U N D M AT H E M AT I C S

M AT H 2 0 8 :
DISCRETE
M AT H E M AT I C S

D E PA R T M E N T O F M AT H E M AT I C S
T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F N O R T H D A K O TA
Copyright © 2018 UND Mathematics

published by department of mathematics

the university of north dakota

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Third edition, First printing: July 2018

 Contents

1 Logical Connectives and Compound Propositions 27

1.1 Propositions 27
1.2 Negation: not 28
1.3 Conjunction: and 29
1.4 Disjunction: or 29
1.5 Logical Implication and Biconditional 30
1.5.1 Implication: If . . . , then . . . 30

1.5.2 Biconditional: . . . if and only if . . . 31

1.6 Truth table construction 31

1.7 Translating to propositional forms 32
1.8 Bit strings 32
1.9 Exercises 34
1.10 Problems 36

2 Logical Equivalence 39
2.1 Logical Equvalence 39
2.2 Tautologies and Contradictions 40
2.3 Related If . . . , then . . . propositions 40
 4

2.4 Fundamental equivalences 40

2.5 Disjunctive normal form 40
2.6 Proving equivalences 42
2.7 Exercises 44
2.8 Problems 45

3 Predicates and Quantifiers 47

3.1 Predicates 47
3.2 Instantiation and Quantification 48
3.3 Translating to symbolic form 49
3.4 Quantification and basic laws of logic 50
3.5 Negating quantified statements 51
3.6 Exercises 52
3.7 Problems 53

4 Rules of Inference 55
4.1 Valid propositional arguments 56
4.2 Fallacies 59
4.3 Arguments with quantifiers 59
4.4 Exercises 61
4.5 Problems 62

5 Sets: Basic Definitions 65

5.1 Specifying sets 65
5.1.1 Roster method 65

5.1.2 Set-builder notation 66

 5

5.2 Special standard sets 66

5.3 Empty and universal sets 66

5.4 Subset and equality relations 67

5.5 Cardinality 68

5.6 Power set 68

5.7 Exercises 69

5.8 Problems 70

6 Set Operations 73
6.1 Intersection 73

6.2 Venn diagrams 73

6.3 Union 73

6.4 Symmetric difference 74

6.5 Complement 74

6.6 Ordered lists 74

6.7 Cartesian product 75

6.8 Laws of set theory 75

6.9 Proving set identities 77

6.10 Bit string operations 77

6.11 Exercises 78

6.12 Problems 79

7 Styles of Proof 81
7.1 Direct proof 81

7.2 Indirect proof 84

 6

7.3 Proof by contradiction 84

7.4 Proof by cases 86
7.5 Existence proof 87
7.6 Using a counterexample to disprove a statement 87
7.7 Exercises 89
7.8 Problems 90

8 Relations 91
8.1 Relations 91
8.2 Specifying a relation 92
8.2.1 By ordered pairs 92

8.2.2 By graph 92

8.2.3 By digraph: domain=codomain 93

8.2.4 By 0-1 matrix 93

8.3 Set operations with relations 94

8.3.1 Subset relation using matrices 94

8.4 Special relation operations 95

8.4.1 Inverse of a relation 95

8.4.2 Composition of relations 95

8.4.3 Composition with matrices: Boolean product 96

8.5 Exercises 97
8.6 Problems 98

9 Properties of Relations 99
9.1 Reflexive 99
9.2 Irreflexive 100
 7

9.3 Symmetric 100

9.4 Antisymmetric 101

9.5 Transitive 101

9.6 Examples 101

9.7 Exercises 103

9.8 Problems 105

10 Equivalence Relations 107

10.1 Equvialence relation 108

10.2 Equivalence class of a relation 108

10.3 Examples 109

10.4 Partitions 111

10.5 Digraph of an equivalence relation 111

10.6 Matrix representation of an equivalence relation 111

10.7 Exercises 113

10.8 Problems 115

11 Functions and Their Properties 117

11.1 Definition of function 118

11.2 Functions with discrete domain and codomain 118

11.2.1 Representions by 0-1 matrix or bipartite graph 119

11.3 Special properties 119

11.3.1 One-to-one (injective) 120

11.3.2 Onto (surjective) 121

11.3.3 Bijective 121

 8

11.4 Composition of functions 122

11.5 Invertible discrete functions 122
11.6 Characteristic functions 124
11.7 Exercises 125
11.8 Problems 126

12 Special Functions 127

12.1 Floor and ceiling functions 127
12.2 Fractional part 127
12.3 Integral part 128
12.4 Power functions 128
12.5 Exponential functions 128
12.6 Logarithmic functions 129
12.7 Laws of logarithms 129
12.8 Exercises 131
12.9 Problems 132

13 Sequences and Summation 133

13.1 Specifying sequences 133
13.1.1 Defining a Sequence With a Formula 134
13.1.2 Defining a Sequence by Suggestion 134

13.2 Arithmetic sequences 135

13.3 Geometric sequences 136
13.4 Summation notation 136
13.5 Formulas for arithmetic and geometric summations 138
13.6 Exercises 140
13.7 Problems 141
 9

14 Recursively Defined Sequences 143

14.1 Closed form formulas 144

14.1.1 Pattern recognition 144

14.1.2 The Fibonacci Sequence 144

14.1.3 The Sequence of Factorials 145

14.2 Arithmetic sequences by recursion 146

14.3 Exercises 147
14.4 Problems 148

15 Recursively Defined Sets 149

15.1 Recursive definitions of sets 149
15.2 Sets of strings 151
15.3 Exercises 153
15.4 Problems 154

16 Mathematical Induction 157

16.1 Mathematical induction 158
16.2 The principle of mathematical induction 159
16.3 Proofs by induction 160
16.4 Examples 162
16.5 Second principle of mathematical induction 164
16.6 Exercises 168
16.7 Problems 169

17 Algorithms 171
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17.1 Properties of an algorithm 171

17.2 Non-algorithms 172
17.3 Linear search algorithm 172
17.4 Binary search algorithm 173
17.5 Presenting algorithms 173
17.6 Examples 175
17.7 Exercises 178
17.8 Problems 180

18 Algorithm Efficiency 181

18.1 Comparing algorithms 182
18.2 Exercises 185
18.3 Problems 186

19 The Growth of Functions 187

19.1 Common efficiency functions 188
19.2 Big-oh notation 188
19.3 Examples 189
19.4 Exercises 190
19.5 Problems 191

20 The Integers 193

20.1 Integer operations 193
20.2 Order properties 196
20.3 Exercises 197
20.4 Problems 197
 11

21 The divides Relation and Primes 199

21.1 Properties of divides 199
21.2 Prime numbers 200
21.3 The division algorithm for integers 201
21.4 Exercises 203
21.5 Problems 203

22 GCD’s and the Euclidean Algorithm 205

22.1 Euclidean algorithm 206
22.2 Efficiency of the Euclidean algorithm 207
22.3 The Euclidean algorithm in quotient/remainder form 208
22.4 Exercises 210
22.5 Problems 210

23 GCD’s Reprised 211

23.1 The gcd( a, b) as a linear combination of a and b 211
23.2 Back-solving to express gcd( a, b) as a linear combination 212
23.3 Extended Euclidean Algorithm 213
23.4 General Linear Combinations for gcd( a, b) 216
23.5 Exercises 218
23.6 Problems 218

24 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 221

24.1 Prime divisors 221
24.2 Proving the Fundamental Theorem 222
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24.3 Number of positive divisors of n 223

24.4 Exercises 224
24.5 Problems 224

25 Linear Diophantine Equations 227

25.1 Diophantine equations 228
25.2 Solutions and gcd( a, b) 228
25.3 Finding all solutions 229
25.4 Examples 230
25.5 Exercises 232
25.6 Problems 232

26 Modular Arithmetic 233

26.1 The modulo m equivalence relation 234
26.2 Equivalence classes modulo m 235
26.3 Modular arithmetic 235
26.4 Solving congruence equations 237
26.5 Exercises 239
26.6 Problems 240

27 Integers in Other Bases 241

27.1 Converting to and from base-10 241
27.2 Converting between non-decimal bases 243
27.3 Computer science bases: 2, 8, and 16 244
27.4 Exercises 245
27.5 Problems 245
 13

28 The Two Fundamental Counting Principles 247

28.1 The sum rule 247
28.1.1 Counting two independent tasks 248
28.1.2 Extended sum rule 249
28.1.3 Sum rule and the logical or 249

28.2 The product rule 249

28.2.1 Counting two sequential tasks: logical and 250
28.2.2 Extended product rule 250
28.2.3 Counting by subtraction: Good = Total − Bad 251

28.3 Using both the sum and product rules 252

28.4 Answer form ←→ solution method 254
28.5 Exercises 255
28.6 Problems 255

29 Permutations and Combinations 259

29.1 Permutations 259
29.2 Combinations 261
29.3 Exercises 263
29.4 Problems 263

30 The Binomial Theorem and Pascal’s Triangle 265

30.1 Combinatorial proof 265
30.1.1 Constructing combinatorial proofs 266

30.2 Pascal’s Triangle 268

30.3 The Binomial Theorem 269
30.4 Exercises 271
30.5 Problems 271
 14

31 Inclusion-Exclusion Counting 273

31.1 Inclusion-Exclusion principle 273
31.2 Extended inclusion-exclustion principle 275
31.3 Inclusion-exclusion with the Good=Total-Bad trick 277
31.4 Exercises 279
31.5 Problems 279

32 The Pigeonhole Principle 281

32.1 General pigeonhole principle 282
32.2 Examples 282
32.3 Exercises 284
32.4 Problems 284

33 Tougher Counting Problems 287

33.1 The Basic Donut Shop Problem 288
33.2 The More Realistic Donut Shop Problem 289
33.3 The Real Donut Shop Problem 289
33.4 Problems with order and some repetition 291
33.5 The six fundamental counting problems 292
33.6 Exercises 293
33.7 Problems 294

34 Counting Using Recurrence Relations 297

34.1 Recursive counting method 297
34.2 Examples 300
 15

34.3 General rules for finding recursive solutions 303

34.4 Exercises 305
34.5 Problems 305

35 Solutions to Recurrence Relations 309

35.1 Solving a recursion by conjecture 309
35.2 Solving a recursion by unfolding 310
35.3 Exercises 312
35.4 Problems 312

36 The Method of Characteristic Roots 313

36.1 Homogeneous, constant coefficient recursions 313
36.1.1 Basic example of the method 314

36.1.2 Initial steps: the characteristic equation and its roots 316

36.2 Repeated characteristic roots. 316

36.3 The method of characteristic roots more formally 317
36.4 The method for repeated roots 319
36.5 The general case 320
36.6 Exercises 322
36.7 Problems 322

37 Solving Nonhomogeneous Recurrences 325

37.1 Steps to solve nonhomogeneous recurrence relations 325
37.2 Examples 327
37.3 Exercises 330
37.4 Problems 330
 16

38 Graphs 331
38.1 Some Graph Terminology 331

38.1.1 Representing a graph in a computer 332

38.2 An Historical Interlude: The origin of graph theory 334

38.3 The First Theorem of Graph Theory 342

38.4 A Brief Catalog of Special Graphs 343

38.5 Graph isomorphisms 345

38.6 Paths 347

38.6.1 Eulerian paths and circuits 349

38.6.2 Hamiltonian paths and circuits 349

38.6.3 Some facts about eulerian and hamiltonian graphs 350

38.7 Trees 352

38.8 Exercises 354

38.9 Problems 356

A Answers to Exercises 361

B Problems From Old Exams 435

C GNU Free Documentation License 445

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS 446

2. VERBATIM COPYING 448

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY 448

4. MODIFICATIONS 449

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS 452

 17

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS 452

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS 453
8. TRANSLATION 453

9. TERMINATION 454
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE 454
11. RELICENSING 455

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents 455

List of Figures

4.1 A logical argument 58

6.1 Venn diagram for A ∩ B 73

6.2 Venn diagram for A ∪ B 73
6.3 Venn diagram for A ⊕ B 74
6.4 Venn diagram for A − B 74
6.5 Venn diagram for
A=U−A 74

8.1 Example bipartite graph 93

8.2 Example digraph 93
8.3 Composing relations: R ◦ S 96

11.1 Graph of y = x2 118

11.2 A function in 0-1 matrix form 119

12.1 Floor function 127

12.2 Fractional part function 128
12.3 Integral part function 128
12.4 2x and log2 ( x ) functions 129

16.1 4 × 5 chessboard 163

16.2 23 × 23 chessboard 163
16.3 Divided 23 × 23 chessboard 164
16.4 23 × 23 board with domino 164

30.1 Pascal’s Triangle 268

30.2 Pascal’s Triangle (numeric) 268
20

31.1 A ∪ B = ( A − B) ∪ B 273

38.1 Nonisomorphic grades with the same degree sequences. 346

38.2 Isomorphic graphs 346
38.3 More Isomorphic graphs 347
38.4 paths and circuits 348
38.5 Tree for problem 38.12 360
List of Tables

1.1 Logical Negation 29

1.2 Logical Conjunction 29
1.3 Logical or and xor 30
1.4 Logical Implication 31
1.5 Logical biconditional 31
1.6 Truth table for ( p ∧ q) → r 32

2.1 De Morgan’s Law 39

2.2 Prove p → q ≡ ¬ p ∨ q 39
2.3 Logical Equivalences 41

4.1 Basic rules of inference 57

4.2 Proof of the validity of an argument 58
4.3 Quantification rules 60

6.1 Laws of Set Theory 76

11.1 A simple function 118

19.1 Problem size vs. CPU time used 187

19.2 Common efficiency functions for small values of n 188
19.3 Efficiency functions where n = 1000000 188

23.1 i: 6567(si ) + 987(ti ) = ri , qi 214

23.2 gcd(107653, 22869) 215

33.1 Basic counting problems 287

33.2 Six counting problems 292
22

37.1 Particular solution patterns 326

List of Algorithms

17.1 Linear search (repeat/until). (A B indicates a comment follows.) 174

17.2 Linear search (for loop) 174
17.3 Calculate bm/nc 175
17.4 Calculate bm/nc (again) 176
17.5 Make change 177
18.1 Maximum list value 184
Introduction

Discrete math has become increasingly important in recent

years, for a number of reasons: 1 1
The Art of Problem Solving http:
//www.artofproblemsolving.com/
articles/discrete- math
Discrete math is essential to college-level mathematics —
and beyond.
Discrete math — together with calculus and abstract algebra — is one
of the core components of mathematics at the undergraduate level. Stu-
dents who learn a significant quantity of discrete math before entering
college will be at a significant advantage when taking undergraduate-
level math courses.

Discrete math is the mathematics of computing.

The mathematics of modern computer science is built almost entirely
on discrete math, in particular combinatorics and graph theory. This
means that in order to learn the fundamental algorithms used by
computer programmers, students will need a solid background in these
subjects. Indeed, at most universities, a undergraduate-level course in
discrete mathematics is a required part of pursuing a computer science
degree.

Discrete math is very much ”real world” mathematics.

Many students’ complaints about traditional high school math — al-
gebra, geometry, trigonometry, and the like — is "What is this good
for?" The somewhat abstract nature of these subjects often turn off
students. By contrast, discrete math, in particular counting and prob-
ability, allows students — even at the middle school level — to very
quickly explore non-trivial "real world" problems that are challenging
and interesting.
26 math208: discrete mathematics

Discre te math shows up on most middle and high school

math contests.
Prominent math competitions such as MATHCOUNTS (at the middle
school level) and the American Mathematics Competitions (at the high
school level) feature discrete math questions as a significant portion
of their contests. On harder high school contests, such as the AIME,
the quantity of discrete math is even larger. Students that do not have
a discrete math background will be at a significant disadvantage in
these contests. In fact, one prominent MATHCOUNTS coach tells us
that he spends nearly 50% of his preparation time with his students
covering counting and probability topics, because of their importance
in MATHCOUNTS contests.

