SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

Course Code:GR25AXXXX L/T/P/C: 2/1/0/3

I Year I Semester

Dr T PADMA
Professor, Dept of ECE
UNIT-1: Diode Characteristics and Applications: PN junction diode – I-V characteristics,
Diode resistance and capacitance, Diode models (Ideal, Simplified, Piecewise Linear),
Rectifiers – Half-wave, Fullwave(Center-tap and bridge), Capacitor filter for rectifiers,
Clippers and clampers, Zener diode – I-Vcharacteristics and voltage regulation.
UNIT-II: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Structure and working principle of BJT,
Current components and transistor action, Configurations: Common Base (CB),
Common Emitter (CE), Common Collector (CC), Input and output characteristics,
Determination of h-parameters from transistor characteristics.
UNIT-III: BJT Biasing: Need for biasing and stabilization, Load line and operating point,
Biasing techniques: Fixed bias, Collector-to-base bias, Voltage divider bias,
Stability factors and thermal runaway
UNIT-IV: Transistor Amplifiers: Transistor as a small-signal amplifier, h-parameter
equivalent circuit, CE, CB,CC amplifier analysis using h-parameters, Approximate CE
model – with and without emitter bypass capacitor.
UNIT-V: Field Effect Transistors and JFET: Structure, operation, and characteristics,
MOSFET: Enhancement and Depletion modes – Structure, operation, and
characteristics.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Millman, Jacob, and Christos C. Halkias. Electronic Devices and Circuits. Tata
McGraw-Hill, 1991.
2. Boylestad, Robert L., and Louis Nashelsky. Electronic Devices and Circuit
[Link], 11th ed., 2013.
3. Sedra, Adel S., and Kenneth C. Smith. Microelectronic Circuits. Oxford
University Press,7th ed., 2014.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Bell, David A. Electronic Devices and Circuits. Oxford University Press, 5th
ed., 2008.
2. Neamen, Donald A. Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design. McGraw-Hill, 2nd
ed., 2001.
3. Salivahanan, S., and N. Suresh Kumar. Electronic Devices and
Circuits. McGraw-Hill Education, 4th ed., 2017.
4. Razavi, Behzad. Fundamentals of Microelectronics Wiley, 2nd ed., 2013.
5. Taur, Yuan, and Tak H. Ning. Fundamentals of Modern VLSI
Devices. Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 2009.
Applications in Electronics: Semiconductors are fundamental to a wide range of electronic devices and applications, including
❖Healthcare: Electronics are integral to medical devices and diagnostic equipment. Technologies such as
electrocardiograms (ECGs), ultrasound machines, and X-ray machines rely on electronic components to
function. These devices help in monitoring health, diagnosing conditions, and performing medical
procedures.
❖Automotive Industry: Modern vehicles utilize electronics for various functions, including engine control
systems, safety features (like airbags and anti-lock braking systems), ADAS( Advanced Driving Assistance
System) and infotainment systems. Electronics enhance vehicle performance, safety, and user experience.
❖Telecommunications: Electronics are fundamental in communication systems, enabling the operation of
devices such as smartphones, routers, and satellites. They facilitate data transfer and connectivity,
forming the backbone of the internet and mobile communication.
❖Consumer Electronics: Everyday devices like televisions, computers, cameras, and home appliances are
powered by electronic components. These devices have transformed how we consume media,
communicate, and manage our homes.
❖Industrial Applications: Electronics are used in automation and control systems within manufacturing
processes. They help in monitoring equipment, controlling machinery, and improving efficiency through
smart technologies.
❖Agriculture: In agriculture, electronics are employed for precision farming techniques, including soil
moisture monitoring and automated irrigation systems. These technologies help optimize resource use
and improve crop yields.
❖Entertainment: The entertainment industry heavily relies on electronics for producing and delivering
content. Devices such as projectors, gaming consoles, and streaming devices are all powered by electronic
technology.
Active Components
 UNIT - 1
Diode Characteristics and Applications
➢PN junction diode
➢I-V characteristics,
➢Diode resistance and capacitance,
➢Diode models (Ideal, Simplified, Piecewise Linear),
➢Rectifiers –
➢Half-wave,
➢Fullwave (Center-tap and bridge),
➢Capacitor filter for rectifiers,
➢Clippers and clampers,
➢Zener diode
➢ I-V characteristics
➢voltage regulation
 ELECTRONICS
➢Electronics is that branch of science and technology which makes use of the
controlled motion of electrons through different media and vacuum.
➢ The ability to control electron flow is usually applied to information
handling or device control.
APPLICATION OF ELECTRONICS
❖Communication and Entertainment.
❖Industrial.
❖Medical science.
❖Defence.
ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS
✓ACTIVE COMPONENT.
✓PASSIVE COMPONENT.
Difference between
❖ Conductors
❖ Semiconductor
❖ Insulators
✓Conductors are materials that have very low values of resistivity, usually in the
micro-ohms per metre.
✓This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due to there being
plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure.
✓But these electrons will only flow through a conductor if there is something to
spur their movement, and that something is an electrical voltage.
✓When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these “free
electrons” leave their parent atom and travel together through the material
forming an electron drift, more commonly known as a current.
✓ How “freely” these electrons can move through a conductor depends on how
easily they can break free from their constituent atoms when a voltage is
applied.
✓Then the amount of electrons that flow depends on the amount of resistivity
the conductor has.
✓Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium,
Silver or
✓non metals such as Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in
their outer “Valence Shell” or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked out of
the atom’s orbit.
✓This allows them to flow freely through the material until they join up
with other atoms, producing a “Domino Effect” through the material
thereby creating an electrical current.
✓Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as
they have very small resistance values, usually in the region of micro-
ohms per metre, (μΩ.m).
✓While metals such as copper and aluminium are very good conducts of
electricity, they still have some resistance to the flow of electrons and
consequently do not conduct perfectly.
✓The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current,
appears in the form of heat that’s why conductors and especially
resistors become hot as the resistivity of conductors increases with
ambient temperature.
✓Copper and Aluminium is the main conductor used in electrical cables
as shown.
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors.
➢They are made of materials, generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free
electrons” floating about within their basic atom structure because the electrons in the
outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged inner nucleus.
➢In other words, the electrons are stuck to the parent atom and can not move around
freely so if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are
no “free electrons” available to move and which gives these materials their insulating
properties.
➢Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally
not affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood
becomes charcoal and changes from an insulator to a conductor).
➢Examples of good insulators are marble, fused quartz, PVC plastics, rubber etc.
➢Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because
without them electrical circuits would short together and not work.
➢For example:
➢insulators made of glass or porcelain are used for insulating and supporting
overhead transmission cables while
➢epoxy-glass resin materials are used to make printed circuit boards, PCB’s etc.
➢ while PVC is used to insulate electrical cables as shown.
Semi-conductors:-
✓ Materials such as Silicon and Germanium, have electrical properties
somewhere in the middle, between those of a "Conductor" and an
"Insulator".
✓ They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their
name semi-conductors).
❖ Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a
“conductor” and an “insulator”.
❖ They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-
conductors).
❖ They have very few “free electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped
together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to
flow, but only under special conditions.
❖ The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by
replacing or adding certain donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure
thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice versa.
❖ That is by adding a small percentage of another element to the base material, either
silicon or germanium.
❖ On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic semiconductors, that is
they are chemically pure, containing nothing but semi-conductive material.
❖ But by controlling the amount of impurities added to this intrinsic semiconductor
material it is possible to control its conductivity.
• Various impurities called donors or acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material to
produce free electrons or holes respectively.
• This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1
impurity atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping.
• The doped silicon is no longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred
to as “impurities”, and by doping these silicon material with a sufficient number of
impurities, we can turn it into an N-type or P-type semi-conductor material.
• The most commonly used semiconductor basics material is silicon.
• Silicon has four valence electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring
silicon atoms to form full orbital’s of eight electrons.
• The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one
electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable.
• As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of
pure silicon (or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least having very
high value resistors.
• Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid
structure. A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic
crystal (it has no impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.
• But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to
extract an electric current from it.
• To do that we need to create a “positive” and a “negative” pole within the silicon
allowing electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon.
• These poles are created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.

