LORDS Institute of Engineering and Technology

(Autonomous), Hyderabad, Telangana, INDIA.

Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to OSMANIA UNIVERSITY /Estd.2002.

Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ grade & Accredited by NBA.

PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES (PPL)

Course Code: PC 502 CS

III B. Tech V Semester – OU BE (CSE)

Subject Coordinator:
Dr Sunil VK Gaddam
Professor of CSE & DEAN – CSE and Allied Departments

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 CONTENTS

UNIT -1: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS

1. Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages
2. Programming Domains, Language Evaluation Criteria
3. Influences on Language Design, Language Categories
4. Programming Paradigms-Imperative, Functional Programming language
5. Language Implementation-Compilation and Interpretation
6. Programming Environments
SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS
7. The General Problems of Describing Syntax and semantics
8. BNF
9. E BNF for common programming language features
10. Ambiguous Grammar

UNIT- 2: DATA TYPES ANDVARIABLES

1. Introduction to Primitive Data Types
2. User-Defined Data Types and Array Types
3. Record, Union and Pointer and Reference types
4. Names, Variables, The Concept of Binding
5. Type Checking, Type Compatibility
6. Strong Types, Named Constants, variable initialization
EXPRESSIONS AND STATEMENTS & CONTROL STRUCTURES
7. Expression: [Arithmetic, Relational and Boolean Expressions]
8. Short-Circuit Evaluation
9. Assignment Statements, Mixed-Mode Assignment [Referential Transparency &
Functional Programming]
10. Control Structures [statement Level Control Structures, Compound
statements]
11. Selection Statements, Iterative Statements, Unconditional Branching, Guarded
Commands
UNIT- 3: SUBPROGRAMS AND BLOCKS
1. Fundamentals of Subprograms
2. Design Issues for Subprograms

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 3. Parameter Passing Methods
4. Parameters Subprograms as parameters
5. Ov erloaded Subprograms & Operations
6. Generic Subprograms, separately compiled modules
7. Co-Routines
UNIT- 4: ABSTRACT DATA TYPES
1. Abstract -data types [Abstraction & Encapsulation]
2. Introduction to Data Abstraction, Design Issues
3. Language Examples
4. C ++ Parameterized Abstract Data Types
5. Data Types
6. Object-Oriented Programming in Smalltalk
7. Object-Oriented Programming in C ++
8. Object-Oriented Programming in Jav a
9. Object-Oriented Programming in C#
10. Object-Oriented Programming in Ada 95
EXCEPTION HANDLING& LOGIC PROGRAMMING
11. Exception Handling: Exceptions, Exception Propagation
12. Exception Handler in Ada
13. C ++ and Java
14. Logic Programming Language: Introduction An Overview of Logic
Programming
15. The Basic Elements of P RO LO G
16. Applications of Logic Programming
UNIT-5: FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES & SCRIPTINGLANGUAGE
1. Functional Programming Language Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Functional Programming Languages, LIS P Programming
3. Fundamentals of ML, examples
4. Fundamentals of Haskell, function syntax and examples
5. Applications of Functional Programing language and Comparison of
Functional and Imperative Languages

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 UNIT-3
Subprograms and Blocks
Introduction
• Two fundamental abstraction facilities
– Process abstraction
• Emphasized from early days
– Data abstraction
• Emphasized in the1980s

1. Fundamentals of Subprograms - CO4

• Each subprogram has a single entry point
• The calling program is suspended during execution of the called subprogram
• Control always returns to the caller when the called subprogram’s execution terminates
Basic Definitions
• A subprogram definition describes the interface to and the actions of the subprogram
abstraction
– In Python, function definitions are executable; in all other languages, they are non-
executable
– In Ruby, function definitions can appear either in or outside of class definitions. If
outside, they are methods of Object. They can be called without an object, like a
function
– In Lua, all functions are anonymous
• A subprogram call is an explicit request that the subprogram be executed
• A subprogram header is the first part of the definition, including the name, the kind of
subprogram, and the formal parameters
• The parameter profile (aka signature) of a subprogram is the number, order, and types of its
parameters
• The protocol is a subprogram’s parameter profile and, if it is a function, its return type
• Function declarations in C and C++ are often called prototypes
• A subprogram declaration provides the protocol, but not the body, of the subprogram
• A formal parameter is a dummy variable listed in the subprogram header and used in the
subprogram
• An actual parameter represents a value or address used in the subprogram call statement