Discrete math teaches mathematical reasoning and proof

techniques.
Algebra is often taught as a series of formulas and algorithms for
students to memorize (for example, the quadratic formula, solving
systems of linear equations by substitution, etc.), and geometry is often
taught as a series of ”definition-theorem-proof” exercises that are often
done by rote (for example, the infamous ”two-column proof”). While
undoubtedly the subject matter being taught is important, the material
(as least at the introductory level) does not lend itself to a great deal of
creative mathematical thinking. By contrast, with discrete mathematics,
students will be thinking flexibly and creatively right out of the box.
There are relatively few formulas to memorize; rather, there are a
number of fundamental concepts to be mastered and applied in many
different ways.

Discrete math is fun.

Many students, especially bright and motivated students, find algebra,
geometry, and even calculus dull and uninspiring. Rarely is this the
case with most discrete math topics. When we ask students what their
favorite topic is, most respond either ”combinatorics” or ”number
theory.” (When we ask them what their least favorite topic is, the
overwhelming response is ”geometry.”) Simply put, most students find
discrete math more fun than algebra or geometry.
1
Logical Connectives and Compound Propositions

Logic is concerned with forms of reasoning. Since reasoning

is involved in most intellectual activities, logic is relevant to a broad
range of pursuits. The study of logic is essential for students of com-
puter science. It is also very valuable for mathematics students, and
others who make use of mathematical proofs, for instance, linguistics
students. In the process of reasoning one makes inferences. In an in-
ference one uses a collection of statements, the premises, in order to
justify another statement, the conclusion. The most reliable types of
inferences are deductive inferences, in which the conclusion must be
true if the premises are. Recall elementary geometry: Assuming that
the postulates are true, we prove that other statements, such as the
Pythagorean Theorem, must also be true. Geometric proofs, and other
mathematical proofs, typically use many deductive inferences. (Robert
L. Causey)1 1
www.cs.utexas.edu/~rlc/whylog.htm

1.1 Propositions

The basic objects in logic are propositions. A proposition is a state-

ment which is either true (T) or false (F) but not both. For example in
the language of mathematics p : 3 + 3 = 6 is a true proposition while
q : 2 + 3 = 6 is a false proposition. What do you want for lunch? is a
question, not a proposition. Likewise Get lost! is a command, not a
proposition. The sentence There are exactly 1087 + 3 stars in the universe
is a proposition, despite the fact that no one knows its truth value.
Here are two, more subtle, examples:
 28 math208: discrete mathematics

(1) He is more than three feet tall is not a proposition since, until we are
told to whom he refers, the statement cannot be assigned a truth
value. The mathematical sentence x + 3 = 7 is not a proposition
for the same reason. In general, sentences containing variables are
not propositions unless some information is supplied about the
variables. More about that later however. Sometimes a little common sense is
required. For example It is raining is a
(2) This sentence is false is not a proposition. It seems to be both true proposition, but its truth value is not
constant, and may be arguable. That is,
and false. In fact if is T then it says it is F and if it is F then it says
someone might say It is not raining, it is
it is T. It can be dangerous using sentences that refer to them- just drizzling, or Do you mean on Venus?
selves. If course, using a knife can also be dangerous, but we Feel free to ignore this sort of quibbling.

do use knives safely when we are careful. Likewise, using self-

referential sentences can be done safely if care is taken.

Simple propositions, such as It is raining, and The streets are wet,

can be combined to create more complicated propositions such as It
is raining and the streets are not wet. These sorts of involved proposi-
tions are called compound propositions. Compound propositions are
built up from simple propositions using a number of connectives to
join or modify the simple propositions. In the last example, the con-
nectives are and which joins the two clauses, and not, which modifies
the second clause.
It is important to keep in mind that since a compound proposition
is, after all, a proposition, it must be classifiable as either true or false.
That is, it must be possible to assign a truth value to any compound
proposition. There are mutually agreed upon rules to allow the deter-
mination of exactly when a compound proposition is true and when
it is false. Luckily these rules jive nicely with common sense (with
one small exception), so they are easy to remember and understand.

1.2 Negation: not

The simplest logical connective is negation. In normal English sen-

tences, this connective is indicated by appropriately inserting not in
the statement, by preceding the statement with it is not the case that, or
for mathematical statements, by using a slanted slash. For example,
if p is the proposition 2 + 3 = 4, then the negation of p is denoted by
 logical connectives and compound propositions 29

the symbol ¬ p and it is the proposition 2 + 3 6= 4. In this case, p is

false and ¬ p is true. If p is It is raining, then ¬ p is It is not raining or
even the stilted sounding It is not the case that it is raining. The nega-
tion of a proposition p is the proposition whose truth value is the
opposite of p in all cases. The behavior of ¬ p can be exhibited in a
truth table. In each row of the truth table 1.1 we list a possible truth p ∼ p
T F T
value of p and the corresponding truth value of ¬ p.
F T F
Table 1.1: Logical Negation

1.3 Conjunction: and

The connective that corresponds to the word and is called conjunc-

tion. The conjunction of p with q is denoted by p ∧ q and read as
p and q. The conjunction of p with q is declared to be true exactly p q p ∧ q
when both of p, q are true. It is false otherwise. This behavior is ex- T T T T T
T F T F F
hibited in the truth table 1.2.
F T F F T
Four rows are required in this table since when p is true, q may be F F F F F
Table 1.2: Logical Conjunction
either true or false and when p is false it is possible for q to be either
true or false. Since a truth value must be assigned to p ∧ q in every
possible case, one row in the truth table is needed for each of the four
possibilities.

1.4 Disjunction: or

The logical connective disjunction corresponds to the word or of

ordinary language. The disjunction of p with q is denoted by p ∨ q,
and read as p or q. The disjunction p ∨ q is true if at least one of p, q is
true.
Disjunction is also called inclusive-or, since it includes the possi-
bility that both component statements are true. In everyday language,
there is a second use of or with a different meaning. For example, in
the proposition Your ticket wins a prize if its serial number contains a 3 or
a 5, the or would normally be interpreted in the inclusive sense (tick-
ets that have both a 3 and 5 are still winners), but in the proposition
With dinner you get mashed potatoes or french fries, the or is being used
in the exclusive-or sense.
The rarely used (at least in mathematics)2 exclusive-or is also 2
In a mathematical setting, always
assume the inclusive-or is intended
unless the exclusive sense is explicitly
indicated.
30 math208: discrete mathematics

called the disjoint disjunction of p with q and is denoted by p ⊕ q.

Read that as p xor q if it is necessary to say it in words. The value of
p ⊕ q is true if exactly one of p, q is true. The exclusion of both being p q p ∨ q p ⊕ q
true is the difference between inclusive-or and exclusive-or. The truth T T T T T T F T
T F T T F T T F
table shown officially defines these two connectives.
F T F T T F T T
F F F F F F F F
Table 1.3: Logical or and xor
1.5 Logical Implication and Biconditional

The next two logical connectives correspond to the ordinary language

phrases If · · · , then · · · and the (rarely used in real life but common
in mathematics) · · · if and only if · · · .

1.5.1 Implication: If . . . , then . . .

In mathematical discussions, ordinary English words are used in

ways that usually correspond to the way we use words in normal
conversation. The connectives not, and, or mean pretty much what
would be expected. But the implication, denoted p → q and read
as If p, then q can be a little mysterious at first. This is partly because
when the If p, then q construction is used in everyday speech, there
is an implied connection between the proposition p (called the hy-
pothesis) and the proposition q (called the conclusion). For example,
in the statement If I study, then I will pass the test, there is an assumed
connection between studying and passing the test. However, in logic,
the connective is going to be used to join any two propositions, with
no relation necessary between the hypothesis and conclusion. What
truth value should be assigned to such bizarre sentences as If I study,
then the moon is 238, 000 miles from earth?
Is it true or false? Or maybe it is neither one? Well, that last option
isn’t too pleasant because that sentence is supposed to be a proposi-
tion, and to be a proposition it has to have truth value either T or F.
So it is going to have to be classified as one or the other. In everyday
conversation, the choice isn’t likely to be too important whether it is
classified it as either true or false in the case described. But an impor-
tant part of mathematics is knowing when propositions are true and
when they are false. The official choices are given in the truth table
 logical connectives and compound propositions 31

p q p → q
for p → q. We can make sense of this with an example.
T T T T T
T F T F F
Example 1.1. First consider the statement which Bill’s dad makes to Bill: If
F T F T T
you get an A in math, then I will buy you a new car. If Bill gets an A and F F F T F
Table 1.4: Logical Implication
his dad buys him a car, then dad’s statement is true, and everyone is happy
(that is the first row in the table). In the second row, Bill gets an A, and his
dad doesn’t come through. Then Bill’s going to be rightfully upset since his
father lied to him (dad made a false statement). In the last row of the table
he can’t complain if he doesn’t get an A, and his dad doesn’t buy him the
car (so again dad made a true statement). Most people feel comfortable with
those three rows. In the third row of the table, Bill doesn’t get an A, and his
dad buys him a car anyhow. This is the funny case. It seems that calling dad
a liar in this case would be a little harsh on the old man. So it is declared
that dad told the truth. Remember it this way: an implication is true unless
the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false.

1.5.2 Biconditional: . . . if and only if . . .

The biconditional is the logical connective corresponding to the

phrase · · · if and only if · · · . It is denoted by p ←→ q, (read p if and only if q),
and often more tersely written as p iff q. The biconditional is true
when the two component propositions have the same truth value, p q p ←→ q
and it is false when their truth values are different. Examine the truth T T T T T
T F T F F
table to see how this works.
F T F F T
F F F T F
Table 1.5: Logical biconditional
1.6 Truth table construction

The connectives described above combine at most two simple propo-

sitions. More complicated propositions can be formed by join-
ing compound propositions with those connectives. For example,
p ∧ (¬q), ( p ∨ q) → (q ∧ (¬r )), and ( p → q) ←→ ((¬ p) ∨ q) are
compound propositions, where parentheses have been used, just as
in ordinary algebra, to avoid ambiguity. Such extended compound
propositions really are propositions. That is, if the truth value of each
component is known, it is possible to determine the truth value of the
entire proposition. The necessary computations can be exhibited in a
truth table.
32 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 1.2. Suppose that p, q and r are propositions. To construct a truth

table for ( p ∧ q) → r, first notice that eight rows will be needed in the table
to account for all the possible combinations of truth values of the simple
component statements p, q and r. This is so since there are, as noted above,
four rows needed to account for the choices for p and q, so there will be those
four rows paired with r having truth value T, and four more with r having
truth value F, for a total of 4 + 4 = 8. In general, if there are n simple
propositions in a compound statement, the truth table for the compound p q r (p ∧ q)→ r
statement will have 2n rows. Here is the truth table for ( p ∧ q) → r, T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F F
with an auxiliary column for p ∧ q to serve as an aid for filling in the last
T F T T F F T T
column. T F F T F F T F
F T T F F T T T
Be careful about how propositions are grouped. For example, if F T F F F T T F

truth tables for p ∧ (q → r ) and ( p ∧ q) → r are constructed, they F F T F F F T T

F F F F F F T F
turn out not to be the same in every row. Specifically if p is false, Table 1.6: Truth table for ( p ∧ q) → r
then p ∧ q is false, and ( p ∧ q) → r is true. Whereas when p is false
p ∧ (q → r ) is false. So writing p ∧ q → r is ambiguous.

1.7 Translating to propositional forms

Here are a few examples of translating between propositions ex-

pressed in ordinary language and propositions expressed in the
language of logic.

Example 1.3. Let c be the proposition It is cold and s : It is snowing, and

h : I’m staying home. Then (c ∧ s) → h is the proposition If it is cold and
snowing, then I’m staying home. While (c ∨ s) → h is If it is either cold
or snowing, then I’m staying home. Messier is ¬(h → c) which could be
expressed as It is not the case that if I stay home, then it is cold, which is a
little too convoluted for our minds to grasp quickly. Translating in the other
direction, the proposition It is snowing and it is either cold or I’m staying
home would be symbolized as s ∧ (c ∨ h). 3 3
Notice the parentheses are needed in
this last proposition since (s ∧ c) ∨ h
does not capture the meaning of the
ordinary language sentence, and
1.8 Bit strings s ∧ c ∨ h is ambiguous.

There is a connection between logical connectives and certain op-

erations on bit strings. There are two binary digits (or bits): 0 and
 logical connectives and compound propositions 33

1. A bit string of length n is any sequence of n bits. For example,

0010 is a bit sting of length four. Computers use bit strings to encode
and manipulate information. Some bit string operations are really
just disguised truth tables. Here is the connection: Since a bit can
be one of two values, bits can be used to represent truth values. Let
T correspond to 1, and F to 0. Then given two bits, logical connec-
tives can be used to produce a new bit. For example ¬1 = 0, and
1 ∨ 1 = 1. This can be extended to strings of bits of the same length
by combining corresponding bit in the two strings. For example,
01011 ∧ 11010 = (0 ∧ 1)(1 ∧ 1)(0 ∧ 0)(1 ∧ 1)(1 ∧ 0) = 01010.
34 math208: discrete mathematics

1.9 Exercises

Exercise 1.1. Determine which of the following sentences are propositions.

Assume you are speaking the sentence.

a) There are seven days in a week. b) Get lost!

c) Pistachio is the best ice cream d) If x = 2, then x2 − 2x + 1 = 0.

flavor.

e) If x > 1, then x2 + 2x + 1 > 5. f) All unicorns have four legs.

Exercise 1.2. Construct truth tables for each of the following.

a) p ⊕ ¬q b) ¬(q → p) c) q ∧ ¬ p

d) ¬q ∨ p e) p → (¬q ∧ r )

Exercise 1.3. Perform the indicated bit string operations. The bit strings
are given in groups of four bits each for ease of reading.

a) (1101 0111 ⊕ 1110 0010) ∧ 1100 1000

b) (1111 1010 ∧ 0111 0010) ∨ 0101 0001

c) (1001 0010 ∨ 0101 1101) ∧ (0110 0010 ∨ 0111 0101)

Exercise 1.4. Let s be the proposition It is snowing and f be the proposition

It is below freezing. Convert the following English sentences into statements
using the symbols s, f and logical connectives.

a) It is snowing and it is not below freezing.

b) It is below freezing and it is not snowing.

c) If it is not snowing, then it is not below freezing.

 logical connectives and compound propositions 35

Exercise 1.5. Let j be the proposition Jordan played and w be the propo-
sition The Wizards won. Write the following propositions as English sen-
tences.

a) ¬ j ∧ w b) j → ¬w c) w ∨ j

d) w → ¬ j

Exercise 1.6. Let c be the proposition Sam plays chess, let b be Sam has the
black pieces, and let w be Sam wins.

a) Translate into English: (c ∧ ¬b) → w.

b) Translate into symbols: If Sam didn’t win his chess game, then he
played black.
36 math208: discrete mathematics

1.10 Problems

Problem 1.1. Determine which of the following sentences are propositions

Assume you are speaking the sentence.

a) Today is Tuesday.

b) Why are you whining?

c) The Vikings are the worst team in professional sports.

d) This sentence has five words.

e) There is a black hole at the center of every galaxy.

Problem 1.2. Construct truth tables for each of the following.

a) ¬q −→ ¬ p.

b) p −→ (q ∧ r ).
(You will need eight rows for this one.)

Problem 1.3. Perform the indicated bit string operations. The bit strings
are given in groups of four bits each for ease of reading.

a) (1001 0101 ⊕ 1010 0110) ∧ 1100 1000

b) (11101 10110 ∧ 01101 00110) ∨ 0111 1001

c) (1111 00101 ∨ 0111 0101) ∧ (0010 0010 ∨ 0110 0100)

Problem 1.4. Let s be the proposition It is snowing and f be the proposition

It is below freezing. Convert the following English sentences into statements
using the symbols s, f and logical connectives.

a) It is snowing and it is below freezing.

b) If it is snowing, then it is below freezing.

English ambiguity:
(1) A pedestrian is hit by a New York
Problem 1.5. Like any natural language, spoken English can be ambiguous.
taxi every three minutes. He is getting
It is sometimes necessary to rely on context, voice inflection or other clues, sick and tired of it.
(2) One morning I shot an elephant
to correctly interpret a sentence. Propositional logic, correctly written, is
in my pajamas. How he got in my
never ambiguous. Express the following two sentence pairs in symbolic form pajamas, I don’t know.
that correctly conveys the intended meaning. (Groucho Marx as Captain Spaulding)
 logical connectives and compound propositions 37

a) Dinner comes with peas and carrots or french fries.

