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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Chapter outline
 Introduction
 Physical parts of a computer.
 Development of computers.
 Classification of computers.
 Areas where computers are used.
 The computer laboratory.
 Practical hands on skills.

DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data process it using instruction /commands to give
information (output).
Computer is an electronic device that performs logical and arithmetic operation on data and it can
store it for future reference

Data-This is raw facts do not have meaning to the user. They include numbers, letters and symbols
when processed under instruction they become information.

Information-is processed data that is meaningful to the user and can be used to make decisions.

NB; A computer is classified as electronic because it utilizes small electronic signals to process
information.
Before 20th century much of the work of processing information was done manually or by use of
simple machines.
Today computers are popular in offices, homes, schools, etc. They are being used to process and
store all kinds of data.
There are integration of computers and telecommunication facilities for the purpose of
communication.

PARTS OF A COMPUTER

A computer is made of collection of components. These components are interconnected together to

make a computer to function as one entity
A computer is made up of basically two parts
1. Hardware (system unit and peripheral devices)
2. Software

These two work to create meaningful output of any data we input

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HARDWARE

This refers to all the tangible parts of a computer they include

SYSTEM UNIT
This is the part that houses the brain of the computer called central processing unit (C.P.U) it also
houses other devices called drives.
Drives are used to store, record and read data

PERIPHERAL DEVICES
These are devices that are connected to the system unit using special cable called data interface cables
that carry data and information to and from the device.
These cables are attached to the system unit using connecters called ports.
Peripheral devices include printers, speakers, microphone, scanners, joystick, digital cameras, etc
NB
Any device that can be connected to system unit to perform specific tasks fall in class of peripheral
device

THE KEYBOARD
It enables the user to enter data and instruction by pressing keys on it (input device)

THE MOUSE
It enables the user to issue instruction to the computer by controlling special mouse pointer displayed
on the screen.

THE MONITOR
It is called monitor mainly because through it we monitor what on the system unit. It displays
processed data. A monitor looks like a television screen
SOFTWARE
This refers to programs (set of instructions that run in computer memory). Just like hardware software
can also be grouped into 3 basic groups namely.
 System software
 Application software
 Programming languages.
Most software falls into one of these categories.
Advantages of computers.
1. Computer output is mostly neat and accurate.
2. Computer can repeat tasks as per instructions.
3. Computer is fast in their output they produce constant output no deviation.
4. They store files for future use.
5. They are standard machines using basic operation method globally.
6. They can perform multitasking. This is the ability to do more than one job at a time.

Disadvantages of computers
1. They can be affected by viruses.
2. They are expensive to maintain.
3. They are entirely dependent on instructions such that if you input wrong data you get wrong
results.
4. Computer software is always on the change within a short time. An operator needs to up date
his/her knowledge regularly.
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NB. A virus is a program that interferes with computer operations to make it abnormal.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS

Before 1900 most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones and
slicks to count and keep record. Therefore historical development of computer can he traced
back to the time when humans were struggling to invent tools that could simplify
mathematical calculations. The following were some of the tools that were invented for this
purpose. Abacus. Napier bones. Slide rule, La pascaline machine ,weaving loom and
analytical engine.

Abacus
An abacus was a Chinese instrument which dates back to 3000 BC. An abacus has bead
like parts that move along the rods .Each bead above the middle bar ( cross bar) stands for
five units and each head below the middle bar( cross bar ) stand for one unit Representing
numbers using an abacus.
Napier bones
Napier bones was developed by John Napier , a Scottish mathematician in the 1 7th century
To help in counting. It si made up of marked strips of wood or bone placed side to side with each
other.
Slide rule
A slide rule was invented by William Oughtred in 17th century is a tool that can be used to perform
arithmetic operations.
La pascaline machine
La pascaline machine was made by Blaise Pascal in the 17l century. This machine could add and
subtract numbers.
Weaving loom
In early 19th century .Joseph Jacquard built a weaving loom which could be programmed using
punched cards to pick out threads and weave them in patterns .This idea of using punched cards to
control patterns helped later inventors to develop calculating machines that could follow simple
instructions.
The analytical engine.
Charles Babbage an English mathematician designed a machine that could calculate a long series of
numbers and print the outcome . he called it the difference engine . later in 1932 , he improved the
design of the machine by incorporating the idea of programming using punched cards . He called it
the <
Analytical engine. However, the analytical engine was never constructed. The analytical engine is
recognised as the first real computer and Babbage as the father of computing.
Electronic computers
It took some time after Babbage designed analytical engine to come up with electronic computer.
The first computer like machine Mark 1 was designed in 1939 by Prof Haward Aken of Holland
university in 1939 it became operational in 1943 . it weighted 5 tonnes and was 16 m long. Since
then
rapid changes have been made and can be categorised in five generations .

First generation ( 1940's to 1958)

This generation of computers were large in physical size and used thousands of
electronic gadgets called Vacuum tube / thermionic valves . Characteristics of first
generation computers.
• Emitted a lot of heat.
• Were very large in size .
• Consumed a lot of power.
• Were difficult to program, use and maintain.
• Used magnetic drum memories.
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Examples Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) and the Electronic Disci etc Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC

Second generation ( 1958 - 1964).

This generation of computeks operated using tiny solid state electronic gadgets called transistors .
Transistors are small electronic components that transfer electronic signals across a resistor.

Characteristic of second generation computers.

• Emitted less heat compared to the first generation computers.
• Were smaller than first generation computers.
• Were difficult to program, use and maintain.
• Relied on magnetic core memories.
Examples of second generation computers include IBM 1401& 7070,UNIVAC 1107,ATLAS LEO
Mark III and Honeywell 200.

Third generation computers (1964-1970).

The third generation used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (1C] instead of transistors.
An integrated circuit consist of thousands of small transistors circuits etched on a semiconductor
called SILICON CHIP. Characteristics of 3rd generation computers.
• Emitted less heat.
• Were small in size .
• Were easier to program .use and maintain compared to their
predecessors.
•
Examples IBM 360,and ICL 19000 series.

Fourth generation computers(1970 to present).

From 1970 further technological improvement was done on the silicon chip design by
compressing more tiny circuits and transistors into even smaller space. This design produced
what is called Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
Circuit which were used in innovation and technological development of the brain of computer
called microprocessor. The result was development of small computers with very high processing
speed and reduction of physical size. Characteristics of fourth generation computers.
• Emit very little heat.
• Are very small in size
• Are very easy to maintain and use.
Examples of 4th generation computers are IBM 370 and 4300, Honey well DPS -88 and Burroughs
7700

Fifth generation computers.

This generation falls in today's computers that have very high processing speed and power than
their predecessors .whose size is increasing becoming smaller. These computers have special
instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that mimic human intelligence often
referred to as artificial intelligence.
Characteristics of fifth generation
computers. • • Use artificial
intelligence.
• Massive connectivity to internet and intranet.
• Superior hardware and software products that are small in size.
• Emit negligible heat.
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Examples of fifth generation computer include portable computers , artificial intelligence and natural
language processing systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS.
Computers can be classified in many ways. However, the three most common methods of
classification are by:
 Physical size and processing power.
 Purpose.
 Functionality.

(a) Classification according to physical size and processing power.

Based on physical size computers can be classified into four main groups namely supercomputers,
Mainframe computers, minicomputers and micro computers.
Super computers.

They are the fastest, largest, most expensive, powerful computers and have largest memory capacity.
They are able to perform many complex operations in a fraction of a second due to their huge
processing power; supercomputers generate a lot of heat therefore special cooling systems are needed.
Sometimes the whole C.P.U is immersed in an aquarium like tank containing liquid fluorocarbon to
provide cooling.
Super computers are mainly found in large research stations and are used to control complex
operations and perform complex calculations. Typical application areas are in space science, nuclear
physics and aerodynamics.
Mainframe computers
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They are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers. They are big in size and they are
mainly used for processing data and performing complex mathematical calculations they have large
storage capacity and can support a variety of peripherals.
Mainframe computers are mostly used in large businesses, government agencies, big organisations and
companies such as banks, hospitals, and airports etc which have large information processing needs
where they act as network servers.
Minicomputers
It resembles the mainframe but it is slightly smaller, thus referred to as small scale mainframe
computers although it supports fewer peripheral devices and is not as powerful as the mainframe
computers it was developed as a cheaper alternative to the mainframe computers for smaller
organisation.
They are mainly used in scientific laboratories, research institutions, engineering plants and places
where processing automation is required in manufacturing industries. They are well adapted for
functions such as accounting, word processing, database management and specific industrial
applications.
Micro computers.

Microcomputers also known as personal computers (PC) are the smallest in size, cheapest and slowest
compared to the other three types. They are called micro computers because their processor is very
tiny.
Microprocessors are mainly used in offices, training and learning institutions, small business
enterprises, communication centres among others. Technological advancement has seen the
development of smaller microcomputers. The following are various types of micro processors in
operation today arranged in descending order of according to size.
a) Desktop computer: is designed to be placed on top of an office desk.
b) Notebook or lap top computer: they are portable PCs and more expensive compared to desktop
PCs, they use power from mains as well as rechargeable batteries. The batteries however
require regular charging because they discharge within hours.
c) Palm tops: They are light and small in enough to fit in the palm of hard and the pocket of a
jacket and often referred as hand held’s. They are limited in functions and are most affordable
of all personal computers. Examples are Personal digital assistant (PDA’s).
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(b)Classification according to purpose

This is according to the tasks they perform either general or special purpose computers.

Special purpose computers

They are designed to perform one specialised function this means the instructions which drive
special purpose computers are limited in number at time of manufacture. Example of such
computers include robots used in manufacturing industries , mobile phones for communication
only, electronic calculators, digital camera , also found in appliances such as a watch ,an oven ,a
smart card etc in which they are embedded. The computers measure and control the value of item
being measured and if need arises alerts the user accordingly. For this way the embedded computer
can for example warm food in micro wave , regulate amount of fuel in fuel injection system, adjust
the focus of digital camera etc and it is for this reason special purpose computers are often called
micro – controllers.
General purpose computers.
These computers are designed to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with appropriate
programs . They are common type in use today. The flexibility enables them to be applied in wide
range of applications like document processing, performing calculations, accounting, data and
information measurement among others.
They are further classified as stand alone or networked according to the way they are organised
and used.
Stand alone
A stand alone computer has no connection between itself and any other computers meaning that
there is no direct way of exchange of information between it and other computers apart from use of
storage devices.
Networked computers.
A network is connection between two or more computer to share data, information & printer.
When used in a network a general purpose computer becomes either a server or client.
 As server holds information that can be accessed by other computers called clients on the
network.
 A client is any computer allowed to access information on the server
A Network that supports both a server & client is called client/server network.
One can also have a peer to peer network in which computers equal as clients without a server.

(c)Classification according to functionality

In this computers are classified according to the type of data they can process.
Data can either be discrete or continuous form.
Discrete data also called digital data are represented by distinct values e.g. 2, 3, 45, 10983,
While continuous data also called analogue data can represented progressively changing values
over time.
Digital computers
They process data that is discrete in nature. Discrete data also known as digital data is usually
represented using two state square waveform.

Apart from PCs most modern home appliances such as digital TVs, micro waves, wall clocks and
other electronic home appliances are digital in nature.
Analog computers
This refers to computers that process data that is continuous in nature. Continuous data also known as
analog data are usually represented using a continuous wave form shown below.
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Analogue computers are used in manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace
temperatures, pressure etc. they are also used in other applications like in weather stations to record
and process physical quantities e.g. wind speed, temperature etc.
Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue and digital data.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED

Computers have become important tools in our day to day operations. This is because they are more
efficient and accurate. The following are some of the areas where computers are used.
a) HOMES
At homes computers are used for entertainment, playing games or watching movies and cable
news. They may also be used for communication sending and receiving e- mails as well as
browsing( looking for) information on the internet also parents can use computers to keep their
home running accounts.
b) Banks
At banks computer can be used to control large database of the bank customers, control ATM, s
(Automated Teller Machines) which enable people to withdraw money through a computer
interface.
c) Business
Computer can be used to keep business records including sales, expenses e.t.c in this field a
computer is very important because of its accuracy, the fast speed in operating and the ability to
store records for future reference. They are also applied in word processing, payroll management,
inventory or stock control, data analysis, vehicle fleet control, desktop publishing, graphic design,
e-mail communication, e-commerce (sales through internet), shops and supermarkets.
f) Government offices
Both local and central government use computer for general administration for keeping their
accounts and payroll management. Computers are also used to keep information of applications
such as
Registration of births and deaths, Registration of voters, Registration of motor vehicle.
Keeping records of government employees
Keeping records of all registered companies and many more.

d) Hospitals
Computers are used to keep patients records to provide easy access to a patients treatment and
diagnosis history. Computerised medical devices are now being used to get across section views
of patients that enable physicians to get proper diagnosis of offered parts o9f the body with high
level of accuracy. Computers also control life support machines in intensive care units(I.C.U).
e) Engineering
Computers can be programmed to control other production machines in the industries in that
case they bring about increased production in quality and quantity. The computer age has seen
the wide use of remote controlled devices perform tasks that are too dangerous or complex and
tedious to assign to human beings.
f) Communications
Integration of computers and telecommunication facilities has made message transmission and
reaction to be very fast and efficient. Because of the speed in which information can be
transmitted in the world is said to have become a global village.
g) Law enforcement agencies.
Information held in computers such as finger prints photographs and other identification details
help law enforcers carry out criminal investigations.
h) Education
Computers are widely used in teaching and learning process. Learning and teaching using
computers is referred to as computer Aided Learning(C.A.I) and Computer Aided
Instruction(C.A.I). for example experiments in subjects like chemistry or physics may be
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demonstrated using special computer programs that can depict them on the screen through a
process called simulation.
i) Library service
In computerised library, a computer enables library personnel to easily access and keep updated
records of books and other library materials. Library users can also use computers to search for
titles instead of using manual card catalogue.

