 Line loss

Figure 21b shows the time domain response of a 3 dB attenuator and a short circuit. The impulse
response of the short circuit alone in Figure 21a shows the return loss of 0 dB. However, the response of
the short circuit placed at the end of the 3 dB attenuator displays a return loss of –6 dB. This value
actually represents the forward and return path loss through the attenuator, and it illustrates how a lossy
network can affect the responses that follow it.

Figure 21. Impact of lossy network: (a) impulse response of a short circuit showing return loss of 0 dB, (b) time
domain response of a 3 dB attenuator terminated with a short circuit, 6 dB loss represents the forward and return
path loss through the attenuator.

Each response is affected by mismatches and losses encountered earlier in the signal path. Loss of stimulus
energy by reflection and by absorption must be considered when interpreting the time domain response.

29
8.0 Measurement Range
In the time domain, the range is defined as the length of time that a measurement can be made without
encountering a repetition of the response. This repetition of the response is called aliasing. Response repetition
occurs at regular intervals in time, and the aliased responses in any measurement can be viewed by increasing
the time span. Aliasing is caused by the frequency domain data being gathered at discrete frequency points
rather than continuously. The effect of the sampling function is that each time domain response is repeated
every 1/∆f seconds. (Mathematically, the impulse is convolved with the IFT of the sampling function, resulting in
a repetition every 1/∆f seconds.) This length of time defines the range of the measurement, which is equal to the
time separation between repetitions of the response.

The alias-free range is proportional to the number of points and inversely proportional to the frequency span. To
increase the range, you can increase the number of points and/or decrease the frequency span. Both of these
changes will reduce the ∆f between points and therefore increase the time domain range. Maximum range also
depends on loss through the test device. In order for the response to be alias free, re-reflections from the
network being measured must decrease to a minimal level in the alias free time interval. If there are large
reflection responses outside the alias-free range, they will appear (as an alias) inside the alias-free range. If a
response moves in time when the number of points is increased, it is most likely an alias response. If the
returning signal is too small to measure, the range is limited regardless of the frequency span.

8.1 Range calculation example

Range (m) = (1/Δf) x Vf x c

Where:

Δf = frequency step size (which is frequency span/number of points)

Vf = the velocity factor in the transmission line

c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s (2.997925 x 108 m/s to be precise)

(Most cables have a relative velocity of 0.66 for polyethylene dielectric or
0.7 for Teflon dielectric)

For a measurement with 401 points and a span of 2.5 GHz, using a polyethylene cable, the time domain range
must be 32 meters or less.

To determine the available range in seconds, divide the number of points, minus one, by the frequency span in
Hz. For example, with 401 points over a 2.5 GHz frequency span, responses will repeat every 160
nanoseconds.

Range (s) = (401 – 1)/(2.5 x 109 Hz) = 160 ns

To find the distance in free space, multiply this value in time by c, the speed of light in free space. For example,
160 ns is equal to about 48 meters.

160 ns x (2.997925 x 108 m/s) = 48 m (in free space)

30
To compute the actual physical length available, multiply this value in free space by the relative velocity of
propagation in the transmission medium. (Most cables have a relative velocity of 0.66 for a polyethylene
dielectric or 0.7 for a Teflon dielectric.)

Range (m) = 48 m x 0.66 = 32 m (physical length)

In this example, the range is 32 meters in physical length. To prevent the time domain responses from
overlapping or aliasing, the test device must be 32 meters or less in physical length for a transmission
measurement or 16 meters or less for a reflection measurement. (For a reflection measurement, if you would
like to calculate the one-way distance rather than round-trip distance, simply divide the length by 2.)

A VNA can be configured to perform the math. By changing the default velocity factor and selecting the
measurement type, the displayed marker will show the proper length of the device.

The alias-free range is important to consider in any time domain measurement and particularly for devices that
have a very long electrical length. A good example of this is found in cable fault location. Consider the
measurement of a cable which is physically 10 meters long. Because this is a reflection measurement, the
available time domain range must be greater than twice the actual electrical length of the cable.

Using the same setup as above, with 401 points and a frequency span of 2.5 GHz, the available range is about
160 nanoseconds. Now consider measuring the same cable using a frequency span of 5.0 GHz.