Silicon Atom Structure

N-type Semiconductor
❖If silicon crystal to conduct electricity, need to introduce an impurity atom such
as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it
extrinsic (impurities are added).
❖These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with
neighboring atoms and are commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities.
❖This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighboring
silicon atoms leaving one “free electron” to become mobile when an electrical
voltage is applied (electron flow).
❖As each impurity atom “donates” one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally
known as “donors”.
❖Antimony ( Sb) as well as Phosphorus ( P), are frequently used as a pentavalent
additive to silicon.
❖Antimony has 51 electrons arranged in five shells around its nucleus with the
outermost orbital having five electrons.
❖The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of
current-carrying electrons, each with a negative charge, and is
therefore referred to as an N-type material with the electrons called
“Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are called “Minority
Carriers”.
❖When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed
from the silicon atoms by this stimulation are quickly replaced by the
free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms.
❖ But this action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron)
floating around the doped crystal making it negatively charged.
❖Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor
density is greater than its acceptor density, in other words, it has
more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole.
The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony
P-Type Semiconductor Basics
➢If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron) impurity into the
crystalline structure, such as Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three
valence electrons available in their outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot
be formed.
➢Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material
an abundance of positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the
crystal where electrons are effectively missing.
➢As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it
and will try to move into the hole to fill it.
➢However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This
in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it, and so
forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through
the crystal structure (conventional current flow).
➢This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the
entire doped crystal into a positive pole.
➢ As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as
“Acceptors” as they are continually “accepting” extra or free electrons.
• Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five
electrons arranged in three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital
having only three electrons.
• The doping of Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive
charge carriers resulting in a P-type material with the positive holes being called
“Majority Carriers” while the free electrons are called “Minority Carriers”.
• Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor
density is greater than its donor density.
• Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.
Basis of Difference P-Type Semiconductor N-Type Semiconductor

When a trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic When a pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic
Definition semiconductor, the obtained semiconductor is semiconductor, the obtained semiconductor is known
known as P-type semiconductor. as N-type semiconductor.

To obtain the P-type semiconductor, a trivalent The pentavalent impurities such as P, Sb, As, Bi, etc. are
Type of impurity
impurity such as aluminum, gallium, indium, etc. added to pure semiconductor to obtain N-type
added
is added to the pure semiconductor. semiconductor.
Group of doping
The elements of group 13 are added as doping The elements of group 15 are added as doping element
element (or
element to form a P-type semiconductor. to form an N-type semiconductor.
impurity)
In case of P-type semiconductor, the impurity
Effect of impurity In case of N-type semiconductor, the impurity added
added creates a vacancy of electron in the
or doping element provides extra electrons in the structure.
structure, known as hole.