THE COMPUTER LABORATORY

A computer laboratory is a special room set aside and prepared specifically for safe installation
and use of a computer. In schools a computer laboratory provides a safe conducive environment
for teaching and learning of computer studies and I.C.T related displines.
The following are the factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.
 Security of computers hardware and software.
 Reliability of the source of power.
 Number of computers to be set up.
 Maximum number of users.
Safety precautions and practices.
The computer laboratory just like any other laboratory should be set up with safety precautions on
mind. Safety precautions and practises can be divided into measures that are meant to protect
computers and those meant to protect the users.
Measures meant to protect computers.
 Burglar proofing the room. This involves fitting grill on doors, windows and roof to deter
forceful entry into computer room. Installing an intrusion detection alarm systems and
employing guards also increase the level of security, alertness against theft of computers
and their accessories.
 Installing fire prevention and control equipments such as smoke detectors and fire
extinguishers. The extinguishers should be gaseous type and should not be non liquid and
non powder based. This is because liquid my cause rusting and corrosion of computer
components on other hand powder particles may increase friction and wear off moving
parts. The particles may also cause hard disk crash.
 Providing stable power supply by installing voltage regulators, surge protectors or
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) for each computer and power back up generator.
 Installing lightening arrestors on computer room.
 The room should be well laid out- there should be enough space for movement computers
should be placed on stable, wide enough desk to avoid accidentally knocking them down ,
cable should be laid away from paths to avoid user tripping over them.
 Dust and damp control- By fitting window curtains and air conditioning systems that filters
dust particles from entering the room; also the computers should be covered with dust
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covers when not in use. On the other hand dampness or humidity in the lab can be
controlled by using dehumidifiers as high humidity leads to rusting of metallic parts of the
computers.
 Cable and power sockets should be well insulated and correct rating to avoid short circuits
that damage computer components.
 The users should not eat or drink in computer laboratory food particles may fall in moving
parts like keyboard and clog them while liquid may pour into electrical circuits and cause
short circuit.
Measures that protect the user.
 All cables should be insulated to avoid the danger of electric shock to the users.
 Cables should be laid away from the user paths to avoid tripping on them.
 Providing standard furniture . To avoid poor posture during machine use this may lead to strain
injury and limb fatigue. The table should be of right height relative to the seat to provide
comfortable hand positioning. The seat should have an upright backrest and should be high
enough to allow the eyes of the user to be at the same level with the top of the screen.
 Providing anti glare screen (light filters) and adjustable screens to avoid eye strain and fatigue
caused by over bright monitors.
 The room should be properly ventilated to avoid dizziness caused by lack of adequate oxygen
and allow the computer to cool also overcrowding should be avoided.
 The walls of the computer should not be painted with over bright reflective oil paints and
screens should face away from windows to avoid reflection by bright backgrounds.
 Running and playing in computer room is not allowed.

Practical hands on skills.

Computer user need to have basic skills so as to effectively use computers. This skill involves using
the correct procedure when switching on and off the computer and keyboarding and mouse skills.
Booting

Booting is the process by which the computer loads system files into main memory this process also
involves carrying out of diagnostic tests.
Cold booting
Starting a computer by turning on using its power button. It automatically goes through a process of
self test referred to as power on self test (POST).POST checks on existing drives, basic input and
output devices such as the key board, monitor and the mouse. If a problem is encountered the process
is halted and error message is displayed on the screen. POST is accomplished by a special firmware
program called Basic Input / Output system (BIOS) held in ROM chip mounted on the mother board.
Lastly a special type of computer program used to manage computers called Operating System is
loaded into computer memory.
Warm booting.
This is restarting a computer that have failed to respond to commands (Hanged)by pressing a
combination of keys Ctrl + Alt + Del or pressing reset button on the computer.
Shutting down a computer.
Correct procedure should be followed when shutting down a computer to avoid data loss, damage of
programs and hard disk.
Procedure of shutting down a computer.
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 Ensure that all the work has been properly stored. –saved
 Close all programs that may be currently running.
 If your computer is running on Micro soft Windows XP or Vista.
Click the start button
On start menu, click Turn off computer.
On the message box that appears click turn off . The computer will under go the shut down
process.

The system Unit is shut down, then switch off the monitor, then UPS finally switch off from the
socket.
Keyboarding and mouse skills.
Keyboard and mouse are the most widely used devices hence need for one to be conversant with using
them.
Keyboard layout.

The keys in the computer keyboard are arranged is the same way they are in typewriter . The typical
computer keyboard the first typing keys are Q,W,E,R,T,Y keys on thus commonly called QWERTY
keyboard.
The keys on the keyboard can be classified into five categories namely alphanumeric (typing) keys,
Function keys, Cursor movement and editing keys, Special PC keys and Numeric keypad keys.
Alphanumeric keys.
They are also known as typing keys labelled with alphabetic letters A to Z Numeric numbers 0-9 and
special symbols such !,@,#,$,%,^,&,*This group also includes keys caps lock, enter, tab, space bar
and backspace.
Caps lock key: Pressing this key lets the user to type in upper case letters (capitals). T o switch back
to lower case letters simply press the same again.
Enter key (return key) : pressing this key forces the text to move to the next line . the enter key is
also used to execute command that have been selected.
Tab key: this key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line e.g. 10mm, 20mm
etc.
Space bar. This creates a space between words during typing.
The back space key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line.

Function keys
They are located at the top of the keyboard. They are labelled F1 to F12. They are used for tasks that
occur frequently in various programs e.g. pressing F1 key in most programs start the help menu.
Cursor movement and editing keys.
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They are used to move cursor on the screen. They include.

Arrow keys: Pressing the right or left arrow keys moves the cursor one character to the right or left
respectively. Pressing upward or downward arrow keys moves the text cursor one lone up or down
respectively.
Page up and page down keys: pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page in case the
document has many pages. Pressing page down key moves the cursor down one page in case the
document has many pages.
Home and end keys: Pressing home keys moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line.
Pressing end moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in a document. They include
Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position.
Delete(Del) key; This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to right or block of
characters.

Special purpose keys

This keys are used in combination with other keys to give certain commands to a computer. For
example Ctrl+Esc are used to display the start menu. Special purpose keys are SHIFT, CTRL, ALT
and ESC.
Numeric keypad keys.
It consist of set of numbers 0 to 9 and arithmetic signs + (addition),-(minus),*(multiplication) and /
(division). They are located on right hand side of the keyboard. It is meant tom help the user enter
numbers quickly they are active only when the Num lock key is on. Otherwise they can be used as
cursor movement key when the Num lock key is turned off.
Mouse skills
Clicking means pressing and releasing the left mouse button once.
Double clicking – pressing the left button twice in quick succession. Double clicking usually opens a
file or starts a program.
Right clicking –pressing the right hand side button once displays a list of commands from which the
user can make a selection. This list of commands is called short cut menu or context sensitive menu.
Drag and drop – the user drags an item from one location on the screen to another.
Drag – press and hold down left button and then move the mouse to the new location.
Drop- release the button immediately after dragging the item to the new location.
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TOPIC 2:COMPUTER SYSTEMS

System
A system can be defined as a collection of interrelated components that work together towards a
collective goal. The function of a system is to receive inputs and transform them into outputs.

Information System
An information system is a system that accepts data resources as input and processes them into
information products as output.

Computer System
A computer system is a collection of entities that work together to process data and manage
information using computers.

Components of a computer system

A computer system consists of three main components namely;
(i) People (liveware/orgware)
People are required for the operation of all computer systems. These people resources include
end users and specialists.
 End users (also called users or clients) are people who use computer system or the information
it produces. They can be accountants, salespersons, engineers, clerks, customers, or managers.
Most of us are information system end users.

 Computer Specialists are people who develop and operate computer systems. They include
systems analysts, programmers, computer operators etc.
(ii) Hardware
Computer hardware includes all physical or tangible components of a computer system.
Examples of computer hardware are:
 Central Processing Unit
 Input devices e.g. keyboard, mouse
 Output devices e.g. printers and monitors
 Secondary storage devices e.g. hard disks and flash disks
(iii) Software
Computer software refers to the instructions that tell the computer hardware how to perform a
task.
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COMPUTER HARDWARE
The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped into four major categories namely:
 Input devices
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Output devices
 Secondary Storage devices
The diagram below shows functional organization of the computer hardware.

CONTROL UNIT
(CU)

ARITHMETIC/
LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

INPUT MAIN OUPUT

DEVICES MEMORY DEVICES

SECONDARY
STORAGE

Legend/Key

Data/Instruction Flow

Command/Control Flow

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are computer hardware that translates data from human readable into a form that the
computer can process. In other words, input devices allow people to put or enter data into the
computer in a form the computer can use. The human-readable form may be words like the ones in
these sentences but the computer-readable form consists of binary 0s and 1s, or on and off signals.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. These include:
 Keying devices
 Pointing devices
 Scanning devices
 Speech/Voice recognition devices
 Digital devices

Keying devices
Keying devices are input devices are input hardware that convert numbers and other characters into
machine readable from. Keying devices include keyboard and keypad. Key pads are found on devices
such smart phones and ATMs (Automatic Teller Machines).
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Because keying devices require typing by people, the data input this way is less accurate than data
input via non-keyboard source data entry devices.

Pointing devices
One of the most natural of all human gestures is the act of pointing. This concept is incorporated in
several kinds of input devices. The pointing devices used with microcomputers are the mouse, the
trackball, the joystick and the touchpad all of which have variations. All pointing devices have the
same purpose; allowing the user to move the cursor (or pointer) around the screen and to click to
select items or perform other functions.

Mouse
A mouse is a device that is rolled about on a desktop to direct a pointer on the computer’s display
screen. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse, its connecting wire that one
can imagine to be the mouse's tail, and the fact that one must make it scurry along a surface. When
you move the mouse on the desktop, the pointer on the screen moves in the same direction. The
mouse pointer is the symbol that indicates the position of the mouse on the display screen. The
pointer will change from an arrow to a pointing finger icon depending on the task you are performing.
It also changes to the shape of an I-beam to indicate where text or other data may be entered.

Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many as three, which have different functions
depending on what program is running. Some newer mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling
through long documents. The movement of the mouse over a flat surface is mirrored by a pointer on
the monitor screen. Buttons on the mouse allow you to make selections from the menus, move objects
around the screen and paint or draw.

Types of Mice

Mechanical Mice
Mechanical mice use a rubber-coated ball that contacts the mouse pad. Moving the mouse causes the
ball to move, which in turn causes one or both of the internal cylindrical rollers with which the ball is
in contact to move.

Advantages
 Mechanical mice are inexpensive.

Disadvantages
 They require frequent cleaning since the ball can get dirty. Dirt causes the mouse pointer to move
erratically.
 They provide limited resolution
 They are unreliable because of many moving parts

Optical Mice
Optical mouse uses an optical sensor instead of the mouse ball. It emits a small beam of red light
which bounces off the surface into a sensor. The sensor sends co-ordinates to the computer which in
turn moves the cursor or pointer on the monitor screen, according to these co-ordinates.
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Advantages
 Do not require frequent cleaning as mechanical mice.
 More reliable because of the reduced number of moving parts
 Can slide over most surfaces since it does not have a ball.

Disadvantages
 They are more expensive than mechanical mice

Cordless Mouse
The cordless mouse uses the wireless communication technology (via infrared, radio or Bluetooth) to
transmit data to the computer. And like the wireless, it doesn’t use any cord.

Mouse Terminology
The terms you are most likely to encounter when using a mouse or a trackball are as follows:
Point To move the pointer to the desired spot on the display screen such as over a particular
word or object.
Click Tap – that is press and quickly release the left mouse button. A click often selects an
item on the display screen.
Double Click Tap – press and release the left mouse button twice in quick succession. A double
click often opens a document or starts a program.

Right Click Tap – press and release the right mouse button. Right clicking brings up a pop-up
menu with options available to the object over which the cursor is positioned.

Shift Click Press and release the left mouse button while holding the Shift key down. Shift
clicking enables you to select multiple items.

Drag Press and hold the left mouse button while moving the pointer to another location.

Drop Releasing the mouse button after dragging

 - 17 -

Trackball
Another pointing device, the trackball is a variant on the mouse. A trackball is a movable ball on top
of a stationary device that is rotated with the fingers or palm of the hand. A trackball looks like a
mouse turned upside down. To move the pointer, you rotate the ball with your thumb, your fingers, or
the palm of your hand. There are usually one to three buttons next to the ball, which you use just like
mouse buttons.

The touchpad
The touchpad contains a touch-sensitive pad and is normally found on laptops. It is a pressure- and
motion-sensitive flat surface about the same size as a mouse over which you move your fingers to
control the cursor/pointer on the screen. Buttons placed close to this surface allow for selection of
features on the screen.

The Pointing Stick

A pointing stick is a pointing device first developed by IBM for its notebook computers. Most
pointing sticks are pressure-sensitive, so the pointer moves faster when more pressure is applied. The
pointing stick found on laptop computers looks like a pencil eraser. It protrudes from the keyboard
between the B, G and H keys. Pushing on the pointing stick with your finger will move the pointer
around the screen. Once again, buttons placed close by allow for selection of features on the screen.

Joysticks
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick which lets you control the movement of an object on
the screen by operating a small lever. It is used mainly for computer games such as flight simulators
and occasionally for CAM/CAD systems. Special joysticks are also available for people with
disabilities that don’t let them use a mouse or a trackball.

Light pen
The light pen is a light-sensitive stylus or pen-like device connected by a wire to the computer
terminal. It allows you to point and make selections more accurately on a screen. The tip of the light
pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against the screen, detects the light from the
screen and enables the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen. Making selections
with a light pen is far more accurate than using your finger to make selections on a touch sensitive
screen. Light pens also allow the user to draw directly on the screen. However, they are not as accurate
as a digitising tablet and drawing can become uncomfortable.
 - 18 -

Digitising tablet (graphics tablet)

A digitising tablet is a board which can detect the position of a pointing device such as a stylus or a
puck on its surface. A stylus is a pen-like pointing device for a user sketches an image on the
graphics/digitising tablet. A puck is a copying device with which the user traces or copies an image.
The images the user sketches are displayed on the computer screen. Digitizing tablets are used
primarily in graphics design, computer animation and engineering.

Pen-Based Systems
Pen-based computer systems use a pen-like stylus to enter handwriting and marks into a computer.
Small handheld computers called PDAs (Personal digital assistants) use pen-based input.

Touch Screens
A touch screen is a video display screen that has been sensitized to receive input from the touch of a
finger. Behind the screen, which is covered with a plastic layer, there are invisible beams of infrared
light. The user can input a request for information by pressing on displayed buttons and then see the
requested information displayed as output on the screen.

Touch screens are often used in automatic teller machines, in directories displaying tourist information
in airports and hotels, in fast-food restaurants to select menu items and in preschool multimedia
education.

