🖥️ Hardware and Software Fundamentals
Hardware Components
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system, categorized as:
Internal Hardware (located inside the computer):
Motherboard: Printed circuit board that connects all components
CPU/Processor: Executes program instructions with two main units:
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations and logical
operations
Control Unit (CU): Decodes and executes instructions
RAM: Temporary/volatile memory that stores data currently in use
ROM: Permanent/non-volatile memory containing BIOS and startup
instructions
Graphics Card: Processes and outputs visual data to displays
Sound Card: Handles audio input/output
Network Interface Card (NIC): Enables network connectivity with unique MAC
address
HDD/SSD: Primary storage devices (magnetic vs solid-state technology)
External Hardware (peripheral devices):
Input devices: keyboard, mouse, camera, microphone
Output devices: monitor, printer, speakers, projector
Software Categories
Software is the collection of programs that control computer systems and process data
Applications Software (user-oriented programs):
Word processing (document creation and editing)
Spreadsheets (numerical data organization with formulae and graphs)
Database management systems (data organization and querying)
Control and measurement software (interfacing with sensors)
Apps and applets (mobile/single-task applications)
CAD software (design creation and analysis)
Media editing software (audio, video, graphics)
System Software (computer-oriented programs):
Operating Systems: Manage basic computer functions
Compilers: Translate high-level languages to machine code
Linkers: Combine object files into executable programs
Device Drivers: Enable hardware-OS communication
Utilities: System maintenance tools (antivirus, backup, disk repair)
🔢 Analogue vs Digital Data
Digital Data: Binary format (0s and 1s) that computers understand - discrete values only
Analogue Data: Physical data with smooth, continuous changes - infinite possible values
between points
Conversion Process:
ADC (Analogue to Digital Converter): Converts real-world data for computer
processing
DAC (Digital to Analogue Converter): Converts computer output for real-world
devices
🧠 Main Components of Computer Systems
Core Components
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit): The "brain" that interprets and executes
commands
2. Internal Memory: RAM (temporary) and ROM (permanent)
3. Backing Storage: HDD/SSD for permanent data storage
4. Input/Output Devices: Enable user interaction
Memory Types Comparison
Feature RAM ROM
Volatility Volatile (loses data when Non-volatile (retains data)
powered off)
Access Read and write Read-only
Purpose Stores currently used Stores BIOS and startup
data/programs data
Size Can be upgraded Fixed size
💾 Backing Storage vs Internal Memory
Aspect Internal Memory Backing Storage
(RAM/ROM) (HDD/SSD)
Permanence RAM temporary, ROM Always permanent
permanent
Capacity Smaller Much larger
Speed Extremely fast Much slower
Cost More expensive per byte Cheaper per byte
CPU Access Directly addressable Must load to RAM first
Removability Fixed inside computer Can be fixed or removable
🖥️ Operating Systems
Functions of an OS:
Control input/output and storage devices
Manage program loading and execution
Handle errors and security
Maintain system logs
Provide user interface
User Interface Types
Command Line Interface (CLI):
Requires typing specific commands
Advantages: Direct communication, full control, configuration flexibility
Disadvantages: Requires memorization, time-consuming, error-prone
Users: Programmers, technicians, analysts
Graphical User Interface (GUI):
Uses icons and pointing devices
Advantages: User-friendly, no command memorization needed
Disadvantages: Memory-intensive, limited to provided options
Users: General end-users
Dialogue-based Interface:
Voice-activated commands
Examples: Siri, Alexa, car voice systems
Advantages: Hands-free operation, accessibility
Disadvantages: Recognition issues, background noise problems
Gesture-based Interface:
Hand/body movement recognition
Uses computer vision and sensors
Advantages: Natural interaction, no physical contact
Disadvantages: Unintentional activation, limited range
💻 Types of Computers
Desktop Computers
Characteristics: Separate monitor, keyboard, mouse, and processor unit Advantages:
Standardized parts, easy upgrades, better specifications for price, stable internet
Disadvantages: Not portable, complicated setup, requires file transfer for mobility
Mobile Computers
Laptops:
Single unit with integrated components
Advantages: Portable, wireless capability, space-efficient
Disadvantages: Theft risk, limited battery, difficult upgrades
Smartphones:
Phone capabilities plus computer functions
Features: High-def displays, cameras, sensors, apps
Communication: Wi-Fi and mobile networks (3G/4G/5G)
Future tech: OLED screens, Li-Fi communication
Tablets:
Touch screen devices without physical keyboards
Advantages: Fast startup, lightweight, long battery life
Disadvantages: Expensive, limited storage, typing difficulties
Phablets:
Hybrid between smartphones and tablets (5.1-7 inches)
🚀 Emerging Technologies
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Definition: Machines performing tasks requiring human intelligence Applications:
Language processing, facial recognition, autonomous vehicles, predictive analysis
Impacts:
Positive: Improved safety, service quality, medical advances
Negative: Job losses, technology dependency, skill loss
Extended Reality (XR)
Augmented Reality (AR):
Overlays digital information on real world
User remains in real environment
Applications: Gaming (Pokémon GO), retail, healthcare, rescue operations
Virtual Reality (VR):
Complete immersion in digital environment
Requires headset/display
Applications: Military training, education, healthcare, entertainment,
engineering
