DIODE 103

Answers

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)

6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c)
16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c)
26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (a)

S OLVED E XAMPLES
Q. 1. Define diode.
Ans. We have already learnt the two types of extrinsic semiconductor materials i.e., p-and n-type mate-
rials, their characteristics and behaviour. But it is not possible to manufacture any device using only a p-type
or n-type semiconductor. Instead we have to use them together. Let us see the effect of operating them
together. The p-n junction is the basic building block on which the operation of all the semiconductor device is
dependent.
Diode means a device with two elements namely anode and cathode. Since a p-n junction itself is a two
element devices it becomes the most basic electronic device i.e. the diode.
Q. 2. What is junction theory? Explain the movement of electrons and holes after a junction has been
formed.
Ans. As shown in Fig. 3.35, a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor are joined together
with the help of a special fabrication technique to form a p-n junction.

Fig. 3.35: Formation of a p-n junction

Terminals are brought out for the external connection with p- and n-type semiconductors. The p-side is
called as anode and the n-side is called as cathode. The “n” side consists of a large number of electrons and few
thermally generated holes whereas the “p” side consists of a large number of hole and a few thermally gener-
ated electrons. Thus the electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in the n-region whereas
their roles are exactly opposite in the p-region.
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The p-n junction forms the basic semiconductor device called diode. The understanding of characteris-
tics and behaviour of a p-n junction proves to be useful to understand the operation of many semiconductor
devices. Let us now discuss the behaviour of p-n junction. At the junction, one side has a high concentration
of hole whereas the other side has high concentration of electrons. Due to this a concentration gradient in
created across the junction, and the process of diffusion of the charge carrier, as shown in Fig. 3.36.

Fig. Q.3.36

Note that no external voltage is applied between the terminals of the p-n junction, hence the p-n junction
is said to be unbiased. The free electrons from “n” side will diffuse into the p-side and recombine with the holes
present there. Each electron diffusion into the “p” side will leave behind a positive immobile ion on the n-side
as shown Fig. 3.37.
When an electron combines with the hole on the “p” side, an atom which accepts this electron, loses its
electrically neutral status and becomes a negative immobile ion as shown in Fig. 3.37.

Fig. 3.37. Creation of positive and negative immobile ions

Due to this recombination process, a large number of positive ions accumulate near the junction on the
n-side and a large number of negative immobile ions will accumulate on the p-side near the junction as shown
in Fig. 3.38.

Fig. 3.38. p-n junction with the depletion region

DIODE 105

The negatively charged ions on the p-side will start repelling the electrons which attempt to diffuse into
the p-side and after some time the diffusion will stop completely. At this point, the junction is said to have
attained an equilibrium. The p-n junction in the state of equilibrium is shown Fig. 3.38.
Q. 3. What is Depletion region?
Ans. The shaded region on both sides of junction in Fig. 3.38 contains only immobile ions and no free
charge carriers such as electrons or holes. In other words this region is “depleted” of the free charge carriers.
Therefore this region is called as the “depletion region”. Practically the width of depletion region is 0.5 to 1 µm.
It is very small as compared to the p and n regions. This region is also known as the “space charge region”. In
the state of equilibrium, the depletion region gets widened to such an extent that electrons cannot cross the
junction any more. In the state of equilibrium, the depletion region gets widened to such an extent that
electrons can not cross the junction any more.
Q. 4. Explain barrier potential? State its typical value of Si and Ge diodes.
Ans. Due to the pressence of immobile positive and negative ions on opposite sides of the junction, as
electric field is created across the junction. This electric field is known as the “barrier potential” or “junction
potential” or cut in voltage. It has fixed polarities as shown in Fig. 3.39. The polarities of barrier potential are
decided by the type of immobile ions present on the two sides of the junction. Thus the negative terminal of the
barrier potential is on the p-side and positive side is on the n-side as shown in Fig. 3.39. This is called as barrier
potential because it acts as a barrier to oppose the flow of electrons and holes across the junction. The barrier
potential represents the heights of the barrier that is to the overcome for commencement of flow of electrons
and holes. Barrier potential is measured in volts. The barrier potential for Silicon is about 0.6 Volts whereas its
value for the Germanium is 0.2 Volts at 25°C.

Material Value
Silicon 0.6 Volts
Germanium 0.2 Volts

Fig. 3.39. Barrier potential

Due to the pressence of immobile positive and negative ions on opposite sides of the junction,
as electric field is created across the junction.