SOURCE-DATA (DIRECT) ENTRY

Source-data input devices do not require keystrokes to input data to the computer. Data is entered from
as close to the source as possible; people do not need to act as typing intermediaries. Source-data entry
devices include scanning devices, voice recognition input devices and digital input devices

Scanning Devices
Scanners are input devices that use laser beams and reflected light to translate hardcopy images of
text, drawings and photos into digital form. The images can then be processed by a computer,
displayed on a monitor, stored on a storage device, or communicated to another computer. Scanning
devices can be classified according to the technology they use to capture data. These are optical
scanners magnetic scanners.

Magnetic Scanners
Magnetic scanners capture by using magnetic technology. Magnetic scanners include: magnetic-ink
character recognition (MICR) and magnetic stripe.

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a scanner that translates the magnetically charged
numbers printed at the bottom of bank cheques and deposit slips. MICR characters, which are printed
with magnetized ink, are read by MICR equipment, producing a digital signal. This signal is used by a
bank’s reader/sorter machine to sort cheques.

MICR is mainly used in the banking industry to read/sort cheques. Bank cheques have the following
information encoded in them:
• The cheque number
• The bank branch number
• The customer’s account number.
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Magnetic stripe codes

A magnetic stripe is a short length of magnetic coated tape printed on the surface of or sealed into a
ticket or card. It contains information to identify the ticket or card and its user.
The card is read by swiping it – moving the magnetic strip through a reader so that the strip can be
read. Such stripes are found on bank cards which identify the card holder’s bank account, so that the
card holder can perform banking transactions.

Cards with these magnetic stripe codes can provide quick identification of people entering buildings,
allowing access to the card holder. These cards are therefore used for security purposes too. Examples
of other uses are in phone cards and debit cards for cell phones. The magnetic stripe in this instance
contains information about the amount of money left ‘on’ the card.

Optical Scanners
Optical scanners capture data using light. A special type of concentrated light is passed over the
object, image or text that needs to be input. These types of scanners include: image scanners, Optical
Character Recognition (OCR), Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) and Bar-Code Readers.

Image ((Graphics) Scanners

Image scanners are scanners that convert text, drawings and photographs into digital form. They were
originally designed to scan pictures (image scanners) but now their use is extended, for example to
scan text into a word processing program. Image scanners are used in document management, desktop
publishing (DTP), and multimedia development.
There are many types of scanners:
 Flat-bed scanner: This is a type of optical scanner that consists of a flat surface on which you lay
documents to be scanned. Flatbed scanners can scan single sheets and book-bound pages. The
picture is placed on a flat scanning surface and the image is captured, similarly to how a
photocopying machine works.

 Hand-held scanner: This is a type of scanner that is rolled by hand over the documents to be
scanned. These scanners are generally used to scan in small images or parts of images. Their
resolution is not very high.

 Drum scanner: This is a type of scanner used to scan one sheet at a time. They cannot handle
book-bound pages.

 Sheet-fed scanner: This is a scanner that allows only paper to be scanned rather than books or
other thick objects. The sheet that contains the image is fed through rollers and the picture is
scanned as the paper passes through.
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Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) uses a device that reads pencil/soft pen marks and converts them
into computer usable form. OMR technology scans a printed form and reads predefined positions and
records where marks are made on the form.

OMR detects the position of black marks on white paper. The documents to be read have empty boxes
pre-printed on them. The user makes pencil or ink marks in the appropriate boxes. The intensity of the
reflected light from these marks on the form is detected by the OMR. This is sometimes called mark
sensing. The computer records the position of the marks and analyses it to determine the meaning of
the data. OMRs are used mainly in assessing multiple-choice examinations such as Kenya Certificate of
Primary Education (KCPE), questionnaires given out by researchers or ballot papers.

This technology is also useful for applications in which large numbers of hand-filled forms need to be
processed quickly and with great accuracy, such as surveys, reply cards, questionnaires and ballots.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

OCR (optical character recognition) uses a device that reads special OCR character set called fonts as
well as typewriter and computer-printed characters and converts them into machine-readable from.
Some advanced OCR systems can recognize human handwriting but the letters must be block printed.

Examples that use OCR characters are utility bills and price tags on department-store merchandise.

OCR is being used by libraries to digitize and preserve their holdings. OCR is also used to process
checks and credit card slips and sort the mail.

Barcode readers

A barcode is a set of vertical lines of differing thickness with a string of numbers printed at the
bottom found on most manufactured and retail products. You can see barcodes on items in
supermarkets, books in libraries and on such things as magazines. The barcode is read by an optical
scanner (barcode reader) in which a laser beam scans the barcode and the light is reflected back into
the scanner. The information received by the scanner is sent to a computer for processing.

Barcodes form part of the Point of Sale (POS) system usually found at retail outlets. A terminal is
connected to a central computer which records details after the barcode of an item has been scanned.
The price of the product is displayed on a monitor at the point of sale. Meanwhile the central computer
calculates the amount due, including VAT, and prints an itemised receipt. The information recorded
can also be used for stock control and sales analysis.

Radio frequency identification (RFID) uses radio waves as a means of identifying animals, persons
and objects. A chip connected to a small antenna makes up the RFID transponder or RFID tag.
Information such as a serial number is transmitted to an RFID receiver that converts the radio waves to
digital information so that it can be processed by the computer.

RFID chips are used for tracking animals, for example, as they can be embedded in the skin of the
animal and the tag can be read once the animal is within range of the reader. Some stores are now
tagging their merchandise with RFID tags to record POS information, and also as a means of security
 - 21 -

to reduce theft. Alarms can be raised when someone tries to exit a store without paying for an item.

Smart cards

In recent years, new means of storing data on cards have become available. ‘Smart’ cards with very
thin gold-coloured memory chips sealed into them can store more information than magnetic stripe
cards. Data is stored on the memory chip embedded in the card, allowing a greater amount of
information to be kept and updated on the card than would be the case with the old-style magnetic
stripe. The chips can hold information for cell phone use, debit and credit cards, and any prepaid
services. Eventually, smart cards may store information about a person’s driving history, their birth
certificate or paper, and could even be imprinted with the holder’s voice, fingerprints and retinal scans.

Optical Cards
These are plastic, laser recordable, wallet-type cards used with optical card readers. They can store
much more data than smart cards and may become more popular in future.

Audio and video input devices

Voice data entry/voice recognition
Voice recognition systems require the use of a microphone. This system accepts the spoken word as
input data or commands. Human speech is very complex, because it carries tones, inflections and
emphasis of various parts of words and phrases. The computer is programmed to recognise certain
patterns of speech. Using a microphone, human speech is coded into a sequence of electronic signals.
These signals are compared to a set of stored patterns. If they match, the command or data being
entered is accepted by the computer and is processed.

Simple commands can be used to control machines or even ‘type’ letters in a word processor. Voice
recognition has become important in many areas of our lives. It has made life easier for people with
movement difficulties, such as the paralysed, who with suitable equipment can now operate a
wheelchair, lighting and even open doors using voice commands.
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Sound capture
All modern computers contain a built-in microphone for sound capture. This means that you can
record your voice, for example, to make comments that are embedded in a word processing document.
A sound card on your computer is required for recording voice or music. The sound card digitises the
information into a form that the computer can understand.

MIDI instruments
Electronic musical instruments can have a MIDI port (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) for input
into the computer. The sounds are digitised and stored as a file, can be displayed on screen, edited and
played back, using appropriate software.

Digital input devices

Digital cameras
Digital cameras capture an image and store it in memory within the camera. These cameras have a
sensor that converts the light into electrical charges. The processor in the camera converts this
information into digital data and stores it on a small diskette, flash memory or flash RAM card. The
digital images can then be uploaded from the camera to a computer where they can be displayed,
manipulated or printed. The memory can be erased so that more images can be captured. Unlike
normal RAM memory where the information is lost when the computer is switched off, flash RAM is
non-volatile. That is, the images are not lost when the camera is switched off. The resolution of the
camera is measured in pixels. The larger the number of pixels the camera has, the clearer the image
and the greater the detail captured.

Digital video camera (Digital video camcorder or DVD camcorder)

In the digital video camera, light is focused onto an image sensor called a charge-coupled device
which contains thousands of light-sensitive diodes called photo sites. These detect the light intensity
and record an image. The digital video camera/camcorder detects not only light intensity but also
levels of colour to reproduce a coloured image. The camera takes many pictures per second to give an
impression of movement.

Remote control
A remote control emits a beam of infra-red light that carries data signals. Commonly used for input to
televisions, stereo systems, VCRs and DVD players, they are now being used by computers as a
wireless means of communication.

Sensors
A sensor is an input device that collects specific kinds of data directly from the environment and
transmits it to a computer. Although you are unlikely to see these devices connected to a computer,
they exist all around us. Sensors convert chemical or physical changes in humans and their
environment to electrical signals that can be passed to a computer, where it is analysed, stored and
manipulated by special software. Sensors are useful in the fields of medicine, environmental planning
and preservation, weather reporting, and so on. A variety of sensors can be used to measure such
things as heat, light, sound, pressure, strain, acidity (pH), oxygen concentration, humidity, pulse, water
level, water flow, speed, tilt or even something like a door or a valve opening or closing.

How a sensor system works

 - 23 -

Human-Biology Input Devices

Characteristics and movements of human body when interpreted by sensors, optical scanners, voice
recognition and other technologies can become forms of input. Examples include:

Biometric systems
Biometrics refers to the science of identifying an individual through their body characteristics such as
face geometry and hand geometry (e.g. fingerprints), iris or retinal scans, veins and voice patterns. All
these forms of identifying an individual can be input into a computer system set up for security
purposes. In the near future they may become common, for allowing access to buildings and bank
accounts. Retinal scans use a ray of light directed into the eye to identify the distinct network of blood
vessels at the back of the eye. Fingerprint readers scan the imprint made by the pattern of ridges on the
finger and compare it to a set of patterns stored in memory. Fingerprints are considered unique, as no
two individuals have the same fingerprint.

Line-of-Sight Systems
Line-of-sight systems enable a person to use his/her eyes to point at a screen. This technology allows
users with physical disabilities to direct a computer. This is accomplished using a video camera
mounted beneath the monitor in front of the viewer. When the user looks at a certain place on the
screen, the video camera and the computer translate that location into screen coordinates.

Terminals
People working on a large computer system are usually connected to the main or host computer via
terminals. A terminal is an input/output device that uses a keyboard for input and a monitor for
output. There are two types of terminals:
 Dumb: A dumb terminal can only be used to input data to and receive information from a
computer system; it cannot do any processing on its own.

For example, airline clerks use dumb terminals at airport ticket and check-in counters.
 Intelligent: An intelligent terminal has built-in limited processing capability and RAM but does
not have its own storage capacity. Intelligent terminals are not as powerful as microcomputers and
are often found in local area networks where users share application software and data stored on
the server. Examples of intelligent terminals include ATMs and Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals.

 The Automated Teller Machines (ATM)

ATM is a terminal that reads the encoded magnetic stripe on the ATM card and provides output in
the form of display on a monitor and printed records of transactions.

 Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals

A POS terminal combines input capabilities of a cash-register-type keypad, an optical scanner for
reading barcodes, and/or a magnetic stripe reader for reading credit cards with output capabilities
of a monitor and a receipt printer. POS terminals are usually hooked up to a central computer for
credit checking and inventory updating. POS terminals are found in most supermarkets.
 - 24 -

The Processing Hardware

Data in a computer is processed by the circuitry known as the processor. In large computers such as
mainframes, the processor along with the main memory and other basic circuitry is called the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). In microcomputers the processor is often called the microprocessor because
it is made of a tiny silicon chip. The processor works hand in hand with other circuitry known as main
memory and registers to carry out processing.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is considered as the “brain” of the computer is the most
important component of the computer and without it the computer cannot process data. It is the
centre of all processing that happens in the computer system. The CPU continually receives
instructions to be executed.

Modern CPU's are called 'integrated chips' or microprocessors. The idea of an integrated chip is that
several processing components are integrated into a single piece of silicon fixed on the motherboard.
A CPU is plugged in a CPU socket on the motherboard, on top of the CPU is placed a heat sink and
a fan which must run whenever the CPU is in use to keep it cool. Cooling is necessary because the
CPU generates a lot of heat as it processes data, and for it to function properly and to prevent it from
crashing, it must be cooled.

Parts of the Processor

The processor follows the instructions of the software to manipulate data into information. A CPU
has three functional units namely; the Control unit, the Arithmetic/logic unit and the main
memory. These components are connected by a kind of electronic roadway or pathway called a
computer bus.

The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations and logical operations and
controls the speeds of those operations. Arithmetic operations include: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.

Logical operations are comparisons. These operations involve comparing one data item with
another, and determine if the first item is greater than, equal to, or less than the second item.

Logical operations work with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.
Some common logic comparison symbols include the following;

Operator Meaning
= equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
<> not equal
 - 25 -

The Control Unit (CU)

The control unit controls the computer operations by directing the flow of information into the CPU
and/or memory or storage and controlling or determining which instructions the CPU will execute
next.

The functions of the CU include:

1. It tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program’s instruction.
2. It directs movement of electronic signals between main memory and ALU
3. It directs movements of electronic signals between main memory and the input devices, output
devices and secondary storage devices.
4. It instructs the arithmetic logic unit which logical or arithmetic operation is to be performed.
5. It co-ordinates the activities of the ALU and main memory as well all peripherals and auxiliary
storage devices linked to the computer.

Computer Bus (System Bus)

A computer bus also known as the system bus is an electronic pathway through which bits are
transmitted within the CPU and between the CPU and other devices in the system unit. The wider the
computer bus, the wider it operates. There are three kinds of buses namely; Data bus, address bus, and
the control bus.

Data Bus
The data bus carries the data between the processor and other components. The size of the data bus
determines the amount of data that can be transmitted simultaneously.

Address Bus
The address bus is a collection of wires connecting the processor with main memory that is used to
identify particular locations (addresses) in main memory.

Control Bus
The control bus is used by CPUs for communicating with other devices within the computer by
carrying commands from the CPU and returns status signals from the devices.

Main Memory (Primary Memory)

The main memory or the primary memory is part of computer hardware where the processor or the
CPU directly stores and retrieves information from. This memory is accessed by CPU in random
fashion; this means that any location of this memory can be accessed by the CPU to either read
information from it or to store information in it.

The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies namely; Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a temporary working storage. This means that RAM is the
computer’s ‘work space’ or ‘desk area’ where data and programs needed for immediate processing are
held. Computer memory is contained on memory chips mounted on the motherboard. Memory
 - 26 -

capacity is important because it determines how much data can be processed at once and how big and
complex the program used to process data can be.

