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ENGINEERING DRAWING/GRAPHICS: - Engineering drawing is a graphical

language of an engineer.
Example: - Brail for blind.

Main instruments used in drawing:-

 Drawing Board
 Drawing Sheet
 Mini Drafter
 Scale
 Protractor
 Drawing pencils
 Eraser
 Drawing pins
 Sharpener

Grades of sheets & boards:-

SHEETS BOARDS
A0 D0
A1 D1
A2 D2
A3 D3
A4 D4

Grades of pencils:-
9H,8H,7H…………..3H,2H,H, HB , F,B,2B,3B,……………….7B

Color ← (Light) ↓ → (Dark)

Graphite ← (Hard) ↓ → (Soft)
(Normal)
Properties of Arrow (→): -
 Arrow length and width ratio is always 3:1=L: W
 All sides should be curved
 Arrow should be completely filled
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TYPES OF LINES
NAME OF LINE PENCIL USED APPLICATON
Margin/Boundary line HB For drawing margin on sheet
Center line or Axis line HB For showing axis of any object
[─ - ─ - ─] (6:1 or 8:1)
Hidden line HB Show hidden portion of object
[- - - - - - -] (1:1 or 2:2)
Locus line H For showing locus of any
[─ - - ─ - - ─] object
Cutting plane or Section plane HB For showing section plane
line [-─ - ─ - ─-]
Hatching line H Showing sectioned area
▓▓
Dimension line HB For dimensioning of object
[↔]

SCALE: - Scale is an instrument used for measurement of distance between two points or
stations.

Types of scales:-
 Engineering Scale
 Graphical Scale
Engineering Scale: - It is the linear mathematical relation b/w two different units.

Graphical Scale: - Graphical scales are those scales which are drawn on sheet.
There are 5 types
1. Plain Scale
2. Diagonal Scale
3. Vernier Scale
4. Comparative Scale
5. Scale of Chords
Plain Scale: - It is scale which is used for measuring distance up to maximum 2 different units.
Diagonal Scale: - It is a scale which is used measure distance up to 3 different units.

Diagonal scale Concept:-

 At end B of line AB, draw a perpendicular.
 Step-off ten equal divisions of any length along the perpendicular starting from B and
ending at C.
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 Number the division points 9,8,7,…..1.

 Join A with C.
 Through the points 1, 2, 3, etc., draw lines parallel to AB and cutting AC at 1l, 2l, 3l, etc.
 Since the triangles are similar; 11l = 0.1 AB, 22l = 0.2AB, …. 99l = 0.9AB.
 Gives divisions of a given short line AB in multiples of 1/10 its length, e.g. 0.1AB,
0.2AB, 0.3AB, etc.

Vernier Scale: - This scale is also used for measuring distance up to 3 different units but it
provides accurate readings to fraction of the smallest division of main scale.

 A Vernier scale consists of (i) a primary scale and (ii) a vernier.

 The primary scale is a plain scale fully divided in to minor divisions.
 The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.
 Least count (LC) is the minimum distance that can be measured.

Forward Vernier Scale : MSD>VSD; LC = MSD - VSD

Backward Vernier scale: VSD>MSD; LC = VSD - MSD

Vernier scale Concept

 Length A0 represents 10 cm and is divided in to 10 equal parts each representing 1 cm.
 B0 = 11 (i.e. 10+1) such equal parts = 11 cm.

 Divide B0 into 10 equal divisions. Each division of B0 will be equal to 11/10 = 1.1 cm or
11 mm.
 Difference between 1 part of A0 and one part of B0 = 1.1 cm -1.0 cm = 0.1cm or 1 mm.
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Comparative Scale: - It is used for comparison of 2 different scales on the basis of same R.F.

Scale of Chords: - This scale is used for measuring or construction of an angle, when protractor
is not available.

Representative Fraction (R.F.)

RF is the ratio of drawing length to the actual length of any object.
RF=DL/AL
Properties of RF: - 1. It is pure fraction
2. It is unit less

Length of Scale (LOS)

It is the product of RF and maximum length to be measured.
LOS=RF x Max. Length to be measured

Types of Scale on the basis of RF

There are three types of scale
Reducing Scale: - When drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of the objects the scale
is said to be a reducing scale, in reducing scale value of RF is always lesser than 1. Drawings of
building, machine parts are the example of reducing scale.
RF<1
RF=DL/AL<1
DL<AL

