Hindawi

Journal of Mathematics
Volume 2021, Article ID 6614172, 8 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6614172

Research Article
Some Graph-Based Encryption Schemes

Baizhu Ni,1 Rabiha Qazi,2 Shafiq Ur Rehman ,2 and Ghulam Farid 2

1
Mathematics Science Department, Normal University of Mudanjiang, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, China
2
Department of Mathematics, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Attock Campus, Pakistan

Correspondence should be addressed to Shafiq Ur Rehman; shafi[email protected]

Received 9 November 2020; Revised 21 December 2020; Accepted 28 December 2020; Published 19 February 2021

Academic Editor: Ghulam Mustafa

Copyright © 2021 Baizhu Ni et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

In today’s technological world, confidentiality is an important issue to deal with, and it is carried out through different pro-
ficiencies. Cryptography is a scientific technique of securing a communication from unauthenticated approach. There exist many
encryption algorithms in cryptography for data security. The need of new nonstandard encryption algorithms has been raised to
prevent the communication from traditional attacks. This paper proposes some new encryption algorithms for secure trans-
mission of messages using some special corona graphs and bipartite graph along with some algebraic properties. These proposed
encryption schemes will lead to more secure communication of secret messages.

1. Introduction is referred as plaintext is encoded or encrypted to generate a

cipher text with the help of a specified key. This cipher text is
Secret communications have been needed by military offi- then converted into readable message through decryption.
cers and diplomats since ancient times. In today’s advanced Key is such a piece of information that is used to put the
age, where the internet, mobile phones, and computer original data in code shape and then decrypt to get real text.
technology are widely used in almost every sphere of life, the Through a provided key, the authorized recipient can open
need to keep important information secure and confidential up the hidden message with full ease, but it is not possible for
is also increasing day by day. Overtime, as data security an interceptor. Mainly, three types of schemes are used in
continues to evolve, new ways to break the confidential modern cryptography, i.e., symmetric key cryptography,
communication are being discovered. public key cryptograph, and hash functions [3]. Symmetric
Cryptography is the science of transforming the secret key cryptography uses one key for both encryption and
data into coded information with the goal that it can safely decryption, while the public key cryptography uses one key
reach its end without leakage. It was basically utilized for war for encryption and another key for decryption. The hash
time plans. Classical cryptography goes back over two functions use a transformation to irreversibly encrypt
thousand years. Modern cryptography was established by information.
Shannon in 1949 [1]. After the development of digital We are interested in developing encryption by using
communications, new forms of cryptography have come. It graph theory and some algebraic concepts. Firstly, some
addresses the problems of secrecy, privacy, authentication, useful concepts of graph theory are recalled [4]. A graph
passwords, digital signatures, identification, and digital G � G(V, E) consists of two sets: the set of vertices V(G) and
money. It is now an integral part of a modern society. the set of edges E(G). If the vertex set V(G) can be parti-
The process to transform the original message into a tioned into two disjoint nonempty subsets such that each
code format is called the encryption, and the reverse process edge has one vertex in each partition, then the graph G is said
is known as decryption [2]. Encryption prevents the original to be a bipartite graph. A bipartite graph is said to be
contents from interception. Uncovered message is known as complete-bipartite if every vertex in one partition is joined to
plaintext. In any encryption scheme, the information which all vertices of other partition. A complete-bipartite graph, in
2 Journal of Mathematics