In P-type semiconductor, the doping element is a

trivalent element, which can accept electrons In N-type semiconductor, the pentavalent atoms are
Alternate name of
from the intrinsic semiconductor. Therefore, the used as impurity which provide extra electrons. Hence,
impurity added
doping element or impurity is also known as the doping element is also known as donor impurity.
acceptor impurity.
 Basis of Difference P-Type Semiconductor N-Type Semiconductor

Majority charge Holes are the majority charge carriers in a P-type Electrons are the majority charge carriers in an N-type
carriers semiconductor. semiconductor.
Minority charge Electrons are the minority charge carries in a P- Holes are the minority charge carriers in an N-type
carriers type semiconductor. semiconductor.
In case of P-type semiconductor, the number of
In an N-type semiconductor, the number of electrons are
Charge density holes are much more than number of electrons,
much more than the number of holes, i.e. Ne >> Nh.
i.e. Nh >> Ne.
Movement of In a P-type semiconductor, the majority charge The majority charge carries in an N-type semiconductor
majority charge carriers are holes (which are positive), thus are electrons (which are negative), thus moves from
carriers moves from higher potential to lower potential. lower potential to higher potential.
P-type semiconductor has acceptor energy
N-type semiconductor has donor energy levels very close
Energy levels levels very close to the valance band and away
to the conduction band and away from the valance band.
from the conduction band.
When the temperature of P-type semiconductor When the temperature of N-type semiconductor is
Effect of temperature
is increased, it can easily accept an electron increased, it can easily donate an electron from donor
rise
from valance band to acceptor energy level. energy level to the conduction band.
In P-type semiconductors, the conductivity is The conductivity in the N-type semiconductor is due to
Conductivity
due to the presence of holes. the presence of electrons.
In a P-type semiconductor, the fermi level lies
In an N-type semiconductor, the fermi level lies between
Fermi level between the acceptor energy level and the
the donor energy level and the conduction band.
valance band.
PN Junction Theory
• A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type
material creating a semiconductor diode

• when silicon is doped with small amounts of Antimony, an N-type semiconductor

material is formed, and when the same silicon material is doped with small amounts of
Boron, a P-type semiconductor material is formed.
• These newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do very little on their own
as they are electrically neutral.
• However, if we join (or fuse) these two semiconductor materials together they behave in a
very different way as they merge together producing what is generally known as a “PN
Junction”
• When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first
joined together a very large density gradient exists between both sides of the
PN junction.
• The result is that some of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms
begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-
type material producing negative ions.
• the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to the
P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the
negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the
junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large
numbers of free electrons.
• As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with
negatively charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type
along the junction becomes positive.
• This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known
as diffusion.
• The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each side is doped
with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.
❑This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which
have crossed the junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or
prevent any more charge carriers from crossing over the junction.
❑Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur
producing a “potential barrier” zone around the area of the junction as the
donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
❑Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential
barrier, the regions on either sides of the junction now become completely
depleted of any more free carriers in comparison to the N and P type
materials further away from the junction.
❑This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.
The PN junction
The total charge on each side
of a PN Junction must be equal
and opposite to maintain a
neutral charge condition
around the junction. If the
depletion layer region has a
distance D, it therefore must
therefore penetrate into the
silicon by a distance of Dp for
the positive side, and a
distance of Dn for the
negative side giving a
relationship between two
of: Dp*NA = Dn*ND
in order to maintain charge
neutrality also called
equilibrium.
Depletion Layer Distance
• As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type
material has become positive with respect to the P-type.
• Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction cause an electric field
to be established across this region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the
P-side.
• The problem now is that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the
barrier that now exists for it to be able to cross the depletion region junction.
• This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential
difference” across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage,

VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature,
ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.
• A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the
PN junction can supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy.

• The external voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that now
exists is very much dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used
and its actual temperature.

• Typically, at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for
silicon is about 0.6 – 0.7 volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts.

• This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected to
any external power source, as seen in diodes.

• The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes
both the flow of holes and electrons across the junction and is why it is called
the potential barrier.
PN Junction Diode
• A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-
type semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode
junction
The PN junction diode consists of a p-region
and n-region separated by a depletion region
where charge is stored.
However, if electrical connections at the
ends of both the N-type and the P-type
materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now
exists to overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able
to cross the depletion region from one side to the other.
The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the potential barrier’s width produces
an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN Junction
Diode.
➢A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has
the electrical characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only.
➢However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied
voltage. Instead it has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship.
➢If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross
the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
➢By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away
from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect
of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking
the flow of current through the diodes pn-junction.
➢Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage.
➢This is due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction
resulting in physical changes taking place.
➢One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V
(current-voltage) characteristics.
➢Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage
Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics
❖PN junction is a practical device or as a rectifying device need to
firstly bias the junction, that is connect a voltage potential across it.
❖ On the voltage axis above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage
potential which increases the potential barrier.
❖An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the
“Forward Bias” direction.
❖There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for
the standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type
material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has
the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type
material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has
the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.
Zero Biased Junction Diode
• When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy
is applied to the PN junction.
• However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential
barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known
as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF
• Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this
situation favorable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is
known as the “Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR.
• This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is
known as Diffusion
• The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more
majority carriers across the junction.
• However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the
P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
• Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers
are equal and both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero
current flowing in the circuit.
• When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“.
• The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this
state of equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction
causing an increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an
increase in leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit
has been connected to the PN junction.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
• When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is
applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type
material.
• The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the
positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end
are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
• The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons
and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator and a high
potential barrier is created across the junction thus preventing current from
flowing through the semiconductor material.
➢ This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically
zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
➢ However, a very small reverse leakage current does flow through the junction which
can normally be measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).
➢ One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a
sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and
fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction.
➢ This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum
circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve
➢ Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical
applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to
limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed
voltage output across the diode.
➢ These types of diodes are commonly known as
Zener Diodes
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
• When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied
to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material.
• If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier,
approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers
opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
• This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage.
• This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point,
called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode
with little increase in the external voltage.
• The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the
depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low
impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow.
• The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented
on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
• This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction
allowing very large currents to flow through the diode with only a small
increase in bias voltage.
• The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by
the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
• Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it
effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with
the diode to limit its current flow.
• Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to
dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a
very quick failure of the device.
Ideal and Real Characteristics
Diode resistance and capacitance
Diode resistance
➢A p-n junction diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric
current in another direction.
➢It allows electric current when it is forward biased and blocks electric current when
it is reverse biased.
➢ However, no diode allows electric current completely even in forward biased
condition.

➢The depletion region present in a diode acts like barrier to electric current. Hence, it
offers resistance to the electric current.
➢Also, the atoms present in the diode provide some resistance to the electric current.