Q. 5. Describe the diode biasing.

Ans. When the p-n junction is formed, the depletion region gets crated and the movement of electrons
and holes stops. Thus the current flowing through an unbiased p-n junction is zero. To make the current to flow
we have to base the p-n junction diode. Biasing is the process of applying external D.C. voltage to the
semiconductor diode. When the external voltage is not applied to the diode, the p-n junction will remain in the
state of equilibrium. Therefore there is no current flowing though it. To make the current to flow, it is necessary
to “bias” the diode. The biasing can be of two types : 1. Forward bias and 2. Reverse bias.
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Q. 6. Explain the forward and reverse bias operation and voltage-current characteristics of a P-N
junction diode.
Ans. If the p-region (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the external D.C. source and n-side
(cathode) is connected to the negative terminal of the D.C. source then the biasing is said to be “forward
biasing”. In other words the diode is then said to be forward biased. Generally a resistance is connected in
series with the diode to limit the current flowing through it. Forward biasing of a diode is as shown in
Fig. 3.40 (a) and the symbolic representation is as shown in Fig. 3.40 (b). The current “IF” is a conventional
current that flows in the circuit due to the forward biasing.

Fig. 3.40. (a, b)

Due to the negative terminal of external source connected to the n-region, free electrons from n-side are
pushed towards the p-side. Similarly the positive end of the supply will push holes from p-side towards the n-
side. With increase in the external supply voltage V, more and more number of holes (p-side) and electrons (n-
side) start travelling towards the junction as shown in Fig. 3.41. The holes will start converting the negative
ions into neutral atoms and the electrons will convert the positive ions into neutral atoms. As a result of this,
the width of depletion region will reduce.
Due to reduction in the depletion region width, the barrier potential will also reduce. Eventually at a
particular value of V the depletion region will collapse. Now there is absolutely no opposition to the flow of
electrons and holes. Hence a large number of electrons and holes (majority carriers) can across the junction
under the influence of externally connected D.C. voltage.

Fig. 3.41. The effect of increased forward bias on the depletion region and barrier potential

The large number of majority carriers crossing the junction constitute a current called as the forward
current. The current flow shown in Fig. 3.42 is the electron current which is in the opposite direction to that of
a conventional current. With increase in the forward bias, the width of the depletion region decreases and so
does the barrier potential. The forward current through a p-n junction diode flows due to the majority carriers
and its direction of flow (conventional) is always from anode to cathode.
DIODE 107

Effect of forward bias on the width of depletion region

Fig. 3.42. Current flow in the forward biased diode

Q. 7. Why diodes do not conduct in reverse bias?

Ans. If the p-region of a diode is connected to the negative terminal of the external D.C. supply and n-
region is connected to the positive terminal of the D.C. supply as shown in Fig. 3.43 (a) then a diode is said to
be “reverse biased”. Figure 3.43 (b) shows the reverse biasing schematically. The reverse current is denoted by
Is and it flows from the cathode to anode of the diode. Thus reverse current flows exactly in the opposite
direction to the forward current. Resistance R is connected to limit the reverse current.

Fig. 3.43. (a, b)

Q. 8. Explain the operations of a reverse biase diode.

Ans. When a diode is reverse biased, holes in the p-region are attracted towards the negative terminal of
the supply and electrons on the n-side are attracted towards the positive terminal of the supply as shown in Fig.
3.44.

Fig. 3.44. Operation of a reverse biased diode

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Winding of depletion region : Due to the movement of electrons and holes away from the junction, width
of the depletion region increases as shown in Fig. 3.44. This happens due to the creation of more number of
positive and negative immobile ions. Increase in barrier potential : Due to more number of ions present on
opposite side of the junction, the barrier potential or junction potential will increase. The process of widening
of depletion region does not continue for a long time, because there is no steady flow of holes from right to left
i.e., from n-side to p-side.
We know that the p-region consists of a small number of electrons and the n-region contains a small
number of holes. These are the minority carriers which are generated thermally. The minority electrons in the
p-region are attracted by the positive end of the D.C. supply. Hence these electrons will cross the junction and
constitute the reverse current Is of the diode. This is shown in Fig. 3.44.