Functions of RAM
 It holds data waiting processing
 It holds the instructions (programs) for processing the data.
 It holds data that has been processed (information) and is waiting to be sent to an output,
secondary storage, or communication devices.

Characteristics of RAM
 RAM is a temporary storage whose contents are lost when the power is turned off. Thus RAM is
volatile.
 RAM is a random access memory i.e. the memory is accessed by the processor in a random
fashion.
 The size of RAM determines how much data can be processed at once and how big and complex a
program a program may be used to process the data.

Types of RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is available in two types: Dynamic Random Access Memory
(DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the most common kind of main memory in a computer.
It is a prevalent memory source in PCs, as well as workstations. Dynamic random access memory is
constantly restoring whatever information is being held in memory. It refreshes the data by sending
millions of pulses per second to the memory storage cell. DRAM's density makes it a better choice for
RAM.

Static RAM (SRAM)

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) is the second type of main memory in a computer. It is
commonly used as a source of memory in embedded devices. Data held in SRAM does not have to be
continually refreshed; information in this main memory remains as a "static image" until it is
overwritten or is deleted when the power is switched off. Since SRAM is less dense and more power-
efficient when it is not in use; it is therefore a better choice than DRAM for certain uses like memory
caches located in CPUs.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM also known as firmware is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can only
be read, not written to. Thus ROM cannot be erased or written on by a computer user. One of the
ROM chips in a microcomputer contains instructions that tell the processor what to do when you first
turn on or boot the computer. These instructions are called the ROM bootstrap. Another ROM chip
helps the processor transfer information between the keyboard, screen, printer and other peripheral
devices to make sure all units are functioning properly. These instructions are called ROM BIOS or
Basic Input/Output System. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data in ROM is
not lost when the computer power is turned off. Thus ROM is non-volatile. ROM is sustained by a
small long-life battery in the computer.
 - 27 -

Types of ROM
 Mask-Programmed ROM
Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are integrated circuits that physically encode the data to
be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after fabrication.
 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) are blank chips on which the user using a special
device called a PROM programmer can write programs. Once a program is written, it cannot be
erased.
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong
ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again needs
higher than usual voltage applied. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an
EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and
reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the prominent quartz "window"
which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered with a label
to prevent accidental erasure.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar
semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected to be electrically
erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera,
MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is much slower than reading from a ROM or
writing to a RAM.

Special Purpose Memories

Apart from ROM and RAM there are other types of special purpose memories found inside the CPU
or in the input and output devices. These memories are very vital because they enhance the overall
performance of the processor. These memories include: cache memory, registers and buffers.

Registers
Registers are special high-speed temporary storage locations within the CPU that store data during
processing and provide working areas for computation. Registers are found within the CU and the
ALU.

Cache Memory
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a computer’s central
processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip. The CPU uses cache memory to store
instructions that are repeatedly required to run programs, improving overall system speed. The
advantage of cache memory is that the CPU does not have to use the motherboard’s system bus for
data transfer. Whenever data must be passed through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows to
the motherboard’s capability. The CPU can process data much faster by avoiding the bottleneck
created by the system bus.

The performance of cache memory is highly affected by its level. The level of cache to refers to its
connecting circuits or electronic pathways (bus) and physical proximity to the CPU.

Buffers
This is a temporary holding place that maybe part of the CPU or built-in an input or output device.
Because the CPU is very fat compared to input and output devices, buffers provide temporary storage
so that the CPU is free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or
information to be output. For example, printer buffers temporarily hold the output to be printed thus
freeing the CPU to perform other functions.

Video Memory (Video RAM or VRAM)

VRAM chips are used to store display images for the monitor. The amount of video memory
determines how fast images appear and how many colours are available. Video memory chips are
 - 28 -

particularly desirable if you are running program that display a lot of graphics. VRAM chips are
usually located on a special video adapter card inserted in an expansion slot on the system board.

Flash Memory (Flash RAM cards)

Flash memory consists of circuitry on credit-card size cards that can be inserted into slots connecting
to the motherboard. Flash RAM is derived from EEPROM and is used primarily in portable
computers. Unlike RAM chips, flash memory is non-volatile. Flash memory can be used to simulate
main memory and also to supplement or replace hard disk drives for permanent storage.

Memory Capacities
The following terms are used to express computer capacity.

 Bit: This is the smallest unit of measurement in a computer. Bit refers to a binary digit – either 0
or 1.
 Byte: To represent letters, numbers, or special characters such as ! or * bits are combined in
groups. A byte refers to a group of eight bits and a byte represents one character, digit or value.
 Kilobyte: A kilobyte (K, KB) is about 1000 bytes or precisely 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte: A Megabyte (M, MB) is about 1 million bytes (1,048,576 bytes).
 Gigabyte: A Gigabyte (G, GB) is about 1 billion bytes (1,073,741,824 bytes).
 Terabyte: A Terabyte (T, TB) is about 1 trillion bytes (1,009,511,627,776 bytes)
 Petabyte: A Petabyte is a new measure that accommodates the huge storage capacities of modern
databases. A petabyte represents about 1 million gigabytes.

THE SYSTEM UNIT

The system unit is the box or the cabinet that contains the microcomputer’s processing hardware and
other components. The most important of these components include the power supply, mother
board, central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, RAM chips, ROM chips, Cache memory,
VRAM, Ports, expansion slots and boards and bus lines and PC slots and cards.

THE POWER SUPPLY

The electricity available from a standard wall outlet is AC but a computer runs on DC. The power
supply is the device that converts power from AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) to
run the computer. The on/off switch in your computer turns on or shuts off the electricity to the
power supply. Because electricity can generate a lot of heat, a fan inside the computer keeps the
power supply and other components from becoming too hot.

THE MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard or system board is the main circuit board in the system unit. This board acts as a
container for the different components in the system unit such as the CPU, ROM chips and RAM
chips.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) CHIPS

These are integrated circuits that temporarily store data and instructions that will be processed shortly
by the processor. Memory chips are factory-fixed on a small circuit board (module). The circuit
board has an edge pin connector which is fitted in a memory socket (slot) on the motherboard, and
anyone can install them. RAM cards are manufactured with different speeds depending on the
memory chips installed on them for example, 128 MB, 256 MB, 512 MB, 1024 MB and more. RAM
modules are either SIMM or DIMM RAM modules.
 - 29 -

ROM CHIP
The ROM chips fixed on the motherboard, contain instructions, which are specific for that
particular system board, the PC cannot write new data to those chips. All PC's have instructions in
ROM chips or ROM BIOS chips on the system board, usually start-up instructions of the computer.
The ROM chips are supplied by specialty software manufacturers, who make BIOS chips.

Memory Slots
Modern computer system board slots support either DDR (184 pins) or DDR2 RAM (240 pins),
which is becoming the more popular type of memory. Slots usually come either two or four to a
board, and are often color-coded to tell you where to place matching memory cards. This means that
more than one memory card can be fixed on a motherboard.

CMOS

CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) memory is a special type of memory chip that is
used to store information about the computer system configuration, such as the amount of memory,
the type of peripheral devices (keyboard, mouse etc.) installed on the computer, and the capacity of
disk drives fixed on the computer. CMOS also keeps track of the date and time. The system
information in the CMOS memory is needed each time the computer is started. CMOS memory has
very low electricity requirement and is powered by a battery known as the CMOS battery fixed on
the motherboard. The battery power enables CMOS memory to retain the stored information even
when the power to the computer is turned off, which is why your computer clock runs even when the
computer is off. Information in the CMOS is changed whenever installation of a device is done.

EXPANSION SLOTS (BUS SLOTS) AND CARDS

They are sockets on the motherboard into which you can plug expansion cards. Expansion cards
(adapter cards) are circuit boards that provide more memory or control peripheral devices.
Examples of expansion cards are:
 Memory cards: Memory expansion cards (memory modules) allow you to add RAM chips
giving you more memory.
 Video adapter cards: These cards allow you to adapt different kinds of colour display monitors
for your computer.
 Graphics accelerator cards: These cards improve the performance of your computer when
displaying graphics.

To install a new adapter card in your computer, you must plug the card into a bus slot to enable the
new device to communicate with the rest of the computer system.

VIDEO MEMORY (VRAM)

VRAM chips are used to store display images for the monitor. The amount of VRAM determines how
fast images appear and how many colours are available. VRAM chips are usually located on a special
video adapter card inserted in an expansion slot on the system unit.
 - 30 -

FLASH MEMORY (FLASH CARDS)

Flash memory is derived from EEPROM and is primarily used in portable computers. It consists of a
circuitry on credit-card-size cards that can be inserted into slots connecting to the motherboard.

THE MICROPROCESSOR
Most of today’s microprocessors chips are of two kinds; those made by Intel and those made by
Motorola although that situation may be changing.
 - 31 -

Output Devices
Output hardware consists of devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form
that humans can understand. Thus the function of output devices is to provide the user with the means
to view and use information produced by the computer system.

Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Soft copy or temporary output refers to
information displayed on a screen or in audio or voice form through speakers. This kind of output is
not tangible and disappears when the computer is switched off. Hard copy output or permanent output
refers to output printed on paper. This kind of output is tangible; the output can be held in your hand.

Soft copy output devices

Monitor/Visual Display Unit (VDU)/Screen

Monitors are softcopy output devices that many people use most. Monitors can output still or moving
pictures. Monitors run under the control of a graphics display adapter card plugged into an expansion
slot on the motherboard. The adapter allows information to leave the computer and appear on the
monitor. The display adapter comes with its own RAM, called VRAM or Video RAM. VRAM
controls the resolution of images displayed on the monitor as well as the number of colours and the
speed at which the images are displayed. The more video memory you have, the higher the resolution
and the more colours you can display. Images and text are formed by many tiny dots of coloured light
called pixels (short for picture element). A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen. It can be turned on
or off or coloured in different shades. Pixels are so numerous that when placed together in certain
patterns they appear to form a smooth image on the screen, be it a character in a word, a diagram or a
photograph. There are two types of monitors: cathode ray tube (CRT) and flat panel display.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used as display screens in a computer or video display
terminals. This same kind of technology is found not only in desktop computer screens but also in TVs
and flight-information monitors in airports. A stream of bits defining the image is sent from the CPU
 - 32 -

to the CRT’s electron gun, where the bits are converted to electrons. The inside of the front of the
CRT screen is coated with phosphor. When a beam of electrons from the electron gun (deflected
through a yoke) hits the phosphor, it lights up selected pixels to generate an image on the screen.

Flat panel display (FPD)

Flat panel displays (FPDs) are thin, flat electronic devices used as display screens. Compared to
CRTs, flat panel displays are much thinner, weigh less and consume less power. They are therefore
better for portable computers although they are becoming popular for desktop computers. Flat panel
displays are made up of two plates of glass with a substance in between, which activated in different
ways.

Flat panel displays are distinguished in two ways:

1. by the substance between the plates of glass
2. by the arrangement of transistors

Substance between Plates

The types of technology used in flat display include liquid crystal display, electroluminescent display
and gas plasma displays.

 LCD (liquid crystal display)

This is a common type of flat panel display used for computer monitors and TVs. LCD screens
consist of layers of liquid crystal placed in between plates that are lit from behind by a
fluorescent lamp to create images. LCD screens perform well in bright rooms. It is small, light
and flat and uses much less power than the CRT display. It is therefore extensively used on
laptop computers.

 Electroluminescent (EL) displays

El displays contains a substance that glows when it is charged by an electric current. A pixel is
formed on the screen when current is sent to the intersection of the appropriate row and
column. The combined voltages from the row and column cause the screen to glow at that
point.

 Gas Plasma display

Gas plasma displays use a gas that emits light in the presence of an electric current. This
technology uses predominantly neon gas and electrodes above and below the gas. Although
gas plasma displays have high resolution they are quite expensive. They tend to perform well
in dark rooms and poorer in well-lit rooms.

 Light-emitting diode displays (LED)

These are flat panel display screens that use light emitting diodes (LEDs) as a backlight for the
screen instead of a fluorescent lamp. These display technology offers some potential
advantages over LCDs such as better contrast ratios and less energy consumption.

 Organic light-emitting diode displays (OLEDs)

These are flat panel displays that function by exiting organic compounds with electric current
to produce light. OLED displays do not have a back light like LCD and LED displays which
allows for high contrast ratios and low power consumption. OLED is an emerging technology
and is still primarily used in small portable devices such as cell phones and mp3 players.

Arrangement of transistors
Flat panel displays are either active-matrix or passive-matrix displays according to where transistors
are located.
 In an active-matrix display, each pixel on the screen is controlled by its own transistor. Active-
matrix displays are much brighter and sharper than passive-matrix displays but are more
 - 33 -

complicated and thus more expensive. An example of active-matrix display is thin film
transistor (TFT) display.
 In a passive-matrix display, a transistor controls a whole row or column of pixels. Passive
matrix provides a sharp image for one-color (monochrome) screens but is more subdued for
color. Passive-matrix displays are less expensive and use less power.

Multimedia projector
This device is used to create and deliver dynamic multimedia presentations (presentations in which
sound, photos, video, text and other moving graphics may be combined to interesting effect). There
are two types of multimedia projectors: LCD projector and LCD panel.

The LCD projector has its own built-in lenses and light source and connects directly to computer,
television, video/DVD player and video camcorder. Images from these devices are projected through
the LCD projector onto a screen or wall. Versions of the LCD projector now come with a digital video
camera on an arm extension attached to it. This video camera allows real-time videos and pictures to
be instantly projected through the LCD projector onto a screen. For example, the camera can be
directed at a page in a book or at someone performing a demonstration; the video camera image is
projected through the LCD projector onto a screen or wall.

The LCD panel is used with a normal overhead projector (OHP). This panel is the size of a notebook
and is placed directly on the surface of the OHP. Like the LCD projector, the panel can be connected
to devices such as computer, television, video/DVD player and video camcorder. The image displayed
on the panel is projected onto a screen when the light of the OHP shines through it.

Sound Output Devices

Sound output is another form of ‘soft copy’ output. Sound output devices produce digitized sounds
ranging from beeps and chirps to music. All these sounds are non verbal. To produce sound, you need
the necessary software and sound card or digital audio circuit board. The sound card plugs into an
expansion slot on the motherboard. New computers come with the sound card integrated with the
motherboard. Some of the sound output devices include:

Speakers
A simple speaker will make a range of sounds available to the computer user. Computer-generated
sound, music output, computer-synthesised voice and the normal speaking voice are now conventional
output using a speaker. Sound cards need to be installed in microcomputers to obtain good sound
quality for music or games.