➢When charge carriers (free electrons and holes) flowing through the diode collides
with atoms, they lose energy in the form of heat.
➢Thus, depletion region and atoms offer resistance to the electric current.
➢When forward biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of
depletion region decreases.
➢However, the depletion region cannot be completely vanished. There exists a thin
depletion region or depletion layer in the forward biased diode.
➢Therefore, a thin depletion region and atoms in the diode offer some resistance to
electric current. This resistance is called forward resistance.
➢When the diode is reverse biased, the width of depletion region increases. As a
result, a large number of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) flowing through
the diode will be blocked by the depletion region.
➢In a reverse biased diode, only a small amount of electric current flows. The minority
carriers present in the diode carry this electric current.
➢Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance to the electric current. This
resistance is called reverse resistance.
➢The two types of resistance takes place in the p-n junction diode are:
❖Forward resistance
❖Reverse resistance
Forward resistance
• Forward resistance is a resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is forward
biased.
• In a forward biased p-n junction diode, two type of resistance takes place based on
the voltage applied.
• The two types of resistance takes place in forward biased diode are
• Static resistance or DC resistance
• Dynamic resistance or AC resistance
Static resistance or DC resistance
• When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to a DC circuit, a
DC or direct current flows through the diode. Direct current or electric current is
nothing but the flow of charge carriers (free electrons or holes) through a
conductor. In DC circuit, the charge carriers flow steadily in single direction or forward
direction.
• The resistance offered by a p-n junction diode when it is connected to a DC circuit is
called static resistance.
• Static resistance is also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across diode to the
DC current or direct current flowing through the diode.
• The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under forward biased condition is
denoted as Rf.
Dynamic resistance or AC resistance
• The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when
AC voltage is applied.
• When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to AC
circuit, an AC or alternating current flows though the diode.
• In AC circuit, charge carriers or electric current does not flow in single direction.
It flows in both forward and reverse direction.

• Dynamic resistance is also defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the

change in current. It is denoted as rf.
Reverse resistance
✓Reverse resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is
reverse biased.
✓When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of
depletion region increases.
✓This depletion region acts as barrier to the electric current. Hence, a large
amount of electric current is blocked by the depletion region.
✓Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance to the electric current.

✓The resistance offered by the reverse biased p-n junction diode is very large
compared to the forward biased diode.
✓The reverse resistance is in the range of mega ohms (MΩ).
Diode junction capacitance
• In a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance take place. They are,
• Transition capacitance (CT)
• Diffusion capacitance (CD)
Transition capacitance (CT)
• We know that capacitors store electric charge in the form of electric field.
• This charge storage is done by using two electrically conducting plates (placed
close to each other) separated by an insulating material called dielectric.
• The conducting plates or electrodes of the capacitor are good conductors of
electricity. Therefore, they easily allow electric current through them.
• On the other hand, dielectric material or medium is poor conductor of
electricity. Therefore, it does not allow electric current through it.
• However, it efficiently allows electric field.
▪ When voltage is applied to the capacitor,
▪ charge carriers starts flowing through the
▪ conducting wire.
▪ When these charge carriers
▪ reach the electrodes of the capacitor, they
▪ experience a strong opposition from the
▪ dielectric or insulating material.
▪ As a result, a large number of charge carriers
▪ are trapped at the electrodes of the capacitor.
▪ These charge carriers cannot move between
▪ the plates. However, they exerts electric field between the plates.
▪ The charge carriers which are trapped near the dielectric material will stores
electric charge. The ability of the material to store electric charge is called
[Link] a basic capacitor, the capacitance is directly proportional to the
size of electrodes or plates and inversely proportional to the distance between
two [Link] like the capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also
stores electric charge at the depletion region.
▪ The depletion region is made of immobile positive and negative ions.
✓In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low
resistance.
✓Hence, p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting plates
of the capacitor.
✓The depletion region of the p-n junction diode has high resistance. Hence, the
depletion region acts like the dielectric or insulating material.
✓Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as a parallel plate capacitor.

✓In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not
move from one place to another place.
✓However, they exert electric field or electric force. Therefore, charge is stored
at the depletion region in the form of electric field.
✓The ability of a material to store electric charge is called capacitance. Thus,
there exists a capacitance at the depletion region.
The capacitance at the depletion region changes with the
change in applied voltage.
When reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n junction diode
is increased, a large number of holes (majority carriers)
from p-side and electrons (majority carriers) from n-side
are moved away from the p-n junction.
As a result, the width of depletion region increases
whereas the size of p-type and n-type regions (plates)
decreases.
We know that capacitance means the ability to store
electric charge.
The p-n junction diode with narrow depletion width and
large p-type and n-type regions will store large amount of
electric charge whereas the p-n junction diode with wide
depletion width and small p-type and n-type regions will
store only a small amount of electric charge. Therefore, the
capacitance of the reverse bias p-n junction diode
decreases when voltage increases.
In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exist. However, the
transition capacitance is very small compared to the diffusion
capacitance. Hence, transition capacitance is neglected in forward biased
diode.
The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called
transition capacitance. The transition capacitance is also known as
depletion region capacitance, junction capacitance or barrier
capacitance. Transition capacitance is denoted as CT.
The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the
change in electric charge per change in voltage.
CT = dQ / dV The transition capacitance mathematically,
Where, CT = Transition capacitance; CT = ε A / W
dQ = Change in electric charge ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
dV = Change in voltage A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region
Diffusion capacitance (CD)
• Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode.
• Diffusion capacitance is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance.
• It is denoted as CD.
• In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition
capacitance.
• Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward biased diode.
• The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons and
minority holes near the depletion region.
• When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, electrons (majority
carriers) in the n-region will move into the p-region and recombines with the holes. In
the similar way, holes in the p-region will move into the n-region and recombines
with electrons. As a result, the width of depletion region decreases.
• The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the
p-region will become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the holes (majority
carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the n-region will become
minority carriers of the n-region.
 • A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into another region will
be accumulated near the depletion region before they recombine with the
majority carriers.
• As a result, a large amount of charge is stored at both sides of the depletion
region.
• The accumulation of holes in the n-region
• and electrons in the p-region is separated
• by a very thin depletion region or
• depletion layer.
• This depletion region acts like dielectric or
• insulator of the capacitor and charge stored
• at both sides of the depletion layer acts like
• conducting plates of the capacitor.
• Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied voltage.
• If large electric current flows through the diode, a large amount of charge is
accumulated near the depletion layer.
• As a result, large diffusion capacitance occurs.
• In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only a small
amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small
diffusion capacitance occurs.