Range (m) = (1/Δf) x Vf x c

Range (m) = (80 ns) x 0.66 x (2.997925 x 108 m/s) = 16 m (physical length)

8.2 Identify alias responses

Notice that the available alias-free time domain range is less because Δf is greater. Because this is a
reflection measurement, the available time domain range must be greater than twice the actual electrical
length of the cable. This is to allow the stimulus to travel to the discontinuity and return to the test port. In
this example, the time domain actual and alias responses will probably overlap. When this occurs, it is not
generally possible to visually distinguish a real response from an aliased response without a test.

If there is doubt whether a response is real or aliased, the first test is to increase the time span and see if
there are obvious repetitions with observable spaces between them.

If you are still not sure that the response is real, then center the response on the display and store the
trace in memory for comparison. Now reduce the frequency span and measure the device again. If the
time domain response is valid, then it will remain in the center of the display. If the response is aliased,
then it will move along the time axis when the frequency span is changed.

8.3 Summary on range

The time domain range needed for an alias-free measurement depends upon the electrical length of the
device under test. For reflection measurements, the range requirement is doubled to allow the stimulus to
travel to the discontinuity and return to the test port. To change the alias-free range, change Δf (that is,
either increase the number of points and/or decrease the frequency span).

31
9.0 Resolution
There are two different resolution terms used in the time domain:

• response resolution
• range resolution

9.1 Response resolution

Time domain response resolution is defined as the ability to resolve two closely-spaced responses, or a
measure of how close two responses can be to each other and still be distinguished from each other.
Response resolution depends upon the time domain mode, the frequency range, whether it is a reflection
or a transmission measurement, and the relative propagation velocity of the signal path.

For responses of equal amplitude, the response resolution is equal to the 50% (−6 dB) points of the
impulse width, or the step rise time which is defined as the 10 to 90% points as shown in Figure 22. It is
inversely proportional to the measurement frequency span, and is also affected by the window function
used in the transform.

Figure 22. Response resolution is equal to the 50% points of the impulse width or the step rise time of 10 to
90% points.

32
9.2 Determine the response resolution (or 50% impulse
width) for responses of equal amplitude
Table 1-3 shows the (approximated) relationship between the frequency span and the window selection
on response resolution for responses of equal amplitude. These characteristics are inversely proportional
to the frequency span of the measurement and are also a function of the window that is selected.

Table 1-3. Approximate relationship between frequency span, window selection, and response resolution

Low-pass step
Window (10% to 90%) Low-pass impulse (50%) Bandpass impulse

Minimum 0.45/frequency span 0.60/frequency span 1.20/frequency span

Normal 0.99/frequency span 0.98/frequency span 1.95/frequency span
Maximum 1.48/frequency span 1.39/frequency span 2.77/frequency span

For example, using a 10 GHz wide frequency span and a normal window in the bandpass mode, we can
calculate the response resolution for responses of equal amplitude:

Response resolution = 50% impulse width (in time) x speed of light

(using Table 1-3) 1.95/frequency span = 1.95/10 GHz = 195 ps

195 ps x c = 195 ps x (2.997925 x 108 m/s) = 58 mm

For reflection measurements, because of the 2-way travel time involved, this means that the minimum
resolvable separation between discontinuities is half of this value or 97.5 ps (29 mm).

It is important to note that the actual physical separation of the responses which can be resolved will
depend upon the relative velocity (Vf) of propagation in the actual transmission medium.

195 ps x c x Vf = 38 mm (physical separation)

So the actual resolvable physical separation is even smaller, being scaled by the relative velocity of the
transmission medium. In this case, using a cable with a polyethylene dielectric (0.66), the equal
magnitude responses must be separated by more than 38 mm (or 19 mm for a reflection measurement).
When using a VNA, entries are allowed for measurement type, reflection or transmission, and the velocity
factor which will be used to display the distance values appropriately.

Factors such as reduced frequency span, greater frequency domain data windowing, and a large discontinuity
masking the response of a smaller discontinuity, all act to degrade the effective response resolution.

