Introduction to Computer

 The word computer brings from the word ‘ compute ‘, that means to ‘ calculate.’
 A computer understand ‘ Binary ‘ language only.
 It produces 100 percent accurate results.
Charles Babbage is considered as the father of computer. It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first co
mputer which was invented by Charles Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory.

Definition of Computer
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with a set of
instructions (a program) to produce the result as output.

Working of Computer
 A computer works on the three basic steps:-
This whole process is term as input- process- output cycle or I- P- O cycle.
Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based on user’s instructions is
called information. Raw facts and figures which can be processed using arithmetic and logical operations to
obtain information are called data.

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

 Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition, subtraction, differentials, square root, etc.
 Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater than, less than, equal to, opposite,
etc.

The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

 Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and instructions to the computer are
called input unit.
 Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide information to the user in
desired format are called output unit.
 Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the computer. All devices or parts of
computer interact through the control unit.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic operations and logical operations
take place.
 Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in the memory. Memory is of
two types – primary memory and secondary memory. Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas
secondary memory is external to it.

CPU
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central processing unit or CPU. Computer
devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that we can see and touch are the hardware components of a
computer. The set of instructions or programs that make the computer function using these hardware parts are
called software. We cannot see or touch software. Both hardware and software are necessary for working of a
computer.

Characteristics of a Computer
 There are 5 important characteristics of a computer which makes it a very special machine. They are as follows:-
1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Diligence
4. Versatility
5. Storage capacity

1. Speed
 A PC can perform operations at a very fast speed.
 It can perform thousands of mathematical operations in just a few seconds.
 The time it takes to perform these calculations is measured in the terms of nanoseconds or picoseconds.
1 second = 109 nanoseconds
and
1 seconds = 1012 picoseconds
2. Accuracy
 A PC is considered to be 100% accurate, provided the data and instructions given to it by the user are up to the
mark.
3. Diligence
 A PC can work continuously for hours without getting tired.
 The speed and accuracy level also remains the same, even after it works for many hours.
4. Versatility
 The same PC machine can be used for performing various jobs.
 It suits the needs of different kinds of people involved in different professions.
5. Storage capacity
 A PC can store huge amount of data and information in its storage, called memory.
 This stored information can be kept and used for a long time.
Advantages of Using a Computer
 To increase our productivity.
 To connects us to the internet.
 It reduce waste and can store vast amount of data.
 To improves our employment options.
 To save the time.
 To assist the physical challenged.
 Also find your love in your life.
 To keep us entertained.
 To help us automate and monitor.
 To gave you a better understanding of data.
 They help us organize, sort and search through information.
Limitations of a Computer
 There are no decision making ability.
 It has no intelligence.
 They don’t have emotions and feelings.

Functional Components of a Computer

 A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources which integrate together and provides

various functionalities to the user. Hardware are the physical components of a computer

Generations of Computer
 The term ” generation ” is generally used to characterise the major developments in the field of computer
industry.Basically, the term generation is used to distinguish between different hardware technologies
developed.
 Generations of a computers are divided into five categories. They are named as:-
1. First Generation of computer
2. Second Generation of computer
3. Third Generation of computer
4. Fourth Generation of computer
5. Fifth Generation of computer