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Actual/Formal Parameter Correspondence
• Positional
– The binding of actual parameters to formal parameters is by position: the first actual
parameter is bound to the first formal parameter and so forth
– Safe and effective
• Keyword
– The name of the formal parameter to which an actual parameter is to be bound is
specified with the actual parameter
– Advantage: Parameters can appear in any order, thereby avoiding parameter
correspondence errors
– Disadvantage: User must know the formal parameter’s names

Formal Parameter Default Values

• In certain languages (e.g., C++, Python, Ruby, Ada, PHP), formal parameters can have default
values (if no actual parameter is passed)
– In C++, default parameters must appear last because parameters are positionally
associated (no keyword parameters)
• Variable numbers of parameters
– C# methods can accept a variable number of parameters as long as they are of the same
type—the corresponding formal parameter is an array preceded by params
– In Ruby, the actual parameters are sent as elements of a hash literal and the
corresponding formal parameter is preceded by an asterisk.
– In Python, the actual is a list of values and the corresponding formal parameter is a
name with an asterisk
– In Lua, a variable number of parameters is represented as a formal parameter with
three periods; they are accessed with a for statement or with a multiple assignment
from the three periods
Ruby Blocks
• Ruby includes a number of iterator functions, which are often used to process the elements of
arrays
• Iterators are implemented with blocks, which can also be defined by applications
• Blocks are attached methods calls; they can have parameters (in vertical bars); they are
executed when the method executes a yield statement
def fibonacci(last)
first, second = 1, 1
while first <= last
yield first

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 first, second = second, first + second
end
end
puts "Fibonacci numbers less than 100 are:"
fibonacci(100) {|num| print num, " "}
puts
Procedures and Functions
• There are two categories of subprograms
– Procedures are collection of statements that define parameterized computations
– Functions structurally resemble procedures but are semantically modeled on
mathematical functions
• They are expected to produce no side effects
• In practice, program functions have side effects

2. Design Issues for Subprograms – CO3

• Are local variables static or dynamic?
• Can subprogram definitions appear in other subprogram definitions?
• What parameter passing methods are provided?
• Are parameter types checked?
• If subprograms can be passed as parameters and subprograms can be nested, what is the
referencing environment of a passed subprogram?
• Can subprograms be overloaded?
• Can subprogram be generic?
• If the language allows nested subprograms, are closures supported?

Scope and Lifetime

• The scope of a variable is the range of statements over which it is visible
• The nonlocal variables of a program unit are those that are visible but not declared there
• The scope rules of a language determine how references to names are associated with variables
• Scope and lifetime are sometimes closely related, but are different concepts
• Consider a static variable in a C or C++ function

Static scope
• Based on program text
• To connect a name reference to a variable, you (or the compiler) must find the declaration
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 • Search process: search declarations, first locally, then in increasingly larger enclosing scopes,
until one is found for the given name
• Enclosing static scopes (to a specific scope) are called its static ancestors; the nearest static
ancestor is called a static parent
• Variables can be hidden from a unit by having a "closer" variable with the same name
• C++ and Ada allow access to these "hidden" variables
– In Ada: unit.name
– In C++: class_name::name
• Blocks
– A method of creating static scopes inside program units--from ALGOL60
– Examples:

C and C++:for (...)

{ intindex;
...
}

Ada: declare LCL : FLOAT;

begin
...
end

• Evaluation of Static Scoping

• Consider the example:
Assume MAIN calls A and B
A calls C and D
B calls A and E
• Suppose the spec is changed so that D must now access some data in B.
• Solutions:
– Put D in B (but then C can no longer call it and D cannot access A's variables)
– Move the data from B that D needs to MAIN (but then all procedures can access them)
• Same problem for procedure access.
• Overall: static scoping often encourages many globals.

Dynamic Scope
• Based on calling sequences of program units, not their textual layout (temporal versus spatial)
• References to variables are connected to declarations by searching back through the chain of
subprogram calls that forced execution to this point

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Scope Example
MAIN
-declaration of x
SUB1
-declaration of x-
...
call SUB2
...
SUB2
...
-reference to x-
...
...
call SUB1
...
• Static scoping
– Reference to x is to MAIN'sx
• Dynamic scoping
– Reference to x is to SUB1'sx
• Evaluation of Dynamic Scoping:
– Advantage: convenience
– Disadvantage: poor readability