• When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion capacitance

increases. The diffusion capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads
(nF) to micro farads (μF).
• The formula for diffusion capacitance is
• CD = dQ / dV
Where,
CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion
region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode
Diode models (Ideal, Simplified, Piecewise Linear)
An equivalent circuit is nothing but a combination of elements that best
represents the actual terminal characteristics of the device.
In simple language, it simply means the diode in the circuit can be replaced by
other elements without severely affecting the behavior of circuit.
The diode can be modeled in three different ways depending on the accuracy
required.
Three models with increasing accuracy are listed below:
1. Ideal Diode Model
2. 2. Simplified Model
3. 3. Piece-Wise Linear Model
1. Ideal Diode Model
✓ Figure indicates that the voltage drop across the diode is zero for any value of diode
current.
✓The ideal diode does not allow any current to flow in reverse biased condition.
✓The current flowing through the diode is zero for any value of reverse biased voltage.
✓Taking this into consideration, the ideal diode can be modeled as open or closed switch
depending on the bias voltage.
1. Ideal diode allows the flow of forward current for any value of forward bias voltage.
Hence, Ideal diode can be modeled as closed switch under forward bias condition. This is
shown in the figure.
[Link] diode allows zero current to flow under reverse biased condition. Hence it can be
modeled as open switch. This is indicated in the figure.
2. Simplified Model
✓The equivalent model in this case consists of a battery and an ideal diode. Consider the
horizontal line from (0 to 0.7 V) in the curve.
✓ The horizontal line indicates that the current flowing through diode is zero for voltages
between 0 and 0.7 V.
✓To model this behavior, we put a battery of 0.7 V in the equivalent diode model. This does
not mean that diodes are a source of voltage.
✓When you measure the voltage across an isolated diode, the instrument will show zero
value.
✓The battery simply indicates that it opposes the flow of current in forward direction until 0.7
V.
✓As the voltage becomes larger than 0.7 V, the current starts flowing in forward direction.
3. Piece-Wise Linear Model
➢The piece-wise linear model, as the name suggests, is a model in which the
characteristics of diode is approximated by “piece-wise linear” line segments. Now
consider the straight line in the piece-wise linear characteristics. This straight line
indicates constant slope.
➢Slope in the V-I graph indicates resistance. So we add a resistor in the diode model.
The value of resistance can be found from the graph.
➢We can see from the graph that the diode current changes from 0 to 15 mA for a
voltage change from 0.7 to 0.8 V.
➢Thus the average value of resistance is (0.8 V-0.7 V)/(15 mA - 0 mA) = 6.67 Ω.
➢Thus the value of resistance in the equivalent model is approximately 6.67 Ω.
➢The figure given below shows piece-wise linear characteristics of diode along with the
its model.
➢In the graph shown on left, the actual characteristics of diode is
superimposed by piece-wise linear characteristics (shown in amber
color).
➢It is clear that the piece-wise linear characteristics do not exactly
represent the characteristics of diode, especially near the knee of
the curve.
➢However it provides a good first approximation to the actual
characteristics of the diode.
➢Piece wise linear characteristics can be obtained by replacing the
diode in the circuit with a resistor, a battery and an ideal diode.
➢ This is shown in the right side of the above figure.
Rectifiers – Half-wave, Fullwave(Center-tap and bridge)
➢ All electronic circuits need dc power supply either from battery or power pack units.
➢ It may not be economical and convenient to depend upon battery power supply
1. Linear mode power supply (LMPS): ac/dc power supply—Converter
2. Switched mode power supply (SMPS):
(i) dc/dc power supply—converter
(ii) dc/ac power supply—Inverter
❖ An ac/dc power supply converts ac mains (230 V, 50 Hz) into required dc voltages and is
found in all mains operable systems.
❖ DC/DC power supplies or dc/dc converters are used in portable systems,
❖ DC/ AC power supplies or inverter are used in portable main operable system and as a
supplement to ac mains in non-portable mains operable system, where a disruption in
the power supply can affect the job being done by the system.
❖ An inverter is a form of UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply) or SPS (Standby Power
Supply) and is very popular in computer system.
❖A PN junction diode is a two terminal device that is polarity sensitive.
❖ When the diode is forward biased, the diode conducts and allows current to
flow through it without any resistance, i.e. the diode is ON.
❖When the diode is reverse biased, the diode does not conduct and no current
flows through it, i.e. the diode is OFF, or providing a blocking function.
❖Thus an ideal diode acts as a switch, either open or closed, depending upon
the polarity of the voltage placed across it.
❖The ideal diode has zero resistance under forward bias and infinite resistance
under reverse bias
❖Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for converting ac voltage into
❖ unidirectional voltage.
❖A rectifier utilizes unidirectional conduction device like a vacuum diode or PN
junction diode.
❖Rectifiers are classified depending upon the period of conduction as Half-wave
rectifier and Full-wave rectifier.
Half-wave Rectifier:
✓It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using only one half of the
applied ac voltage.
✓The rectifying diode conducts during one half of the ac cycle only.