33
9.3 Effect of frequency span on response resolution
Figure 23 shows the effect of both a narrow span and a wide span on the response resolution of a cable
with connectors on each end and a termination. The response with the narrow frequency span is shown
overlaid upon the response measured with a relatively wide frequency span. The wider frequency span
enables the analyzer to resolve the two connectors into separate, distinct responses. The relationship
between the frequency span and the pulse width in time is inversely proportional; the wider the frequency
span, the narrower the impulse width and the faster the rise time.

Figure 23. Effect of narrow span and wide span on the response resolution

34
9.4 Effect of windows on response resolution
Another factor which determines the resolution of the measured response in the time domain is the
window setting. The window function has the effect of changing both the impulse width and sidelobe level
of the time domain function.

Figure 24 illustrates the use of different windows on a measurement using a VNA. With the minimum
window, notice the narrow response and the sidelobe levels. With the maximum window and using the
same measurement setup, notice the reduction of the sidelobe levels improving the dynamic range. Also
notice that the impulse width is much wider. These are the effects on the measurement of lowering the
sidelobe level with the window function which widens the impulse width and decreases the rise time of the
step signal.

Figure 24. Comparing minimum window and maximum window

Impulse sidelobes limit the dynamic range of the time domain measurement. The sidelobes can be so
high that they obscure the low-level responses of the DUT. The effect of sidelobes can be improved by
widowing because it acts like a filter on the frequency domain data prior to converting it to the time
domain, producing an impulse stimulus that has lower sidelobes. This makes it much easier to see time
domain responses that are very different in magnitude. However, the sidelobe reduction is achieved at
the expense of increased impulse width. The effect of windowing on the step stimulus (low-pass mode
only) is a reduction of overshooting and ringing at the expense of increased rise time.

Figures 25a and 25b show how the response changes as the window shape changes. If the magnitudes
of the responses are comparable, the resolution needs to be higher to resolve them so you should
choose the minimum window to increase the resolution as shown in Figure 25a. If the responses are very
different in magnitude, then choosing the maximum window will increase the dynamic range as shown in
Figure 25b.

35
(a)

(b)

Figure 25. Response changes as window shape changes: (a) minimum window is best when higher resolution is
needed to resolve signals with equivalent magnitudes, (b) maximum window is ideal for best dynamic range if
responses are very different in magnitude.

36
9.5 Transform mode effect on response resolution
Although both transformation types, bandpass and low-pass impulse, simulate the response of the
impulse signal, the impulse width in the bandpass mode is twice the width of that in the low-pass impulse
mode. In the bandpass mode, the window is centered between the start and stop frequencies. There are
two abrupt cutoff points, at the beginning and at the end of the frequency span. This windows both sides
of the data and reduces the effective bandwidth. In contrast, the center of the windowing function in the
low-pass mode is the DC term, or the first point of the data set. In the low-pass mode, the DC term is
extrapolated from the first few data points in the frequency domain and the remainder of the data is
calculated from taking a mirror image of the original measured response. Compared to the bandpass
mode, for the same frequency span and number of points, the low-pass mode has twice the resolution.
Figure 26 shows the difference in resolution for the low-pass and bandpass modes, using the same
frequency span and number of points. You can see that the low-pass mode achieves a higher resolution
by reducing the impulse width in half when compared to the bandpass mode.

Figure 26. Given the same settings, frequency span and number of points, resolution is different for the low-pass and
the bandpass modes.

37
9.6 Range resolution
Time domain range resolution is defined as the ability to locate a single response in time. If only one
response is present, range resolution is a measure of how closely you can pinpoint the peak of that
response. The range resolution is equal to the digital resolution of the display, which is the time domain
span divided by the number of points on the display.

Range Resolution = Tspan/Points −1

To get the maximum range resolution, center the response on the display and reduce the time domain
span. The range resolution is always much finer than the response resolution. Figure 27a shows a span
of 10 ns which results in a range resolution of 50 ps. Figure 27b shows the resolution being reduced to
12.5 ps by reducing the span to 2.5 ns. In both cases, the number of points was fixed at 201. The change
in span only increases or decreases the spacing between data points; it does not affect the ability to
resolve two closely spaced signals.

(a)

(b)

Figure 27. Range resolution: (a) a span of 10 ns results in a range solution of 50 ps, (b) reduce span to 2.5 ns and
reduce resolution to 12.5 ps.