which only one vertex is in one partition while all other through an example. However, in Section 3, bipartite graphs
vertices are in second partition, is termed as star graph. A are used to construct a secure encryption scheme with de-
vertex of degree one is named a pendent vertex, and the edge scribed algorithm. This scheme is applicable on important
incident to it is pendent edge. The corona of two graphs G information, shown by an example. In Section 4, a secured
and H is the graph G ⊙ H formed by one copy of G and encryption scheme is described by using a special corona
|V(G)| copies of H, where the i th vertex of G is joined to graph K1 ⊙ Kn , also named as a star graph. Its algorithm is
each vertex in the i th copy of H. This product is an im- mentioned, and application is viewed through an example.
portant operation between graphs, introduced by Frucht and
Harary [5]. The star graph Sn+1 on n + 1 vertices can be seen 2. Secure Data Transfer Using Corona
as a corona graph K1 ⊙ Kn . The corona graph of the cycle Cn Graph Cn ⊙ K1
with K1 , i.e., Cn ⊙ K1 , is a graph on 2n vertices obtained by
attaching n pendant edges in a cycle graph Cn . To initiate the described algorithm, the first step is to take a
Graphs can be used for designing different encryption simple text which is to be transferred and is to be encrypted
algorithms. The interaction between graph theory and before sending. Every letter in data has its unique numeric
cryptography is quite interesting. For applications of graph representation, mentioned in encoding table, which is used
theory in cryptography, refer to [6–9]. The recent past has to encode each alphabetic character. Then, each digit is
seen a growing interest in exploring graphs as a tool to transmuted up to n-place, through shift type of cipher. Now,
propose new methodologies in different areas of cryptography new numeric values ai are obtained. Randomly, some
(see [10–20]). In [10], Selvakumar and Gupta proposed an positive integers bi are selected which are relatively prime
innovative algorithm for encryption and decryption using with ai . By taking inverse of that ai in the modulus of bi ,
connected graphs. In [11], Kedia and Agrawal discussed a new corona graph Cn ⊙ K1 is considered according to length of
encryption algorithm, in which data are secured through simple text with specified outward vertices and allocates the
numeric representation and letters, using basic concepts of resulting inverses to suspended outward vertices, while main
mathematics like Venn diagram. In [12], the authors have vertices are labeled with bi . The final labeled corona graph
proposed a graph-based algorithm for encryption in which Cn ⊙ K1 is the encrypted data, in which the recipient receives
fundamental circuits are chosen with respect to corre- to get required information. Figure 1 replicates the sche-
sponding weights of edges. In [13], Yamuna and Karthika matic diagram of the proposed algorithm.
describe a unique method of transferring data by using bi- Algorithm for encryption is as follows:
partite graph. They constructed a numeric table for the
representation of alphabets. In [14], Al Etaiwi presented a new Give a plain-text word of length n.
symmetric encryption algorithm using cycle graph, complete Give the numerical values to the alphabets of plain-text
graph, and minimum spanning tree. It is reflected in paper word and apply shift cipher; en (x) � x + n(mod26), to
[15] that the authors highlight some vast applications of each numerical value obtained before and get new
bipartite graph in computation. In [16], the authors presented numerical values, say a1 , a2 , a3 , . . ., an .
a scheme for securing a data by giving a new concept of line Find a sequence; b1 , b2 , b3 , . . ., bn of positive integers in
sigraph. Sigraph consists of graphs with sign of edges and increasing order such that gcd(bi , ai ) � 1 and bi > 26.
belongs to {− 1, +1} as their labeled number. In [17], the
Consider a corona graph Cn ⊙ K1 with 2n vertices and
authors proposed a novel bipartite graph-based propagation
allot weights b1 , b2 , b3 , . . ., bn to the vertices, adjacent to
approach to overcome fraud detection in large advertising
pendent vertices randomly.
system. In [18], Razaq et al. used coset diagram for the action
of PSL(2, Z) on projective line over the finite field F 29 to Find the inverse of ai (modbi ) for all i and denote them
construct proposed substitution box (S-box). The strong by ci , i.e., ci � (ai )− 1 (modbi )∀i.
S-box is an important area of research in cryptography. In Give numeric values c1 , c2 , c3 , . . ., cn to pendent
[19], Razaq et al. generated a strong S-box using orbits of coset vertices.
graphs and the action of the symmetric group S256 . In [20], Send this corona graph Cn ⊙ K1 to the receiver.
Selim G. Akl described an algorithm for encrypting a graph
for its secure transmission from a sender to a receiver. Algorithm for decryption is as follows.
Our aim in this work is to describe new encryption The receiver receives the graph, and following steps are
algorithms based on some types of graphs, particularly, the applied to transform the information and get original data:
corona graph Cn ⊙ K1 , K1 ⊙ Kn (also called star graph), and Arrange those vertices which are adjacent to the
the bipartite graph. The proposed algorithms send and re- pendent vertices, in increasing order as
ceive secure messages consisting of words of any length by b1 < b2 < b3 < · · · < bn .
using graphs and certain algebraic properties. After applying
Find the inverse of the weights of pendent vertices ci
prescribed algorithmic steps, data could be fully protected.
modulus their adjacent vertices bi and denote them by
The recipient then gets the labeled graph and eventually
ai for each i.
approaches to the original message.
In Section 2, an encryption scheme is described by using Compute wi � ai − (order of graph/2)mod26, ∀i.
the corona graph Cn ⊙ K1 . Afterwards, an algorithm of this Convert the numeric values wi for each i, to relate
scheme is formulated. Application of this algorithm is studied specific alphabets.
Journal of Mathematics 3

Selected plaintext and

their numeric
representation

Shifted up to length of
Obtaining original text
text

Considering random
increasing sequence Computing wi (mod 26)
with gcd (bi , ai) = 1 ∀ i

Inverse of ai (mod bi) Find inverse of ci (mod bi)

Sending labeled
Corona graph graph Arranging bi in ascending
Cn K1 order

Sender Receiver

Figure 1: Schematic diagram.