Voice Output Devices

Voice output devices convert digital data into speech-like sounds.

Voice response systems

The voice response system selects from a set of digitised pre-recorded words, phrases, music, alarms
or other sounds stored on disk. The system combines these pre-recorded words into responses based
on selections made by the user. For example, many phone banking systems use voice response
systems. Based on the information given to them when a caller selects options on their telephone
keypad, the bank computer outputs voice information to the caller. The sounds must be converted
from digital format back to analogue before being output to the speaker.

Speech Synthesizers
This system converts written text into computer generated speech (‘text to speech’). It is used for
computer-aided conversations by hearing and speech-impaired persons to aid speaking, sight-impaired
persons to aid reading, or for converting conversations/text from one language into another.
 - 34 -

Hard copy output devices

You can print out information that is in the computer onto paper or film. By printing you create what
is known as a ‘hard copy’. It is tangible – you can hold it in your hands.

Printers

A printer is a hardcopy output device which produces a text and/or graphics of documents stored in
electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Printers can be
categorized into two ways namely:
(i) according to whether or not the image produced is formed by physical contact of the print
mechanism with the paper (printing technology)
(ii) according to the number of characters printed at ago (basic unit of printing)

There are therefore many different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print quality,
depending on the desired print output.

Classification of Printers according to basic unit of printing

Printers are broadly classified into three types according to the basic unit of printing.
 Character printers
 Line Printers
 Page Printers

Character printers
These are printers that print one character at a time much like a typewriter. They are also known as
serial printers. Daisy wheel printers and dot matrix printers are examples of character printers.
Character printers are slower than line and page printers.

Line printers
These are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast line printer can print
as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line printers are that they cannot print
graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy. They are used with mainframe computers
where high speed is vital for the large volume of printed output required.

Examples of line printers include drum printers, band printers and chain printers.

Page printers
These printers print a whole page at a time. They are therefore even faster and deal with very large
volumes of printed output. A laser Printer is an example of page printers.

Classification of Printers according to basic printing technology

Printers can also be broadly classified into two types according to the basic printing technologies;
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers
Impact printers
An impact printer forms characters or images by striking a mechanism such as a print hammer or
wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper. The print head of an impact printer contains
a number of metal hammers which strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper.
These hammers may contain complete characters; alternatively, they may contain ‘dots’ that are used
 - 35 -

to build up a character. The main types of impact printer are:

• Dot matrix printer
• Daisy wheel printer
• Drum, chain or band printer.

Characteristics of impact printers

– They are very noisy
– They can produce multiple copies by printing on duplicating paper
– They produce low quality output

Dot matrix printers (character printers)

This is a type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against an ink ribbon
to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. Dot-matrix printers are relatively inexpensive and
do not produce high-quality output. However, they can print to multi-page forms (that is, carbon
copies).

Characteristics of dot matrix printers include:

– Characters are formed from a matrix of dots.
– They are slow
– They are very noisy
– The print obtained is usually of poor quality. They are useful for low-quality carbon copy printing
of text, or printing text on continuous sheets of paper.
– They are not good for printing graphics or photographs.

Daisy wheel printers (character printers)

The daisy printer wheel uses a disk made of plastic or metal on which characters stand out in relief
along the outer edge. To print a character, the printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing
the paper. Then a hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an
impression of the character on the paper. You can change the daisy wheel to print different fonts.
Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy and slow, printing from 10 to
about 75 characters per second.

Characteristics of daisy wheel printers include:

 Prints are made by a hammer-like action of the keys hitting the print ribbon.
 The process involves a lot of moving mechanical parts and is very noisy.
 Printing is slow (less than 90 copies per second).
 The text is generally crisp and clean
 The size and font produced can only be changed by using a different wheel, as the characters
on the wheel are fixed.

This printer is not used much any more: it is becoming obsolete, as laser printers are able to produce
the same quality print as the daisy wheel printers and are much more versatile.

Drum Printers (Line Printers)

Drum printer is an impact printer in which the type is mounted on a rotating drum that contains a full
character set for each printing position. In a typical drum printer design, a fixed font character set is
engraved onto the periphery of a number of print wheels, the number matching the number of columns
(letters in a line) the printer could print. The wheels, joined to form a large drum (cylinder), spin at
high speed and paper and an inked ribbon is stepped (moved) past the print position. As the desired
character for each column passes the print position, a hammer strikes the paper from the rear and
presses the paper against the ribbon and the drum, causing the desired character to be recorded on the
continuous paper.

Chain Printers (Line Printers)

 - 36 -

A Chain printer is an impact printer that carries the type slugs by links of a revolving chain. Chain
printers placed the type on moving bars (a horizontally-moving chain). As with the drum printer, as
the correct character passes by each column, a hammer is fired from behind the paper. Compared to
drum printers, chain printers have the advantage that the type chain could usually be changed by the
operator. By selecting chains that had a smaller character set (for example, just numbers and a few
punctuation marks), the printer can print much faster than if the chain contained the entire upper- and
lower-case alphabet, numbers, and all special symbols.

Band Printers (Line Printers)

These are a variation of chain printers, where a thin steel band is used instead of a chain, with the
characters embossed on the band. A selection of different bands is generally available with a different
mix of characters so a character set best matched to the characters commonly printed could be chosen.

One other type of printer worth mentioning is the Braille printer. This is an impact printer which
converts text into the Braille code, producing patterns of raised dots on paper for use by the blind.

Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers form characters and images without making direct physical contact between the
paper and printing mechanism. These printers are faster and quieter than impact printers because they
have fewer moving parts. The main types of non-impact printer are:
– Thermal printer
– Laser printer
– Ink-jet printer

Thermal printers (character printers)

These printers use colored waxes and heat to produce images by burning dots onto special paper.
Thermal printers are widely used in fax machines and some ATMs (automated teller machines).

Laser printers (page printers)

Laser printers use the principle of dot-matrix printers of creating images with dots. Laser printers use
laser beams to create the images on a drum treated with a magnetically charged ink-like toner
(powder) and then transferred from the drum to paper. The light of the laser alters the electrical charge
on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up
by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a
combination of heat and pressure. This is also the way copy machines work. Because an entire page is
transmitted to a drum before the toner is applied, laser printers are called page printers.

Inkjet printers (line printers)

Inkjet printers produce an image by spraying ink onto the paper in a dot matrix pattern. Colour
graphics can be produced by spraying cyan, magenta, yellow and black ink onto the page. Inkjet
printers can print in both colour and black-and-white. Ink-jet printers are capable of producing high
quality print approaching that produced by laser printers.

Characteristics of non-impact printers

– Much quieter – useful in hospitals, busy offices, etc.
– Much faster printing speeds
– Sometimes require special paper
– Do not have multiple-copy facilities, that is they cannot produce multiple copies by printing on
duplicating paper

Plotters
Plotters are special output devices used to produce hard copies of large graphs and designs on paper.
Plotters are often used for the production of construction maps, engineering drawings, architectural
plans and business charts.
 Plotters are slow, but can draw continuous lines often in a variety of colours.
 - 37 -

 They are useful for producing architectural drawings, building plans, maps and CAD
(computer aided design) drawings, where precision is required.
 The paper is sometimes laid on a flat bed (flat-bed plotter) or on a rotating drum (drum plotter).

There are four main types of plotters: drum (pen plotters), flat-bed plotters, inkjet plotters and
electrostatic plotters.

Drum Plotter
A drum plotter is pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a pin feed attachment. The drum
then rotates the paper as pens move across it and draw the image. It was the first output device used to
print graphics and large engineering drawings. There are two types of drum plotters, external and
internal. With an external drum plotter, the paper is wrapped around its external surface, while the
internal drum plotter uses a sheet of paper wrapped around its internal surface.

Flat-Bed Plotter
A flat-bed plotter is a mechanical drafting device used with many CAD programs for designers. The
paper remains stationary on a flat surface while a pen moves across it horizontally and vertically. This
plotter may use several different colours of pens to create the graphics. The size of the graphic is
limited to the size of the flat-bed plotter's surface.

Inkjet Plotter
The inkjet plotter is a plotter that creates an image by spraying small droplets of ink onto a piece of
paper. A popular choice for advertising agencies and graphic designers, inkjet plotters are used
generally for large outputs, such as banners and billboards and large signs often seen on roadsides.
They are available in thermal or piezoelectric models. Thermal inkjet plotters use heat to apply
droplets of ink, while piezoelectric plotters use charged crystals to apply the ink. Inkjet plotters tend to
produce better quality graphics than other types of plotters.

Electrostatic plotter
This is a plotter that uses an electrostatic method of printing. Electrostatic plotters apply colour using
coloured toner particles suspended in a liquid carrier. Charges are applied to the paper and passed
through liquid toner, where charged toner particle adhere to the paper. As the paper is removed from
the bath, the toner emerges dry.
 - 38 -

Secondary Storage devices

Data and computer programs must be stored in a computer-usable form. During processing a copy of
the software instructions must be retrieved from the secondary storage device and placed into RAM.
The operating system determines where and how programs are stored on the secondary storage
devices.

Secondary storage, also called auxiliary or backup storage, is used to store data and program
instructions when they are not in use. The most commonly used secondary storage devices are
magnetic storage (magnetic tapes and magnetic disks), optical storage (CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW,
DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW) and solid state memory (flash memory and USB drives).

Characteristics of Secondary storage devices

 Secondary storage is more permanent than main memory, since data and instructions are retained
when the power is turned off.
 Secondary storage is also much cheaper than primary storage
 Secondary storage devices provide high amount of storage compared to primary storage

Factors to consider when choosing a secondary storage device

Because of diverse range of storage needs, a number of secondary storage devices are available.
Devices are chosen for a particular use based on:
 Storage capacity (how much data the device can store)
 Access speed (the time needed to locate the data and transmit it to
the CPU)
 Transfer rate; this refers to the speed at which data is transferred from the secondary storage to the
main memory.
 Size; some situations require compact storage devices for portability others don’t.
 Portability (ability to be easily removed and used on another system)
 Cost; The cost of the device is directly related to the previous factors

Classification of secondary storage device

Secondary storage devices are mainly classified according two factors;
1. The technology used to make the devices e.g. magnetic and optical technology
2. Portability i.e. whether the device is fixed or removable. Fixed storage devices are those that are
not removed from the system unit such as hard disks. Removable storage include magnetic tapes,
optical disks, floppy disks, zip disks, jaz disks and flash disks.
 - 39 -

Magnetic Storage Media

Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic tape is a ribbon of plastic material coated with a metal oxide film on which data is recorded
as magnetized or unmagnetized spots. The magnetic orientations of the magnetized and unmagnetized
spots represent the binary digits 0 and 1. On mainframe computers the tape is stored on reels or
cartridges. In microcomputers tapes are stored in cartridges similar to those used to store music, but of
a much higher quality. Just like the tape in a tape recorder, data can be written to, or read from, the
tape as it passes the magnetic heads.

Magnetic tape is not suitable for data files that are revised or updated often because it stores data
sequentially. This means that data is retrieved in the order in which it was stored. Therefore accessing
data is very slow as you cannot go directly to an item of data on the tape. It is necessary to start at the
beginning of the tape and search for the data as the tape goes past the heads.

However, magnetic tapes are erasable, reusable and moderately durable, and are made to store large
quantities of data inexpensively. For these reasons they are mainly used for emergency backup
purposes.

Magnetic Disks

Magnetic disks are one of the most widely used secondary storage media for computers. All magnetic
disks provide direct access to data stored. This means that you can go directly to a specific piece of
data without having to access any other data either before or after the data you want. The capacity and
access speeds of magnetic disks vary with each device or medium. Magnetic disks include floppy
disks (diskettes) and hard disks.

Floppy Disks (Diskettes)

A floppy disk or a diskette is a soft, flexible plastic disk coated with magnetized material. Unlike most
hard disks, floppy disks are portable, because you can remove them from a disk drive.

To use a diskette, you need a disk drive. A disk drive (floppy drives) is a device that holds, spins and
reads data from and writes data to a diskette. Read means that the data stored on the secondary
storage is copied to the primary storage. Write means that the information held in the main memory is
transferred to a secondary storage device.

Floppy disks are useful for transferring data between computers and for keeping a backup of small
files.
 - 40 -

Hard disks
Hard disks are thin but rigid metal platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the
form of magnetized spots. Hard disks are tightly sealed within an enclosed hard-disk drive unit to
prevent any foreign matter from getting inside. Data may be recorded on both sides of the disk
platters.

The disks constantly rotate at a high speed and may have one read/write head per disk (moveable
head).

The access time (time to get data) from a spinning disk with one read/write head is a combination of:
 Seek time – how long it takes the head to get to the right track;
 Rotational delay or latency time – how long it takes for the data to rotate under the head; and
 Transmission time – the time taken to read the data and transmit it to the CPU.

Like floppy disks, a hard disk must also be formatted before any data can be stored on it. Formatting
sets up the tracks, sectors and cylinders. A cylinder is made up of all the tracks with the same number
from all the metal disks that make up the hard disk, which can be read or written to at the same time.
For example, if you start from the bottom of a stack of disks, track 5 of the second disk will be directly
above track 5 of the first disk. Track 5 of the third disk will be directly above track 5 of the first and
second disks and so on. If you put these all together on top of each other, you’d have something that
looks like a tin can with no top or bottom – a cylinder.

The computer keeps track of what it has put where on a disk by recording the addresses of all the
sectors used – a combination of the cylinder, track and sector numbers. Data is written down the disks
on the same cylinder. This works quickly because each metal platter has a read/write head for each
side and they all move together. So for one position of the read/write heads, the computer can put
some data on all the platters.

Cross-section of a hard disk arranged and divided into tracks, sectors and cylinders

Virtual Memory
Sometimes the computer uses hard-disk space called virtual memory to expand RAM. When RAM
space is limited, the use of virtual memory can let users run more software at once, if the computer’s
CPU and operating system are equipped to use it. The system does this by using some free hard-disk
space as an extension of RAM – that is the computer swaps parts of the program and/or data between
the hard disk and RAM as needed.

Hard disk variations

Two additional types of hard drives that can be used with a PC are external hard drives and removable
disk.
 External hard drive: An external hard drive can be used if there is no space in the system unit to
 - 41 -

house another hard drive. It may come with its own power source and is connected to the system
unit via a special cable. External hard drives can be easily removed and connected to another
computer, thereby giving them a certain amount of portability and flexibility of use.
 Removable hard disks or cartridge systems
Hard disk cartridges or removable hard disks consist of one or two platters enclosed along with
read/write heads in a hard plastic case. The case is inserted into an internal or detached external
cartridge drive connected to a microcomputer. These cartridges are often used to transport huge
files. They are also used for backing up files. Although they are relatively expensive, they hold
much more information and are much faster than diskettes and tapes. Examples include zip drives
and jaz drives.

