48 CHEMISTRY

Classification of

3 Elements and
Periodicity in Properties
DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODIC TABLE Notation for IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements
The elements have been classified into groups for a systematic Digit Name Abbreviation
study of their properties. Various attempts have been made by 0 nil n
scientists from the early 1800’s. The first classification was made 1 un u
by Dobereiner who formulated ‘Triads’. It was followed by 2 bi b
Newland’s ‘Law of octaves’. The next development that came was 3 tri t
Mendeleev’s periodic table which classified elements on the basis 4 quad q
of their atomic masses. 5 pent p
6 hex h
Moseley showed that atomic number is a more fundamental
7 sept s
property of an element than its atomic mass. The Mendeleev’s
8 oct o
periodic law was then modified to a new law called Modern Periodic 9 enn e
law, according to which ‘The physical and chemical properties of
the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers’. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS AND
Long form of periodic table is based upon the Modern Periodic PERIODIC TABLE
law. This is also known as Bohr’s table as it is based on Bohr’s An element’s location in the periodic table reflects the quantum
scheme for the arrangement of various electrons around the numbers of the last orbital filled.
nucleus. Electronic Configuration in Periods
The horizontal rows of the periodic table are called ‘Periods’ while (i) The period indicates the value of n for the outermost or
the vertical columns are called ‘Groups’. There are 7 periods and valence shell
18 groups in the periodic table. (ii) The number of elements in each period is twice the number of
atomic orbitals available in the energy level that is being
Merits of Long Form of Periodic Table
filled.
(i) Positions of Isotopes and Isobars - Modern periodic table is (iii) There are 2 elements in 1st period; 8 in the 2nd; 8 in the 3rd;
based on atomic numbers. Therefore, various isotopes of the 18 in the 4th; 18 in the 5th; 32 in 6th and 7th period is
same element will occupy the same position in the periodic incomplete.
table. Isobars have to be placed at different positions. Groupwise Electronic Configuration
(ii) The positions of actinoids and lanthanoids is more clear now Elements in same vertical column or group have similar valence
because these have been placed in group 3 and due to paucity shell electronic configurations, the same number of
of space, these are written at the bottom of the periodic table. e–1s in outer orbitals and similar properties.
For ex: all the group 1 elements have ns1 valence shell electronic
NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS WITH ATOMIC configuration.
NUMBER > 100
s-, p-, d- AND f- BLOCK ELEMENTS
A systematic nomenclature has been derived to directly name the
Elements can be classified into four blocks: s-block, p-block, d-
element from its atomic number using numerical roots for 0 and block and f-block depending upon the type of atomic orbitals that
numbers 1-9. The roots are put together in order of digits which being filled with electrons.
make up the atomic number and ‘ium’ is added at the end.
The s-block Elements
Ex : Name of element with atomic number 101 is Unnilunium, 102 is
(i) General electronic configuration is ns1–2
unnilbium, 103 is unniltrium, etc. and their symbols are Unu, Unb, (ii) Group 1 and Group 2 elements are s-block elements because
Unt. they have ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic configuration.
 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 49