Example 1. Let us suppose we have to transfer information, Construct corona graph Cn ⊙ K1 and put value of bi to
i.e., EDGE, encrypting it and then sending it to the recipient. main vertices randomly, as shown in Figure 3.
The starting point is to convert the alphabetic letters into Now, through the below-mentioned step,
numbers of their respective positions through the encoding − 1
table, as shown in Figure 2: c i � ai 􏼁 modbi 􏼁, (5)

we get
E D G E − 1
. (1) c1 � a1 􏼁 modb1 􏼁 � (9)− 1 (mod28) � 25,
5 4 7 5 − 1
c2 � a2 􏼁 modb2 􏼁 � (8)− 1 (mod31) � 4,
− 1 (6)
Here, length of word is n � 4. Applying shift cipher c3 � a3 􏼁 modb3 􏼁 � (11)− 1 (mod35) � 16,
en � x + n(mod26), we get − 1
c4 � a4 􏼁 modb4 􏼁 � (9)− 1 (mod47) � 21.
5 + 4 � 9 � a1 ,
These inverse values are given to the adjacent pendant
4 + 4 � 8 � a2 , vertices of Figure 3, as shown in Figure 4.
(2) Send this labeled graph (Figure 4) to the receiver.
7 + 4 � 11 � a3 , The recipient, after receiving that labeled graph, arranges
5 + 4 � 9 � a4 . the main vertices in ascending order such that
28 < 31 < 35 < 47, (7)
Given word is encrypted in the form
I H K I. (3) and considers these numbers as values of bi such that
b1 < b2 < b3 < b4 . (8)
Selecting random increasing integers bi such that value
of bi > 26: Taking inverses of corresponding pendent vertices with
respect to the value of each bi , as shown in Figure 4, we get
gcd b1 , a1 􏼁 � gcd(28, 9) � 1, 1
25− (mod28) � 9 � a1 ,
gcd b2 , a2 􏼁 � gcd(31, 8) � 1, 1
(4) 4− (mod31) � 8 � a2 ,
gcd b3 , a3 􏼁 � gcd(35, 11) � 1, 1 (9)
16− (mod35) � 11 � a3 ,
1
gcd b4 , a4 􏼁 � gcd(47, 9) � 1. 21− (mod47) � 9 � a4 .
4 Journal of Mathematics

A B C D E F G H I J K L M

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Figure 2: Numeric representation.

25 21

28 47
28 47

35 31
35 31

16 4
Figure 3 Figure 4

Now, for wi ,
2n
wi � ai − 􏼒 􏼓mod26. (10) Take a set Pn of first “n” primes, where
2 n � ⌈(26/k) + k⌉, 2 < k < 13, and k � key (which is fixed
Find values of a1 , a2 , a3 , and a4 : according to length of a word).
Consider a message, for encryption with length S.
2(4)
w 1 � a1 − 􏼢 􏼣mod26 � 5 � E, Then, make a table (n − k) × k such that the first value
2
shows number of rows and second value shows the
2(4) number of columns.
w 2 � a2 − 􏼢 􏼣mod26 � 4 � D,
2 After that, alphabets are partitioned as
(11) 1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd, . . . , k th position primes. (horizontally)
2(4)
w 3 � a3 − 􏼢 􏼣mod26 � 7 � G, while;
2
(k + 1)th, (k + 2)th, (k + 3)th, . . ., nth position primes.
2(4) (vertically)
w 4 � a4 − 􏼢 􏼣mod26 � 5 � E.
2 Now, label the alphabets with the integers ri ci ;
ri � row position, ci � column position.
Finally, we get the original text.
Label the entry ij with ri ci , where k + 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ k
3. Secure Data Transfer Using Bipartite Graphs Forming each number as vertex of path graph
(according to sequence of letters).
In this section, we propose an encryption algorithm for the Multiplying i.j and then label each vertex with that
secure and confidential communication of messages be- number (say, ap where 1 ≤ p ≤ k). Keeping in view that,
tween two communicating parties. The construction of this one place digits are not taken in column position. In
encryption algorithm is based on bipartite graph and the other words, we say that column position has just 2-
concept of unique factorization domain (UFD). The fol- digit primes.
lowing are the steps of algorithm. Construct a path graph by giving consecutive i, j
Algorithm for encryption is as follows: numbers to each vertex.
Take a UFD with infinite primes. For example, Z. Separate the graph labels as row and column numbers;
Journal of Mathematics 5