Enlarging Scale: - when drawings are drawn in enlarge size than actual objects these scales are
known as enlarging scales, in this value of RF is always greater than 1. Drawing of small m/c
parts, mathematical instruments, watches are the examples of this scale.
RF>1
RF=DL/AL
DL>AL

Full Size Scale: - It may not be always possible to draw full size drawing; in full size scale value
of RF is equal to 1. Drawings of duster, hammer is the example of full size scale.
RF=1
RF=DL/AL
DL=AL
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Unit Conversion
1 Kilometer 10 Hectometers
1 Hectometer 10 Decameters
1 Decameter 10 Meters
1 Meter 10 Decimeters
1Decimeter 10 Centimeters
1 Centimeter 10 Millimeters

1 Mile 1.609 Kilometers

1 Mile 8 Furlongs
1 Furlong 220 Yards
1 Furlong 10 Chains
1 Yard 3 Feet
1 Foot 12 Inches
1 Inch 2.54 Centimeters

For drawing of scale 3 main things should be known first

 Value of RF
 The units
 Maximum length; which it must show.

***How to divide a straight line into some equal parts***

Consider a line “AB” 7 c.m. long. Our aim to divide this line into 5 equal parts, so we can follow
the steps:-
1. Draw a line “AB” 7c.m.
2. Draw an inclined line of any length
from its one end “A” and inlined
with any angle which is less than
90°.

3. Open engineering rounder of any radius (length) and cut the arcs (5 arcs, becouse we
want to divide line into 5 parts, if we want to divide 9 parts then we cut 9 arcs on it)
on inclined line with same radius (don’t change rounder radius).
4. For cutting the arcs first center is, one end point of line i.e. “A” and cut the arc named “1”
now second center is “1” and cut the second arc with same radius and mark “2”, now next
center is “2”.......this procces follow for all parts.
5. Now we have five arcs, name of end arc is “5”. So, we cn draw a line from point “5”
which meet to other end of line “AB” i.e. “B”. set the mini drafter on same position or
angle and draw lines from each arcs which meet to line “AB”. All these lines are parallel
to first line “5B”.
6. For minimizing the error, always draw these parallel lines from bottom to top.
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Plain Scale
Q.1 Construct a scale of 1:4 to show centimeters and long enough to measure up to 5 decimeters?
Show 3.7 dm on it.
(Q.1, solved, N.D.Bhatt)

SOLUTION STEPS: -
1. Find value of RF with the help of formula (RF=DL/AL). Here it is 1/4
2. Find Value of LOS with the help of formula (LOS=RF x Max. length to be measured).
Here it is 12.5 C.M.
3. Draw a line equal to the value of LOS and divide it into 5 equal parts, because of in this
question given that maximum length is 5 decimeters; if maximum length is 6 decimeters
then we will divide line into 6 equal parts; each parts representing 1 decimeter.
4. Write “0” at the end of the 1st division and 1, 2, 3 and 4 at the end of each subsequent
division to its right.
5. Divide the 1st division into 10 equal divisions, each representing 1 C.M., and give name
from “0” to “10” to the direction of right to left.
6. Draw vertical (perpendicular) lines of 1 c.m.(optional) from each division lines of scale.
7. Show the distance in scale with clear arrows and write small unit at left side and greater
unit is at right side (here small unit is C.M. and greater unit is D.M.).
8. After completing drawing write below value of RF, LOS, and type of scale.
Q.2 Construct a scale of 1:5 to show decimeters and centimeters and to read up to 1 meter. Show
the length of 7.6 decimeters on it. (Q.2, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=1/5, LOS=1/5 x 1 meter =1/5 x 1 x 10 x 10=20 C.M., Units= C.M. & D.M.

Q.3 Draw a scale of 2.5 c.m. represent 1 m. and measured read upto 6 m. and show 4.6 m on it?

Answer: - RF = 2.5/100 = 1/40, LOS = 1/40 x 6 x 100 = 15 c.m.

Q.4 A 3.2 cm long line represents a length of 4 meters. Extend this line measure length up to 25
meters and show on it units of meter and 5meters. Show the length of 17 meters on this line.
(Q.6, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=3.2/4 x 10 x 10=32/4 x 1000=1/125, LOS= 1/125 x 25 x 10 x 10=20cm, units=m

& 5m

Q.5 Construct a scale of 1 inch (“) = 1 foot (‘) to read up to 6 feet and show on it 4’7”. (Q.11,
unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=1/12, LOS=1/12 x 6 x 12=6”, units=foot & inch.