Intended: You get either the peas/carrots combination, or else you get
french fries.
Intended: You get peas together with your choice of one of carrots or
french fries.

b) A similar scenario with algebraic operations: Two plus three times

four.
Intended: add two and three, and multiply the total by four.
Intended: add two to the product of three and four.
2
Logical Equivalence

It is clear that the propositions It is sunny and it is warm and It

is warm and it is sunny mean the same thing. More generally, for any
propositions p, q, we see that p ∧ q and q ∧ p have the same meaning.
To say it a little differently, for any choice of truth values for p and q,
the propositions p ∧ q and q ∧ p have the same truth value. One more
time: p ∧ q and q ∧ p have identical truth tables.

2.1 Logical Equvalence

Two propositions with identical truth values are called logically

equivalent. The expression p ≡ q means p, q are logically equivalent.
Some logical equivalences are not as transparent as the example
To be convinced these two proposition
above. With a little thought it should be clear that I am not taking really have the same content, look
math or I am not taking physics means the same as It’s not the case that I at the truth table, (2.1), for the two
propositions, and notice that the final
taking math and physics. In symbols, (¬m) ∨ (¬ p) means the same as
truth values are identical.
¬(m ∧ p).
p q ¬(p ∧ q) ¬ p ∨ ¬ q
Example 2.1 (De Morgan). Prove that ¬( p ∧ q) ≡ (¬ p ∨ ¬q) using a T T F T T T F T F F T

truth table. We construct the truth table 2.1 in the order or precedence: ¬ T F T T F F F T T T F
F T T F F T T F T F T
before ∧ or ∨, but the expresion in parentheses has highest precedence. F F T F F F T F T T F

Table 2.1: De Morgan’s Law

It is probably a little harder to believe ( p → q) ≡ (¬ p ∨ q), but
checking a truth table shows they are in fact equivalent. Saying If it p q p → q ∼ p ∨ q
is Monday, then I am tired is identical to saying It isn’t Monday or I am T T T T T T
T F T F T F
tired. Complete table 2.2 to demonstrate their equivalence.
F T F T F T
F F F F F F
Table 2.2: Prove p → q ≡ ¬ p ∨ q
40 math208: discrete mathematics

2.2 Tautologies and Contradictions

A proposition , T, which is always true is called a tautology. A con-

tradiction is a proposition, F, which is always false. The prototype
example of a tautology is p ∨ ¬ p, and for a contradiction, p ∧ ¬ p. No-
tice that since p ←→ q is T exactly when p and q have the same truth
value, two propositions p and q will be logically equivalent provided
p ←→ q is a tautology.

2.3 Related If . . . , then . . . propositions

There are three propositions related to the basic If . . . , then . . . im-

plication: p → q. First ¬q → ¬ p is called the contrapositive of the
implication. The converse of the implication is the proposition q → p.
Finally, the inverse of the implication is ¬ p → ¬q. Using a truth ta-
ble, it is easy to check that an implication and its contrapositive are
logically equivalent, as are the converse and the inverse. A common
slip is to think the implication and its converse are logically equiva-
lent. Checking a truth table shows that isn’t so. The implication If an
integer ends with a 2, then it is even is T, but its converse, If an integer is
even, then it ends with a 2, is certainly F.

2.4 Fundamental equivalences

Table 2.3 contains the most often used equivalences. These are well
worth learning by sight and by name.

2.5 Disjunctive normal form

Five basic connectives have been given: ¬, ∧, ∨, →, ←→, but that is

really just for convenience. It is possible to eliminate some of them
using logical equivalences. For example, p ←→ q ≡ ( p → q) ∧
(q → p) so there really is no need to explicitly use the biconditional.
Likewise, p → q ≡ ¬ p ∨ q, so the use of the implication can also be
avoided. Finally, p ∧ q ≡ ¬(¬ p ∨ ¬q) so that there really is no need
ever to use the connective ∧. Every proposition made up of the five
 logical equivalence 41

Equivalence Name Table 2.3: Logical Equivalences

¬(¬ p) ≡ p Double Negation
p∧T ≡ p Identity laws
p∨F ≡ p
p∨T ≡ T
Domination laws
p∧F ≡ F
p∨p ≡ p
Idempotent laws
p∧p ≡ p
p∨q ≡ q∨p Commutative laws
p∧q ≡ q∧p
( p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r ) Associative laws
( p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r )
p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ∨ q) ∧ ( p ∨ r ) Distributive laws
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∧ r )
¬( p ∧ q) ≡ (¬ p ∨ ¬q) De Morgan’s laws
¬( p ∨ q) ≡ (¬ p ∧ ¬q)
p ∨ ¬p ≡ T Law of Excluded Middle
p ∧ ¬p ≡ F Law of Contradiction
p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q Disjunctive form
p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬ p Implication ≡ Contrapositive
¬ p → ¬q ≡ q → p Inverse ≡ Converse

basic connectives can be rewritten using only ¬ and ∨ (probably with

a great loss of clarity however).
The most often used standardization, or normalization, of logical
propositions is the disjunctive normal form (DNF), using only ¬
(negation), ∧ (conjunction), and ∨ (disjunction). A propositional form
is considered to be in DNF if and only if it is a disjunction of one or
more conjunctions of one or more literals (a literal is a letter or a letter
preceded by the negation symbol). For example, the following are all
in disjunctive normal form:

• p∧q

• p

• ( a ∧ q) ∨ r

• ( p ∧ ¬q ∧ ¬r ) ∨ (¬s ∧ t ∧ u)

While, these are not in DNF: 1 1

Use the fundamental equivalences to
find DNF versions of each.
• ¬( p ∨ q) this is not the disjunction of literals.
42 math208: discrete mathematics

• p ∧ (q ∧ (r ∨ s)) an or is embedded in a conjunction.

2.6 Proving equivalences

It is always possible the verify a logical equivalence via a truth table.

But it also possible to verify equivalences by stringing together previ-
ously known equivalences. Here are two examples of this process.

Example 2.2. Show ¬( p ∨ (¬ p ∧ q)) ≡ ¬ p ∧ ¬q. 2 2

The plan is to start with the expression
¬( p ∨ (¬ p ∧ q)), work through a
sequence of equivalences ending
Proof. up with ¬ p ∧ ¬q. It’s pretty much
like proving identities in algebra or
trigonometry.
¬( p ∨ (¬ p ∧ q)) ≡ ¬ p ∧ ¬(¬ p ∧ q) De Morgan’s Law

≡ ¬ p ∧ (¬(¬ p) ∨ ¬q) De Morgan’s Law

≡ ¬ p ∧ ( p ∨ ¬q) Double Negation Law

≡ (¬ p ∧ p) ∨ (¬ p ∧ ¬q) Distributive Law

≡ ( p ∧ ¬ p) ∨ (¬ p ∧ ¬q) Commutative Law

≡ F ∨ (¬ p ∧ ¬q) Law of Contradiction

≡ (¬ p ∧ ¬q) ∨ F Commutative Law

≡ ¬ p ∧ ¬q Identity Law

♣
 logical equivalence 43

Example 2.3. Show ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) ≡ T.

Proof.

( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) ≡ ¬( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∨ q) Disjunctive form

≡ (¬ p ∨ ¬q) ∨ ( p ∨ q) De Morgan’s Law

≡ ( p ∨ ¬ p) ∨ (q ∨ ¬q) Associative and Commutative Laws

≡ T∨T Commutative Law and Excluded Middle

≡T Domination Law

♣
44 math208: discrete mathematics

2.7 Exercises

Exercise 2.1. Use truth tables to verify each of the following equivalences:

a) ( p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r ) b) ¬ p ∧ ( p ∨ q) ≡ ¬(q → p)

c) p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ∨ q) ∧ ( p ∨ r ) d)

Exercise 2.2. Show that the statements are not logically equivalent.

a) p ∧ (q → r ) 6≡ ( p ∧ q) → r

b) p → q 6≡ q → p

c) p → q 6≡ ¬ p → ¬q

Exercise 2.3. Use truth tables to show that the following are tautologies.

a) [ p ∧ ( p → q)] → q

b) [( p → q) ∧ (q → r )] → ( p → r )

c) [( p ∨ q) → r ] → [( p → r ) ∧ (q → r )]

Exercise 2.4. Consider the implication If it is Saturday, then I will mow the
lawn.

a) Write the converse of the implication.

b) Write the inverse of the implication.

c) Write the contrapositive of the implication.

Exercise 2.5. Consider the three answers for exercise 2.4. One of the three
is logically equivalent to the implication. Which one? Two of the three are
not logically equivalent to the implication, but are logically equivalent to
each other. Which two?

Exercise 2.6. The statements below are not tautologies. In each case, find an
assignment of truth values to the literals, (that is, a letter or a letter preceded
by the negation symbol), so the statement is false.

a) [( p ∧ q) → r ] ←→ [( p → r ) ∧ (q → r )]

b) [( p ∧ q) ∨ r ] → [ p ∧ (q ∨ r )]
 logical equivalence 45

Exercise 2.7. Give proofs of the following equivalences using the Fun-
damental Logical Equivalences, following the pattern of examples 2.2 and
2.3.

a) (¬ p ∧ ( p ∨ q)) → q ≡ T.

b) ( p ∧ ¬r ) → ¬q ≡ p → (q → r ).

c) p ∨ ( p ∧ q) ≡ p. (This is a tough one.)

2.8 Problems

Problem 2.1. Use a truth table to show p → q ≡ ¬ p ∨ q.

Problem 2.2. Use a truth table to show ( p ∧ q) → r ≡ p → (q → r ).

Problem 2.3. Use a truth table to show p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬ p.

Problem 2.4. Consider the implication If I work, then I get paid.

a) Write the converse of the implication.

b) Write the inverse of the implication.

c) Write the contrapositive of the implication.

d) Write the inverse of the contrapositive of the implication.

Problem 2.5. Consider the four answers for exercise 2.4. Which of the are
logically equivalent to the implication? Which of the four are not logically
equivalent to the implication, (but are logically equivalent to each other)?

Problem 2.6. Use a truth table to show [ p → (q → r )] 6≡ [( p → q) → r ].

Problem 2.7. Use a truth table to show that ( p ∧ q) → p is a tautology.

Problem 2.8. Give a proof of ¬ p → ( p → q) ≡ T using the Fundamental

Logical Equivalences, following the pattern of examples 2.2 and 2.3.
 3
Predicates and Quantifiers

The sentence x 2 − 2 = 0 is not a proposition. It cannot be as-

signed a truth value unless some more information is supplied about
the variable x. Such a statement is called a predicate or a proposi-
tional function.

3.1 Predicates

Instead of using a single letter to denote a predicate, a symbol such

as S ( x ) will be used to indicate the dependence of the sentence on a
variable. Here are two more examples of predicates.

(1) A ( c ) : Al drives a c, and

(2) B ( x, y ) : x is the brother of y. The second example is an instance of a

two-place predicate.

With a given predicate, there is an associated set of objects which

can be used in place of the variables. For example, in the predicate
S ( x ) : x 2 − 2 = 0, it is understood that the x can be replaced
by a number. Replacing x by, say, the word blue does not yield a
meaningful sentence. For the predicate A ( c ) above, c can be replaced
by, say, makes of cars (or maybe types of nails!). For B ( x, y ) , the x Usually the domain of discourse is
left for the reader to guess, but if the
can be replaced by any human male, and the y by any human. The
domain of discourse is something other
collection of possible replacements for a variable in a predicate is than an obvious choice, the writer will
called the domain of discourse for that variable. mention the domain to be used.
48 math208: discrete mathematics

3.2 Instantiation and Quantification

A predicate is not a proposition, but it can be converted into a propo-

sition. There are three ways to modify a predicate to change it into a
proposition. Let’s use S ( x ) : x 2 − 2 = 0 as an example.
The first way to change S ( x ) to make it into a proposition is to
assign a specific value from the variable’s domain of discourse to
the variable. For example, setting x = 3, gives the (false) proposi-
√
tion S ( 3 ) : 3 2 − 2 = 0. On the other hand, setting x = 2 gives
√ √
the (true) proposition S ( 2 ) : ( 2 ) 2 − 2 = 0. The process of set-
ting a variable equal to a specific object in its domain of discourse is
called instantiation. Looking at the two-place predicate B ( x, y ) : x
is the brother of y, we can instantiate both variables to get the (true)
proposition B ( Donny, Marie ) : Donny is the brother of Marie. Notice
that the sentence B ( Donny, y ) : Donny is the brother of y has not been
converted into a proposition since it cannot be assigned a truth value
without some information about y. But it has been converted from a
two-place predicate to a one-place predicate.
A second way to convert a predicate to a proposition is to precede
the predicate with the phrase There is an x such that. For example,
There is an x such that S ( x ) would become There is an x such that
x 2 − 2 = 0. This proposition is true if there is at least one choice
of x in its domain of discourse for which the predicate becomes a
true statement. The phrase There is an x such that is denoted in sym-
bols by ∃ x, so the proposition above would be written as ∃ x S ( x )
or ∃ x ( x 2 − 2 = 0 ) . When trying to determine the truth value of
the proposition ∃ x P ( x ) , it is important to keep the domain of dis-
course for the variable in mind. For example, if the domain for x in
∃ x ( x 2 − 2 = 0 ) is all integers, the proposition is false. But if its
domain is all real numbers, the proposition is true. The phrase There
is an x such that (or, in symbols, ∃ x) is called existential quantifica-
tion1 . 1
In English it can also be read as There
exists x or For some x.
The third and final way to convert a predicate into a proposition is
by universal quantification2 . The universal quantification of a pred- 2
The phrase For all x is also rendered in
English as For each x or For every x.
icate, P( x ), is obtained by preceding the predicate with the phrase
 predicates and quantifiers 49

For all x, producing the proposition For all x, P( x ), or, in symbols,

∀ x P( x ). This proposition is true provided the predicate becomes
a true proposition for every object in the variable’s domain of dis-
course. Again, it is important to know the domain of discourse for
the variable since the domain will have an effect on the truth value of
the quantified proposition in general.
For multi-placed predicates, these three conversions can be mixed
and matched. For example, using the obvious domains for the pred-
icate B( x, y) : x is the brother of y here are some conversions into
propositions:

(1) B( Donny, Marie) has both variables instantiated. The proposition

is true.

(2) ∃y B( Donny, y) is also a true proposition. It says Donny is some-

body’s brother. The first variable was instantiated, the second was
existentially quantified.

(3) ∀y B( Donny, y) says everyone has Donny for a brother, and that is
false.

(4) ∀ x ∃y B( x, y) says every male is somebody’s brother, and that is

false.

(5) ∃y ∀ x B( x, y) says there is a person for whom every male is a

brother, and that is false.

(6) ∀ x B( x, x ) says every male is his own brother, and that is false.

3.3 Translating to symbolic form

Translation between ordinary language and symbolic language can

get a little tricky when quantified statements are involved. Here are a
few more examples.

Example 3.1. Let P( x ) be the predicate x owns a Porsche, and let S( x ) be

the predicate x speeds. The domain of discourse for the variable in each
predicate will be the collection of all drivers. The proposition ∃ xP( x )
says Someone owns a Porsche. It could also be translated as There is
a person x such that x owns a Porsche, but that sounds too stilted for
50 math208: discrete mathematics

ordinary conversation. A smooth translation is better. The proposition

∀ x ( P( x ) → S( x )) says All Porsche owners speed.
Translating in the other direction, the proposition No speeder owns a
Porsche could be expressed as ∀ x (S( x ) → ¬ P( x )).

Example 3.2. Here’s a more complicated example: translate the proposition

Al knows only Bill into symbolic form. Let’s use K ( x, y) for the predicate
x knows y. The translation would be K ( Al, Bill ) ∧ ∀ x (K ( Al, x ) → ( x =
Bill )).