38
In the time domain, the time span is independent of the frequency span chosen. You can center the
response on the display and then zoom in on it by simply narrowing the time span. This improves the
range resolution by a factor equal to the reduction in the time span.

Keep in mind that the nonuniformity of the propagation velocity in a typical transmission medium will limit
your ability to precisely locate the physical location of the discontinuity. And in dispersive media such as
waveguide, the non-linear phase response limits the ability to locate the actual peak of the response.

10.0 Conclusion
In order to use time domain effectively, you must be aware of its limitations and ambiguities. These
include measurement range (alias-free), resolution (response resolution and range resolution), as well as
the effects of masking when dealing with multiple discontinuities.

The alias-free range is dependent upon the Δf in the frequency domain.

Range (seconds) = 1/Δf = (Points –1)/Frequency Span

The response resolution computation describes how closely spaced, equal magnitude responses can be
distinguished.

Impulse width at 50%

Step rise time, 10 to 90%

The range resolution defines how closely you can locate the peak of a response and thus the actual
location of the discontinuity.

Time Span/(Points –1)

To help you apply the various elements that have been covered in this document, we have included two
examples in the appendix to illustrate time domain measurements. Appendix A uses the ENA RF network
analyzer and appendix B uses the PNA Series network analyzer.

39
Appendix A
Making transmission response measurements using an ENA
In this example, there are three components of the transmission response:

• RF leakage at near zero time

• main travel path through the device
• triple travel path

This procedure shows you how time domain analysis can provide information about a surface acoustic
wave (SAW) filter that is not apparent in the frequency domain. It also allows you to mathematically
remove individual parts of the time domain response to see the effect of potential design changes. This is
accomplished by gating out the undesirable responses. With the gating capability, the analyzer time
domain allows you to perform “what if” analysis by mathematically removing selected responses and
seeing the effect in the frequency domain. This procedure assumes some familiarity with the operation of
the E5071C.

Equipment:

E5071C-280, ENA RF network analyzer, 9 kHz to 8.5 GHz

DUT: SAW filter, 134 MHz
Test cables, Type-N

Connect the device as shown in Figure 28.

Select the measurement parameters:

Preset

Format > Log Mag

Measure > S21

Start > 119 MHz

Stop > 149 MHz

Scale > Autoscale

Remove the DUT, connect the cables and perform a

frequency response error-correction. (Refer to your
analyzer’s documentation for additional information on
calibration procedure.)

Figure 28. Equipment setup

40
Reconnect the DUT, and you should see a response similar to that of Figure 29.

Figure 29. Response of a SAW filter in frequency domain

To transform the data from frequency domain to time domain, and set the start and stop times for –1 µs to
6 µs, select:

Analysis > Transform

Type > Bandpass

Start > –1 µs

Stop > 6 µs

Transform > ON

41
To better view the measurement trace as shown in Figure 30, select Scale and adjust the reference value
to –60 dB.

Figure 30. Time domain display of Figure 29

To measure the peak response from the main path, select a marker, then;

Marker Search > Max

In the time domain, you are able to see the time (or distance) of the individual responses. The three
responses shown in Figure 31 are the RF leakage (marker 1), the main travel path through the filter
(marker 2), and the triple travel path through the filter (marker 3). Only the combination of these
responses was evident in the frequency domain.

Figure 31. Markers identifying individual key responses: (marker 1) RF leakage, (marker 2) main travel path through
the filter, (marker 3) triple travel path through the filter.

42
Interpreting the bandpass transmission response
horizontal axis
The response at marker 1 is an RF feedthrough leakage path. Marker 2 indicates the main path response
through the test device, which has a propagation delay of 1.59 µs or about 477 meters in electrical length.
Marker 3 indicates the triple travel path response at 4.775 µs or about 1.43 km. In addition to the triple
travel path response, there are several other multi-path responses through the test device, which are
inherent in the design of a SAW filter.

Interpreting the bandpass transmission response vertical axis

In the log magnitude format, the vertical axis displays the transmission loss or gain in dB. Think of this as
an average of the transmission response over the measurement frequency range.

Gating operation
To access the gate function menu from the Time Domain Toolbar, select:

Analysis > Gating

To set the gate parameters, enter:

Center > 1.6 µs

Span > 3 µs

There are several ways to adjust the gate. You can use the Start/Stop function, the Center/Span
function, or the front panel knob. The center gate marker is shaped like a “T”, and is shown in Figure 32.
The flag markers indicate the start and stop times of the gate.