First generation computers (1946-1956): They made use of vacuum tubes to store and process information. The
tubes consumed a lot of power and generated a lot of heat (overheating). They were huge in size and occupy a
room. They used magnetic tape. Storage capacity was very low i.e. 2kb and speed of processing was also very
low. First machine in this category was ENIAC (electronic discrete variable automatic computer) and later came
UNIVAC (universal automatic computers). Their input /output capabilities were usually limited to the keyboard
and or punched card input and printer and or punched cart output.
Second generation computers (1957-1967): These computers used transistors after invention of transistors. The
transistor is smaller cheaper and produced less heat than vacuum tubes and consumed less power. The cost of
computers decreased and the speed increased. Removable disk storage units were developed for use on these
machines. The speed of these machines was described in microseconds (1/1000, 000 of a second). These
computers had programming languages whose vocabularies are close to the human natural language, English
language.
Third generation computers (1965-1980)
Introduced the use of very small electronic circuit called integrated circuits (IC) by combining several transistors
together between 3 transistors to make 1 IC. With IC you can house thousands of transistors in one IC. This
change further decreased the size, heat output and the maintenance complexity of the computers while
increasing its speed. The small circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times the past. The
speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds (1/1,000,000,000 of a second). They have higher main
memory capacity, reliable and increased processing power (have the capability of holding more than one set of
instructions and operate on them) than the second generation computers.
Fourth generation computers (1980s)
Use large scale integration circuits which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC which are between
200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC. Memory used includes magnetic disc and optical disc. Memory size expanded up
to several MB and speed was 10 times faster. This generation marked the origin of mini computers in use today.
Fifth generation computers (1990-current)
The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration) technology, the micro chip
technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known as the micro computers in use today. These
computers are used in networking .examples of micro computers are IBM PCs BBC micro etc. the micro
computers are usually described as PCs or stand alone or desktop computers because they were designed
primarily to serve single person at a time. The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on
predictions and further technological refinements.
Classification of Computer

Computers are classified based on

i. functionality & data presentation
ii. Size
iii. Purpose
Types of Computers according to functionality and data representation.

1. Analog Computers: Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent
variables by physical quantities. Thus any computer which solve problem by translating physical conditions such
as flow, temperature, pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or electrical related circuits
as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general it is a computer which uses an analog
quantity and produces analog values as output.
2. Digital Computers: Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These
numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision to reach a conclusion,
depending on, the data they receive from the user.
3. Hybrid Computers: Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics
combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system. Hybrid computers are
being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a close representation with the
physical world.

Classification of Computer according to size

Super computers: They are very large in size and use multiple processors and superior technology. Super
computers are biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super
computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. Governments specially use this type of computer for
their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their
products.
Mainframe computers: A mainframe is another giant computer after the super computer and can also process
millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data .They are physically very large in size
with very high capacity of main memory. This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations
companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a
huge basis.
Minicomputers: They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than minicomputers. They support concurrent
users. They can be used as servers in companies. They are slower and less costly compared to mainframe
computers but more powerful, reliable and expensive than micro computers.
Micro computers: They are of advanced technology i.e. the micro era based on large scale integration that
confines several physical components per small elements thumb size IC, hence the size reduced. It is the
smallest of the Strategy computers. They are usually called personal computers since they are designed to be
used by individuals. The micro chip technology has enabled reduction of size of computers. Microcomputers can
be a desktop, laptop, notebooks, or even palmtop

Classification of Computers according to purpose

General-Purpose computers — those built for a great variety of processing jobs. Simply by using a general
purpose computer and different software, various tasks can be accomplished, including writing and editing
(word processing), manipulating facts in a data base, tracking manufacturing inventory, making scientific
calculations, or even controlling organization’s security system, electricity consumption, and building
temperature. General purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of functions and operations. A
general purpose computer is able to perform a wide variety of operations because it can store and execute
different programs in its internal storage.
Special-Purpose Computers are designed to be task specific and most of the times their job is to solve one
particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers, because they are dedicated to perfom a single
task over and over again. Such a computer system would be useful in playing graphic intensive Video Games,
traffic lights control system, navigational system in an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil
exploration, and in automotive industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or Robot helicopter.