Local Referencing Environments

• Def: The referencing environment of a statement is the collection of all names that are visible
in the statement.
• In a static-scoped language, it is the local variables plus all of the visible variables in all of the
enclosing scopes.
• A subprogram is active if its execution has begun but has not yet terminated.
• In a dynamic-scoped language, the referencing environment is the local variables plus all
visible variables in all active subprograms.
• Local variables can be stack-dynamic (bound to storage)
– Advantages
• Support for recursion
• Storage for locals is shared among some subprograms
– Disadvantages
• Allocation/de-allocation, initialization time
• Indirect addressing
• Subprograms cannot be history sensitive
• Local variables can be static
– Advantages and disadvantages are the opposite of those for stack-dynamic local
variables
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 – More efficient (no indirection)
– No run-time overhead

Semantic Models of Parameter Passing

• In mode
• Out mode
• Inout mode
Models of Parameter Passing

Figure 3.1: Models of Parameter Passing

Conceptual Models of Transfer
• Physically move a value
• Move an access path to a value

3. Parameter Passing Methods –CO3

Ways in which parameters are transmitted to and/or from called subprograms

– Pass-by-value
– Pass-by-result
– Pass-by-value-result
– Pass-by-reference
– Pass-by-name

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 Pass-by-Value (In Mode)
– The value of the actual parameter is used to initialize the corresponding formal
parameter
– Normally implemented by copying
– Can be implemented by transmitting an access path but not recommended (enforcing
write protection is not easy)
– Disadvantages (if by physical move): additional storage is required (stored twice) and
the actual move can be costly (for large parameters)
– Disadvantages (if by access path method): must write-protect in the called subprogram
and accesses cost more (indirect addressing)
 Pass-by-Result (Out Mode)
– When a parameter is passed by result, no value is transmitted to the subprogram; the
corresponding formal parameter acts as a local variable; its value is transmitted to
caller’s actual parameter when control is returned to the caller, by physical move
 Require extra storage location and copy operation
– Potential problems:
 sub(p1, p1); whichever formal parameter is copied back will represent the
current value of p1
 sub(list[sub], sub); Compute address of list[sub] at the beginning of the
subprogram or end?
 Pass-by-Value-Result (inout Mode)
– A combination of pass-by-value and pass-by-result
– Sometimes called pass-by-copy
– Formal parameters have local storage
– Disadvantages:
 Those of pass-by-result
 Those of pass-by-value
 Pass-by-Reference (Inout Mode)
– Pass an access path
– Also called pass-by-sharing
– Advantage: Passing process is efficient (no copying and no duplicated storage)
– Disadvantages
 Slower accesses (compared to pass-by-value) to formal parameters
 Potentials for unwanted side effects (collisions)
 Unwanted aliases (access broadened)

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 fun(total, total); fun(list[i], list[j]; fun(list[i], i);
 Pass-by-Name (InoutMode)
– By textual substitution
– Formals are bound to an access method at the time of the call, but actual binding to a
value or address takes place at the time of a reference or assignment
– Allows flexibility in late binding
– Implementation requires that the referencing environment of the caller is passed with
the parameter, so the actual parameter address can be calculated

Implementing Parameter-Passing Methods

 In most languages parameter communication takes place thru the run-time stack
 Pass-by-reference are the simplest to implement; only an address is placed in the stack

Figure 3.2: Implementing Parameter-Passing Methods

Function header: void sub(int a, int b, int c, int d)

Function call in main: sub(w, x, y, z)
(pass w by value, x by result, y by value-result, z by reference)

Parameter Passing Methods of Major Languages

 C
– Pass-by-value

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 – Pass-by-reference is achieved by using pointers as parameters
 C++
– A special pointer type called reference type for pass-by-reference
 Java
– All parameters are passed are passed by value
– Object parameters are passed by reference
 Ada
– Three semantics modes of parameter transmission: in, out, in out; in is the
default mode
– Formal parameters declared out can be assigned but not referenced; those
declared in can be referenced but not assigned; in out parameters can be
referenced and assigned
 Fortran 95+
– Parameters can be declared to be in, out, or inout mode
 C#
– Default method: pass-by-value
– Pass-by-reference is specified by preceding both a formal parameter and its
actual parameter with ref
 PHP: very similar to C#, except that either the actual or the formal parameter can
specify ref
 Perl: all actual parameters are implicitly placed in a predefined array named @_
 Python and Ruby use pass-by-assignment (all data values are objects); the actual is
assigned to the formal

Type Checking Parameters

 Considered very important for reliability
 FORTRAN 77 and original C: none
 Pascal, FORTRAN 90+, Java, and Ada: it is always required
 ANSI C and C++: choice is made by the user
– Prototypes
 Relatively new languages Perl, JavaScript, and PHP do not require type checking
 In Python and Ruby, variables do not have types (objects do), so parameter type
checking is not possible
Multidimensional Arrays as Parameters
 If a multidimensional array is passed to a subprogram and the subprogram is separately
compiled, the compiler needs to know the declared size of that array to build the storage
mapping function