Basic Structure of a Half-wave Rectifier Input and Output Waveforms of Half-wave Rectifier

✓Let Vi be the voltage to the primary of the transformer

✓Vr is the cut-in voltage of the diode
✓Vm is maximum peak voltage
✓During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the anode of the diode
becomes more positive with respect to the cathode and hence, diode D
conducts.
✓For an ideal diode, the forward voltage drop is zero.
✓So the whole input voltage will appear across the load resistance, RL.
✓During negative half-cycle of the input signal, the anode of the diode becomes
✓ negative with respect to the cathode and hence, diode D does not conduct.
✓For an ideal diode, the impedance offered by the diode is infinity.
✓ So the whole input voltage appears across diode D. Hence, the voltage drop
across RL is zero.
• Ripple factor (Γ ) :The ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc component
in the output is known as ripple factor (Γ)
• Vav is the average or the dc content of the voltage across the load and is given
Above expression is clear that the amount of ac present in the output is 121% of the dc voltage.
So the half-wave rectifier is not practically useful in converting ac into dc.

Efficiency ( ղ) The ratio of dc output power to ac input power is known as

rectifier efficiency (ղ).

The maximum efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6%.

❖Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage
that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction.
The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half cycle. For
half-wave rectifier, PIV is Vm.
❖Transformer Utilisation Factor (TUF) In the design of any power supply,
the rating of the transformer should be determined. This can be done with a
knowledge of the dc power delivered to the load and the type of rectifying
circuit used.
Full-wave Rectifier
✓It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of
the applied ac voltage.
✓It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half-cycle while the other
diode conducts during the other half-cycle of the applied ac voltage.
✓There are two types of full-wave rectifiers viz.
(i) center tapped transformer full wave rectifier
(ii) bridge rectifier
The basic circuit and waveforms of center tapped transformer full-wave rectifier.
• During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and
at the same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative.
• Hence, D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct.
• The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to
the input voltage.
• During the negative half-cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative
and the anode of D2 becomes positive.
• Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts.
• The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to
the input voltage.
Bridge Rectifier
✓ The need for a center tapped transformer in a full-wave rectifier is eliminated
in the bridge rectifier.
✓ The bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a bridge.
✓ The ac input voltage is applied to diagonally opposite ends of the bridge.
✓ The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
✓ For the positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct.
✓ The conducting diodes will be in series through the load resistance R .
L

✓ So the load current flows through RL.

✓ During the negative half-cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4
✓ conduct, whereas diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct.
✓ The conducting diode D2 and D4 will be in series through the load RL and the
current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half-cycle.
✓ Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional one.
✓ The average values of output voltage and load current for bridge rectifier are
✓ the same as for a center-tapped full wave rectifier.
Advantages of the Bridge Rectifier
In the bridge rectifier the ripple factor and efficiency of the rectification are the same as for the full-wave rectifier.
The PIV across either of the non-conducting diodes is equal to the peak value of the transformer secondary voltage, Vm.
The bulky center tapped transformer is not required.
Transformer utilisation factor is considerably high.
Since the current flowing in the transformer secondary is purely alternating, the TUF increases to 0.812, which is the
main reason for the popularity of a bridge rectifier.
The bridge rectifiers are used in applications allowing floating output terminals, i.e. no output terminal is grounded.
The bridge rectifier has only one disadvantage that it requires four diodes as compared to two diodes for center-tapped full
wave rectifier.
But the diodes are readily available at cheaper rate in the market.
The PIV rating required for the diodes in a bridge rectifier is only half of that for a center tapped full-wave rectifier.
This is a great advantage, which offsets the disadvantage of using extra two diodes in a bridge rectifier.
Comparison of Rectifiers
Capacitor filter for rectifiers
• The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component.
• Filters are used to minimize the undesirable ac, i.e. ripple leaving only the dc
component to appear at the output.
• The ripple in the rectified wave being very high, the factor being 48% in the
full-wave rectifier; majority of the applications which cannot tolerate this, will
need an output which has been further processed.
• The concept of a filter, where the full wave rectified output voltage is applied
at its input.
• The output of a filter is not exactly a constant dc level.
• But it also contains a small amount of ac component.
• Some important filters are:
(a) Inductor filter (b) Capacitor filter
(c) LC or L-section filter, and (d) CLC or p-type filter
 Concept of a Filter (a) Capacitor Filter, (b) Ripple Voltage Triangular Waveform

➢ An inexpensive filter for light loads is found in the capacitor filter which is connected directly
across the load.
➢ The property of a capacitor is that it allows ac component and blocks the dc component.
➢ The operation of a capacitor filter is to short the ripple to ground but leave the dc to appear
at the output when it is connected across a pulsating dc voltage.
➢ During the positive half-cycle, the capacitor charges up to the peak value of the transformer
secondary voltage, Vm , and will try to maintain this value as the fullwave input drops to zero.
➢ The capacitor will discharge through RL slowly until then transformer secondary voltage again
increases to a value greater than the capacitor voltage.
• The diode conducts for a period which depends on the capacitor voltage (equal
to the load voltage).
• The diode will conduct when the transformer secondary voltage becomes
more than the ‘cut-in’ voltage of the diode.
• The diode stops conducting when the transformer voltage becomes less than
the diode voltage.
• This is called cut-out voltage.
• The ripple voltage waveform can be assumed as triangular.
• From the cut-in point to the cut-out point, whatever charge the capacitor
acquires is equal to the charge the capacitor has lost during the period of non-
conduction, i.e. from cut-out point to the next cut-in point.
• If the value of the capacitor is fairly large, or the value of the load resistance
is very large, then it can be assumed that the time T2 is equal to half the periodic
time of the waveform.

Ripple factor

• The ripple may be decreased by increasing C or RL (or both) with a resulting

increase in dc output voltage.
Clippers and clampers
Diode Clipping Circuits
• The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that
takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both
halves together.