Four types of Microcomputers

1. Desktop Microcomputer
The desktop microcomputer plays an important role in the users’ life because it allows them to complete several
complex tasks in a short period of time without experiencing any difficulties. This computer sits on a table and is
connected to numerous components through wires, including a monitor, keyboard, system unit, and mouse
2. Laptop
A laptop, also known as a “Notebook,” is a computer that looks like a sleek briefcase. They can also handle more
sophisticated tasks, such as a desktop computer, and they can run on their own in-built battery and a wall
socket.
3. Tablets and Smartphones
Tablets
Tablet microcomputers are compact mobile computers with touch screen displays that are smaller than laptop
computers but larger than smartphones.
Smartphones
A smartphone is a cell phone with a touch screen that can handle advanced tasks close to those of a computer,
such as installing an operating system, downloading software, accessing the internet, and more.
PDA
PDA is short for “Personal Digital Assistant,” and it is a portable device that is equivalent to a tablet, palmtop, or
smartphone in terms of portability and scale. It has a small LCD screen for both input and output functions.
4. Palmtop microcomputer
The term “pocket computer” refers to a palmtop microcomputer. It is a smaller computer than a PDA, and it
uses less power as a result of its compact scale. It is also a very lightweight laptop. Instead of using a keyboard,
palmtop computers use a stylus pen stick to enter data.

Output Devices
Output Devices are the devices that show us the result after giving the input to a computer system. Output can
be of many different forms like image, graphic audio, video, etc. Some of the output devices are described
below.
Monitor
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs), are a computer’s primary output device. It creates images
by arranging small dots, known as pixels, in a rectangular pattern.
 Printer
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper. There are certain types of printers
which are described below.
 Impact Printers
o Character Printers
o Line Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
o Laser Printers
o Inkjet Printers
Impact Printer
Characters are printed on the ribbon, which is subsequently crushed against the paper, in impact printers.
Character Printers
Character Printer has the capability to print only one character at a time. It is of two types.
 Dot Matrix Printer
 Daisy Wheel
Line Printers
Line Printers are printers that have the capability to print one line at a time. It is of two types.
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Non-Impact Printers
Characters are printed without the need for a ribbon in non-impact printers. Because these printers print a full
page at a time, they’re also known as Page Printers. The following are the characteristics of non-impact printers:
Laser Printers
Laser Printers use laser lights for producing dots which will produce characters on the page.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are printers that use spray technology for printing papers. High-quality papers are produced in an
Inkjet printer. They also do color printing.

Projector
Projectors are optical devices that have the work to show visuals on both types of screens, stationary and
moving both.
Plotter
Plotter is a device that helps in making graphics or other images to give a real view. A graphic card is mandatorily
required to use these devices.

Parts of Motherboard and Their Functions

A computer’s motherboard is typically the largest printed circuit board in a machine’s chassis. It distributes
electricity and facilitates communication between and to the central processing unit (CPU), random access
memory (RAM), and any other component of the computer’s hardware.The motherboard connects different
external components of the computer, so it is also considered the backbone of a computer.
A list of motherboard components is shown below.
 RAM Slot and Chip
 Switch for dual in-line packages (DIP)
 CPU Socket and Chip
 Keyboard and mouse ports
 Chip ROM
 AGP
 South-North Bridge
 Battery for CMOS
 USB Ports
 Cooling system
 SATA and PATA Connector
 HDMI Port
 FDD Connector
RAM Slot and Chip:
RAM Slot
Random Access Memory is known as RAM. It is additionally known as the main memory. Computers and other
technological devices often have temporary data storage units called RAM (random access memory).

Switch for dual in-line packages (DIP):

The DIP may refer to the entire unit or a single switch. The DIP switch and other electronic motherboard
components are intended to be utilized together on a printed circuit board (motherboard).

CPU Socket and Chip:

A crucial part of a computer system is the CPU chip. It is present in both PC and laptop computers and serves as
the brain of the computer processing system.

North Bridge:
They are the two chips present in the motherboard’s main logic chipset. The front-side bus directly connects the
northbridge, the host bridge, or Memory Controller Hub to the CPU (FSB). It is in charge of duties demanding the
most significant level of performance. They control communication between the CPU and other motherboard
components along with the southbridge.