Example 3.3. For one last example, let’s translate The sum of two even
integers is even into symbolic form. Let E( x ) be the predicate x is even.
As with many statements in ordinary language, the proposition is phrased
in a shorthand code that the reader is expected to unravel. As given, the
statement doesn’t seem to have any quantifiers, but they are implied. Before
converting it to symbolic form, it might help to expand it to its more long
winded version: For every choice of two integers, if they are both even,
then their sum is even. Expressed this way, the translation to symbolic
form is duck soup: ∀ x ∀y (( E( x ) ∧ E(y)) → E( x + y)).

3.4 Quantification and basic laws of logic

Notice that if the domain of discourse consists of finitely many en-

tries a1 , ..., an , then ∀ x p( x ) ≡ p( a1 ) ∧ p( a2 ) ∧ ... ∧ p( an ). So the
quantifier ∀ can be expressed in terms of the logical connective
∧. The existential quantifier and ∨ are similarly linked: ∃ x p( x ) ≡
p( a1 ) ∨ p( a2 ) ∨ ... ∨ p( an ).
From the associative and commutative laws of logic we see that we
can rearrange any system of propositions which are linked only by
∧’s or linked only by ∨’s.3 Consequently any more generally quan- 3
For instance, consider examples 3.1 –
3.3 with finite domains of discourse.
tified proposition of the form ∀ x ∀y p( x, y) is logically equivalent to
∀y∀ x p( x, y). Similarly for statements which contain only existential
quantifiers. But the distributive laws come into play when ∧’s and
∨’s are mixed. So care must be taken with predicates which contain
both existential and universal quantifiers, as the following example
shows.
 predicates and quantifiers 51

Example 3.4. Let p( x, y) : x + y = 0 and let the domain of discourse be all

real numbers for both x and y. The proposition ∀y ∃ x p( x, y) is true, since,
for any given y, by setting (instantiating) x = −y we convert x + y = 0 to
the true statement (−y) + y = 04 . However the proposition ∃ x ∀y p( x, y) 4
(∀y ∈ R)[(−y) + y = 0] is a tautology.

is false. If we set (instantiate) y = 1, then x + y = 0 implies that x = −1.

When we set y = 0, we get x = 0. Since 0 6= −1 there is no x which will
work for all y, since it would have to work for the specific values of y = 0
and y = 1.

3.5 Negating quantified statements

To form the negation of quantified statements, we apply De Mor-

gan’s laws. This can be seen in case of a finite domain of discourse as
follows:

¬(∀ x p( x )) ≡ ¬( p( a1 ) ∧ p( a2 ) ∧ ... ∧ p( an ))
≡ ¬ p ( a1 ) ∨ ¬ p ( a2 ) ∨ · · · ∨ ¬ p ( a n )
≡ ∃ x ¬ p( x )

In the same way, we have ¬(∃ x p( x )) ≡ (∀ x ¬ p( x )). 5 5

Use De Morgan’s laws to find a similar
expression for ¬(∀ xp( x )).
52 math208: discrete mathematics

3.6 Exercises

Exercise 3.1. Let p( x ) : 2x ≥ 4, for x ∈ R. Determine the truth values of

the following propositions.

a) p(2) b) p(−3)

c) ∀ x (( x ≤ 10) → p( x )) d) ∃ x ¬ p( x )

Exercise 3.2. Let p( x, y) be x has read y, where the domain of discourse for
x is all students in this class, and the domain of discourse for y is all novels.
Express the following propositions in English.

a) ∀ x p( x, War and Peace) b) ∃ x ¬ p( x, The Great Gatsby)

c) ∃ x ∀y p( x, y) d) ∀y ∃ x p( x, y)

Exercise 3.3. Let F ( x, y) be the statement x can fool y, where the domain of
discourse for both x and y is all people. Use quantifiers to express each of the
following statements.

a) I can fool everyone.

b) George can’t fool anybody.

c) No one can fool himself.

d) There is someone who can fool everybody.

e) There is someone everyone can fool.

f) Ralph can fool two different people.

Exercise 3.4. Negate each of the statements from exercise 3.2 in English.

Exercise 3.5. Negate each statement from exercise 3.3 in logical symbols.
Of course, the easy answer would be to simply put ¬ in front of each state-
ment. But use the principle given at the end of this chapter to move the
negation across the quantifiers.

Exercise 3.6. Express symbolically: The product of an even integer and an

odd integer is even.

Exercise 3.7. Express in words the meaning of

∃ x P( x ) ∧ ∀ x ∀y (( P( x ) ∧ P(y)) → ( x = y)) .
 predicates and quantifiers 53

3.7 Problems

Problem 3.1. Let h be Ben is healthy., w: Ben is wealthy., and s: Ben is

wise.
Express the following in English:

a) h ∧ w

b) w ∨ s

c) h → (w ∧ s)

d) (h → w) ∧ s

Problem 3.2. Let S( x, y) be the predicate x has seem y where the domain of
discourse for x is all students in this class and the domain of discourse for y
is all movies. Express the following in logical symbols using quantifiers.

a) Every student in this class has seen Gone With The Wind.

b) No student in this class has seen Jaws.

c) The Shape of Water has been seen by someone in this class.

d) Some students have seen every movie.

e) For each movie, there is at least one student in the class who has seen
that movie.

Problem 3.3. Negate the propositions in 3.1 in English.

Problem 3.4. Negate the propositions in 3.2 in symbols. Note: An easy

way to do this is to simply write ¬ in front of the answers in 3.2. Don’t do
that! Give the negation with no quantifiers coming after a negation symbol.

Problem 3.5. Negate the propositions in 3.2 in English. Note: An easy way
to do this is to simply write It is not the case that .... in front of each propo-
sition. Don’t do that! Give the negation as a reasonably natural English
sentence.
4
Rules of Inference

The heart of mathematics is proof. In this chapter, we give a

careful description of what exactly constitutes a proof in the realm
of propositional logic. Throughout the course various methods of
proof will be demonstrated, including the particularly important
style of proof called induction. It’s important to keep in mind that all
proofs, no matter what the subject matter might be, are based on the
notion of a valid argument as described in this chapter, so the ideas
presented here are fundamental to all of mathematics.
Imagine trying carefully to define what a proof is, and it quickly
becomes clear just how difficult a task that is. So it shouldn’t come as
a surprise that the description takes on a somewhat technical looking
aspect. But don’t let all the symbols and abstract-looking notation
be misleading. All these rules really boil down to plain old common
sense when looked at correctly.
The usual form of a theorem in mathematics is: If a is true and b is
true and c is true, etc., then s is true. The a, b, c, · · · are called the hy-
potheses, and the statement s is called the conclusion. For example,
a mathematical theorem might be: if m is an even integer and n is an
odd integer, then mn is an even integer. Here the hypotheses are m is
an even integer and n is and odd integer, and the conclusion is mn is an
even integer.
56 math208: discrete mathematics

4.1 Valid propositional arguments

In this section we are going to be concerned with proofs from the

realm of propositional logic rather than the sort of theorem from
mathematics mentioned above. We will be interested in arguments in
which the form of the argument is the item of interest rather than the
content of the statements in the argument.
For example, consider the simple argument: (1) My car is either
red or blue and (2) My car is not red, and so (3) My car is blue. Here
the hypotheses are (1) and (2), and the conclusion is (3). It should be
clear that this is a valid argument. That means that if you agree that
(1) and (2) are true, then you must accept that (3) is true as well.

Definition 4.1. An argument is called valid provided that if you

agree that all the hypotheses are true, then you must accept the truth
of the conclusion.

Now the content of that argument (in other words, the stuff about
my and cars and colors) really have nothing to do with the validity
of the argument. It is the form of the argument that makes it valid.
The form of this argument is (1) p ∨ q and (2) ¬ p, therefore (3) q. Any
argument that has this form is valid, whether it talks about cars and
colors or any other notions. For example, here is another argument of
the very same form: (1) I either read the book or just looked at the pictures
and (2) I didn’t read the book, therefore (3) I just looked at the pictures.
Some arguments involve quantifiers. For instance, consider the
classic example of a logical argument: (1) All men are mortal and (2)
Socrates is a man, and so (3) Socrates is mortal. Here the hypotheses
are the statements (1) and (2), and the conclusion is statement (3).
If we let M( x ) be x is a man and D ( x ) be x is mortal (with domain
for x being everything!), then this argument could be symbolized as ∀ x ( M( x ) → D ( x ))
shown. M(Socrates)
... D(Socrates)
The general form of a proof that a logical argument is valid con-
sists in assuming all the hypotheses have truth value T, and showing,
by applying valid rules of logic, that the conclusion must also have
truth value T.
 rules of inference 57

Just what are the valid rules of logic that can be used in the course
of the proof? They are called the Rules of Inference, and there are
seven of them listed in the table below. Each rule of inference arises
from a tautology, and actually there is no end to the rules of infer-
ence, since each new tautology can be used to provide a new rule of
inference. But, in real life, people rely on only a few basic rules of
inference, and the list provided in the table is plenty for all normal
purposes.

Table 4.1: Basic rules of inference

Name Rule of Inference
Modus Ponens p and p → q ... q
Modus Tollens ¬q and p → q ... ¬ p
Hypothetical Syllogism p → q and q → r ... p → r
Addition p ... p ∨ q
Simplification p∧q ... p
Conjunction p and q ... p ∧ q
Disjunctive Syllogism p ∨ q and ¬ p ... q

It is important not to merely look on these rules as marks on the

page, but rather to understand what each one says in words. For
example, Modus Ponens corresponds to the common sense rule: if
we are told p is true, and also If p is true, then so is q, then we would
leap to the reasonable conclusion that q is true. That is all Modus Po-
nens says. Similarly, for the rule of proof of Disjunctive Syllogism:
knowing Either p or q is true, and p is not true, we would immedi-
ately conclude q is true. That’s the rule we applied in the car example
above. Translate the remaining six rules of inference into such com-
mon sense statements. Some may sound a little awkward, but they
ought to all elicit an of course that’s right feeling once understood.
Without such an understanding, the rules seem like a jumble of mys-
tical symbols, and building logical arguments will be pretty difficult.
What exactly goes into a logical argument? Suppose we want to
prove (or show valid) an argument of the form If a and b and c are
true, then so is s. One way that will always do the trick is to construct
a truth table as in examples earlier in the course. We check the rows
in the table where all the hypotheses are true, and make sure the
58 math208: discrete mathematics

conclusion is also true in those rows. That would complete the proof.
In fact that is exactly the method used to justify the seven rules of
inference given in the table. But building truth tables is certainly
tedious business, and it certainly doesn’t seem too much like the way
we learned to do proofs in geometry, for example. An alternative is
the construction of a logical argument which begins by assuming the
hypotheses are all true and applies the basic rules of inferences from
the table until the desired conclusion is shown to be true. p

Here is an example of such a proof. Let’s show that the argument p→q
s∨r
displayed in figure 4.1 is valid. r → ¬q
Each step in the argument will be justified in some way, either ... s ∨ t
(1) as a hypothesis (and hence assumed to have truth value T), or Figure 4.1: A logical argument

(2) as a consequence of previous steps and some rule of inference

from the table, or (3) as a statement logically equivalent to a previous
statement in the proof. Finally the last statement in the proof will
be the desired conclusion. Of course, we could prove the argument
valid by constructing a 32 row truth table instead! Well, actually we
wouldn’t need all 32 rows, but it would be pretty tedious in any case.
Such proofs can be viewed as games in which the hypotheses
serve as the starting position in a game, the goal is to reach the con-
clusion as the final position in the game, and the rules of inference
(and logical equivalences) specify the legal moves. Following this
outline, we can be sure every step in the proof is a true statement,
and, in particular, the desired conclusion is true, as we hoped to
show.

Argument: p Proof: (1) p hypothesis Table 4.2: Proof of the validity of an

argument
p→q (2) p→q hypothesis
s∨r (3) q Modus Ponens (1) and (2)
r → ¬q (4) r → ¬q hypothesis
(5) q → ¬r logical equivalent of (4)
... s ∨ t
(6) ¬r Modus Ponens (3) and (5)
(7) s∨r hypothesis
(8) r∨s logical equivalence of (7)
(9) s Disjunctive Syllogism (6) and (8)
(10) s∨t Addition
 rules of inference 59

One step more complicated than the last example are arguments
that are presented in words rather than symbols. In such a case, it is
necessary to first convert from a verbal argument to a symbolic argu-
ment, and then check the argument to see if it is valid. For example,
consider the argument: Tom is a cat. If Tom is a cat, then Tom likes fish.
Either Tweety is a bird or Fido is a dog. If Fido is a dog, then Tom does not
like fish. So, either Tweety is a bird or I’m a monkey’s uncle. Just reading
this argument, it is difficult to decide if it is valid or not. It’s just a
little too confusing to process. But it is valid, and in fact it is the very
same argument as given above. Let p be Tom is a cat, let q be Tom likes
fish, let s be Tweety is a bird, let r be Fido is a dog, and let t be I’m a
monkey’s uncle. Expressing the statements in the argument in terms of
p, q, r, s, t produces exactly the symbolic argument proved above.

4.2 Fallacies

Some logical arguments have a convincing ring to them but are nev-
ertheless invalid. The classic example is an argument of the form If
it is snowing, then it is winter. It is winter. So it must be snowing. A mo-
ment’s thought is all that is needed to be convinced the conclusion
does not follow from the two hypotheses. Indeed, there are many
winter days when it does not snow. The error being made is called
the fallacy of affirming the conclusion. In symbols, the argument is
claiming that [( p → q) ∧ q] → p is a tautology, but in fact, checking a
truth table shows that it is not a tautology. Fallacies arise when state-
ments that are not tautologies are treated as if they were tautologies.

4.3 Arguments with quantifiers

Logical arguments involving propositions using quantifiers require a

few more rules of inference. As before, these rules really amount to
no more than a formal way to express common sense. For instance, if
the proposition ∀ x P( x ) is true, then certainly for every object c in the
universe of discourse, P(c) is true. After all, if the statement P( x ) is
true for every possible choice of x, then, in particular, it is true when
x = c. The other three rules of inference for quantified statements are
 60 math208: discrete mathematics

just as obvious. All four quantification rules appear in table 4.3.

Name Instantiation Rules Table 4.3: Quantification rules

Universal Instantiation ∀ xP( x ) ... P(c) if c is in the domain of x

Existential Instantiation ∃ xP( x ) ... P(c) for some c in the domain of x

Name Generalization Rules

Universal Generalization P(c) for arbitrary c in the domain of x ... ∀ x P( x )
Existential Generalization P(c) for some c in the domain of x ... ∃ x P( x )

Example 4.2. Let’s analyze the following (fictitious, but obviously valid)
argument to see how these rules of inference are used. All books written by
Sartre are hard to understand. Sartre wrote a book about kites. So, there is a
book about kites that is hard to understand. Let’s use to following predicates
to symbolize the argument:

(1) S( x ) : x was written by Sartre.

(2) H ( x ) : x is hard to understand.

(3) K ( x ) : x is about kites.

The domain for x in each case is all books. In symbolic form, the argument
and a proof are
Argument: ∀ x (S( x ) → H ( x ))
∃ x (S( x ) ∧ K ( x ))
... ∃ x (K ( x ) ∧ H ( x ))

Proof: 1) ∃ x (S( x ) ∧ K ( x )) hypothesis

2) S(c) ∧ K (c) for some c Existential Instantiation (1)
3) S(c) Simplification (2)
4) ∀ x (S( x ) → H ( x )) hypothesis
5) S(c) → H (c) Universal Instantiation (4)
6) H (c) Modus Ponens (3) and (5)
7) K (c) ∧ S(c) logical equivalence (2)
8) K (c) Simplification (7)
9) K (c) ∧ H (c) Conjunction (8) and (6)
10) ∃ x (K ( x ) ∧ H ( x )) Existential Generalization (9)
 rules of inference 61

4.4 Exercises

Exercise 4.1. Show p ∨ q and ¬ p ∨ r, ... q ∨ r is a valid rule of inference.

It is called Resolution.