Fig. 3.44. Current flow in reverse biased diode

The reverse current is also called as the “Reverse saturation current”. As this current is due to the
minority carriers, it is small in amplitude. Typically a few µA for Germanium diodes and few nanoamperes for the
Silicon diode. The reverse saturation current depends on the temperature. It doubles it value for every 10°C rise
in temperature. Hence at a constant temperature the reverse saturation current remains constant independent
of the reverse voltage. Reverse current flows due to minority carriers which exist due to elevated temperatures.
Hence reverse current is dependent on temperature.
1. It flows from cathode to anode.
2. It flows due to minority carriers.
3. Its value is much smaller than that of the forward current.
4. It is independent of reverse voltage but dependent on the temperature.
Q. 9. Describe avalanche of P-N junction.
Ans. When a very large reverse voltage is applied to a diode the events take place in the following
sequence:
Due to large reverse voltage the velocity of the minority carriers will increase to a great extent. Therefore
the kinetic energy associated with them will also increase. While travelling, these minority carriers will collide
with the stationary atoms and impart some of the kinetic energy to the valence electrons present in the covalent
bonds. Due to the additionally acquired energy, these valence electrons will break the covalent bonds and jump
into the conduction band to become free for conduction. Now these free electrons will be accelerated and they
knock out some more valence electrons by means of collisions. This “chain reaction” is called as
“Avalanche effect”. In a very short time, a large number of free minority electrons will be available for conduc-
tion and a large reverse current will flow through the reverse biased diode. The avalanche breakdown has thus
taken place.
DIODE 109

At the time of the avalanche breakdown, a large reverse voltage appears across the diode and a large
reverse current flows through it. Therefore a large power gets dissipated in the diode. The junction
temperature of the diode may exceed its safe limited and the diode will be damaged permanently. Therefore, the
reverse breakdown should always be avoided.
Q. 10. Describe zener breakdown of P-N junction.
Ans. The reverse breakdown can take place due to another effect called zener effect. The events take
place in the following sequence in the process of breakdown due to zener effect: Due to the heavy doping of p
and n-sides of the diode, the depletion region is narrow in the reverse biased condition. All the reverse voltage
V appear across the depletion region. Therefore the electric field which is the voltage per unit distance is very
intense across the depletion region. This intense electric field can pull some of the valence electrons by
breaking the covalent bonds. These electrons then become free electrons.
Q. 11. Draw the explain voltage-current characteristics of PN-junction.
Ans. The forward characteristics is the graph of the anode to cathode forward voltage VF versus the
forward current through the diode (IF). The forward characteristics is divided into two portion, AB and BC as
shown in Fig. 3.45 (a) and the corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 3.45 (b)

Fig. 3.45. Forward characteristics of a diode

In the region A and B of the forward characteristics shown in Fig. 3.45 (a), the forward voltage is small and
less than the cut in voltage. Therefore the forward current flowing through the diode is small. With further
increase in forward voltage, it reaches the level of the cut in voltage and the width of depletion region goes
decreasing.
As soon as the forward voltage equal the cut in voltage, current through the diode increases suddenly.
The nature of this current is exponential. The large forward current in the region B-C of the forward character-
istic is limited by connecting a resistor “R” in series with the diode. Forward current is of the order of a few mA.
The forward current is a conventional current to flows from anode to cathode. Therefore it is considered to be
a positive current, and the forward characteristics appears in the first quadrant as shown in Fig. 3.45 (a).
The voltage at which the forward diode current starts increasing rapidly is known as the “cut-in” voltage
of a diode. As shown in Fig. 3.45 (a), the cut-in voltage is very close to the barrier potential. Cut-in voltage is
denoted by Vg. Cut in voltage is also called as knee voltage. Generally a diode is forward biased above the cut
in voltage. The cut-in voltage for a silicon diode is 0.6 V and that for a germanium diode is 0.2 V.

At the time of the avalanche breakdown, a large reverse voltage appears across the diode and a
large reverse current flows through it.
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Reverse characteristics is a graph of reverse voltage (VR) versus the reverse current (Is) as shown in
Fig. 3.46. Current flowing through a diode in the reverse biased state is the reverse saturation current which
flows due to the minority carriers. Therefore it is treated a negative current. Hence the reverse characteristics
appears in the third quardant as shown in Fig. 3.46.

Fig. 3.46

As the revers voltage is increased, the reverse saturation current remains constant equal to Ioif the
temperature is constant. This is because, reverse saturation current does not depend on reverse voltage but it
depends only on temperature. But as the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage value, a large current
flows through the diode, due to the reasons discussed earlier. Thus we define tthe revers breakdown voltage
of a pn junction diode as the reverse voltage at which breakdown takes place and a large reverse current starts
flowing through the diode. Operation in the breakdown region should be avoided because the diode may be
damaged due to excessive power dissipation. Typically the reverse breakdown voltage for a p-n junction diode
is in the range of 50 to 100 volts.
The diode current ID has an exponential shape. It is mathematically expressed as :
ID = Io [eV/DVT – 1]
where, Io = Reverse saturation current
ID = Diode current (forward reverse).