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Q.6 A room of 1728 mᵌ volume is shown by a cube of 216 cmᵌ volume. Find RF and Construct a
plain scale to measure up to 42 m. Mark a distance of 22 m on the scale. (Q.27, unsolved,
N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=1728/216=1/200; LOS=1/200 x 42 x 10 x 10=21 cm; units = m & 7m.

Q.7 1% area of a plot measuring 2500 m. sq. is used for constructing a square room draw a plain
scale having RF is 1/100.

Answer: - RF=1/100; LOS=1/100 x 10 (take any no. greater than 5) x 100=10 cm; units=m &
dm.

Q.8 Construct a scale of 1.5 cm = 1 dm to read up to 1 meter and show on it a length of 0.6
meter. (Q.3, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=3/20, LOS=3/20 x 1 x 10 x 10=15 cm, units= dm, cm

Q.9 A rectangular plot of land area 16 km2 is represented on a map by area 1 cm2. Draw a scale
to show units of 10 km and single km find RF and mark 57 km on it.

Answer: - RF = 1/400000, LOS = 1/400000 x 60 km = 15 cm (assume max length 60 km or any

length greater than 57 km)

Q. 10 Draw a scale 2.5cm = 1m and measured upto 6m show 4.6m on it.

Answer: RF= 1/40, LOS= 1/40 x 6m = 15 cm

Q. 11 Construct a scale of 1:54, to show yards and feet and long enough to measure upto 9 yards.

Answer: RF= 1/54, LOS= 1/54 x 9 x 3 x 12 x 2.54 = 15.24 cm

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Diagonal Scale
Q.1 Draw a diagonal scale of RF =3/100, showing meters, decimeters and centimeters, and to
measure up to 5 meters. Show the length of 3.69meters on it. (Q.4, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=3/100; LOS=3/100 x 5 x 10 x 10=15 cm; units= m, dm, & cm.

SOLUTION STEPS:-

1. Find value of RF with the help of formula (RF=DL/AL). Here it is 3/100

2. Find Value of LOS with the help of formula (LOS=RF x Max. length to be measured).
Here it is 15 C.M.
3. Draw a line equal to the value of LOS and divide it into 5 equal parts, because of in this
question given that maximum length is 5 meters; if maximum length is 6 meters then we
will divide line into 6 equal parts; each parts representing 1 meter.
4. In this question three units are M, dm, and C.M.
5. Write “0” at the end of the 1st division and 1, 2, 3 and 4 at the end of each subsequent
division to its right.
6. Divide the 1st division into 10 equal divisions, each representing 1decimeter, and give
name from “0” to “10” to the direction of right to left.
7. Draw vertical (perpendicular) lines of 5 c.m.(optional) from each division lines of scale,
and make a rectangle box.
8. Again divide the 1st division of upper line into 10 equal divisions, each representing
1decimeter, and give name from “0l ” to “10l ” to the direction of right to left. Now “0” is
in front of “0l ” and “1” is in front of “1l ”……….so on.
9. As scale name is diagonal so now draw diagonals of 1st box (draw lines which join form
0-1l , 1-2l , 2-3l …………)
10. Now divide vertical line into ten equal parts, and named from bottom to top.
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11. Show the distance in scale with clear arrows or dark line of same length and write largest
unit at right side and small unit at left side and smallest unit top-left side (here largest unit
is M, small unit is dm, and smallest unit is c.m.).
12. After completing drawing write below value of RF, LOS, and type of scale.

Q.2 Construct a diagonal scale of RF=1/6250 to read up to 1KM and read meters on it. Show a
length of 653 m on it. (Q.7, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=1/6250; LOS=1/6250 x 1 x 1000 x 100=16 cm; units=m, 10m & 100m.

Q.3 The RF of a scale showing miles, furlongs & chains is 1/50688. Draw a scale to read up to 5
miles and show on it, the length representing 3m 5f 3ch. (Q.12, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt)

Answer: - RF=1/50688; LOS=1/50688 x 5 x 8 x 220 x 3 x 12=6.25 inches.

Q.4 {Q.8, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt; Answer- RF=14/20*1/100000=7/1000000; LOS=17.5 cm}

Q.5 {Q.14, unsolved, N.D.Bhatt; Answer- RF= (23/4)/20= (23/4)/20 x 8 x 220 x 3 x

12=28/5068800; LOS=23/5068800 x 25 x 8 x 220 x 3 x 12=7.18 inches}

Q.6 The distance between two stations by road is 200 km and it is represented on a certain map
by a 5 cm long line. Find the RF and draw a diagonal scale showing single kilometer and long
enough to measure up to 600 km. Show a distance of 467 km on this scale.