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  Multidimensional Arrays as Parameters: C and C++
– Programmer is required to include the declared sizes of all but the first subscript in
the actual parameter
– Disallows writing flexible subprograms
– Solution: pass a pointer to the array and the sizes of the dimensions as other
parameters; the user must include the storage mapping function in terms of the size
parameters
 Multidimensional Arrays as Parameters: Ada
– Ada – not a problem
o Constrained arrays – size is part of the array’s type
o Unconstrained arrays - declared size is part of the object declaration
 Multidimensional Arrays as Parameters: Fortran
– Formal parameters that are arrays have a declaration after the header
o For single-dimension arrays, the subscript is irrelevant
o For multidimensional arrays, the sizes are sent as parameters and used in the
declaration of the formal parameter, so those variables are used in the storage
mapping function
 Multidimensional Arrays as Parameters: Java and C#
– Similar to Ada
– Arrays are objects; they are all single-dimensioned, but the elements can be arrays
– Each array inherits a named constant (length in Java, Length in C#) that is set to the
length of the array when the array object is created

Design Considerations for Parameter Passing

 Two important considerations
– Efficiency
– One-way or two-way data transfer
 But the above considerations are in conflict
– Good programming suggest limited access to variables, which means one-way
whenever possible
– But pass-by-reference is more efficient to pass structures of significant size

4. Parameters that are Subprogram Names – CO3

 It is sometimes convenient to pass subprogram names as parameters
 Issues:

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 1. Are parameter types checked?
2. What is the correct referencing environment for a subprogram that was sent as a
parameter?
Parameters that are Subprogram Names: Parameter Type Checking
 C and C++: functions cannot be passed as parameters but pointers to functions can be
passed; parameters can be type checked
 FORTRAN95 type checks
 Later versions of Pascal, and
 Ada does not allow subprogram parameters; a similar alternative is provided via Ada’s
generic facility
Parameters that are Subprogram Names: Referencing Environment
• Shallow binding: The environment of the call statement that enacts the passed subprogram
– Most natural for dynamic-scoped languages
• Deep binding: The environment of the definition of the passed subprogram
– Most natural for static-scoped languages
• Ad hoc binding: The environment of the call statement that passed the subprogram
Calling Subprograms Indirectly
• Usually when there are several possible subprograms to be called and the correct one on a
particular run of the program is not know until execution (e.g., event handling and GUIs)
• In C and C++, such calls are made through function pointers
• In C#, method pointers are implemented as objects called delegates
– A delegate declaration:
public delegate int Change(int x);
– This delegate type, named Change, can be instantiated with any method that
takes an int parameter and returns an int value
A method: static int fun1(int x) { … }
Instantiate: Change chgfun1 = new Change(fun1);
Can be called with: chgfun1(12);
– A delegate can store more than one address, which is called a multicast delegate

5. Overloaded Subprograms – CO3

• An overloaded subprogram is one that has the same name as another subprogram in the same
referencing environment
– Every version of an overloaded subprogram has a unique protocol
• C++, Java, C#, and Ada include predefined overloaded subprograms

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 • In Ada, the return type of an overloaded function can be used to disambiguate calls (thus two
overloaded functions can have the same parameters)
• Ada, Java, C++, and C# allow users to write multiple versions of subprograms with the same
name

6. Generic Subprograms – CO3

• A generic or polymorphic subprogram takes parameters of different types on different
activations
• Overloaded subprograms provide ad hoc polymorphism
• Subtype polymorphism means that a variable of type T can access any object of type T or any
type derived from T (OOP languages)
• A subprogram that takes a generic parameter that is used in a type expression that describes
the type of the parameters of the subprogram provides parametric polymorphism
– A cheap compile-time substitute for dynamic binding

Examples of parametric polymorphism: C++

template <classType>
Type max(Type first, Type second) { return first > second ?
first :second;
}
– The above template can be instantiated for any type for which operator > is defined
int max (int first, int second){
return first > second? first :second;
}
• C++
– Versions of a generic subprogram are created implicitly when the subprogram is named
in a call or when its address is taken with the & operator
– Generic subprograms are preceded by a template clause that lists the generic
variables, which can be type names or class names
template <class Type>
Type max(Type first, Type second) {
return first > second ? first : second;
}
• Java 5.0
– Differences between generics in Java 5.0 and those of C++:
1. Generic parameters in Java 5.0 must be classes