(iii) They are all reactive metals with low ionisation energy. They Metalloids
lose the outermost e–1s readily to form +1 ion (grp 1) or +2 The elements which lie on the borderline between metals and non-
ion (grp 2). metals show properties that are characteristic of both metals and
Their compounds are predominently ionic (except Li and Bi). non-metals. They are called semi-metals or metalloids.
(iv) Group 1 elements are known as alkali metals because they PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS
react with water to form alkali. Group 2 elements are known Atomic Radius
as alkaline earth metals because their oxides react with water It is defined as half the distance between the nuclei of two bonded
to form alkali and these are found in the soil or earth. The atoms. It refers to both covalent and metallic radius depending on
total number of s-block elements are 14. whether the element is metal or non-metal.
The p-block Elements Atomic radii decreases across a period because e–1s are being
(i) General electronic configuration is ns2 np1– 6 added into same valence shell so that the effective nuclear charge
(ii) They comprise of elements from group 13 to 18. increases as the atomic number increases resulting in increased
(iii) Group 16 elements are called chalcogens while group 17 attraction of e–1s to the nucleus.
elements are called halogens. In a group, atomic radius increases. This is because down the
(iv) Group 18 elements are the noble gases due to completely group, principal quantum number (n) increases and e– is being
filled valence shell. As a result, they are less reactive, added into new shell. As a result valence e–1s are farther from the
(v) The non-metallic character increases as we move from left to nucleus. Thus, nuclear attraction decreases and therefore size
right across a period. Down the group metallic character increases.
increases. Ionic Radius
(vi) The p-block elements together with s-block elements are The removal of an e– from an atom results in the formation of
called Representative elements. cation whereas gain of an e– leads to an anion.
The d-block Elements Ionic radii of elements exhibit the same trend as atomic radii.
(i) General electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1–10 ns0-2 A cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has fewer e–1s
(ii) They comprise of group 3 to 12. They are all metals. while its nuclear charge remains the same.
(iii) They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable oxidation The size of anion is larger than parent atom because addition of
states paramagnetism and are used as catalysts. one or more e –1 s results in increased repulsion among
(iv) They form a bridge between chemically active metals of e–1s and a decrease in effective nuclear charge.
s-block and less active metals of group 13 and 14 and thus Isoelectronic species have different radii due to their different
are called ‘Transition Elements’. nuclear charges. Cation with greater positive charge has smaller
(v) Zn, Cd and Hg though are d-block elements but do not known radius due to greater effective nuclear charge. Anion with greater
as transition elements because in these elements negative charge will have larger radius because the net repulsion
d-orbitals are fully filled. of the e–1s will outweigh the nuclear charge and the ion expands
The f-block Elements in size.
(i) General electronic configuration is (n – 2)f 1–14 (n – 1) d0–1 Ionization Enthalpy (IE)
ns 2 It is the amount of energy required to convert gaseous neutral
(ii) They comprise of the two rows of elements at the bottom of atom into cation, i.e. X( g ) ¾¾ ® X+ ( g ) + e-
periodic Table, called the Lanthanoids and Actinoids. Ionization energy is always positive because energy is always
(iii) These two series of elements are called Inner transition required to remove e–1s from an atom.
elements. IE3 > IE2 > IE1 This is because it is more difficult to remove an e–
(iv) They are all metals. The chemistry of early actinoids is more from a positively charged species than from a neutral atom. Down
complicated than corresponding lanthanoids due to larger the group, atomic size increases and IE decreases. While across a
number of oxidation state possible for actinoid elements period, atomic size decreases and IE increases.
(v) The elements after uranium are called Transuranium elements. Factors governing the Ionization energy
Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids (i) Nuclear charge: IE increases with increases in nuclear charge.
The elements can be divided into Metals and Non-metals. (ii) Atomic size: IE decreases as atomic radius decreases.
Metals (iii) Penetrating effect of e–1s: IE increases as penetration effect
(i) They appear on the left hand side of periodic table. of e–1s increases. Within the same shell, penetration effect
(ii) They are usually solids at room temperature (except Hg which decreases in the order : s > p > d > f. Thus, IE to knock out
is a liquid at room temperature) s – e– will be higher than p – e– of the same shell.
(iii) They have high m.pts and b.pts, are good conductors of (iv) Shielding or screening effect of inner shell e –1 s: As
heat and electricity and are malleable and ductile. shielding or screening effect of inner e–1s. increases, IE
Non-metals decreases.
(i) They are located at the top right hand side of the periodic (v) Effect of exactly half-filled or completely filled orbitals: More
table. stable the electronic configuration, greater is the IE. This is
(ii) They are usually solids or gases at room temperature with because of extra stability associated with exactly half-filled
low m.pts and b.pts. or completely filled orbitals due to which more energy is
(iii) They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. required to remove the e–. This is the reason why IE of N is
(iv) They are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile. more than that of O.
 50 CHEMISTRY