Answer: RF= 5cm / 200 km = 5 / 200 x 100000 = 1/ 4000000, LOS = 1/4000000 x 600 x 100000
= 15 cm

Q.7 The distance between two points is 100 km and on a road map it is shown by 30 cm. Draw a
diagonal scale and mark 46.8 km on it.

Answer: RF = 3 / 106 , LOS = 15 cm

Q.8 A room of 1728 cubic meters volume is shown by a cube of 4 cm sides. Find the RF and
draw a scale to measure upto 50m. Indicate a distance of 37.6 m on it.

Answer: RF = 1/300, LOS = 16.67 cm

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Vernier Scale
Q.1 Construct a vernier scale of 1:40 to read meters, decimeters and centimeters and long enough
to measure upto 6m. Mark a distance of 5.76 m on it.
Solution: RF = 1/40, LOS = 1/40 x 6 x 100 =15 cm

1. Draw a horizontal line of 15 cm (LOS), write big unit (metre) on right side and decimeter
on left side of this line.
2. Divide this line into 6 equal parts because maximum length is 6 m. Now 1 part is equal to
the 1m. same as plain scale. Give the naming of all parts, start from “0”
3. Again divide 1st block into 10 equal parts, each part represent 1 dm. again name to these
parts.
4. Draw a block of 1cm height from both ends of horizontal line and project all the parts
points.
5. Now again we make a rectangular block of 1cm height “EFGH”. For that extend one
small block which is equal to the one small block of main scale, to left side.
6. Divide “EFGH” into 10 equal parts, now each part is equal to 11, 22, 33,………110.
Write smallest unit left top.
7. Mark the given distance 5.76 on the scale. For marking it we see last digit of showing
distance (5.76) in this question 6 is last digit so we take a point on vernier scale part 0.66.
8. Now subtract 0.66 from 5.76 [ 5.76 – 0.66 = 5.1 ] after 0 we will show 5.1 in plain scale
and total value is 5.76 [ 5.1 in plain scale and 0.66 in vernier scale]

Q.2 Draw a vernier scale of RF 1/50000, and long enough to measure upto 7 km. show a distance
of 6.43km on scale.
Solution: RF = 1/50000, LOS = 1/50000 x 7 x 100000 = 14 cm.
1. Draw a horizontal line of 14 cm (LOS), write big unit (kilometre) on right side and
hectometer on left side of this line.
2. Divide this line into 7 equal parts because maximum length is 7 km. Now 1 part is equal
to the 1 km. same as plain scale. Give the naming of all parts, start from “0”
3. Again divide 1st block into 10 equal parts, each part represent 1 hm. again name to these
parts.
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4. Draw a block of 1cm height from both ends of horizontal line and project all the parts
points.
5. Now again we make a rectangular block of 1 cm height “EFGH”. For that extend one
small block which is equal to the one small block of main scale, to left side.
6. Divide “EFGH” into 10 equal parts, now each part is equal to 11, 22, 33,………110.
Write smallest unit decameter on left top.
7. Mark the given distance 6.43 on the scale. For marking it we see last digit of showing
distance (6.43) in this question 3 is last digit so we take a point on vernier scale part 0.33.
8. Now subtract 0.33 from 6.43 [ 6.43 – 0.33 = 6.1 ] after 0 we required 6.1 km but in this
question after “0” we have only 6 km, So for showing 0.1 km we will draw another box
on right side of plain scale which is equal to the one block of “ABCD” and again divide it
into 10 equal parts. There is no change in calculation of LOS. This new part is extra
assumed part.
9. We will show 6.1 in plain scale and 0.33 on vernier scale total value is 6.43.

Q.

One word answer type questions of Scale Topic

1. Type of graphical scale………. [answer: plain, diagonal, vernier, comparative, scale of
chords]
2. Formula of R.F. (Representative fraction)………….[ R.F. = Drawing Length / Actual
Length]
3. Length of Scale = R.F. x Max. length to be measured
4. Arrow should be…….(answer: completely filled, all sides curved, L:W = 3 : 1 ]
5. Which scale measure only upto 2 units [answer: Plain scale]
6. Which scale is more accurate for measuring 3 units [Vernier scale]
7. Backward and forward is the type of which sacle [Vernier scale]
8. RF is less than 1 for which scale [answer: Reducing scale]
9. RF is Greater than 1 [answer: enlarging scale]
10. RF is equal to 1 {answer; full size scale]
11. Unit conversion
12. Types of line and its applications
13. Grades of pencil, sheet and boards
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