Exercise 4.2. Prove the following argument is valid. All Porsche owners are
speeders. No owners of sedans buy premium fuel. Car owners that do not
buy premium fuel never speed. So Porsche owners do not own sedans. Use
all car owners as the domain of discourse.

Exercise 4.3. Prove the following symbolic argument is valid.

¬ p → (r ∧ ¬ s )
t→s
u → ¬p
¬w
u∨w
... ¬ t ∨ w
62 math208: discrete mathematics

4.5 Problems

Problem 4.1. Show that p → q and ¬ p, ... ¬q is not a valid rule of

inference. It is called the Fallacy of denying the hypothesis.

Problem 4.2. Prove the following symbolic argument is valid.

¬p ∧ q
r→p
¬r → s
s→t
... t

Problem 4.3. Prove the following symbolic argument is valid.

p∨q
q→r
( p ∧ s) → t
¬r
(¬q → (u ∧ s)
... t

Problem 4.4. Prove the following symbolic argument is valid.

(¬ p ∨ q) → r
s ∨ ¬q
¬t
p→t
(¬ p ∧ r ) → ¬s
... ¬ q

Problem 4.5. Express the following argument is symbolic form and prove
the argument is valid. If Ralph doesn’t do his homework or he doesn’t feel
sick, then he will go to the party and he will stay up late. If he goes to the
party, he will eat too much. He didn’t eat too much. So Ralph did his home-
work.

Problem 4.6. In problem 4.5, show that you can logically deduce that
Ralph felt sick.

Problem 4.7. In prob 4.5, can you logically deduce that Ralph stayed up
late?
 rules of inference 63

Problem 4.8. Prove the following symbolic argument.

∃ x ( A( x ) ∧ ¬ B( x ))
∀ x ( A( x ) → C ( x ))
... ∃ x (C ( x ) ∧ ¬ B( x ))
5
Sets: Basic Definitions

A set is a collection of objects. Often, but not always, sets are

denoted by capital letters such as A, B, · · · and the objects that make
up a set, called its elements, are denoted by lowercase letters. Write
x ∈ A to mean that the object x is an element of A. If the object x is
not an element of A, write x 6∈ A.
Two sets A and B are equal, written A = B provided A and B
comprise exactly the same elements. Another way to say the same
thing: A = B provided ∀ x ( x ∈ A ←→ x ∈ B).

5.1 Specifying sets

There are a number of ways to specify a given set. We consider two

of them.

5.1.1 Roster method

One way to describe a set is to list its elements. This is called the
roster method. Braces are used to signify when the list begins and
where it ends, and commas are used to separate elements. For in-
stance, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is the set of positive whole numbers between
1 and 5 inclusive. It is important to note that the order in which el-
ements are listed is immaterial. For example, {1, 2} = {2, 1} since
x ∈ {1, 2} and x ∈ {2, 1} are both true for x = 1 and x = 2 and false
for all other choices of x. Thus x ∈ {1, 2} and x ∈ {2, 1} always have
the same truth value, and that means ∀ x ( x ∈ {1, 2} ←→ x ∈ {2, 1})
66 math208: discrete mathematics

is true. According to the definition of equality given above, it follows

that {1, 2} = {2, 1}. The same sort of reasoning shows that repe-
titions in the list of elements of a set can be ignored. For example
{1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 1, 2, 3, 2} = {1, 2, 3, 4}. There is no point in listing an
element of a set more than once.
The roster method has certain drawbacks. For example we prob-
ably don’t want to list all of the elements in the set of positive in-
tegers between 1 and 99 inclusive. One option is to use an ellipsis.
The idea is that we list elements until a pattern is established, and The use of an ellipsis has one pitfall.
It is hoped that whoever is reading
then replace the missing elements with . . . (which is the ellipsis). So
the list will be able guess the proper
{1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 99} would describe our set. pattern and apply it to fill in the gap.

5.1.2 Set-builder notation

Another method to specify a set is via the use of set-builder nota-

tion. A set can be described in set-builder notation as A = { x | p( x )}.
Here we read A is the set of all objects x for which the predicate p( x )
is true. So {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 99} becomes { x | x is a whole number and
1 ≤ x ≤ 99}.

5.2 Special standard sets

Certain sets occur often enough that we have special notation for
them.

N = { x | x is a non-negative whole number} = {0, 1, 2, . . . }, the natural numbers.

Z = { x | x is a whole number} = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }, the integers.

p
Q = { x | x = , p and q integers with q 6= 0}, the rational numbers.
q
R = { x | x is a real number}, the real numbers.

C = { x | x = a + ib, a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}, the complex numbers.

5.3 Empty and universal sets

In addition to the above sets, there is a set with no elements, written

as ∅ (also written using the roster style as { }), and called the empty
set. This set can be described using set builder style in many differ-
 sets: basic definitions 67

ent ways. For example, { x ∈ R| x2 = −2} = ∅. In fact, if P( x ) is any

predicate which is always false, then { x | P( x )} = ∅. There are two
easy slips to make involving the empty set. First, don’t write ∅ = 0
(the idea being that both ∅ and 0 represent nothing1 ). That is not cor- 1
One is empty the other is something,
namely zero.
rect since ∅ is a set, and 0 is a number, and it’s not fair to compare
two different types of objects. The other error is thinking ∅ = {∅}.
This cannot be correct since the right-hand set has an element, but
the left-hand set does not.
At the other extreme from the empty set is the universal set, de-
noted U . The universal set consists of all objects under consideration
in any particular discussion. For example, if the topic du jour is basic
arithmetic then the universal set would be the set of all integers. Usu-
ally the universal set is left for the reader to guess. If the choice of the
universal set is not an obvious one, it will be pointed out explicitly.

5.4 Subset and equality relations

The set A is a subset of the set B, written as A ⊆ B, in case ∀ x ( x ∈

A −→ x ∈ B) is true. In plain English, A ⊆ B if every element of
A also is an element of B. For example, {1, 2, 3} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. On
the other hand, {0, 1, 2, 3} 6⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} since 0 is an element of the
left-hand set but not of the right-hand set. The meaning of A 6⊆ B can

be expressed in symbols using De Morgan’s law:

A 6⊆ B ←→ ¬(∀ x ( x ∈ A → x ∈ B))

≡ ∃ x ¬( x ∈ A → x ∈ B)
≡ ∃ x ¬(¬( x ∈ A) ∨ x ∈ B)
≡ ∃ x ( x ∈ A ∧ x 6∈ B)

and that last line says A 6⊆ B provided there is at least one element of
A that is not an element of B.
The empty set is a subset of every set. To check that, suppose A is
any set, and let’s check to make sure ∀ x ( x ∈ ∅ −→ x ∈ A) is true.
But it is since for any x, the hypothesis of x ∈ ∅ −→ x ∈ A is F, and
so the implication is T. So ∅ ⊆ A. Another way to same the same
68 math208: discrete mathematics

thing is to notice that to claim ∅ 6⊆ A is the same as claiming there

is at least one element of ∅ that is not an element of A, but that is
ridiculous, since ∅ has no elements at all.
To say that A = B is the same as saying every element of A is also
an element of B and every element of B is also an element of A. In
other words, A = B ←→ ( A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A), and this indicates the
method by which the common task of showing two sets are equal is
carried out: to show two sets are equal, show that each is a subset of
the other.
If A ⊆ B, and A 6= B, A is a proper subset of B, denoted by
A ⊂ B, or A 6⊂
= B. In words, A ⊂ B means every element of A is also
an element of B and there is at least one element of B that is not an
element of A. For example {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and ∅ ⊂ {1}.

5.5 Cardinality

A set is finite if the number of distinct elements in the set is a non-

negative integer. In this case we call the number of distinct ele-
ments in the set its cardinality and denote this natural number by
| A|. For example, |{1, 3, 5}| = 3 and |∅| = 0, |{∅}| = 1, and
|{∅, { a, b, c}, { X, Y }}| = 3. A set, such as Z, which is not finite, is
infinite.

5.6 Power set

Given a set A the power set of A, denoted P ( A), is the set of all sub-
sets of A. For example if A = {1, 2}, then P ( A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.
For a more confusing example, the power set of {∅, {∅}}2 is 2
Try finding the power set of the empty
set: P (∅).

P ({∅, {∅}}) = {∅, {∅}, {{∅}}, {∅, {∅}}}.

It is not hard to see that if | A| = n, then |P ( A)| = 2n .

 sets: basic definitions 69

5.7 Exercises

Exercise 5.1. List the members of the following sets.

a) { x ∈ Z|3 ≤ x3 < 100} b) { x ∈ R|2x2 = 50}

c) { x ∈ N|7 > x ≥ 4}

Exercise 5.2. Use set-builder notation to give a description of each set.

a) {−5, 0, 5, 10, 15} b) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

c) The interval of real numbers: [π, 4)

Exercise 5.3. Determine the cardinality of the sets in exercises 5.1 and 5.2.

Exercise 5.4. Is the proposition Every element of the empty set has three
toes true or false? Explain your answer!

Exercise 5.5. Determine the power set of {1, {2}}.

Exercise 5.6. True or False: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {5, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1}.

Exercise 5.7. True or False: The set of even integers is a subset of the set of
integers that are multiples of four.
70 math208: discrete mathematics

5.8 Problems

Problem 5.1. List the members of the following sets.

a) { x ∈ N|3 ≤ x2 < 100} b) { x ∈ Z|3 ≤ x2 < 100}

c) { x ∈ R|0 < x ≤ 5} d) { x ∈ N| x2 < 0}

e) {1, {1}, {1, 2}}

Problem 5.2. Determine the power set of {∅, 1, {1}}.

Problem 5.3. Determine the truth value of the following propositions:

a) Every element of the empty set is positive.

b) Some element of the empty set is positive.

c) 0 ∈ ∅.

d) 0 = ∅.

e) The empty set is nothing.

f) If x is a real number and x2 < 0, then x ∈ ∅.

Problem 5.4. Determine the truth value of the following propositions:

a) For any set A, A ⊆ P ( A).

b) For any set A, A ∈ P ( A).

c) For any finite set A, the cardinality of P ( A) is greater than the cardi-
nality of A.

Problem 5.5. Determine the cardinality of the following sets:

a) The empty set.

b) The power set of the empty set.

c) The power set of the power set of the empty set.

d) The power set of {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

e) {1, {1}, {1, 2}}

 sets: basic definitions 71

Problem 5.6. True or False:

a) If n ∈ N, then n + 1 ∈ N.

b) If n ∈ N, then n − 1 ∈ N.

Problem 5.7. True or False:

a) If n ∈ Z, then n + 1 ∈ Z.

b) If n ∈ Z, then n − 1 ∈ Z.

Problem 5.8. True or False: Z ⊆ Q.

Problem 5.9. What is wrong with the following expressions:

a) { x < 3}.

b) { x | x is even }.

c) { x, m ∈ N | x = 2m}.

d) [1, ∞].

e) { x ∈ N}.

f) A = { x | x ∈ A → x is an even integer }.
6
Set Operations

There are several ways of combining sets to produce new sets.

6.1 Intersection

The intersection of A with B denoted A ∩ B is defined as { x | x ∈

A ∧ x ∈ B}. For example {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {1, 3, 5}. So the
intersection of two sets consists of the objects which are in both sets
simultaneously. Two sets are disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.

6.2 Venn diagrams

Set operations can be visualized using Venn diagrams. A circle (or

other closed curve) is drawn to represent a set. The points inside
the circle are used to stand for the elements of the set. To represent
A B
the set operation of intersection, two such circles are drawn with
an overlap to indicate the two sets may share some elements. In the
Venn diagram, figure 6.1, the shaded area represents the intersection
of A and B.
Figure 6.1: Venn diagram for A ∩ B

6.3 Union

The union of A with B denoted A ∪ B is { x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}. In

words, A ∪ B consists of those elements that appear in at least one of A B

A and B. So for example {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}.

The Venn Diagram 6.2 represents the union of A and B.

Figure 6.2: Venn diagram for A ∪ B

74 math208: discrete mathematics

6.4 Symmetric difference

The symmetric difference of A and B is defined to be A ⊕ B =

{ x | x ∈ A ⊕ x ∈ B}. So A ⊕ B consists of those elements which appear
in exactly one of A and B. For example {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ⊕ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} =
{2, 4, 7, 9}. The corresponding Venn diagram for the symmetric differ- A B
ence is figure 6.3.

6.5 Complement
Figure 6.3: Venn diagram for A ⊕ B
The complement of B relative to A, denoted A − B is { x | x ∈ A ∧
x 6∈ B}. So {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} − {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {2, 4}. Figure 6.4 is the
correponding Venn diagram.
When U is a universal set, we denote U − A by A and call it the
complement of A. See figure 6.5 for the Venn diagram. If U =
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, then {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. The uni- A B

versal set matters here. If U = { x ∈ N | x ≤ 100}, then {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} =

{5, 6, 7, 8, ..., 100}.

6.6 Ordered lists Figure 6.4: Venn diagram for A − B

The order in which elements of a set are listed does not matter. But
there are times when order is important. For example, in a horse
race, knowing the order in which the horses cross the finish line is
more interesting than simply knowing which horses were in the race.
There is a familiar way, introduced in algebra, of indicating order A

is important: ordered pairs. Ordered pairs of numbers are used to

specify points in the Euclidean plane when graphing functions. For
instance, when graphing y = 2x + 1, setting x = 3 gives y = 7, and so
the ordered pair (3, 7) will indicate one of the points on the graph. Figure 6.5: Venn diagram for
In this course, ordered pairs of any sorts of objects, not just num- A=U−A

bers, will be of interest. An ordered pair is a collection of two objects

(which might both be the same) with one specified as first (the first
coordinate) and the other as second (the second coordinate). The
ordered pair with a specified as first and b as second is written (as
usual) ( a, b). The most important feature of ordered pairs is that
 set operations 75

( a, b) = (c, d) ←→ a = c and b = d. In words, two ordered pairs are

equal provided they match in both coordinates. So (1, 2) 6= (2, 1).
More generally, an ordered n-tuple ( a1 , a2 , ..., an ) is the ordered
collection with a1 as its first coordinate, a2 as its second coordinate,
and so on. Two ordered n-tuples are equal provided they match in
every coordinate.

6.7 Cartesian product

The last operation to be considered for combining sets is the Carte-

sian product of two sets A and B. It is defined by A × B = {( a, b)| a ∈
A ∧ b ∈ B }. In other words, A × B comprises all ordered pairs
that can be formed taking the first coordinate from A and the sec-
ond coordinate from B. For example if A = {1, 2}, and B = {α, β},
then A × B = {(1, α), (2, α), (1, β), (2, β)}. Notice that in this case
A × B 6= B × A since, for example, (1, α) ∈ A × B, but (1, α) 6∈ B × A.
A special case occurs when A = B. In this case we denote the
Cartesian product of A with itself by A2 . The familiar example R ×
R = R2 is called the Euclidean plane or the Cartesian plane.
More generally given sets A1 , ..., An the Cartesian product of these
sets is written as A1 × A2 × ... × An = {( a1 , a2 , ...., an )| ai ∈ Ai , 1 ≤ i ≤
n}. Also An denotes the Cartesian product of A with itself n times.
In order to avoid the use of an ellipsis we also denote the Carte-
n
sian product of A1 , ..., An as ∏ Ak . The variable k is called the index
k =1
of the product. Most often the index is a whole number. Unless we
are told otherwise we start with k = 1 and increment k by 1 suc-
cessively until we reach n. So if we are given A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and A5 ,
5
∏ A k = A1 × A2 × A3 × A4 × A5 .
k =1

6.8 Laws of set theory

There is a close connection between many set operations and the

logical connectives of Chapter 1. The intersection operation is related
to conjunction, union is related to disjunction, and complementation
is related to negation. It is not surprising then that the various laws
76 math208: discrete mathematics

of logic, such as the associative, commutative, and distributive laws

carry over to analogous laws for the set operations. Table 6.1 exhibits
some of these properties of these set operations.