Q. 12. What is zener diode ? Explain its working in detail.

Ans. “Zener diode” is a special type of p-n junction semiconductor diode. Its construction is similar to
that of a conventional p-n junction diode. However, in constructing the zener diodes, the reverse breakdown
voltage is adjusted precisely between 3 V to 200 V. Its applications are based on this principle hence zener diode
is called as a breakdown diode. The doping level of the impurity added to manufacture the zener diodes is
controlled in order to adjust the precise value of reverse breakdown voltage.
The zener diode can be forward biased or reverse biased. Its operation in the forward biased mode is same
as that of a p-n junction diode. But the operation in the reverse biased mode is substantially different. The
circuit symbol of a zener diode is shown in Fig. 3.47 (a). It is a two terminal device and the terminals are anode
and cathode. The arrowhead in the symbol points towards the conventional direction of current through the
zener diode, when it is forward biased.
DIODE 111

Fig. 3.47. Circuit symbol and biasing of a zener diode

Forward biasing of zener diode

When the anode of the zener diode is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c. source and the
cathode is connected to the negative terminal, the zener diode is said to be forward biased. The forward biased
zener diode behaves identical to a forward biased diode. The forward biasing of a zener is shown in Fig. 3.47 (b).
The zener diode is generally not used in the forward biased condition.
Reverse biasing of zener diode
When the cathode is connected to the positive terminal and anode is connected to the negative terminal
of the d.c. sources, the zener diode is said to be reverse biased. The operation of zener diode in the reverse
biased condition is substantially different front that of a diode. The reverse biasing of a zener diode is shown
in Fig. 3.47 (c). Zener diode in the reverse biased condition is used as a voltage regulator.
Q.13. Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of a zener diode.
Ans. The V-I characteristics of a zener diode can be divided into two parts :
1. Forward characteristics 2. Reverse characteristics.
1. Forward characteristics: The forward characteristics of a zener diode is shown in Fig. 3.48. It is almost
identical to the forward characteristics of a p-n junction diode.
2. Reverse characteristics : The reverse characteristics of a zener diode is substantially different front
that of the p-n junction diode. This characteristics is a shown in Fig. 3.47. As we increase the reverse voltage,
initially a small reverse saturation current “Io” which is µA will flow. This current flows due to the thermally
generated minority carriers. At a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current will increase suddenly and
sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. This breakdown voltage is called as zener
breakdown voltage of zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz. The value Vz can be precisely controlled by
controlling the doping levels of p and n regions at the time of manufacturing a zener diode. After breakdown has
occurred, the voltage across zener diode remains constant equal to Vz. Any increase in the source voltage will
result in the increase in reverse zener current.
The zener current after the reverse breakdown must be controlled by connecting a resistor R in series
with the zener diode as shown in Fig. 3.48 (c). This is essential to avoid any damage to the device to excessive
neating.
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Fig. 3.48. Complete V-I characteristics of a zener diode

After reverse breakdown, the zener diode operates in a region called zener region, as shown in Fig. 3.48.
In this region the voltage across zener diode remains constant but current changes depending on the supply
voltage. Zener diode is operated in this region when it is being used as a voltage regulator. The complete V-I
characteristics is a shown in Fig. 3.48.

R EVIEW Q UESTIONS
1. Draw the V-I characteristic curve of the junction diode.
2. Discuss the currents in extrinsic semiconductors. Find the expression for the total current density.
3. Discuss the effect of temperature on the reverse saturation current of the junction diode.
4. Discuss the physical mechanism of breakdowns in a junction diode. Explain the working and
5. Draw and explain, Power Vs temperature graph of a diode.
6. Draw sketches to show the method of constructing alloy diodes and diffused diodes. Explain
7. Explain how the depletion region at the pn junction is produced.
8. Explain the method of Diode testing.
9. Explain the origin of depletion layer capacitance and diffusion capacitance and discuss the importance.
10. Explain with the aid of a sketch the use of diode’s characteristics curve to determine the dc current flows
through a diode.
11. Sketch the characteristics of an ideal diode, and approximate characteristics for practical diodes.
12. Sketch the symbol for semiconductor diode and show the direction of movement of charge carriers
13. the depletion region is formed in a junction diode.