This diode clipping of the input signal produces an output waveform that resembles
a flattened version of the input.
For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero
are eliminated.
Then diode clipping circuits can be used in voltage limiting applications.
Different diode clipper circuits like
✓Positive and Negative Diode Clippers,
✓Biased Clipper circuit, and
✓Combinational Clipper Circuit
➢The basic components required for a clipping circuit are – an ideal diode and a
resistor.
➢ In order to fix the clipping level to the desired amount, a dc battery must also be
included.
➢When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch, and when it is
reverse biased, it acts as an open switch.
➢Different levels of clipping can be obtained by varying the amount of voltage of
the battery and also interchanging the positions of the diode and resistor.
➢Depending on the features of the diode, the positive or negative region of the
input signal is “clipped” off and accordingly the diode clippers may be positive or
negative clippers.
➢ There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel (or shunt).
➢The series configuration is defined as one where diode is in series with the load,
while the shunt clipper has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
Positive Clipper and Negative Clipper
• In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage will be
removed.
• Diode is kept in series with the load.
• During the positive half cycle of the input waveform, the diode ‘D’ is reverse biased, which
maintains the output voltage at 0 Volts.
• Thus causes the positive half cycle to be clipped off.
• During the negative half cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and so the negative
half cycle appears across the output.
• In Figure (b), the diode is kept in parallel with the load.
• This is the diagram of a positive shunt clipper circuit.
• During the positive half cycle, the diode ‘D’ is forward biased and the diode acts as a closed
switch.
• This causes the diode to conduct heavily.
• This causes the voltage drop across the diode or across the load resistance RL to be zero.
• Thus output voltage during the positive half cycles is zero, as shown in the output waveform.
• During the negative half cycles of the input signal voltage, the diode D is reverse biased and
behaves as an open switch.
• The entire input voltage appears across the diode or across the load resistance RL if R is
much smaller than RL Actually the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output voltage
of
[RL / R+ RL] Vmax = -Vmax when RL >> R
Negative Diode Clipper
The negative clipping circuit is almost same as the positive clipping circuit, with
only one difference.
If the diode is reconnected with reversed polarity, the circuits will become for a
negative series clipper and negative shunt clipper respectively.
Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clipper
A biased clipper comes in handy when a small portion of positive or negative
half cycles of the signal voltage is to be removed.
When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be removed, it is called a
biased negative clipper.
TIn a biased clipper, when the input signal voltage is positive, the diode ‘D’ is
reverse-biased. This causes it to act as an open-switch. Thus the entire positive
half cycle appears across the load, as illustrated by output waveform [figure (a)].
When the input signal voltage is negative but does not exceed battery the
voltage ‘V’, the diode ‘D’ remains reverse-biased and most of the input voltage
appears across the output. When during the negative half cycle of input signal,
the signal voltage becomes more than the battery voltage V, the diode D is
forward biased and so conducts heavily. The output voltage is equal to ‘- V’ and
stays at ‘- V’ as long as the magnitude of the input signal voltage is greater than
the magnitude of the battery voltage, ‘V’. Thus a biased negative clipper
removes input voltage when the input signal voltage becomes greater than the
battery voltage
Combination Clipper
When a portion of both positive and negative of each half cycle of the input voltage is to be clipped (or removed),
combination clipper is employed.
The action of the circuit is summarized below. For positive input voltage signal when input voltage exceeds battery voltage ‘+
V1‘ diode D1 conducts heavily while diode ‘D2‘ is reversed biased and so voltage ‘+ V1‘ appears across the output. This output
voltage ‘+ V1‘ stays as long as. the input signal voltage exceeds ‘+ V1‘. On the other hand for the negative input voltage signal,
the diode ‘D1‘ remains reverse biased and diode ‘D2‘ conducts heavily only when input voltage exceeds battery voltage ‘V2‘ in
magnitude. Thus during the negative half cycle the output stays at ‘- V2‘ so long as the input signal voltage is greater than ‘-V2‘.
➢ A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal.
➢ Actually, the positive and negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using the clamping
circuits.
➢ As the DC level gets shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter.
➢ Clamper circuits consist of energy storage elements like capacitors.
➢ A simple clamper circuit comprises of a capacitor, a diode, a resistor and a dc battery if required.
➢ Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts the
waveform to a desired DC level without changing the actual appearance of the applied signal.
➢ In order to maintain the time period of the wave form, the τ must be greater than, half the time period
(discharging time of the capacitor should be slow.) τ=Rc
➢ R is the resistance of the resistor employed
➢ C is the capacitance of the capacitor used
➢ The time constant of charge and discharge of the capacitor determines the output of a clamper circuit.
➢ In a clamper circuit, a vertical shift of upward or downward takes place in the output waveform with respect
to the input signal.
➢ The load resistor and the capacitor affect the waveform. So, the discharging time of the capacitor should be
large enough.
➢ The DC component present in the input is rejected when a capacitor coupled network is used (as a capacitor
blocks dc). Hence when dc needs to be restored, clamping circuit is used.
There are few types of clamper circuits, such as
➢Positive Clamper
➢Positive clamper with positive Vr
➢Positive clamper with negative Vr
➢Negative Clamper
➢Negative clamper with positive Vr
➢Negative clamper with negative Vr
Positive Clamper Circuit
• A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the signal is
raised above to the zero level, then the signal is said to be positively clamped.
• A Positive Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a
capacitor and that shifts the output signal to the positive portion of the input
signal.
Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is reverse
biased. The output is not considered at this point of time. During the negative half cycle, at the
peak value, the capacitor gets charged with negative on one plate and positive on the other.
The capacitor is now charged to its peak value Vm
The diode is forward biased and conducts heavily.
During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive Vm while the diode gets
reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be
V0=Vi+Vm
Hence the signal is positively clamped as shown in the above figure. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge on the
capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.
Positive Clamper with Positive Vr
• A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that
voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped level.
• Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper with positive reference voltage is
constructed as below.