Zip drive
These are a floppy-like technology that use design concepts from hard disks and Iomega's earlier
Bernoulli disks developed by Iomega Corporation. Zip disks are slightly larger than conventional
floppy disks, and about twice as thick. They can hold 100 or 250 MB of data. Because they're
relatively inexpensive and durable, they have become a popular media for backing up hard disks and
for transporting large files.

Jaz Drive
This is a removable hard disk drive developed by Iomega Corporation. The removable cartridges hold
up to 2 GB of data. The fast data rates and large storage capacity make it a viable alternative for
backup storage as well as everyday use.

Hard disks for large computers consist of the following;

 Removable hard disk pack: A removable hard disk pack may contain between 6 and 20 hard disks
aligned one above the other in a sealed unit. The storage capacity is usually very large, in the
terabyte range.

 Fixed disk drives: These are similar to those found in PCs. They have a high storage capacity and
are more reliable than removable hard disks. A mainframe computer may have between 20 and
100 fixed disks housed in a single cabinet. Data is transmitted to the CPU using a single data path.

 RAID storage system: RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disk. A RAID storage
system consists of a cabinet which may contain a large number of disk drives (up to 100). Besides
holding more data than a fixed disk, it stores multiple copies of data on different drives. If one
drive fails, others can take over allowing the data to be recovered. Data is transmitted to the CPU
using multiple data paths.

For larger computer systems hard disks consist mainly of removable hard disk packs, fixed disk
drives and RAID (Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive) Disks) storage systems.

Hard Disk Interfaces

The hard disk interface defines the physical and logical means by which the hard disk connects to the
motherboard. A modern PC uses one or more of the following hard disk interfaces:
 Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
IDE (pronounced as individual letters) was by far the most common hard disk interface used in PCs from
the early 1990s through 2003. IDE is officially designated ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment), but is
now often informally called Parallel ATA or PATA, to differentiate it from the new Serial ATA (SATA)
interface. IDE is still used in new systems, although it is being superceded by SATA.
 Serial ATA (SATA)
Serial ATA (SATA) is a new technology that will ultimately replace parallel IDE/ATA. SATA has several
advantages over PATA, including superior cabling and connectors, higher bandwidth, and greater
reliability. Although SATA and PATA are incompatible at the physical and electrical levels, adapters are
readily available that allow SATA drives to be connected to PATA interfaces and vice versa.
 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
 - 42 -

Usually pronounced scuzzy, SCSI hard disks are generally used in servers and high-end workstations,
where they provide two major advantages: improved performance relative to IDE and SATA in
multitasking, multi-user environments and the ability to daisy-chain many drives on one computer.

Optical disks
An optical disk is a removable disk on which data is written and read through the user of laser beams.
The disk is made mainly of a type of plastic (polycarbonate). In optic technology, a high-power laser
beam is used to represent data by burning tiny pits (holes) onto the surface of a plastic disk. The data
is stored on a layer inside the plastic. To read the data, a low-power laser light scans the disk surfaces;
pitted areas are not reflected and are interpreted as 0 bit; the areas that do not have pits (land) are
interpreted as 1 bit. Thus in optical devices the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’ and the absence
of light is interpreted as ‘0’. Because the pits are so tiny, a great deal more data can be represented
than is possible with the same amount of space on a diskette.

The optical disk technology used with computers consists of four types:
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory) disks
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) disks
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) disks
 DVDs (Digital Versatile Disks)

CD-ROM Disks
This is an optical disk format that is used to hold pre-recorded text, graphics and sound. Read only
means that the disk’s content is recorded at the time of manufacture and cannot be written on or erased
by the user.

The speed at which the data is accessed depends on how fast the disk spins. The faster the disk spins,
the faster the data can be transferred to the computer’s memory. The speed of a CD-ROM drive is
indicated by a number followed by an ‘X’. Typical CD-ROM drive speeds are 48X, 50X, etc. The
higher the number the faster the disk spins, resulting in faster data access.

Because of their large storage capacity (up to 750 MB), CD-ROMs are used to store software
packages for sale or distribution. They are particularly useful for storing multimedia (text, graphics,
sound and videos) and application software packages such as encyclopaedias, reference works, word
processors, training programs, games and graphics packages.

CD-R
This is a CD format that allows users to use a CD-Recorder to write data (only once) onto a specially
manufactured disk that can then be read by any compatible CD-ROM drive. It is ideal for storing large
volumes of data that does not need to change. A typical use is to create music CDs. The storage
 - 43 -

capacity of CD-R, like all CDs, is between 750 and 800 MB.

CD-RW
This is a CD format that allows users to record and erase data so that the disk can be used over and
over again. The data layer of these disks uses a phase-changing metal alloy film. By using a higher
intensity laser light the film can be melted to level out the marks made by the laser burner when the
data was stored, effectively erasing previously stored data. New data can then be recorded using a
lower intensity laser light to burn the new data. In theory you can erase and write on these disks as
many as 1000 times. It therefore makes it an ideal backup storage device for storing large volumes of
data that change frequently.

DVD disks
This is an optical disk format that represents a new generation of high-density CD-ROM disks, which
are read by laser and which have both write-once and rewritable capabilities. The main types are
DVD-ROM (read only), DVD-R (recordable) and DVD-RW (rewritable). They look similar to a CD-
R disk but are capable of holding much more information. This is possible because:
 The tracks on a DVD are placed closer together as compared to a CD, thus allowing more tracks.
 The pits on a DVD are much smaller and closer together than those on a CD allowing far more
information to be represented there.
 The technology uses a new generation of lasers that allows a laser beam to focus on pits roughly
half the size of those on CDs.
 DVD formats allow for two layers (dual layer) of data-defining pits
 Some DVDs are double-sided. This allows data to be stored on both sides and therefore
dramatically increases the disk’s capacity.
 Data is squeezed into fewer pits through data compression.

Single-sided single-layer DVD has a capacity of 4.7 GB, single sided dual layer has a capacity of 8.5
GB. Double sided single layer has a capacity of 9.4 GB and double sided dual layer has a capacity of
17 GB.

Care of Optical Disks

CDs and DVDs are not indestructible, as they were made out to be when they first became popular.
Although they are more reliable than diskettes, CDs must be handled with care otherwise data may be
lost. Data loss results from:
 Physical damage (breaking, melting, scratching, etc.)
 Blocking of laser light by dirt, paint, ink and glue
 Corrosion of the reflecting layer.

The following are some guidelines for the proper handling of CDs and DVDs.
1 CDs and DVDs should be stored in their cases when not in use to prevent them from being
scratched or getting dirty.
2 Avoid soiling the surface of a CD – hold it by the edge or centre hole.
3 Keep your CDs clean by gently wiping both sides with a clean damp cloth from the centre to the
outer edge, not by wiping around the disk. Wiping in a circle can create a curved scratch, which
can confuse the laser. For stubborn dirt, use isopropyl alcohol or methanol, or CD/DVD cleaning
detergent.
4 Do not write on the top side of the CD with a ballpoint pen or other hard object as this can damage
the data layer on the other side. Use a CD marker instead.
5 Don’t write on the top side with a fine-point marker or with any solvent-based marker. (Solvent
may dissolve the protective layer.)
6 Do not expose a CD to high temperature or humidity for an extended period of time, as the CD
may warp.
 - 44 -

Flash memory

Flash memory technology is based on EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory) technology. Like EEPROM, flash memory is non-volatile. However, reading from and
writing to flash memory is a lot faster than with EEPROM. This is because data in flash memory can
be erased a block at a time instead of only a single byte at a time as is the case with EEPROM. Flash
memory got its name because a block of memory cells is erased in a single action or ‘flash’.

The compact nature of flash memory enables it to be incorporated into very small solid state (no
moving parts) devices that are available in all shapes and forms. These devices are rapidly becoming
an integral part of modern living. Flash memory is particularly well known today because of the
popular flash memory cards used in digital still cameras.

USB drive
This new type of flash memory storage device does not yet have a generally accepted name. Each
company calls it something different, including flash drive, flash pen, thumb drive, key drive and
mini-USB drive. They often double as MP3 players, i.e. you can download music to them from your
PC, plug in some headphones and listen to your favourite songs. All are small, about the size of your
thumb or a large car key, and plug into a USB port on the computer. No additional software is needed
for Windows XP, 2000 or ME. Plug it in and the computer notices that a new hard drive has been
added, and will show it on your desktop. These small flash drives can have storage capacities from 8
MB to 1 GB or more! Some flash drives include a password protection facility and the ability to run
software directly off the USB drive.
 - 45 -

2.8 COMPUTER SOFTWARE.

In order for computer to process data they are guided by a set of instructions known as programs.
Normally the term software and programs are used interchangeably. How ever , technically speaking
the term software is not only used to mean programs but also the documentation associated with it
such as user guides.
There are various ways of classifying computer software .The following are some of classification.
i. According to purpose.
ii. According to acquisition.
iii. According to End user license(EUL).

Classification according to purpose.

Primarily computer software may be designed to manage the hard ware resources or to help the user
accomplish specific tasks. Therefore according to porpose they may be classified as either
o System software .
o Application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
These are software that performs a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resources
to the user. These functions include.
o Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly.
o Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application programs.
o Storing and retrieving files.
o Performing a variety of system utility functions.

System software can be further be divided into four sub –categories namely.
i. Operating system.
ii. Firmware.
iii. Utility software.
iv. Networking software.

Operating system
It is the main program that controls the execution of user application and enables the user access
hardware and software resources of the computer. It manages input , output and storage operations in a
computer examples are Micro Soft windows (95,98,2000 Xp, Vista ,7,8),UNIX,LINUX and
Macintosh(Mac OS).
Firm ware
Firmware also referred to as Store Logic is a combination of both software and hardware recorded
permanently on electronic chips. Usually a firmware is a read-only memory chip that is mounted or
plugged into the mother board, firmware may hold an operating system, utility programs, languages
processors etc.
Utility software.
Utility software is a special program that performs commonly used services that make certain aspects
of computing go on smoothly . Such services include sorting, copying , file handling, disk
management etc
The two basic types of utility software are:
i. System level utility : these helps the user to work with the operating system with its functions.
Eg a utility software tells the user when he/she enters a wrong command and gives suggestions
how an error can be corrected.
ii. Application level utility: These make application programs run more smoothly and efficiently.
Such utility programs are commonly purchased separately or maybe part of an operating
system.
 - 46 -

iii. Others program translators, setting editor, text editor, sort editor, calculator, time, back up
utility, anti virus, diagnostic utility calendar utility.

Networking software
Its used to establish communication between two or more computers by linking them with using
communication channel like cables to create a comp(uter network. It enables exchange of data in a
net work as well as providing data security. Network software may come as independent or
integrated in an operating system.examples are Windows server 2003, novel netware, linux
APPLICATION SOFTWARE.
These are programs that are designed to help the user accomplish a specific task
Examples of application software and their uses.

Software Uses Examples

Word processors Typing documents like letters Ms Word , LotusPro, Open
office Writer etc.
Spreadsheets Calculating budgets Ms Excell,Lotus 123
Desktop publishing Designing publications like Adope Pagemaker,Ms
news papers and books Publisher, Adobe in design.
Computer aided design Technical drawing Auto CAD
Databases Keeping records and files Ms Access, MySQL, Fox
Base, Paradox
Graphics software Designing and manipulating Corel Draw, Photoshop.
graphics.

Classification according to acquisition.

They can be categorized as
 in house developed (Bespoke) or
 Vendor off the shelf software.

In house developed software(Bespoke).

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user’s needs. For
example a bank may decide its banking operations using a unique program developed by hired
programmers. Thses programs are c not available in the shops and once developed for one company or
user they may not address the needs of other users.
Vendor off the shelf( Standard software)
These programs are developed by software engineers, packaged and made available for purchase
through a vendor or directly from developer . A developer may bundle more than one but closely
related software into one package to form a suite or integrated software .g Micro soft office, Lotus
suite, and Corel WordPerfect while single purpose are Quick Books and Sage Pastel.
The word package is sometimes used to refer to these types of software that are packaged and sold to
vendors.
Advantages of standard software over the in house developed programs are.
1. They can be easily installed and run.
2. They are cheaper than in house developed software.
3. They are readily available for almost any task.
4. Minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested.
5. They can easily be modified to meet user’s needs.
 - 47 -

Disadvantages of standard software over the in house developed programs are.

1. They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage.
2. They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which may turn
be expensive.
3. They may lack features required by the user.
4. They are not efficient as user made programs.

Classification according to End –User-Licence.

According to this classification they can be classified as
 Open source,
 Proprietary or
 Freeware.

Open source or non proprietary software-these refers to software whose source code (programmed
set of instructions) is freely made available to users. The users are encouraged to use modify and
distribute the modified product. Most distribution of Linux operating system and open office are open
source software which are made available to users under General Public License.(GPL).
Proprietary software on the other hand are those software whose source code is hidden from users.
Modification are only made by the software manufacturer. They are usually licensed to users at a fee
or applied freely. Micro soft Windows Operating systems and office are examples of proprietary
software.
Freeware are software products that are freely made available to the user. However, beware of
freeware because some may be Malicious software example of free ware is Grisoft anti virus software
Known as AVG.

2.9 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Before purchasing a computer, hardware or software resources it is advisable to do a requirement
analysis of all the requirements necessary in order to Balance between cost and user needs.
requirement analysis involve , identifying user needs hardware and software evaluation.
Hardware considerations
There are a number of factors that need to be put in consideration before acquiring hardware
resources this are. Microprocessor type and speed, warranty, cost, upgradability and compatibility,
portability, special user needs, monitor, multimedia capability,
Microprocessor type and speed
The processing power, speed and cost of a computer mainly depends on the type of microprocessor
and its clock speed. Some of the micro processor available today include microprocessor Intel duo
core, Pentium IV, Intel Celeron, AMD Duron. Consider an acceptable speed that meets user
requirements at a fair price. Memory capacity determines what operating system and application
programs can be installed. Although, a computer may have a superior processor, it may not perform as
expected if it has low memory capacity . because of the current multimedia application, a good
computer should have sufficient memory to handle the heavy application that require a lot of space in
order to run . therefore, purchasing computer or memory module for upgrade consider the following;
1.The type of memory package e.g. DDR,DDR2.
2.Whether there is an empty memory slot.
3.Compacity with other installed modules if upgrading.
4.Capacity of the module.
Warranty
A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions of,
after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction. The most important consideration to make is
whether the seller is whether the seller is ready to actually provide after sale services. On top of the
actual cost of the item, most manufacturers and suppliers include a certain percentages charge to cover
the warranty.
Agood warranty should cover the following points.
 - 48 -

1. Scope of the cover for example ,six months, one year etc.
2. Callout response and liability agreement. Eg how long should the supplier take to repair a fault
or replace the product and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
3. Preventive maintainance for example regularity of service at intervals etc.