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2. Java 5.0 generic methods are instantiated just once as truly generic methods
3. Restrictions can be specified on the range of classes that can be passed to the generic
method as generic parameters
4. Wildcard types of generic parameters
public static <T> T doIt(T[] list) { … }
– The parameter is an array of generic elements (T is the name of the type)
– A call:
doIt<String>(myList);
Generic parameters can have bounds:
public static <T extends Comparable> T
doIt(T[] list) { … }
The generic type must be of a class that implements the Comparable interface
– Wildcard types
Collection<?> is a wildcard type for collection classes
void printCollection(Collection<?> c) {
for (Object e: c) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
– Works for any collection class
– C# 2005
– Supports generic methods that are similar to those of Java 5.0
– One difference: actual type parameters in a call can be omitted if the
compiler can infer the unspecified type
– Another – C# 2005 does not support wildcards
– F#
– Infers a generic type if it cannot determine the type of a parameter or the
return type of a function – automatic generalization
– Such types are denoted with an apostrophe and a single letter, e.g., ′a
– Functions can be defined to have generic parameters
let printPair (x: ′a) (y: ′a) =
printfn ″%A %A″ x y
– %A is a format code for any type
– These parameters are not type constrained

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 – If the parameters of a function are used with arithmetic operators, they
are type constrained, even if the parameters are specified to be generic
– Because of type inferencing and the lack of type coercions, F# generic
functions are far less useful than those of C++, Java 5.0+, and C# 2005+

Design Issues for Functions

• Are side effects allowed?
– Parameters should always be in-mode to reduce side effect (like Ada)
• What types of return values are allowed?
– Most imperative languages restrict the return types
– C allows any type except arrays and functions
– C++ is like C but also allows user-defined types
– Ada subprograms can return any type (but Ada subprograms are not types, so they
cannot be returned)
– Java and C# methods can return any type (but because methods are not types, they
cannot be returned)
– Python and Ruby treat methods as first-class objects, so they can be returned, as well as
any other class
– Lua allows functions to return multiple values
User-Defined Overloaded Operators
• Operators can be overloaded in Ada, C++, Python, and Ruby
• A Python example
def __add__ (self, second) :
return Complex(self.real + second.real,
self.imag + second.imag)
Use: To compute x + y, x.__add__(y)
• An Ada example
Function “*”(A,B: in Vec_Type): return Integer is
Sum: Integer :=0;
begin
for Index in A‘rangeloop
Sum := Sum + A(Index) * B(Index)
end loop
returnsum; end“*”;
…
c = a * b; --a, b, and c are of type Vec_Type

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Closures
• A closure is a subprogram and the referencing environment where it was defined
– The referencing environment is needed if the subprogram can be called from any
arbitrary place in the program
– A static-scoped language that does not permit nested subprograms doesn’t need
closures
– Closures are only needed if a subprogram can access variables in nesting scopes and it
can be called from anywhere
– To support closures, an implementation may need to provide unlimited extent to some
variables (because a subprogram may access a nonlocal variable that is normally no
longer alive)
• A JavaScript closure:
function makeAdder(x) {
return function(y) {return x + y;}
}
...
var add10 = makeAdder(10);
var add5 = makeAdder(5);
document.write(″add 10 to 20: ″ + add10(20) +
″<br />″);
document.write(″add 5 to 20: ″ + add5(20) +
″<br />″);
– The closure is the anonymous function returned by makeAdder
• C#
– We can write the same closure in C# using a nested anonymous delegate
– Func<int, int> (the return type) specifies a delegate that takes an int as a
parameter and returns and int
static Func<int, int> makeAdder(int x) {
return delegate(int y) {return x + y;};
}
...
Func<int, int> Add10 = makeAdder(10);
Func<int, int> Add5 = makeAdder(5);
Console.WriteLine(″Add 10 to 20: {0}″, Add10(20));
Console.WriteLine(″Add 5 to 20: {0}″, Add5(20));

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7. Coroutines – CO3
• A coroutine is a subprogram that has multiple entries and controls them itself – supported
directly in Lua
• Also called symmetric control: caller and called coroutines are on a more equal basis
• A coroutine call is named a resume
• The first resume of a coroutine is to its beginning, but subsequent calls enter at the point just
after the last executed statement in the coroutine
• Coroutines repeatedly resume each other, possibly forever
• Coroutines provide quasi-concurrent execution of program units (the coroutines); their
execution is interleaved, but not overlapped

Coroutines Illustrated: Possible Execution Controls

Figure 3.3 (a) (b): Possible Execution Controls

Coroutines Illustrated: Possible Execution Controls with Loops

Figure 3.4: Possible Execution Controls with Loops

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