Table 6.1: Laws of Set Theory

Identity Name

( A) = A Double Negation
A∩U = A
Identity laws
A∪∅ = A
A∪U = U
Domination laws
A∩∅ = ∅
A∪A = A
Idempotent laws
A∩A = A
A∪B = B∪A
Commutative laws
A∩B = B∩A
( A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C )
Associative laws
( A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C )
A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C )
Distributive laws
A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
( A ∩ B) = ( A ∪ B)
De Morgan’s laws
( A ∪ B) = ( A ∩ B)
A∪A = U Law of Excluded Middle
A∩A = ∅ Law of Contradiction

These can be verified by using membership tables which are

the analogs of truth tables used to verify the logical equivalence of
propositions. For a set A either an element under consideration is
in A or it is not. These binary possibilities are kept track of using
1 if x ∈ A and 0 if x 6∈ A, and then performing related bit string
operations.

Example 6.1. Verify the De Morgan’s law given by ( A ∩ B) = A ∪ B.

A B A∩B ( A ∩ B) A B A∪B
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
The meaning of the first row of the table is that if x ∈ A and x ∈ B, then
x 6∈ A ∩ B, as indicated by the 0 in the first row, fourth column, and also
 set operations 77

not in A ∪ B as indicated by the 0 in the first row, last column. Since the
columns for A ∩ B and A ∪ B are identical, it follows that ( A ∩ B) = A ∪ B
as promised.

6.9 Proving set identities

Just as compound propositions can be analyzed using truth tables,

more complicated combinations of sets can be handled using mem-
bership tables. For example, using a membership table, it is easy to
verify that A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = A ∩ ( B ∪ C ). But, just as with propositions,
it is usually more enlightening to verify such equalities by applying
the few basic laws of set theory listed above.

Example 6.2. Let’s prove A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = A ∩ ( B ∪ C )

Proof. The proof is just two applications of De Morgan’s laws:

A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) = A ∩ ( B ∪ C ).

6.10 Bit string operations

There is a correspondence between set operations of finite sets and

bit string operations. Let U = {u1 , u2 , ..., un } be a finite universal set
with distinct elements listed in a specific order1 For a set A under 1
Notice the universal set is ordered.
We may write it as and n-tuple: U =
consideration, we have A ⊆ U . By the law of excluded middle, for (u1 , u2 , ..., un ).
each u j ∈ U , either u j ∈ A or u j 6∈ A. We define a binary string
of length n, called the characteristic vector of A, denoted χ( A), by
setting the jth bit of χ( A) to be 1 if u j ∈ A and 0 if u j 6∈ A. For
example if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, and A = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8}, then
χ( A) = 101110010.
An interesting side-effect is that for example χ( A ∩ B) = χ( A) ∧
χ( B) 2 , χ( A ∪ B) = χ( A) ∨ χ( B) and χ( A) = ¬χ( A). Since every 2
As a function, we say that χ maps
intersection to conjunction
proposition can be expressed using ∧, ∨ and ¬, if we represent sets
by their characteristic vectors, we can get a machine to perform set
operations as logical operations on bit strings. This is the method
programmers use to manipulate sets in computer memory.
78 math208: discrete mathematics

6.11 Exercises

Exercise 6.1. Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Find

a) A ∩ B b) A ∪ B c) A − B

d) B − A

Exercise 6.2. Determine the sets A and B, if A − B = {1, 2, 7, 8},

B − A = {3, 4, 10} and A ∩ B = {5, 6, 9}.

Exercise 6.3. Use membership tables to show that

A ⊕ B = ( A ∪ B ) − ( A ∩ B ).

Exercise 6.4. Verify A ⊕ B = ( A ∪ B) − ( A ∩ B) using Venn diagrams.

Exercise 6.5. Verify A ∪ ( A ∩ B) = A using the rules of set algebra.

Exercise 6.6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { a, b, c}, C = {α, β}, and

D = {7, 8, 9}. Write out the following Cartesian products.

a) A × B b) B × A c) C × B × D

Exercise 6.7. What can you conclude about A and B if A × B = B × A.

Exercise 6.8. If U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, determine χ({1, 2, 4, 8}).

Exercise 6.9. Let A = {1, 2, 3} × {1, 2, 3, 4}. List the elements in the set
B = {(s, t) ∈ A | s ≥ t}.
 set operations 79

6.12 Problems

Problem 6.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9} and B = {1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9}. Find

a) A ∩ B b) A ∪ B

c) A − B d) B − A

Problem 6.2. Use the rules of set algebra to verify A ⊕ B = ( A ∪ B) −

( A ∩ B ).

Problem 6.3. Let A = {1, 2, 3} × {1, 2, 3, 4}. List the elements of the set
B = {(s, t) ∈ A | s < t }.

Problem 6.4. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} × {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

a) What is the cardinality of A?

b) What is the cardinality of A × A?

c) What is the cardinality of B = {s | (s, s2 ) ∈ A }?

Problem 6.5. True or False:

a) For all sets A, B, C, A × ( B ∩ C ) = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C ).

b) For all sets A, B, C, A × ( B ∪ C ) = ( A × B) ∪ ( A × C ).

c) For all sets A, B, C, D, ( A ∩ B) × (C ∩ D ) = ( A × C ) ∩ ( B × D ).

d) For all sets A, B, C, D, ( A ∪ B) × (C ∪ D ) = ( A × C ) ∪ ( B × D ).

Problem 6.6. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Find χ({1, 2, 3, 4}).

7
Styles of Proof

Earlier, we practiced proving the validity of logical arguments,

both with and without quantifiers. The technique introduced there
is one of the main tools for constructing proofs in a more general
setting. In this chapter, various common styles of proof in mathemat-
ics are described. Recognizing these styles of proof will make both
reading and constructing proofs a little less onerous. The example proofs in this chapter will
use some familiar facts about integers,
which we will prove in a later chapter.
7.1 Direct proof

As mentioned before, the typical form of the statement of a theorem

is: if a and b and c and · · · , then d. The propositions a,b,c, · · · are called
the hypotheses, and the proposition d is called the conclusion. The
goal of the proof is to show that ( a ∧ b ∧ c ∧ · · · ) → d is a true propo-
sition. In the case of propositional logic, the only thing that matters is
the form of a logical argument, not the particular propositions that are
involved. That means the proof can always be given in the form of a
truth table. In areas outside of propositional logic that is no longer
possible. Now the content of the propositions must be considered.
In other words, what the words mean, and not merely how they are
strung together, becomes important.
Suppose we want to prove an implication Theorem: If p, then
q. In other words, we want to show p → q is true. There are two
possibilities: Either p is false, in which case p → q is automatically
true, or p is true. In this second case, we need to show that q is true
82 math208: discrete mathematics

as well to conclude p → q is true. In other words, to show p → q is

true, we can begin by assuming p is true, and then give an argument
that q must be true as well. The outline of such a proof will look like:

Proof:

Step 1) Reason 1
Step 2) Reason 2
.. ..
. .
Step l) Reason l

Every step in the proof must be a true proposition, and since the
goal is to conclude q is true, the proposition q will be the last step
in the proof. There are only four acceptable reasons that can be
invoked to justify a step in a proof. Each step can be: (1) a hypothesis
(and so assumed to be true), (2) an application of a definition, (3)
a known fact proved previously, and so known to be true, or (4) a
consequence of applying a rule of inference or a logical equivalence to
earlier steps in the proof. The only difference between these sorts
of formal proofs and the proofs of logical arguments we practiced
earlier is the inclusion of definitions as a justification of a step.
Before giving a few examples, there is one more point to con-
sider. Most theorems in mathematics involve variables in some way,
along with either universal or existential quantifiers. But, in the case
of universal quantifiers, tradition dictates that the mention of the
quantifier is often suppressed, and left for the reader to fill in. For
example consider: Theorem: If n is an even integer, then n2 is an even
integer. The statement is really shorthand for Theorem: For every
n ∈ Z, if n is even, then n2 is even. If we let E(n) be the predicate n
is even with universe of discourse Z, the theorem becomes Theo-
rem: ∀n( E(n) → E(n2 )). The truth of such a universally quantified
statement can be accomplished with an application of the rule of uni-
versal generalization. In other words, we prove that for an arbitrary
n ∈ Z, the proposition E(n) → E(n2 ) is true. The result is stated and
proved in the next theorem.
 styles of proof 83

Theorem 7.1. If n is an even integer, then n2 is an even integer.

Proof.
1) n is an even integer hypothesis
2) n = 2k for an integer k definition of even
3) n2 = 4k2 algebra fact
4) n2 = 2(2k2 ) algebra fact
5) n2 is even definition of even

Usually proofs are not presented in the dry stepwise style of the
last example. Instead, a more narrative style is used. So the above
proof could go as follows:

Proof. Suppose n is an even integer. That means n = 2k for some integer k.

Squaring both sides gives n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2 ) which shows n2 is
even. ♣

All the ingredients of the stepwise proof are present in the narra-
tive form, but this second form is a little more reader friendly. For
example, we can include a few comments, such as squaring both sides
gives to help the reader figure out what is happening.
The method of proof given above is called direct proof. The char-
acteristic feature of a direct proof is that in the course of the proof,
the hypotheses appear as steps, and the last step in the proof is the
conclusion of the theorem.
It is traditional to put a marker (such as ♣, to indicate the theorem
has been clubbed!) at the end of a narrative form of a proof to let the
reader know the proof is complete.
Here is one more example of a direct proof.

Theorem 7.2. If n and m are odd integers, then n + m is even.

Proof. Suppose m and n are odd integers. That means m = 2j + 1 for

some integer j, and n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Adding gives m + n =
(2j + 1) + (2k + 1) = 2j + 2k + 2 = 2( j + k + 1), and so we see m + n is
even. ♣
84 math208: discrete mathematics

7.2 Indirect proof

There are cases where a direct proof is not very convenient for one
reason or another. There are several other styles of proof, each based
on some logical equivalence.
For example, since p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬ p, we can prove the

Theorem 7.3. p → q

by instead giving a proof of

Theorem 7.4. ¬q → ¬ p.

In other words, we replace the requested implication with its con-

trapositive, and prove that instead. This method of proof is called
indirect proof. Here’s an example.

Theorem 7.5. If m2 is an even integer, then m is an even integer.

Proof. Suppose m is not even. Then m is odd. So m = 2k + 1 for some

integer k. Squaring both sides of that equation gives m2 = (2k + 1)2 =
4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k ) + 1, which shows m2 is not even. ♣

Notice that we gave a direct proof of the equivalent theorem: If m is

not an even integer, then m2 is not an even integer.

7.3 Proof by contradiction

Another alternative to a direct proof is proof by contradiction. In this

method the plan is to replace the requested Theorem: r (where r can
be any simple or compound proposition) with Theorem: ¬r → F,
where F is any proposition known to be false. The reason proof by
contradiction is a valid form of proof is that ¬r → F ≡ r, so that
showing ¬r → F is true is identical to showing r is true. Proofs by
contradiction can be a bit more difficult to discover than direct or
indirect proofs. The reason is that in those two types of proof, we
know exactly what the last line of our proof will be. We know where
we want to get to. But in a proof by contradiction, we only know that
we want to end up with some (any) proposition known to be false.
Typically, when writing a proof by contradiction, we experiment,
 styles of proof 85

trying various logical arguments, hoping to stumble across some

false proposition, and so conclude the proof. For example, consider
the following.
√
Theorem 7.6. 2 is irrational.

The plan is to replace the requested theorem with

√
Theorem 7.7. If 2 is rational, then F (some fact known to be false).

And now, we may give a direct proof of this replacement theorem:

√
Proof. Suppose that 2 is rational. Then there exist integers m and n with
√ m m
n 6= 0, so that 2 = , with in lowest terms. Squaring both sides
n n
m 2
gives 2 = 2 . Thus m2 = 2n2 and so m2 is even. Therefore m is even.
n
So m = 2k for some integer k. Substituting 2k for m in m2 = 2n2 shows
(2k)2 = 4k2 = 2n2 . Which means that n2 = 2k2 . Therefore n2 is even,
which means n is even. Now since both m and n are even, they have 2 as a
m
common factor. Therefore is in lowest terms and it is not in lowest terms.
n
→←. ♣

The symbol →← (two arrows crashing into each other head on)
denotes that we have reached a fallacy (F), a statement known to be
false. It usually marks the end of a proof by contradiction.
In the next example, we will prove a proposition of the form p → q
by contradiction. The theorem is about real numbers x and y.
√ √
Theorem 7.8. If 0 < x < y, then x< y.

Think of the statement of the theorem in the form p → q. The plan is

to replace the requested theorem with

Theorem 7.9. ¬( p → q) → F.

But ¬( p → q) ≡ ¬(¬ p ∨ q) ≡ p ∧ ¬q. So we will actually prove

( p ∧ ¬q) → F. In other words, we will prove (directly)
√ √
Theorem 7.10. If 0 < x < y and x≥ y, then (some fallacy).
√ √ √ √ √
Proof. Suppose 0 < x < y and x ≥ y. Since x > 0, x x ≥
√ √ √ √ √ √
x y, which is the same as x ≥ xy. Also, since y > 0, y x ≥
√ √ √ √ √
y y, which is the same as xy ≥ y. Putting x ≥ xy and xy ≥ y
together, we conclude x ≥ y. Thus x < y and x ≥ y. →← ♣
 86 math208: discrete mathematics

7.4 Proof by cases

The only other common style of proof is proof by cases. Let’s first
look at the justification for this proof technique. Suppose we are
asked to prove

Theorem 7.11 (Theorem X). p → q.

We dream up some propositions, r and s, and replace the requested

theorem with three theorems:

Theorem 7.12 (Theorem XS). (1) p −→ (r ∨ s), (2) r → q, and

(3) s → q.

The propositions r, s we dream up are called the cases. There can

be any number of cases. If we dream up three cases, then we would
have four theorems to prove, and so on. The hope is that the proofs
of these replacement theorems will be much easier than a proof of
the original theorem. 1 1
This is the divide and conquer approach
to a proof.
The reason proof by cases is a valid proof technique is that

[( p −→ (r ∨ s)) ∧ (r → q) ∧ (s → q)] → ( p → q)

is a tautology2 . Proof by cases, as for proof by contradiction, is gen- 2

Prove this!

erally a little trickier than direct and indirect proofs. In a proof by

contradiction, we are not sure exactly what we are shooting for. We
just hope some contradiction will pop up. For a proof by cases, we
have to dream up the cases to use, and it can be difficult at times to
dream up good cases.

Theorem 7.13. For any integer n, |n| ≥ n.

Proof. Suppose n is an integer. There are two cases:Either (1): n > 0, or This has the form p −→ (r ∨ s) of (1) in
Theorem 7.4.
(2): n ≤ 0.

Case 1: We need to show If n > 0, then |n| ≥ n. (We will do this with a direct
proof.) Suppose n > 0. Then |n| = n. Thus |n| ≥ n is true.

Case 2: We need to show If n ≤ 0, then |n| ≥ n. (We will again use a direct
proof.) Suppose n ≤ 0. Now 0 ≤ |n|. Thus, n ≤ |n|.

So, in any case, n ≤ |n| is true, and that proves the theorem. ♣
 styles of proof 87

7.5 Existence proof

A proof of a statement of the form ∃ xP( x ) is called an existence

proof. The proof may be constructive, meaning that the proof pro-
vides a specific example of, or at least an explicit recipe for find-
ing, an x so that P( x ) is true; or the proof may be non-constructive,
meaning that it establishes the existence of x without giving a method
of actually producing an example of an x for which P( x ) is true.
To give examples of each type of existence proof, let’s use a famil-
iar fact (which will be proved a little later in the course): There are
infinitely many primes. Recall that a prime is an integer greater than
1 whose only positive divisors are 1 and itself. The next two theo-
rems are contrived, but they demonstrate the ideas of constructive
and nonconstructive proofs.

Theorem 7.14. There is a prime with more than two digits.

Proof. Checking shows that 101 has no positive divisors besides 1 and itself.
Also, 101 has more than two digits. So we have produced an example of a
prime with more than two digits. ♣

That is a constructive proof of the theorem. Now, here is a non-

constructive proof of a similar theorem.

Theorem 7.15. There is a prime with more than one billion digits.