Figure 32. Markers of the gating

operation. The “flag markers” indicate
gate start and stop, and the “T” marker
indicates gate center.

43
To activate the gating function that will remove any unwanted responses, toggle Gating to ON. As shown
in Figure 33, only the response from the main path is displayed.

Figure 33. With gating on, only the response from the main path is displayed. Other responses, such as RF leakage
and triple travel path, have been gated out.

To adjust the gate shape for the best possible time domain response, select from the Gate Shape list.
The choices are Maximum, Wide, Normal, and Minimum. The passband ripple and sidelobe levels are
descriptive of the gate shape. The cutoff time is the time between the stop time (−6 dB on the filter skirt)
and the peak of the first side lobe, and is equal on the left and right side skirts of the filter. The minimum
gate span is just twice the cutoff time because it has no passband.

To see the effect of gating in the frequency domain, toggle Transform to OFF.

Figure 34a shows the effect of removing the RF leakage and the triple travel signal path using gating. By
transforming back to the frequency domain as shown, we see that this design change would yield better
out-of-band rejection. Figure 34b is the response of the SAW filter without the gating applied.

44
(a)

(b)

Figure 34. Effect of gating on and off: (a) with gating on, the effect of RF leakage and triple travel signal have been
removed, and the result is an improvement in out-of-band rejection, (b) no gating applied (same as Figure 29).

45
Appendix B
Making reflection response measurements using a PNA
The time domain response of a reflection measurement is often compared with TDR measurements. Like
the TDR, the analyzer measures the size of the reflections versus time (or distance). This mode allows
not only fault location but the type of impedances present within the DUT. Unlike the TDR, the time
domain capability of the analyzer allows you to choose the frequency range over which you would like to
make the measurement. The most difficult part when using this mode is selecting the appropriate
frequency settings on the VNA.

When using the low-pass mode of operation, the measured frequencies must be harmonically related with
a DC term extrapolated from the first few data points in the frequency domain. The remainder of the data
is calculated from taking a mirror image of the original measure response. Because the transformed data
includes a DC term, the time domain stimulus can be either an impulse or a step response. Also, because
the data is mirrored about the DC term, we find the resolution achievable in the time domain is doubled
due to the larger effective measurement span as compared to the bandpass mode.

The real power of the low-pass response is that it contains information both from where the discontinuity
is located and what type of impedance is present. The low-pass response of a short circuit is a total
reflection of the step or impulse, –180 degrees out-of-phase. This represents a reflection coefficient of
−1.00 as shown in Figure 35a. The response of an open circuit is a total in-phase reflection of the step or
impulse or a reflection coefficient of +1.00, Figure 35b.

(a)

Figure 35. Low-pass responses of a

short circuit (a) and an open circuit (b).
(b)

46
The recommended procedure for selecting the frequency range for low-pass measurements is to enter
only the STOP frequency and NUMBER OF POINTS, then press SET FREQ (LOW PASS) before
calibration. This automatically sets all frequencies. If the STOP frequency is changed to a value that
differs significantly from what was specified, then the initial value (as specified by the user) was lower
than the minimum frequency range for low-pass frequency requirements. When this occurs, reduce the
number of points and go through the procedure again.

Measuring a short and an open using low-pass mode

The equipment used is the PNA, an open standard, a short standard, and a cal kit in the appropriate
connector type.

Preset the PNA.

To choose the measurement parameters,

Click Channel > Start/Stop

Enter 3 GHz for Stop Frequency, click OK

Click Sweep > Number of Points > 401

Click Trace > Transform > more (on the Transform menu bar)

Click Set Freq. Low Pass

Note: You will see a message stating that the frequency limits have been changed. This is normal
because for the low-pass mode, the frequencies must be harmonically related. When this button is
clicked, the instrument readjusts the frequency range to make sure that the frequencies are harmonically
related.

Perform an S11 1-port error-correction on Port 1.

(Refer to the analyzer’s documentation for calibration procedures.)