V1 � {first place numbers from i}

2 3 5 7 11
V2 � {second place numbers from j}
Edge set of G becomes (r1 , c1 ), (r2 , c2 ), . . ., (rn , cn ).
13 A B C D E
Now construct a bipartite graph with mentioned edge
set. Edges move from ri to ci .
17 F G H I J
Assign random numbers to the edges as weight in
increasing order.
19 K L M N O
Send that labeled graph.
Algorithm for decryption is as follows. 23 P Q R S T
The recipient receives the labeled bipartite graph.
Arrange the weight of edges in increasing order. 29 U V W X Y
Then, arrange edges with respect to weights in a set of
order pair such that number of rows at first and number 31 Z
of columns at second position.
Construct path graph with the help of order pair Figure 5
information.
Find prime factorization of each vertex label.
51 115 26 46 85
Resultantly, required alphabets are taken through
factorization, by using table (described). Figure 6

Example 2. For defining the scheme, we have to explain an

Step 1: at first, arrange the weight of the edges in as-
example. Take a word, G R A P H. Numerically, corre-
cending order:
sponding digits are 7, 18, 1, 16, and 8, respectively. Here,
length of word is k � 5. W � {10, 18, 21, 36, 41}. (14)
Step 1: take a UFD with infinite primes, i.e., Z.
Step 2: now, arrange edges {(5,1), (11,5), (2,6), (4,6),
Step 2: in this example, n � ⌈(26/5) + 5⌉; 2 < k < 13. So, (8,5)}.
n � 11. Take a set P11 of first 11 primes. As,
The corresponding path graph is shown in Figure 9.
P11 � {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31}.
Step 3: prime factorization of each vertex label. As,
Step 3: Figure 5 shows a table. For making a table,
51 � 3 × 17, . . ., 85 � 5 × 17. Numerical values are
(n − k) × k � 6 × 5. First value, i.e., 6 shows the number
173, 235, 132, 232, and 175, respectively.
of rows and 5 the number of columns.
Step 4: we finally get the alphabets G R A P H according
Step 4: message becomes G � 173, R � 235, A � 132,
to values in the described table. Keep in view that one
P � 232, H � 175; 6 ≤ i ≤ 11, 1 ≤ j ≤ 5.
place digits are not in column position.
Step 5: corresponding values are
a1 � 17 × 3 � 51, The examples prove the security of described algorithm.
This tells a simple bipartite graph can make secrecy of in-
a2 � 23 × 5 � 115, formation very strong, that is, the major output of any
a3 � 13 × 2 � 26, (12) encryption scheme.
a4 � 23 × 2 � 46,
a5 � 17 × 5 � 85.
4. Secure Data Transfer Using Star Graphs
Many schemes are introduced to protect data. The men-
Next, we construct a path graph by labelling the vertices,
tioned scheme is based on star graphs. Information is
as shown in Figure 6
transferred with full secrecy of main idea. These steps are
Here, V1 � {5, 11, 2, 4, 8} and V2 � {1, 5, 6}.
followed to encrypt data and then decrypt it by applying
The vertex set of bipartite graph becomes
decryption steps.
G V1 , V2 􏼁 � {(5, 1), (11, 5), (2, 6), (4, 6), (8, 5)}. (13) Algorithm for encryption is as follows:

Graph is obtained as shown in Figure 7. Let M be the message which is to be encrypted. Length
Now, apply arbitrary weights to the adjacent edges of the is l(say).
bipartite graph in Figure 7, as shown in Figure 8. Here, we have to use shift cipher with formulation:
Send the labeled graph in Figure 8 to the receiving
ek (x) � x + k(mod26). (15)
authority. Then, apply the steps for decryption:
6 Journal of Mathematics

2 4 5 8 11 Arrange the weight of edges in ascending order.

Now add up the increasing power of 10, respectively.
Apply the decryption formulation for shift cipher in the
resulting number.
Decode the characters from encoding table, and
1 5 6 eventually, we get the required text.
Figure 7