• During the positive half cycle, the reference voltage is applied through the diode at
the output and as the input voltage increases, the cathode voltage of the diode
increase with respect to the anode voltage and hence it stops conducting.
• During the negative half cycle, the diode gets forward biased and starts
conducting. The voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage together
maintain the output voltage level.
Positive Clamper with Negative Vr
A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that
voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the
circuit of the positive clamper with positive reference voltage is constructed as
below.

During the positive half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor and the reference
voltage together maintain the output voltage level.
During the negative half-cycle, the diode conducts when the cathode voltage
gets less than the anode voltage.
These changes make the output voltage as shown in the above figure.
Negative Clamper
• A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a
capacitor and that shifts the output signal to the negative portion of the input
signal.

• During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value vm
• . The diode is forward biased and conducts. During the negative half cycle, the
diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at
this moment will be V0=Vi+Vm
• Hence the signal is negatively clamped as shown in the above figure. The
output signal changes according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level
according to the charge on the capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.
Negative clamper with positive Vr
• A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that
voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped level.
• Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper with positive reference voltage is
constructed as below.

• Though the output voltage is negatively clamped, a portion of the output waveform
is raised to the positive level, as the applied reference voltage is positive.
• During the positive half-cycle, the diode conducts, but the output equals the positive
reference voltage applied.
• During the negative half cycle, the diode acts as open circuited and the voltage across
the capacitor forms the output.
Negative Clamper with Negative Vr
• A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that
voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped level.
• Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper with negative reference voltage
is constructed as below.

• The cathode of the diode is connected with a negative reference voltage, which
is less than that of zero and the anode voltage. Hence the diode starts
conducting during positive half cycle, before the zero voltage level.
• During the negative half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor appears at the
output. Thus the waveform is clamped towards the negative portion.
• There are many applications for both Clippers and Clampers such as
Zener diode
• The Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are
basically the same as the standard PN-junction diode except that they are specially
designed to have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes
advantage of any reverse voltage applied to it.
• In the forward-biased direction, that is Anode is more positive with respect to its
Cathode, a zener diode behaves like a normal junction diode when the forward
voltage VF across the diode exceeds 0.7 volts (silicon) causing the zener diode to
conduct.
• The forward current flowing through the conducting diode is at its maximum
determined only by the connected load. Thus in the forward-bias direction, the zener
behaves like a regular diode within its specified current and/or power limits and as
such, the forward characteristics of a zener diode is generally of no interest.
• However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself
when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as
soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins
to conduct in the reverse direction.
• Since a zener diode is designed to work in the reverse breakdown region of its characteristic
curve, they have a fixed breakdown voltage, VZ value which is determined during
manufacture.
• As the reverse voltage across the zener diode increases from 0 volts to its zener breakdown
voltage, a small reverse or leakage current will flow through the diode which remains fairly
constant as the reverse voltage increases.
• Once the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device, a process called Zener Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a
current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.
• The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to its maximum
circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor).
• Once zener breakdown occurs, the voltage drop across the diode remains fairly constant
even though the current, IZ through it can vary considerably. The voltage point at which the
voltage across the diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, (VZ).
• For zener diodes this breakdown voltage value can range from a few volts up to a few
hundred volts.
• The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be
very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes
semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( VZ ) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V.
• This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics
• The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the
diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve
above, we can see that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics
of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing
through the diode.
• This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing
the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its
maximum current rating IZ(max).
• This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate
or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations.
• The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant
turns out to be an important characteristic and one which can be used in the
simplest types of voltage regulator applications.
• The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations
in the load current.
• A zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current
falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.
The sharp increasing current under breakdown conditions are due to the
following two mechanisms.
(1) Avalanche breakdown
(2) Zener breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown

➢Avalanche breakdown : As the applied reverse bias increases, the Field across the junction increases
correspondingly.
➢Thermally generated carriers while traversing the junction acquire a large amount of kinetic energy
from this field.
➢As a result the velocity of these carriers increases.
➢These electrons disrupt covalent bonds by colliding with immobile ions and create new electron–
hole pairs.
➢These new carriers again acquire sufficient energy from the field and collide with other immobile
ions thereby generating further electron–hole pairs.
➢ This process is cumulative in nature and results in generation of avalanche of charge carriers within
a short time.
➢This mechanism of carrier generation is known as Avalanche multiplication.
➢This process results in flow of large amount of current at the same value of reverse bias.
➢Zener Breakdown: When the P and N regions are heavily doped, direct rupture of
covalent bonds takes place because of the strong electric fields, at the junction of PN
diode.
➢The new electron–hole pairs so created increase the reverse current in a reverse
➢biased PN diode.
➢The increase in current takes place at a constant value of reverse bias typically below
6 V for heavily doped diodes.
➢As a result of heavy doping of P and N regions, the depletion region width becomes
very small and for an applied voltage of 6 V or less, the field across the depletion
➢region becomes very high, of the order of 107 V/m, making conditions suitable
➢for Zener breakdown.
➢For lightly doped diodes, Zener breakdown voltage becomes high and breakdown is
then predominantly by Avalanche multiplication.
➢Though Zener breakdown occurs for lower breakdown voltage and Avalanche
breakdown occurs for higher breakdown voltage, such diodes are normally called
Zener diodes.
 Zener Diode Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying load current
conditions.
By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the
zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave rectifiers contains
ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so to does the average output voltage.
By connecting a simple zener based stabiliser circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable
output voltage can be produced.
• Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to
limit the current flow through the diode with the voltage
source, VS being connected across the combination. The
stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the
zener diode.
• The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal
connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is
reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown
condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the
maximum current flowing in the circuit.
• With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ). Thus all the circuit
current will passes through the diode which dissipates its maximum power.
• Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load
resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the
diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the
zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
• The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the same as
the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
• There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective and the zener
current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The
upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the device. The supply
voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
• One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage. Normally this is not a
problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the
zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.
• Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. As such a
simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a constant DC
output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the load
current.
• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the
input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition. The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the same as the breakdown
voltage VZ of the diode.