Southbridge:
The motherboard’s IO capability is managed and controlled by the southbridge. Unlike Northbridge, it doesn’t
have a direct line of interaction with the CPU. Due to its reduced connection speed, it mainly handles low-speed
devices. The Northbridge receives instructions from the CPU and relays them to the southbridge. It connects to
the SATA hard drive connector and the PCI bus, ISA, and IDE buses.

AGP:
Although it is mainly used for graphics cards, the AGP slot (Accelerated Graphics Port Slot)is a sort of expansion
slot comparable to a PCI slot. Being typically dark brown, this expansion slot is simple to recognize.

Cooling system:
Cooling systems employ a thermal conductor to cool the system and stop overheating of components like the
CPU, north-south bridge, etc.

PATA Connector:
PATA, or Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment, each PATA cable has two or three connections, one of
which connects to the interface of the adapter and the others to secondary memory devices. Hard drive types
include Parallel ATA (PATA) drives. An alternative name for them includes integrated drive electronics (IDE).

SATA connector:
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment might be referred to as simply Serial ATA. It is a 7-pin cable that
accomplishes the same task as the PATA connector while being stronger and shorter.

External device connector:

Data can be transferred over several communication channels simultaneously using a parallel port. One bit of
data is exchanged at a time using a serial port. The USB connector is the most frequently used port on personal
computers.

PCI:
PCI is abbreviated as a peripheral component interconnect. As the name indicates serves to connect different
additional external components to the motherboard. The PCI Local Bus Standard includes PCI, a local computer
bus that connects hardware components to computers.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB is an industry standard that creates specifications for connectors, cables and protocols for connection;
power supply (interfacing) and communication among computers, computer peripherals as well as other
desktops. There are a great many USB hardware including several different connectors, of which USB-C is the
latest kind.

ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot

ISA is the 16-bit internal bus of IMB PC/AT and similar computers that are based on Intel 80286 and its
immediate successors during the 1980s. It was backward compatible with the 8-bit bus of the 8088-based IBM
PC largely.
Parallel port
A parallel port is a kind of interface for attaching peripherals on desktops. The name of this kind of port is
derived from the way the data is sent. That is, the parallel ports send multiple bits of data at the same time.

IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) controller

The devices used for connecting IDE, Ethernet, FireWire, USB and other systems can be called host adapter. So,
the IDE controller refers to the host adapter.

CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide-semiconductor) battery

CMOS battery, also called memory battery, clock battery or real-time clock (RTC), is generally a CR2032 lithium
coin cell. The lifespan of the CMOS battery is estimated to be three years when the power supply unit (PSU) is
unplugged or switch off.

Power supply connector

A power supply provides the necessary electrical power to let the computer to work. It takes standard 110-Volt
AC (Alternative Current) power to DC (Direct Current) power of 12 Volt, 5 Volt, 3.3 Volt, etc.
Jumper
A jumper is a short length of conductor that is used to close, open or bypass part of an electronic circuit.
Typically, jumpers are used to set up or configure printed circuit boards like the motherboard.

Heat sink/heatsink (cooling system)

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by parts of motherboard into a fluid
medium like liquid or air.
Clock generator
A clock generator is an electronic oscillator (circuit) that produces a clock signal for usage in synchronizing a
circuit’s operation.

BIOS:
Basic Input Output System, or BIOS, is software kept on a motherboard. Since the software is non-volatile, its
settings can still be restored even after losing power. It is the application that a computer’s microprocessor runs
when the computer is turned on. Additionally, it controls the flow of information between the operating system
and any attached hardware.

Computer memory
Computer memory is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction temporarily or
permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in the form of bits. The memory
block is split into a small number of components, called cells. Each cell has a unique address to store the data in
memory, ranging from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the size of computer memory is 64k
words, the memory units have 64 * 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The address of the memory's cells varies
from 0 to 65535.
Classification of Memory
The following figure represents the classification of memory:
Primary or Main Memory
Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that communicates directly within the
CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor
first loads instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor starts
execution. the primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it is not saved when a
power failure occurs.