Example 3. For explaining the described scheme, we have to

2 4 5 8 11 take an example for satisfying the steps. Let us take a word
CODE. We have to send this word by encrypting it with the
41 help of such scheme.
21 36
18 Replace the alphabetic characters with their numeric
representation. Length of message is k � 4:
10
1 5 6 C O D E
. (18)
Figure 8 3 15 4 5
Now, consider a star graph S5 � K1 ⊙ K4 , such that the
51 115 26 46 85 number of its corner vertices is equal to the length of
message. Figure 10 shows the respective star graph in such a
Figure 9 way that edges are labeled as e1 , e2 , e3 , and e4 .
Apply the shift type of cipher as shifting up to the length
Keeping k � l (fixed). k of the message. In this example, translated through
formula,
Converting the plaintext message to a sequence of
integers by adding k into every value, by reducing every e4 (x) � x + 4(mod6). (19)
sum into modulo 26.
New shifted numeric values are 7, 19, 8, and 9, respec-
Now, take a star graph Sn+1 � K1 ⊙ Kn , corresponding
tively. The related graph becomes as shown in Figure 11.
to the length of message, by fixing center vertex with the
After that, apply weights wi , ∀i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} to the cor-
numeric value zero, such that number of vertices of star
responding edges of the vertices:
graph � 1 + number of alphabetic characters in the text.
Representing data as vertices of a graph, each vertex is w1 (7) < w2 (19) < w3 (8) < w4 (9). (20)
represented by a letter. However, all adjacent vertices of
Weights are given by subtracting the increasing power of
a graph will be represented as adjacent letters.
10 from each adjacent numeric value in Figure 11:
Now label each vertex with respect to their numeric
representation in shift cipher. weight of edge e1 � w1 � 7 − 10,
Next, give weights w1 , w2 , w3 , . . . , wn to each edge weight of edge e2 � w2 � 19 − 102 ,
e1 , e2 , e3 , . . . , en in such a way that (21)
w1 e1 􏼁 < w2 e2 􏼁 < w3 e3 􏼁 < · · · < wn en 􏼁. (16) weight of edge e3 � w3 � 8 − 103 ,

weight of edge e4 � w4 � 9 − 104 .

Method for finding weights of edges.
Subtract increasing power of 10 from each vertex label, Resulting star graph is shown in Figure 12.
adjacently with respect to edges, such that This is the final labeled graph, which is to be send to the
second authority. Now, describe the decryption process.
V1 − 10, V2 − 102 , V3 − 103 , . . . , Vn − 10n , (17) Firstly, the recipient receives the labeled graph, as shown in
Figure 12.
where Vi ∈ vertex tex i � {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. The initial step is arranging the weights of edges (Figure 13)
These resulting values become weight of corresponding in ascending order of mod values, i.e.,
edges ei .
| − 3| <| − 81| <| − 992| <| − 9991|. (22)
Now, the final graph is the star graph with edge’s
weights (hiding the vertex label). Add the increasing power of 10 to each adjacent value
Send this graph to the receiver. such that
After explaining the encryption procedure, we have to | − 3 + 10| <| − 81 + 100| <| − 992 + 1000| <| − 9991 + 10000|.
explain the decryption scheme as well.
(23)
Algorithm for decryption is as follows:
Journal of Mathematics 7

15 5

–81
e2 e4 –9991

–992 –3
e3 e1

4 3
Figure 13

Figure 10
algorithm depends on star graphs. Labeled graphs are sent to
the recipient. It is a best possible way to secure the data.
19 9

5. Conclusion
e2 e4
This work presents graph theoretic-based schemes to im-
prove encryption quality. Three new encryption algorithms
are proposed which are very helpful for secure communi-
cation of secret messages. In the first algorithm, encryption
e3 e1
and decryption is performed by using a specific corona
graph Cn ⊙ K1 along with some basic algebraic properties.
The second algorithm is based on encoding table, bipartite
8 7
graph, and the concept of unique factorization domain
(UFD). In third algorithm, we used a certain labeling of
Figure 11 vertices and edges of the star graph K1 ⊙ Kn . These sym-
metric algorithms use the concept of shared key that must be
predefined and shared between two communicating parties.
We can modify the proposed algorithms, to be applicable for
–81 the communication of sentences or the set of sentences.
–9991 Furthermore, for more complexity, these algorithms could
be improved by using the public key cryptography. More-
over, we can try to implement these algorithms using any
programming language like C++, JAVA, or Microsoft.Net.
–992 –3
Data Availability

Figure 12
There are no additional data required.

Conflicts of Interest
Through this mod operation, we get the values:
7, 19, 8, 9. (24) The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Apply inverse shifting by guessing the number of edges Acknowledgments

of the star graph, which is 4. So, the values become as follows:
The study was supported by the Heilongjiang Education
7 − 4 � 3,
Department Project (project number: 1355MSYQN001) and
19 − 4 � 15, Research Project of Mudanjiang Normal University (project
(25) number: QN2020008). Also, the authors are thankful to the
8 − 4 � 4,
referees for many useful suggestions.
9 − 4 � 5.

Finally, we get the values 3, 15, 4, 5. Through the References

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