Proof. Since there are infinitely many primes, they cannot all have one
billion or fewer digits. So there must some primes with more than one billion
digits. ♣

7.6 Using a counterexample to disprove a statement

Finally, suppose we are asked to prove a theorem of the form ∀ x P( x ),

and for one reason or another we come to believe the proposition is
not true. The proposition can be shown to be false by exhibiting a
specific element from the domain of x for which P( x ) is false. Such
an example is called a counterexample to the theorem. Let’s look at a
specific instance of the counterexample technique.
88 math208: discrete mathematics

Theorem 7.16 (not really!). For all positive integers n, n2 − n + 41 is

prime

Counterexample. To disprove the theorem, we explicitly specify a positive

integer n such that n2 − n + 41 is not prime. In fact, when n = 41, the
expression is not a prime since clearly 412 − 41 + 41 = 412 is divisible by
41. So, n = 41 is a counterexample to the proposition. ♣

An interesting fact about this example is that n = 41 is the smallest

counterexample. For n = 1, 2, · · · 40, it turns out that n2 − n + 41 is
a prime! This examples shows the danger of checking a theorem of
the form ∀ x P( x ) for a few (or a few billion!) values of x, finding P( x )
true for those cases, and concluding it is true for every possible value
of x.
 styles of proof 89

For the purpose of these exercises and problems, feel free to use
familiar facts and definitions about integers. For example: Recall, an
integer n is even if n = 2k for some integer k. And, an integer n is
odd if n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.

7.7 Exercises

Exercise 7.1. Give a direct proof that the sum of two even integers is even.

Exercise 7.2. Give an indirect proof that if the square of the integer n is
odd, then n is odd.

Exercise 7.3. Give a proof by contradiction that the sum of a rational

number and an irrational number is irrational.

Exercise 7.4. Give a proof by contradiction that if 5n − 1 is odd, then n is

even.

Exercise 7.5. In Chapter 1, exercise f), you concluded that If x = 2, then

x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 is not a proposition. Using the convention given in this
chapter, what would you say now, and why?

Exercise 7.6. Give a counterexample to the proposition Every positive

integer that ends with a 7 is a prime.
90 math208: discrete mathematics

7.8 Problems

Problem 7.1. Give a direct proof that the sum of an even integer and an
odd integer is odd.
Hint: Start by letting m be an even integer and letting n be an odd inte-
ger. That means m = 2k for some integer k and n = 2j + 1 for some integer
j. You are interested in m + n, so add them up and see what you get. Why is
the thing you get an odd integer (think about the definition of odd)?

Problem 7.2. Give a direct proof that the sum of two odd integers is even.

Problem 7.3. Give an indirect proof that if n3 is even, then n is even. Hint:
Study the solution of a similar statement in the sample exercises for this
lesson.

Problem 7.4. Give a proof by contradiction that if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is

odd.
Hint: This is the problem in this set that gives the most grief. Study the
section in the notes where the mechanics of proving a statement of the form
If P, then Q by contradiction is discussed. Be sure you understand why the
first line of the proof should be something like Suppose 3n + 2 is odd and n
is even.

Problem 7.5. Give an example of a predicate P(n) about positive integers

n, such that P(n) is true for every positive integer from 1 to one billion, but
which is never-the-less not true for all positive integers. (Hint: there is a
really simple choice possible for the predicate P(n).)

Problem 7.6. The maximum of two numbers, a and b is a provided a ≥ b.

Notation: max( a, b) = a. The minimum of a and b is a provided a ≤ b.
Notation: min( a, b) = a. Examples: max(2, 3) = 3, max(5, 0) = 5,
min(2, 3) = 2, min(5, 0) = 0, max(4, 4) = min(4, 4) = 4.
Give a proof by cases that for any numbers s, t,

min(s, t) + max(s, t) = s + t.

Problem 7.7. Give a proof by cases that for integers m, n, we have |mn| =
|m||n|. Hint: Consider four cases: (1) m ≥ 0 and n ≥ 0, (2) m ≥ 0 and
n < 0, (3) m < 0 and n ≥ 0, and (4) m < 0 and n < 0.
 8
Relations

Two-place predicates, such as B( x, y) : x is the brother of y, play a

central role in mathematics. Such predicates can be used to describe
many basic concepts. As examples, consider the predicates given
verbally:

(1) G ( x, y) : x is greater than or equal to y which compares the magni-

tudes of two values.

(2) P( x, y) : x has the same parity as y which compares the parity of two
integers.

(3) S( x, y) : x has square equal to y which relates a value to its square.

8.1 Relations

Two-place predicates are called relations, probably because of exam-

ples such as the brother of given above. To be a little more complete
about it, if P( x, y) is a two-place predicate, and the domain of dis-
course for x is the set A, and the domain of discourse for y is the
set B, then P is called a relation from A to B. When working with
relations, some new vocabulary is used. The set A (the domain of
discourse for the first variable) is called the domain of the relation,
and the set B (the domain of discourse for the second variable) is
called the codomain of the relation.
92 math208: discrete mathematics

8.2 Specifying a relation

There are several different ways to specify a relation. One way is

to give a verbal description as in the examples above. As one more
example of a verbal description of a relation, consider
E( x, y) : The word x ends with the letter y. Here the domain will be
words in English, and the codomain will the the twenty-six letters of
the alphabet. We say the ordered pair (cat, t) satisfies the relation E,
but that (dog, w) does not.

8.2.1 By ordered pairs

When dealing with abstract relations, a verbal description is not

always convenient. An alternate method is to tell what the domain
and codomain are to be, and then simply list the ordered pairs which
will satisfy the relation. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B =
{ a, b, c, d}, then one of many possible relations from A to B would
be {(1, b), (2, c), (4, c)}. If we name this relation R, we will write
R = {(1, b), (2, c), (4, c)}. It would be tough to think of a natural
verbal description of R.
When thinking of a relation, R, as a set of ordered pairs, it is com-
mon to write aRb in place of ( a, b) ∈ R. For example, using the
relation G defined above, we can convey the fact that the pair (3, 2)
satisfies the relation by writing any one of the following: (1) G (3, 2) is
true, (2) (3, 2) ∈ G, or (3) 3G2. The third choice is the preferred one
when discussing relations abstractly.
Sometimes the ordered pair representation of a relation can
be a bit cumbersome compared to the verbal description. Think
about the ordered pair form of the relation E given above: E =
{ (cat, t), (dog, g), ( antidisestablishmentarianism, m), · · · }.

8.2.2 By graph

Another way represent a relation is with a graph1 . Here, a graph is a 1

Here graph does not mean the sorts
of graphs of lines, curves and such
diagram made up of dots, called vertices, some of which are joined discussed in an algebra course.
by lines, called edges. To draw a graph of a relation R from A to B,
make a column of dots, one for each element of A, and label the dots
 relations 93

with the names of those elements. Then, to the right of A’s column
make a column of dots for the elements of B. Then connect the vertex
labelled a ∈ A to a vertex b ∈ B with an edge provided ( a, b) ∈ R.
A B
The diagram is called the bipartite graph representation of R.

Example 8.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4 } and B = { a, b, c, d }, and let 1 a

R = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (3, d), (4, d)}. Then the bipartite graph which 2 b
represents R is given in figure 8.1.
3 c
The choices made about the ordering and the placement of the
4 d
vertices for the elements of A and B may make a difference in the
appearance of the graph, but all such graphs are considered equiv-
alent. Also, edges can be curved lines. All that matters is that such Figure 8.1: Example bipartite graph

diagrams convey graphically the same information as R given as a set

of ordered pairs.

8.2.3 By digraph: domain=codomain

It is common to have the domain and the codomain of a relation be

the same set. If R is a relation from A to A, then we will say R is a
relation on A. In this case there is a shorthand way of representing
the relation by using a digraph. The word digraph is shorthand for
directed graph meaning the edges have a direction indicated by an
arrowhead. Each element of A is used to label a single point. An
arrow connects the vertex labelled s to the one labelled t provided
(s, t) ∈ R. An edge of the form (s, s) is called a loop.
1 2
Example 8.2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}. Then a digraph for
5
R is shown in figure 8.2

Again it is true that a different placement of the vertices may yield 4 3

a different-looking, but equivalent, digraph.
Figure 8.2: Example digraph
8.2.4 By 0-1 matrix

The last method for representing a relation is by using a 0-1 matrix.

This method is particularly handy for encoding a relation in com-
puter memory. An m × n matrix is a rectangular array with m rows
94 math208: discrete mathematics

and n columns. Matrices are usually denoted by capital English let-

ters. The entries of a matrix, usually denoted by lowercase English
letters, are indexed by row and column. Either ai,j or aij stands for
the entry in a matrix in the ith row and jth column. A 0-1 matrix
is one all of whose entries are 0 or 1. Given two finite sets A and B
with m and n elements respectively, we may use the elements of A (in
some fixed order) to index the rows of an m × n 0-1 matrix, and use
the elements of B to index the columns. So for a relation R from A to
B, there is a matrix of R, MR with respect to the orderings of A and
B which represents R. The entry of MR in the row labelled by a and
column labelled by b is 1 if aRb and 0 otherwise. This is exactly like
using characteristic vectors to represent subsets of A × B, except that
the vectors are cut into n chunks of size m.

Example 8.3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = { a, b, c, d} as before, and

consider the relation R = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, c), (4, c), (4, a)}. Then a 0-1
matrix which represents R using the natural orderings of A and B is Note: This matrix may change appear-
ance if A or B is listed in a different
 
1 1 0 0 order.
 
0 0 1 0
MR = 
 

0 0 0 0
 
1 0 1 0

8.3 Set operations with relations

Since relations can be thought of as sets of ordered pairs, it makes

sense to ask if one relation is a subset of another. Also, set operations
such as union and intersection can be carried out with relations.

8.3.1 Subset relation using matrices

These notions can be expressed in terms of the matrices that repre-

sent the relations. Bit-wise operations on 0-1 matrices are defined in
the obvious way. Then MR∪S = MR ∨ MS , and MR∩S = MR ∧ MS . Also,
for two 0-1 matrices of the same size M ≤ N means that wherever N
has a 0 entry, the corresponding entry in M is also 0. Then R ⊆ S
means the same as MR ≤ MS .
 relations 95

8.4 Special relation operations

There are two new operations possible with relations.

8.4.1 Inverse of a relation

First, if R is a relation from A to B, then by reversing all the ordered

pairs in R, we get a new relation, denoted R−1 , called the inverse of
R. In other words, R−1 is the relation from B to A given by R−1 =
{(b, a)|( a, b) ∈ R}. A bipartite graph for R−1 can be obtained from
a bipartite graph for R simply by interchanging the two columns of
vertices with their attached edges (or, by rotating the diagram 180◦ ).
If the matrix for R is MR , then the matrix for R−1 is produced by
taking the columns of MR−1 to be the rows of MR . A matrix obtained
by changing the rows of M into columns is called the transpose of M,
and written as M T . So, in symbols, if M is a matrix for R, then M T is
a matrix for R−1 .

8.4.2 Composition of relations

The second operation with relations concerns the situation when S is

a relation from A to B and R is a relation from B to C. In such a case,
we can form the composition of S by R which is denoted R ◦ S. The
composition is defined as

R ◦ S = {( a, c)| a ∈ A, c ∈ C and ∃b ∈ B, such that ( a, b) ∈ S and (b, c) ∈ R}.

Example 8.4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {α, β} and C = { a, b, c}. Further

let S = {(1, α), (1, β), (2, α), (3, β), (4, α)} and R = {(α, a), (α, c), ( β, b)}.
Since (1, α) ∈ S and (α, a) ∈ R, it follows that (1, a) ∈ R ◦ S. Likewise,
since (2, α) ∈ S and (α, c) ∈ R, it follows that (2, c) ∈ R ◦ S. Continuing
in that fashion shows that

R ◦ S = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, c), (3, b), (4, a), (4, c)}.
96 math208: discrete mathematics

The composition can also be determined by looking at the bipartite S R

1 a
graphs. Make a column of vertices for A labelled 1, 2, 3, 4, then to the right α
2 b
a column of points for B labelled α, β, then again to the right a column of
3 c
points for C labelled a, b, c. Draw in the edges as usual for R and S. Then
β
4
a pair ( x, y) will be in R ◦ S provided there is a two edge path from x to y.
1 a
(See figure 8.3 at right.)
2 b
From the picture it is instantly clear that, for example, (1, c) ∈ R ◦ S.
3 c
In terms of 0-1 matrices if MS is the m × k matrix of S with respect to
the given orderings of A and B, and if MR is the k × n matrix of R with 4 R◦S

respect to the given orderings of B and C, then whenever the i, l entry of S

and l, j entry of R are both 1, then ( ai , c j ) ∈ R ◦ S. Figure 8.3: Composing relations: R ◦ S

8.4.3 Composition with matrices: Boolean product

This example motivates the definition of the Boolean product of

MS and MR as the corresponding matrix MR◦S of the composition.
More rigorously when M is an m × k 0-1 matrix and N is an k × n 0-1
matrix, M N is the m × n 0-1 matrix whose i, j entry is (mi,1 ∧ n1,j ) ∨
(mi,2 ∧ n2,j )∨, ..., (mi,k ∧ nk,j ). This looks worse than it is. It achieves
the desired result2 . 2
The boolean product is computed
the same way as the ordinary matrix
For the relations in the example above example product where multiplication and
addition have been replaced with and
    and or, respectively.
1 1 1 1 1
     
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

MR◦S = = =M MR
  
 S
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

 
1 0 1 1 0
 relations 97

8.5 Exercises

Exercise 8.1. Let A = { a, b, c, d} and

R = {( a, a), ( a, c), (b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, c), (d, b), (d, d)} be a relation
on A. Draw a digraph which represents R. Find the matrix which represents
R with respect to the ordering (d, c, a, b).

Exercise 8.2. The matrix of a relation S from {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to { a, b, c, d}

with respect to the given orderings is displayed below. Represent S as a
bipartite graph, and as a set of ordered pairs.
 
1 1 0 0
 
0 0 1 1
 
 
MS = 
1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 0
 
0 1 1 0

Exercise 8.3. Find the composition of S by R (as given in exercises 8.1 and
8.2) as a set of ordered pairs. Use the Boolean product to find MR◦S with
3
The natural ordering for R is not the
respect to the natural orderings. 3 ordering used in exercise 8.1.

Exercise 8.4. Let B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and let

R1 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4),

(4, 1), (4, 5), (5, 5), (6, 6)} and

R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 6),

(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (5, 1), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 6)}.

(a) Find R1 ∪ R2 , R1 ∩ R2 , and R1 ⊕ R2 .

(b) With respect to the given ordering of B find the matrix of each relation in
part (a)
98 math208: discrete mathematics

8.6 Problems

Problem 8.1. Let A = { a, b, c, d} and R = {( a, a), ( a, c), (b, d), (c, a), (c, c), (d, b)}
be a relation on A. Draw a digraph which represents R. Draw the bipartite
graph which represents R.

Problem 8.2. Let A = { a, b, c, d} and R = {( a, a), ( a, c), (b, d), (c, a), (c, c), (d, b)}
be a relation on A. What is the inverse of R?

Problem 8.3. Find the composition, R ◦ S, where S = { (1, a), (4, a), (5, b), (2, c), (5, c), (3, d) }
with R = {( a, x ), ( a, y), (b, x ), (c, z), (d, z)} as a set of ordered pairs.

Problem 8.4. Let R1 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 1), (6, 6)} and
R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 6), (3, 6), (4, 2), (5, 6), (6, 2), (6, 3)}. Find R1 ∪ R2 and
R1 ∩ R2 .

Problem 8.5. Let L be the relation less than on the set of integers. Ex-
amples 3 L 7 and −8 L 0 are true, but 5 L 2 and 6 L 6 are false. How would
describe the relation L−1 ?

Problem 8.6. True or False: For any relation R, ( R−1 )−1 = R. Explain
your answer.

Problem 8.7. Are there relations R for which R = R−1 ? If not, explain
why it is not possible. If so, give an example of such a relation.