47
With calibration completed and turned on, connect the open standard to Port 1 of the PNA,

Click More (on the Transform menu bar) > under Transform Mode (in the Transform dialogue box),
select Low Pass Impulse, and check the box for Transform (see Figure 36 for details).

Figure 36. Details of the Transform dialogue box.

Enter Transform Start Time: –2.5 ns

Enter Transform Stop Time: 2.5 ns

Click OK

To have a better view of the measurement trace,

Click Trace > Format > Real > OK

Click Scale > Scale, set scale as appropriate > OK

Figure 37. Impulse response of an

open standard

48
Replace the open with the short and view the measurement.

Figure 38. Impulse response of a short standard

The low-pass impulse response is a peak that goes positive for R > Z0 and negative for R < Z0.
The amplitude of the response is equal to the reflection coefficient.

To measure the low-pass step response of a short,

Click More (on the Transform menu bar) > Low Pass Step > OK

Figure 39. Low-pass step response of a short

Replace the short with the open to see the step response of the open.

49
Figure 40. Low-pass step response of an open

The low-pass step response for a resistive impedance is a positive level step for R > Z0 and negative
level shift for R < Z0. The amplitude of the response is equal to the reflection coefficient.

To see the effect of windows on the step response,

Click More (on the Transform menu bar) > (in the Category field)

select Window from the pull-down menu.

Move the slider from Minimum to Maximum and observe the rise time and ripple changes (see Figure 41
for details).

Figure 41. Details of the Transform: Window dialogue box

50
Figure 42. Open standard: the effect of windows (minimum or maximum) on the step response

Figure 43. Short standard: the effect of windows (minimum or maximum) on the step response

To see how to determine distance, add an airline to the open standard. Notice how the location of the
peak in Figure 44 has moved (as compared to Figure 37) because of the addition of the airline. Use the
markers to read out the distance.

Figure 44. Adding an airline moved the peak to a different location because the discontinuity is now further out in distance

51
To see the effect of changing windows on this measurement:

Click More (on the Transform menu bar) > (in the Category field)

select Window from the pull-down menu.

Move the slider from Minimum to Maximum and observe the rise time and ripple changes (see Figure 41
for details).

Figure 45. Effect of windowing (minimum or maximum) on an open standard connected to an airline

52
Bibliography
1. Rytting, D., Let Time Domain Provide Additional Insight in Network Behavior, Hewlett-Packard RF &
Microwave Measurement Symposium and Exhibition, April 1984

2. Bracewell, The Fourier Transform and Its Applications, 2nd Edition, Revised, Mcgraw-Hill, New
York, 1886

3. Oppenheim & Schafer, Discrete-Time Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1989

4. Dunsmore, Joel Phillip., The time-domain response of coupled-resonator filters with applications to
tuning, PhD Thesis, University of Leeds, 2004

5. Keysight Technologies, AN 1287-8 Simplified Filter Tuning Using Time Domain, Application Note,
Literature Number 5968-5328E

6. Keysight Technologies, AN 1304-2 Time Domain Reflectometry Theory, Application Note, Literature
Number 5966-4855E

7. Keysight Technologies, Limitations and Accuracies of Time and Frequency Domain Analysis of
Physical Layer Devices, Application Note, Literature Number 5989-2421EN

8. Keysight Technologies, Signal Integrity Applications using Physical Layer Test System with Time
Domain Reflectometry and Vector Network Analysis, Application Note, Literature Number 5989-
5108EN

9. Keysight Technologies, Stripline TRL Calibration Fixtures for 10-Gigabit Interconnect Analysis,
Application Note, Literature Number 5989-4897EN

10. Keysight Technologies, Investigating Microvia Technology for 10 Gbps and Higher
Telecommunications Systems, Application Note, Literature Number 5989-2422EN

11. Keysight Technologies, Physical Layer Test System (PLTS Version 3.0), Technical Overview,
Literature Number 5989-0271EN

12. Keysight Technologies, Designing High Speed Backplanes Utilizing Physical Layer Test System
and Advanced Design System Tools, Application Note, Literature Number 5989-4077EN

13. Keysight Technologies, Network Analysis Solutions Advanced Filter Tuning Using Time Domain
Transforms, Literature Number 5980-2785EN

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This document was formerly known as application note number 1287-12.

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Published in USA, January 24, 2024, 5989-5723EN