(vi) Noble gases, being stable with completely filled orbital have SUMMARY OF TRENDS IN PERIODIC PROPERTIES
the highest IE in their respective periods. OF ELEMENTS.
Electron Gain Enthalpy (EGE)
It is defined as the energy released when a neutral isolated gaseous
atom accepts an extra e– to form gaseous negative ion, i.e., anion,
i.e. X( g ) + e - ¾¾® X- (g)
After the addition of one e–, the atom becomes negatively charged
and 2nd e– is to be added to a negatively charged ion. But the
addition of 2nd e– is opposed by electrostatic repulsion and hence
energy has to be supplied for addition of 2nd e–. Thus, 2nd electron
gain enthalpy of an element is positive.
Factors on which EGE depends
(i) Atomic size: As size increases EGE becomes less negative.
PERIODIC TRENDS AND CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
(ii) Nuclear charge: As nuclear charge increases, EGE becomes
Chemical reactivity is highest at the two extremes of a period and
more negative. is lowest in the centre.
(iii) Electronic configuration: Elements having exactly half-filled Nature of Oxides
or completely filled orbitals are very stable and have large If difference of the two electronegativities (XO–XA) is 2.3 or more
positive electron gain enthalpy because they do not accept then oxide will be basic in nature. Similarly if value of XO–XA is
additional e– easily. slightly lower than 2.3 then oxide will be amphoteric and if value of
Variation of EGE in periodic table XO–XA is highly lower than 2.3 then oxide will be of acidic nature.
(i) Down the group, atomic size increases, EGE becomes less Nature of Hydroxides
According to Gallis, if electronegativity of A in a hydroxide (AOH)
negative. Across a period, atomic size decreases, nuclear
is more than 1.7 then it will be acidic in nature whereas it will be
charge increases and EGE becomes more negative. basic in nature if electronegativity is less than 1.7
(ii) Halogens have very high negative EGE because they attain Note : Compounds formed from two nonmetals are called binary
stable noble gas electronic configuration by accepting an e–. compounds. Name of more electronegative element is written at
(iii) Noble gases have large positive EGE because the e– has to the end and ‘ide’ is suffixed to it. The name of less electronegative
enter the next higher shell leading to a very unstable electronic element is written before the name of more electronegative element
configuration. of the formula.
(iv) EGE of O or F is less negative than the succeeding element S Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation State
or Cl. This is because when an e– is added to O or F, the O.S. of an element in a particular compound is defined as the
added e– goes to smaller n = 2 quantum level and suffers charge acquired by its atom on the basis of electronegativity of
other atoms in the molecule. The valence of representative
significant repulsion from other e–1s in this level. For n = 3 elements is usually equal to no. of e–1s in outermost shell.
level (S or Cl), added e– occupies a larger region of space and Variation of oxidation state in periodic table
e– – e– repulsion is much less. Across a period, no. of valence e–1s increases from 1 to 8. The
Electronegativity valence of elements first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases
It is the tendency of an atom of the element to attract the shared to zero.
Down the group, no. of valence e–1s remain the same, and therefore,
pair of e–1s towards itself in a covalent bond. It is represented by
all elements in a group exhibit the same valence.
X. Noble gases are zerovalent, i.e., their valence is zero because they
The electronegativity of any given element is not constant but are chemically inert.
depends on the following factors: ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF SECOND PERIOD
(i) State of hybridization: sp-hybridized carbon is more ELEMENTS
electronegative than sp2 hybridized which in turn is more The first element of each of the groups 1 (Li) and 2(Be) and groups
electronegative than sp3 hybridized carbon. 13-17 (B to F) differs in many respects from other members of its
(iii) O.S. of the element: As O.S. of the element increases, group. Moreover, the behaviour of Li and Be is more similar with
electronegativity increases. the 2nd element of following group i.e. Mg and Al. This sort of
(iv) Nature of substituents attached to the atom: For ex: C-atom similarity is referred to as diagonal relationship in periodic
properties.
in CF3I is more electronegative than in CH3I.
The anomalous behaviour of these elements is attributed to their
Variation of electronegativity in periodic table (i) small size (ii) large charge / radius ratio (iii) high electronegativity
(i) Down the group, atomic radius increases, electronegativity (iv) non-availability of orbitals due to which they cannot expand
decreases their covalence beyond 4.
Across a period, atomic radius and nuclear charge increases, For example : Because of smaller size and higher electronegativity
electronegativity increases. first member of p-block elements displays greater ability to form
(ii) F is the most electronegative element and caesium is the pp-pp multiple bonds to itself (C = C, C º C, N º N) and to other 2nd
period elements (C = O, C = N, C º N, N = O) compared to
least electronegative element.
subsequent members of same group.
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 51

CONCEPT MAP