Cost
The cost of computer depends on :
i. Its processing capability.
ii. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their equivalent
clone.
iii. Its size . portable computers are more expensivethan their desktop equivalents because of the
superior technology involved to manufacture small components without losing performance
abilities.

Its important to do a market survey from magazines,newspapers and electronic media or visit a
number of vendors to compare prices before purchasing a computer. Computer information
exhibitions also enlighten a buyer on current trends and costs.
Upgradability and compatibility
The hardware bought must be compatible across platforms and easily upgradable for example some
older computers cannot support large hard disks and high speed bus devices ( USB and firewire)
available in the market today.
Portability
Portable computers such as laptops PDAs are ideal for people who do not take most of their time in
office.
Special user needs
When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique user needs , for example , if a user is
physically challenged , consider buying voice input devices.
Monitor
Depending on preference , choice of a monitor may depend on size, resolution and the technology
used on it. Currently, flat panel displays are gradually replacing CRTs.
Multimedia capability.
Multimedia capability refers to the ability for a computer to process and output text, sound, video and
pictures. A multimedia system consists of speakers, CD/DVD drive , sound card and a SVGA monitor.
Other considerations
Other considerations include available ports, wireless connectivity and the system unit form factor
whether tower type or desktop.
Software considerations
Although one may have agood computer with the best hardware, the actual determinant of a computer
value to the user is the software in it. The following factors should be considered when selecting
software:
Authenticity
The term authenticity refers to genuineness, validity and legitimacy of an item. When you acquire
software from the vendors , make sure it is original copy that is accompanied by the developers license
and certificate of authenticity. This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which is
an offence.
Documentation.
It refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having details on how to install, use and maintain
the software. These include installation guide, maintenance guide, and user guide. This documentation
enables the user to work with the software with minimum guidance.

User needs
User needs dictate the type of operating system and application programs that, should be considered
acquisition ,For example, if the user needs to type documents most often he or she would go for a
word processor.
 - 49 -

People with special disability would require software that recognizes other forms of input like voice
and natural sound. A good rxample is a software used in mobile phones to store voice and allow the
user to make a call by just calling a name instead of keying in the number.
Reliability and security
Data security is paramount. A good software especially the operating system should have security
mechanisms that protect data and information from illegal access.
User friendliness
One of the most important features normally considered when using the computer program is it user
friendliness. This is a measure how easily the user can be able to operate the computer. Some
programmes are more user friendly than others. A lot of research and efforts has been dedicated in
trying to come up with more user friendly software. The ease to use a program will most likely
influence whether the user will prefer it or not.
Cost
Software tend to be more expensive than hardware. The cost of acquiring software product must be
carefully considered before acquiring them against benefits that it is likely to bring. It is not also
advisable to always go for a freeware because some of them may be malicious programs.
Compatibility and system configuration
A software product should be compatible with the existing hardware , operating system or application
programs and should be readily upgradable.
Portability
Portability in this aspect refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than one
computer. Although most software in market today are portable, some developers produce software
which can be installed on one machine only. This means that if one has twenty computers , one should
buy a license for each.

Power and interface cables

Power cables
Inside the system unit is a special power supply unit that supplies power to the mother board and other
internal device. It convert power from AC to DC.
To connect the computer to main power outlet you need power cables that link power supply unit to
main(socket from main power outlet).
Interface cables
They are cables which creates a link between (peripheral device and the system unit).
The cables are connected to the device on one end while on the end they are connected to the mother
board through socket called ‘ports’. The main different between power cable and an interface is that
power cable supply power for system to run while interface cable, transmit data signals. There are
different type of cables and ports as follows.
Parallel cables and ports
Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously using a set of conductor {wires}for example if a
cable uses 8 lines ,it is said to be an 8-bit parallel cables. The advantage of using such cables is that
they transmit data faster over a short distance. A parallel cables connects to a parallel interface port
commonly referred to as line printer{LPT}. Parallel cables are used to connect printers, optical ,
scanners and some removable storage drives such as zip drive.
Serial cables and ports
Serial ports are also known as COM or RS232 ports, support transmission of data one bit at a time ,
hence it is slower than the parallel ports. Although they are slower , they are more reliable than the
parallel ports because they can support data transmission to devices connected 15m away. Serial
cables generally used to connect devices such as the mouse and some printers.
Universal serials bus (USB)cables and ports
It is a new standard serial interface that is set to replace the conventional parallel and serial cables and
ports. Currently most peripheral devices from printers to mobile phones are coming with USB as the
default interface. Although it transmit only one bit at a time , it provides very high speed and quality
data transmission over a distance of approximately five meter. Two types of USB namely low speed
USB[1.1] and relatively faster High speed[2.0] . A USB port can be used to connect as many as 127
peripheral devices to a computer daisy chained to a single port known as root hub.
 - 50 -

Small computers system interface

Small computer system interface port and interface cables transmit data In parallel but are faster than
parallel cables another advantage of scsi port is that one SCSI port allows as to connect multiple
devises
Personal system 2(PS/2) interface.
Originally most computers used 5 –pin DIN to connect a keyboard to the system unit but the smaller
6-pin mini DIN also known as PS/2 interface has replaced this technology currently most desktop
computers come with two ps/2 ports one for mouse and the other for keyboard.
VIDEO Graphics array(VGA)Interface.
A Video Graphics array(VGA)is used to connect a monitor or a data projector it is shaped like a letter
D with 15 Pins.
AUDIO Interface.
It is used to connect speakers and microphone
Firewire interface
Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmit data faster than USB. It is
mostly used for video streaming from a digital video camera.
Infrared and blue tooth
Infrared also refered to as infra red data association(IDA)is a wireless interface that uses infrared to
connect to infrared enabled devices. On the other hand , blue tooth is also a wireless interface that uses
short range radio broadcast to connect to any blue tooth enabled device.

SUMMARY OF STANDARD SYMBOLS USED TO DENOTE AN INTERFACE.

 - 51 -

Basic computer set up and Cabling

Before carrying out any set up activity, the following precautions should be observed.
1. Disconnect all devices from the power source before starting to work on them.
2. Do not work on any peripheral devices without the guidance from the teacher.
3. Never work alone because you may need help in case of emergency.
4. Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on the hands by touching an earthed metallic
object and then wearing an anti static wrist member. This is because your body can hold as much as
200Volts of static charge that can damage sensitive components on the mother board.

Tools and other requirements.

 Screw drivers.
 Pliers
 Mother board.
 Manufacturers manual.
 Required manufacturers manual.
 Dismantled system unit.
 Power and interface cables.

Mounting internal devices.

While external devices l devices are connected to the mother board through ports internal devices are
connected through slots and sockets.
Mounting hard drives and optical drives.
Internal devices are connected to the mother board using special ribbon cables. Hard disks and optical
drives (CD, DVD ROM AND RW) are connected to the motherboard through interface connectors.
Commonly referred to as controllers.
There are three types of controllers namely.
a. Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics. (EIDE).
b. Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA).
c. Small Computer System Interface. (SCSI).

EIDE and SATA are commonly used on most Personal Computers while SCSI is used in Servers. SATA is
meant to replace of older Parallel ATA (PATA) and EIDE because is more efficient and supports Hot
Swapping. Hot Swapping means that a drive can be removes or inserted while the computer is still on.
Each EIDE Controller supports up to two drives on a single ribbon cable. This type of a set up is called
master/slave configuration because one controller directs the activities of both drives. To mount an
EIDE Drive proceed as follows.
1. Wear anti static wrist member to discharge any static charge on the body.
2. Determine which drive will be the master and use the drive label information to determine which
jumper settings to use foe a master or a slave.
3. Check that a free drive bay is available, slide the disk into that bay and screw it into place.
4. Ensure that there is agree power connector fr4om the power supply unit and connect it to the drive.
Notice that it is designed to fit in its socket in only one direction.
5. Identify pin 1 as labeled on the drives socket and match it with the red or brown continuous line of the
ribbon cable. Most cables will only fit in one direction.
6. Connect the interface cable to the drive, then into the controllers slot on the motherboard.
7. If installation is complete replace the casing cover.

Installing floppy drives.

 - 52 -

Floppy drives are installed the same way as the EIDE drives, only that there is no master/slave
configuration. However you can attach two floppy drives on the same ribbon cable. One floppy drives
will be automatically be assigned letter A, while the other will be drive B.
CONNECTING EXTERNAL DEVICES.
To connect a device to the system unit, you need to identify its port and interface cable.
1. Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct port and to the device if it
is not already fixed permanently.
2. Connect the computer to the power source and switch on.
3. Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether Power On self-Test (POST) Display any error
Message.
4. A successful boot means that the computer was properly set up.

NB: If the computer is completely new, programs have to be copied (installed) on the hard disk.
 - 53 -

OPERATING SYSTEM
CHAPTER OUTLINE
o Definition of operating system.
o Functions of operating system.
o Organization of information using an operating system.
o File management using an operating system.
o Disk management using an operating system.
o Devices under operating system control
o Installation and configuration of an operating system.

3.1 Introduction
Operating system is the main program that controls the execution of user application and enables the
user to access hardware and software resources of a computer.
User applications does not communicate directly with hardware devices instead they send messages
through the operating system which give instructions to the hardware to perform a particular task.
Role of an operating system
An operating system acts as the interface between the user applications and the computer hardware as
illustrated below.

User
(runs application programs)

Application programs
(send users requeste to OS)

3.2 Functions of operating system in resource management.

Operating system(OS)
Structure of an operating(Receive
system. executes requests)
An operating system basically is composed of two main parts Shell and kernel
Shell is the outer part the user uses to interact with the operating system also known as user interface.
While the kernel is the core of an operating system responsible for managing and controlling
computer resources such as the processor, main memory, storage devices , input devices, output
devices and communication devices.Hardware
(receive and does OS commands)
Functions of operating system.
i. Processor scheduling
Processor scheduling refers to allocating each job waiting execution processor time at each given
interval. The operating system kernel schedules or determines which task will use what resource at
what time some tasks will be given priority over others due to the nature of the request. This is called
interrupt handling.
ii. Interrupt handling.
An interrupt is a break from the sequential processing of tasks or program by transferring control to a
new process that request to be executed.ie a critical request causes the processor to stop executing the
current process to attend to it, before returning the control back to the process that was initially
interrupted.
iii. Resource control and allocation.
The operating system maintains a set of queues made up of the processes waiting for a particular
resource . using a round robin technique, each process on the queue is given access to a resource in
turn .it uses IRQ (Interrupt Request ) number. To identify the resource being requested. Poor
resource management would result in an undesirable condition reffered to as a deadlock .Deadlock is
 - 54 -

a situation where a particular job holds a requested resource and fails to release it , yet it is requesting
for a resource held by other job.
iv. Input/ output management.
The operating system uses special software called device drivers to manage and communicate with
input and output devices such as keyboard, mouse, monitors, sound input and output devices , printers
and scanners. for example when printing the CPU directs its attention to printing function the
operating system searches for the printer, chooses the correct one , translates the name for the CPU
and finally the CPU sends the document to the printer. This makes the CPU available for other
activities.
v. Memory management.
Data and instructions entered into a computer are temporally held in main memory (RAM) before and
after processing
The operating system divides the main memory(RAM) into partitions . if the partitions are of fixed
size, they are called pages and the operating system knows exactly on which page a process or data is
currently held .
At any one time , not all pages may be held in the main memory (RAM) since it is a scarce resource
therefore those which are not needed immediately are held in Virtual memory. Virtual memory is an
image created on secondary storage device like the hard disk in order to allow programs that are too
large to fit in RAM to be executed. To manage memory the operating system swaps pages between
main memory and secondary storage.

vi. Error handling.

The operating system performs error checking on hardware, software and data . it may suggest
solutions to problems that are identified .The operating system does this by monitoring the status of
the computer system and performing audit checks on users, hard ware and software.
vii. Security.
Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorized users cannot get access
to a computer or a network resource.
viii. Communication control and management.
The operating system is responsible for managing various communication devices and provide an
environment within which communication protocols operate. The term protocol refers to the rules that
govern This is the reason why software developers have dedicated a lot of time and resources
communication between devices in a network. Modern operating systems come with network
management utilities that provide external communication by connecting to a communication systems
using an interface cable or through wireless interface .
 - 55 -

3.3 Types of operating system.

Operating system can be classified according to.

a. Number of tasks .
b. Number of users.
c. User interface .

A -Classification according to number of tasks.

i. Single Program Operating System

Single program or single tasks operating system allows processing of one application program in the
main memory at a time. This means that the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The
user must exist from the program before loading and running another program. An example of a
single user operating system is MS DOS from Microsoft Corporation.

ii. Multitasking operating system

Multitasking operating system allows a single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one
application program apparently at the same time. Through processor scheduling, the operating
system allocate a time slice to each ready tasks. The CPU switches its attention between
program as directed by the operating system. This switching mechanism is so fast that it
appears as if the tasks are being executed simultaneously.

B- Classification according to number of users

i. Single-user operating system
A single-user operating system is design for use by only one person. It cannot support more
than one person and runs only one user application program at a time.
ii. Multi-user operating system
Multi-user or multi-access operating systems allow more than one user to interactively use a
computer. For example, server operating system such as windows 2003 server. The can at the
same time be installed on a computer that is accessed by all users in an organization. Other
examples of multi-tasking operating systems include UNIX, Novel and Windows NT/2000,
Linux.

C- Classification according to interface.

The term user interface refers to the interaction between the user and the computer. The
underlying principle in operating systems design is to make the interface as easy to use as possible(
user friendly) . The three are command line, menu driven and graphical user interface.
i. Command-line user interface.
Command-line user interface operating system lets the user type a command at command
prompt. The computer reads the typed command from the command-line and executes it. For a
command to be more user friendly, the words used should be descriptive verbs e.g print, copy
etc. unique abbreviations can be also be used e.g. DEL,REN,CHKDSK etc. Examples of
command-line OS are MS DOS, UNIX and OS/2.
command-line have become unpopular because itv is difficult to remember commands ,
cannot process complex graphics and handly make use of emerging hardware and software
technologies.
ii. Menu driven interface.
Menu driven provides the user with a list of options to choose from. The interface is suitable
for beginners who may have difficulties recalling commands. Some operating systems present
the users with simple menus while others have sophisticated menus. Most ATM machines use
menu driven interface. An example of menu driven interface is DOS editor screen that came
with later version of MS DOS.
iii. The graphical user interface.
 - 56 -

The graphical user interface(GUI), is the latest effort to make the user interface more user
friendly. Beside menus ,GUI make use of rectangular work areas called windows, graphical
objects called icons and most commands are executed using a pointing device. These feature
are given acronym WIMP which stands for windows, icons, menus and pointing devices. Some
examples of GUI operating systems include; Microsoft windows versions 2000,XP and Vista;
Apple Mac OS and various distributions of Linux.

3.4 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system.

When choosing an operating system for a computer, the following factors may be considered:
1. The hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor speed and
hard disk capacity.
2. The type of computer in terms of size and make. For example some earlier Apple computers
would not run on Microsoft operating system.
3. The application software intended for the computer.
4. User friendliness of the operating system.
5. Documentation available.
6. The cost of the operating system.
7. Reliability and security provided by the operating system.
8. The number of processors and hardware it can support.
9. The number of users it can support.

3.5 How an operating system organizes information

Although most operating systems differ in terms of user interface, they basically handle information in
the same way. The factors that dictate how information is to be organized are:
1. Rapid access: The organization method should allow quick access to stored data.
2. Ease of update: The organization method should allow ease of update and the operating system must
be able to keep the record at the date of modification.
3. Economy of storage: The organization method should use the least storage possible because memory
is a scarce resource.
4. Simplicity of maintenance: The organization method should enable quick navigation through the file
system and make it easy for it to be maintained.
5. Reliability: The file organization method must be reliable.

Most operating systems organize information in a three- tier hierarchy:

 Drives
 Folders and subfolders
 Files

Figure below shows how an operating system organizes information on a hard disk
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Files
A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and
storage on a backing storage. Every file has the following details:
1. A unique name and an optional extension. The name and extension s are separated by a period [.]
e.g. JUNE. DOC. In this case the file name JUNE and the extension is DOC. Extensions are used to
identify the file type, for example:
 Doc is a word processor file
 Txt is a plain text
 Sys is a system file.
2. The size, data and time the file was created or modified.

Types of files
There are three types of files namely system, application and data files. System files contain
information that is critical for the operation of the computer. Application files hold programs that
are executable. Data files contain user specific data.
Table showing different types of files.
EXTENSION FILE TYPE DESCRIPTIONS

.doc Data A Microsoft word document file

.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad or DOS
editor.

.tif Data A graphical file created using application such

as Adobe Photoshop.

.exe Application file The file that launches a particular application

eg Winword.exePM.70.exe etc.

.bat System file File containing a series of commands loaded

during boot up.

.sys System files System files that perform fundamental

operations in a computer.

Folders
A folder is a named storage location where related files can be stored. All folders or directions
originate from a special directory called the root directory or folder. The root directory is
represented by a back slash [\]. A folder may be subdivided into smaller units called subfolders or
sub directories.
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Drives
The operating system views storage media or devices as drives. The user can access either a physical
or logical drive to store their data. Drives may be given labels such as letters A-Z to identify them.
Here is a summary of how Microsoft operating systems identify drives.
Storage location Drive Remarks
Floppy drive A and B If a computer has two floppy drives, one will be
assigned letter A and the other one B.
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has 4 hard drives they will be assigned
letter C- F.
Optical drives D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more
CD\ DVD drives , they will take up any number
between D and Z
Other removable D, E…, Z If a computer does not have an optical drive, any
removable drive attached to the computer can take
up any letter between A and Z
Network drive Logical drives D and Z In a network environment, network drives can take
up any letter D to Z depending on the number of
physical drives installed or attached.
3.6 Getting started with Microsoft windows.
Although there are different versions of Microsoft Windows , Most of them have almost similar features,
apart from a few variations and enhancements. With knowledge in one you can easily learn how to use
another.

Windows desktop features

Once you turn on the computer, window is loaded into the main memory and finally the desktop
showing that the computer is ready for use appears. The three main features of the desktop are the
background, icons and the taskbar.

Background
Background is the work space area on the monitor on which icons and running tasks are placed.
Windows lets the user to customize the desktop background by applying favorite themes and
wallpapers as we shall see later.

Icons
Icons are mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse. Some of the common icons on
the desktop are my computer, recycle bin, internet explorer and my documents

Task bar
The task bar enables the user to easily switch between different programs and tasks that are currently
running. Whenever the user starts a program or opens a file, its button appears on the task bar and
stays there until the user exits the program.
The taskbar has at least three main parts:

Start button task manager system tray

Start button: The left most button on the task bar that the user clicks to display the start menu.
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Task manager: This is the band where the buttons of currently running tasks are displayed. You can
switch between various tasks by clicking their respective buttons on the task manager

System tray: This is at the right part of the task bar. It has icons of tasks running in the background but
are not displayed on the screen. Examples are, the time and calendar, an antivirus program, volume
control, etc. To display such a task, simply double click its icon

The start menu items

When you click the start button, a list of choices appear called the start menu. The items may vary
depending on the version of windows you are using.

Programs menu
Programs or all programs menu displays a list of programs installed in the computer. The menu has a
small solid arrow. When you point the arrow, a sub menu called sidekick menu is displayed.

My recent documents
My recent documents list the last fifteen recently accessed files. You can open any of the listed files
from a storage device by clicking its name provided that the device is accessible.

Control panel
The control panel is the computer maintenance and configuration toolbox. It provides tools used to
maintain and make changes to the computer set up. It is important not to tamper with this menu
because you may interfere with the computer functionality.

Find/ search
Search in XP helps the user to search for a file or folder in case the user forgets its name or its
location.

Help and support

The help command on the start menu, displays detailed information on how to use the operating
system and solve some computer related problems in case the computer fails to function properly

Run
It enables the user to:
1. Install programs on the hard disk.
2. Open files and folders from a storage location
3. Run programs from the removable media without necessarily installing it on the hard disk
Log off
To log off is to terminate the current user session. To go back or switch to a new user, the user must
log in. Loging in is a security measure that restricts unauthorized users from accessing computer
resources. To log in the user must enter the correct name and password or in some cases use other
methods such as finger print authentication. It prompts for a user name and password for one to gain
access.

Turn off
This menu lets the user shut down, restart, make computer go tp standby or Hibernation. Hibernation
saves everything in memory on disk and turns off the computer. Standby on the other hand makes the
computer consume less power in idle mode but remain available for immediate use.

3.7 MANAGING FILES AND FOLDERS.

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To manage files or folders you can either use my computer icon from desk top or windows explorer
from the start menu. Each on its own way lets you see how storage devices or locations , files and
folders are arranged.
Windows explorer
It lets the user display the drives and folders in hierarchy or tree structure. The computer tree is an
upside down structure with the highest level in this case the desktop being the root. The explorer
divides the window into two panes . The left pane displays a tree of drives and folders while the right
pane displays a list of files and sub folders contained in a particular open drive or folder.
To display the explorer using the start menu:
1. Click start point to programs then accessories.
2. Click windows Explorer. An explore window is displayed. As shown below.
To display the explorer using My Computer icon.
1. Right click on My Computer.
2. Click explore.
Double clicking on My computer Icon gives you a graphical view of what is in the computer
this includes the drives, the control panel and other resources.

Creating a folder.
It is advisable that all related files be kept together in one folder. To create a new folder proceed as
follows:
1. Using my computer icon ,display the explorer window.
2. On the folder tree on the left pane ,select location in which you want to create a new folder
3. On the file menu point to new then click folders as shown below with a temporary name new
folder appears in the explore window.
4. Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press enter key or click the
icon once.

Creating a new file

Depending on the programs installed in your computer , you can create different types of files such as
drawings, text documents, etc.

NB In windows ,file names can contain up to 255 characters, including spaces but, with no
special symbols such as \,/: * < > I .

i. Renaming files and folders

Refers to changing files from their original name to some new names.
ii. Sorting files and folders.
This refers to organizing files and folders in a particular way.
iii. Copying files and folders.
Enables the computer to duplicate files and folders to another location.
iv. Moving files and folders.
Refers to moving files and files to another location.
v. Deleting files and folders.
Refers to removing the files and folders completely from the storage location.
vi. Searching for files and folders.
Refers to looking for a certain file or folder.
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The application window.

To enter data in a new file created ,one has to open it in its application program. This is done by
double clicking the file icon. A rectangular area called an application window appears.
Parts of an application window.
Menu bar Tool bar Title bar

Work area

Status bar

Title bar : This is a bar across the top of the window that displays the name of the current
application program or task.
On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons namely
Minimize button: it reduces a window by pressing the button which is then placed on the task bar.
The restore/maximize button: It stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to its
original size.
The close button: is used to exit an application.
Menu bar : it provide a list of commands that can be used to manipulate a task.
Tool bar : These are buttons arranged in a row that are shortcuts to menu commands.
Work area :this is the area where you ca create you document.
Status bar : This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the application window that acts as a
communication link between the user and the operating system. Such interactive activities include
saving, opening a file, printing, cursor position etc.
Scroll bars : Provides a way to pan your window up and down or left and right to show information
that doesn’t fit in the window.
Insertion point/ text cursor: Marks the place where text and graphics will appear when typing drawing
is started.

Disk Management Using Windows.

i. Formatting Disk
The process of preparing a new disk for use by creating sectors and tracks on the surface of
disk.
ii. Disk defragmentation
Refer to arranging of scattered folders and files on a storage media for easy access of files and
folders.
iii. Disk compression.
This tool help in consolidating files and folders in smaller storage areas hence creating more
space on the storage device.
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iv. Disk partitioning

The process of dividing the physical disk into two or more partitions called logical drives.
v. Backing up data
The tool enables the user to create copies of data and programs on separate storage areas to avoid
losing of data and programs incase the storage device fails.
vi. Scanning storage device.
This tool helps the user to check up and repair minor storage problems. Eg lost storage storage
or damaged surface.
vii. Scanning for virus
. Malicious programs such as viruses referred to as malware are harmful programs deliberately
intended to make a computer fail or malfunction. Three common types of malicious programs are
viruses, Trojan horse and worms
 A virus is a destructive program that attaches itself on removable drives and causes damage to
a computer system such as deleting system files, data or application files.
 A worm does not attach itself to a program but self replicates hence clogging a computer
storage and memory.
 Trojan horse masquerade as genuine programs yet they are carriers of viruses. Trojan horse
may come in form of games and screen savers.
A computer must be installed with latest antivirus programs such as Norton, McAfee,
Kaspersky and Grisoft AVG.
Scanning for Viruses therefore refers to checking your system for virus and removing them e.g
Using Norton antivirus, MacAfee software to scan

viii. Partitioning a disk

This refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two or more physical into two
or more partitions called logical drives . a logical drive is treated as a separate drive and is
assigned a drive letter . two reasons for partitioning a disk are
i. when the user intends to install more than one operating system on the same disk,
install each on a separate partition.
ii. for the purposes of back up on the same disk but different partition so that if one
partition fail others will be still working.

Choosing a file system.

Before partitioning a disk you need to decide how files are stored on each partition. The following
file systems are used on windows operating systems:
 file allocation table((FAT) :was primarily used in MSDOS and Windows 95.
 File Allocation Table 32 bit(FAT32):is primarily used in windows 98 and Me.FAT32 can also be
used on windows XP.
 New Technology File System(NTFS); is primarily used in windows NT,200,XP,203,Vista,7 and 8.

Trouble shooting and fixing errors.

The term trouble shooting refers to the process of diagnosing and trying to fix hardware or
software related problems.
Some problems windows experience.
i. Failure to load the operating system during the booting process.
ii. The computer hangs ( stops responding) now and then.
iii. Abnormal restarting.
iv. ‘‘fatal exception error has occurred ……….’’. windows operating system may fail to
function properly due to hardware, malware, improper installation or missing system files.

The following are some boot and run time errors and suggested solution;
Invalid system disk
Invalid system disk error may occur if the drive configured as the active partition no longer
contains essential system files required to load the operating system. Make sure that the active
partition is selected as start up drive or re-install the operating system.
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Missing operating system.

Missing system files such as CONFIG.SYS,HIMEN.SYS and Autoexec.bat may result to boot
failure. If the files have been deleted , re-install the operating system or start up the computer
using the start up or rescue disk and try to copy the files into the system subfolder of windows
folder.
Corrupted system registry
Registry is the windows database that keeps details about all system and application programs
installed in the computer. If the registry is corrupted , the computer may fail to boot. Repair the
registry using emergency repair disk or restore the restore the registry back up if you created
one. If all these fail, re-install the operating system.
Failure to load the GUI desktop.
Failure to load the GUI may be due to infection by malware, missing or corrupted display
drivers. If the system can start in safe mode, scan for viruses or locate the malfunctioning
device in the device manger and disable it.
Windows protection error
Windows protection error is displayed during start up before the GUI is loaded . it occurs when
the 32 –bit virtual driver fails to load. Restart the computer in safe. If the OS loads properly ,
use the device manager to re-install corrupted or missing drivers.
Runtime problems
Run-time problems may be characterized by the system failure to respond to commands. This
behavior is commonly referred to as “hanging” use restart keys Ctrl + Alt + Del to display the
Task Manager and try to terminate non responding applications. If this fails shutdown the
computer and turn it again.
Deadlock –is a situation wherea particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to release
it for use by other tasks.
NB: For more on trouble shooting and fixing operating system related problems, read online
”Help and support” utility found in the start menu.

Devices under operating system control.

Processor :It is the operating system which determines which task ( process) will be executed first.

Memory :The operating system determines which task(process) remains in the memory and which
one will be temporarily suspended to the virtual memory.

Input/output devices and ports: the operating system allocates requests from application to
input/output devices. It also ensures smooth data transfer between the various input/output devices.

Secondary storage devices: The operating system manages the storage and retrieval of data from
backing storage.

Communication devices: The operating system manages various communication devices and
provides an environment within which communication protocols operate. Protocol refer to the rules
that govern communication between devices.