Problem 8.8. Let R be a relation on a set A, and let R−1 be its inverse.
Prove that if ( a, b) ∈ R ◦ R−1 , then (b, a) ∈ R ◦ R−1 .

Problem 8.9. Let A and B be two sets. Explain why the empty set, ∅, is a
relation from A to B.

Problem 8.10. Let S be a relation from A to B, and let R be a relation from

B to C. Prove ( R ◦ S)−1 = S−1 ◦ R−1 .
9
Properties of Relations

There are several conditions that can be imposed on a relation

R on a set A that make it useful. These requirements distinguish
those relations which are interesting for some reason from the garden
variety junk, which is, let’s face it, what most relations are.

9.1 Reflexive
Reflexive: (∀ a ∈ A)[ aRa]
A relation R on A is reflexive provided ∀ a ∈ A, aRa. In plain English,
a relation is reflexive if every element of its domain is related to
itself. The relation B( x, y) : x is the brother of y is not reflexive
since no person is his own brother. On the other hand, the relation
S(m, n) : m + n is even. is a reflexive relation on the set of integers
since, for any integer m, m + m = 2m is even.
It is easy to spot a reflexive relation from its digraph: there is a
loop at every vertex. Also, a reflexive relation can be spotted quickly
from its matrix. First, let’s agree that when the matrix of a relation
on a set A is written down, the same ordering of the elements of
A is used for both the row and column designators. For a reflexive
relation, the entries on the main diagonal of its matrix will all be 1’s.
The main diagonal of a square matrix runs from the upper left corner
to the lower right corner.
100 math208: discrete mathematics

9.2 Irreflexive
Irreflexive: (∀ a ∈ A)[ a Ra

]
The flip side of the coin from reflexive is irreflexive. A relation R on ≡ ¬(∃ a ∈ A)[ aRa]
A is irreflexive in case a Ra for all a ∈ A. In other words, no element
of A is related to itself. The brother of relation is irreflexive. The di-
graph of an irreflexive relation contains no loops, and its matrix has
all 0’s on the main diagonal.
Actually, that discussion was a little careless. To see why, consider
the relation S( x, y) : the square of x is bigger than or equal to y.
Is this relation reflexive? The answer is: we can’t tell. The answer
depends on the domain of the relation, and we haven’t been told
what that is to be. For example, if the domain is the set N of natural
numbers, then the relation is reflexive, since n2 ≥ n for all n ∈ N.
However, if the domain is the set R of all real numbers, the relation is
not reflexive. In fact, a counterexample to the claim that S is reflexive
 2
on R is the number 12 since 12 = 41 , and 41 < 1 , so 12 S 1

2 . The lesson
to be learned from this example is that the question of whether a
relation is reflexive cannot be answered until the domain has been
specified. The same is true for the irreflexive condition and the other
conditions defined below. Always be sure you know the domain
before trying to determine which properties a relation satisfies.

9.3 Symmetric
Symmetric: (∀ a, b ∈ A)[ aRb → bRa]
A relation R on A is symmetric provided ( a, b) ∈ R → (b, a) ∈ R. An-
other way to say the same thing: R is symmetric provided R = R−1 .
In words, R is symmetric provided that whenever a is related to b,
then b is related to a. Any digraph representing a symmetric rela-
tion R will have a return edge for every non-loop. Think of this as
saying the graph has no one-way streets. The matrix M of a sym-
metric relation satisfies M = M T . In this case M is symmetric about
its main diagonal in the usual geometric sense of symmetry. The
B( x, y) : x is the brother of y relation mentioned before is not sym-
metric if the domain is taken to be all people since, for example,
Donny B Marie, but Marie 
B Donny. On the other hand, if we take the
domain to be all (human) males, then B is symmetric.
 properties of relations 101

9.4 Antisymmetric
Antisymmetric:
A relation R on A is antisymmetric if whenever ( a, b) ∈ R and
(∀ a, b ∈ A)[( aRb) ∧ (bRa) → ( a = b)]
(b, a) ∈ R, then a = b. In other words, the only objects that are each
related to the other are objects that are the same. For example, the
usual ≤ relation for the integers is antisymmetric since if m ≤ n and
n ≤ m, then n = m. A digraph representing an antisymmetric relation
will have all streets one-way except loops. If M is a matrix for R, then
whenever ai,j = 1 and i 6= j, a j,i = 0.

9.5 Transitive
Transitive:
A relation R on A is transitive if whenever ( a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R,
(∀ a, b, c ∈ A)[( aRb) ∧ (bRc) → ( aRc)]
then ( a, c) ∈ R. This can also be expressed by saying R ◦ R ⊆ R.
In a digraph for a transitive relation whenever we have a directed
path of length two from a to c through b, we must also have a direct
link from a to c. This means that any digraph of a transitive relation
has lots of triangles. This includes degenerate triangles where a, b
and c are not distinct. A matrix M of a transitive relation satisfies
M M ≤ M. The relation ≤ on N is transitive, since from k ≤ m and
m ≤ n, we can conclude k ≤ n.

9.6 Examples

Example 9.1.

Define a relation, N on the set of all living people by the rule a N b if and
only if a, b live within one mile of each other. This relation is reflexive since
every person lives within a mile of himself. It is not irreflexive since I live
within a mile of myself. It is symmetric since if a lives within a mile of
b, then b lives within a mile of a. It is not antisymmetric since Mr. and
Mrs. Smith live within a mile of each other, but they are not the same per-
son. It is not transitive: to see why, think of the following situation (which
surely exists somewhere in the world!): there is a straight road of length 1.5
miles. Say Al lives at one end of the road, Cal lives at the other end, and Sal
lives half way between Al and Cal. Then Al N Sal and Sal N Cal, but not
Al N Cal.
102 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 9.2. Let A = R and define aRb iff a ≤ b, then R is a reflexive,

transitive, antisymmetric relation. Because of this example, any relation on
a set that is reflexive, antisymmetic, and transitive is called an ordering
relation. The subset relation on any collection of sets is another ordering
relation.

Example 9.3. Let A = R and define aRb iff a < b. Then R is irreflexive,
and transitive.

Example 9.4. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} then

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (1, 3), (3, 1), (1, 5),

(5, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2), (2, 6), (6, 2), (3, 5), (5, 3), (4, 6), (6, 4)}

is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. In artificial examples such as this

one, it can be a tedious chore checking that the relation is transitive.

Example 9.5. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (3, 4), (2, 4), (4, 1)}
then R is not reflexive, not irreflexive, not symmetric, and not transitive but
it is antisymmetric.
 properties of relations 103

9.7 Exercises

Exercise 9.1. Define a relation on {1, 2, 3} which is both symmetric and

antisymmetric.

Exercise 9.2. Define a relation on {1, 2, 3, 4} by

R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}.

For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflexive,
irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show R satisfies
the property, or explain why it does not.

Exercise 9.3. Each matrix below specifies a relation R on {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

with respect to the given ordering 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflex-
ive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show R
satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.
   
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
   
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
   
   
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
a)  b) 
   
 
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
   
   
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
   
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
   
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
   
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
   
   
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
c)  d) 
   
 
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
   
   
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
   
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

Exercise 9.4. Define the relation C ( A, B) : | A| ≤ | B|, where the domains

for A and B are all subsets of Z.
For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflex-
ive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show S
satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.

Exercise 9.5. Explain why ∅ is a relation on any set.

104 math208: discrete mathematics

Exercise 9.6. Define the relation M ( A, B) : | A ∩ B| = 1 (or, in plain

English, A and B have exactly one element in common), where the domains
for A and B are all subsets of Z. A few examples:

• {5, 10} M {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is true since the sets {5, 10} and {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
have exactly one element in common (namely 5).

• {1, 2, 3} M {6, 7, 8, 9} is false since {1, 2, 3} and {6, 7, 8, 9} have no

elements in common.

• {1, 2, 3, 4} M {2, 4, 6, 8} is false since {1, 2, 3, 4} and {2, 4, 6, 8} have

more than one element in common.

• {n|n ∈ Z and n ≤ 0} M {n|n ∈ Z and n ≥ 0} is true since {n|n ∈

Z and n ≤ 0} and {n|n ∈ Z and n ≥ 0} have exactly one element in
common (namely 0).

For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflex-
ive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show M
satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.
 properties of relations 105

9.8 Problems

Problem 9.1. Let R be the relation {(1, 1)} on the set A = {1, 2}. For
each of the five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflexive,
irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show S satisfies
the property, or explain why it does not.

Problem 9.2. Let R be the relation {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)} on the set
A = {1, 2, 3}. For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this
chapter (reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive)
either show S satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.

Problem 9.3. Let A be the relation on the set Z of all integer defined by
s A t if and only if |s| ≤ |t|. For each of the five properties of a relation
defined in this chapter (reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and
transitive) either show S satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.

Problem 9.4. Let D be the relation on the natural numbers defined by

the rule mDn if and only if m does not equal n. Examples: 5D7 is true
and 4D4 is false. For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this
chapter (reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive)
either show S satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.

Problem 9.5. Let R be the relation {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} on the set A =
{1, 2, 3}. The relation R is not transitive on A. What is the fewest number
of ordered pairs that need to be added to R so it becomes a transitive relation
on A?

Problem 9.6. Give a counterexample to the claim that a relation R on a set

A that is both symmetric and transitive must be reflexive. Hint: There is a
very simple example!

Problem 9.7. Define the relation M( A, B) : A ∩ B = ∅, where the domains

for A and B are all subsets of Z.
For each of the five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflex-
ive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show M
satisfies the property, or explain why it does not.

Problem 9.8.
 106 math208: discrete mathematics

(a) Let A = {1}, and consider the empty relation, ∅, on A. For each of the
five properties of a relation defined in this chapter (reflexive, irreflexive,
symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive) either show ∅ satisfies the
property, or explain why it does not.

(b) Same question as (a), but now with A = ∅.

10
Equivalence Relations

Relations capture the essence of many different mathematical

concepts. In this chapter, we will show how to put the idea of are the
same kind in terms of a special type of relation.
Before considering the formal concept of same kind let’s look at
a few simple examples. Consider the question, posed about an or-
dinary deck of 52 cards: How many different kinds of cards are there?
One possible answer is: There are 52 kinds of cards, since all the cards
are different. But another possible answer in certain circumstances
is: There are four kinds of cards (namely clubs, diamonds, hearts, and
spades). Another possible answer is: There are two kinds of cards, red
and black. Still another answer is: There are 13 kinds of cards: aces, twos,
threes, · · · , jacks, queens, and kings. Another answer, for the purpose of
many card games is: There are ten kinds of cards, aces, twos, threes, up to
nines, while tens, jacks, queens, and kings are all considered to be the same
value (usually called 10). You can certainly think of many other ways to
split the deck into a number of different kinds.
Whenever the idea of same kind is used, some properties of the ob-
jects being considered are deemed important and others are ignored.
For instance, when we think of the the deck of cards made of the 13
different ranks, ace through king, we are agreeing the the suit of the
card is irrelevant. So the jack of hearts and the jack of clubs are taken
to be the same for what ever purposes we have in mind.
 108 math208: discrete mathematics

10.1 Equvialence relation

The mathematical term for same kind is equivalent. There are three
basic properties always associated with the idea of equivalence.

(1) Reflexive: Every object is equivalent to itself.

(2) Symmetric: If object a is equivalent to object b, then b is also equiv-

alent to a.

(3) Transitive: If a is equivalent to b and b is equivalent to c, then a is

equivalent to c.

To put the idea of equivalence in the context of a relation, suppose

we have a set A of objects, and a rule for deciding when two objects
in A are the same kind (equivalent) for some purpose. Then we can
define a relation E on the set A by the rule that the pair (s, t) of el-
ements of A is in the relation E if and only if s and t are the same
kind. For example, consider again the deck of cards, with two cards
considered to be the same if they have the same rank. Then a few of
the pairs in the relation E would be (ace hearts, ace spades), (three
diamonds, three clubs), (three clubs, three diamonds), (three dia-
monds, three diamonds), (king diamonds, king clubs), and so on.
Using the terminology of the previous chapter, this relation E, and
in fact any relation that corresponds to notion of equivalence, will be
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. For that reason, any reflexive,
symmetric, transitive relation on a set A is called an equivalence
relation on A.

10.2 Equivalence class of a relation

Suppose E is an equivalence relation on a set A and that x is one par-

ticular element of A. The equivalence class of x is the set of all the
things in A that are equivalent to x. The symbol used for the equiv-
alence class of x is [ x ], so the definition can be written in symbols as
[ x ] = { y ∈ A | y E x }.
For instance, think once more about the deck of cards with the
equivalence relation having the same rank. The equivalence class of the
 equivalence relations 109

two of spades would be the set [2♠] = {2♣, 2♦, 2♥, 2♠}. That would
also be the equivalence class of the two of diamonds. On the other
hand, if the equivalence relation we are using for the deck is having
the same suit, then the equivalence class of the two of spades would be
[2♠] = { A♠, 2♠, 3♠, 4♠, 5♠, 6♠, 7♠, 8♠, 9♠, 10♠, J ♠, Q♠, K ♠}.
The most important fact about the collection of different equiva-
lence classes for an equivalence relation on a set A is that they split
the set A into separate pieces. In fancier words, they partition the
set A. For example, the equivalence relation of having the same rank
splits a deck of cards into 13 different equivalence classes. In a sense,
when using this equivalence relation, there are only 13 different ob-
jects, four of each kind.

10.3 Examples

Here are a few more examples of equivalence relations.

Example 10.1. Define R on N by aRb iff a = b. In other words, equality is

an equivalence relation. If fact, this example explains the choice of name for
such relations.

Example 10.2. Let A be the set of logical propositions and define R on A by

pRq iff p ≡ q.

Example 10.3. Let A be the set of people in the world and define R on A by
aRb iff a and b are the same age in years.

Example 10.4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and R be the relation on A with

the matrix from exercise 3. part a) of chapter 9.

Example 10.5. Define P on Z by a P b iff a and b are both even, or both

odd. We say a and b have the same parity.

For the equivalence relation has the same rank on a set of cards in
a 52 card deck, there are 13 different equivalence classes. One of the
classes contains all the aces, another contains all the 2’s, and so on.
 110 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 10.6. For the equivalence relation from example 10.5, the equiva-
lence class of 2 is the set of all even integers.

[2] = {n | 2 P n} = {n | 2 has the same parity as n }

= {n | n is even } = {· · · , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, · · · }

In this example, there are two different equivalence classes, the one compris-
ing all the even integers, and the other comprising all the odd integers. As
far as parity is concerned, −1232215 and 171717 are the same.

Suppose E is an equivalence relation on A. The most important

fact about equivalence classes is that every element of A belongs to
exactly one equivalence class. Let’s prove that.

Theorem 10.7. Let E be an equivalence relation on a set A, and let a ∈ A.

Then there is exactly one equivalence class to which a belongs.

Proof. Let E be an equivalence relation on a set A, and suppose a ∈ A.

Since E is reflexive, a E a, and so a ∈ [ a] is true. That proves that a is in
at least one equivalence class. To complete the proof, we need to show that if
a ∈ [b] then [b] = [ a].
Now, stop and think: Here is what we know:

(1) E is an equivalence relation on A,

(2) a ∈ [b], and

(3) the definition of equivalence class.

Using those three pieces of information, we need to show the two sets [ a] and
[b] are equal. Now, to show two sets are equal, we show they have the same
elements. In other words, we want to prove

(1) If c ∈ [ a], then c ∈ [b], and For homework, you will complete the
proof of this theorem by doing part (1).
(2) If c ∈ [b], then c ∈ [ a].

Let’s give a direct proof of (2).

Suppose c ∈ [b]. Then, according to the definition of [b], c E b. The goal
is to end up with So c ∈ [ a]. Now, we know a ∈ [b], and that means a E b.
Since E is symmetric and a E b, it follows that b E a. Now we have c E b and
b E a. Since E is transitive, we can conclude c E a, which means c ∈ [ a] as
we hoped to show. That proves (2). ♣
 equivalence relations 111

10.4 Partitions

Definition 10.8. A partition of a set A is a collection of nonempty,

pairwise disjoint subsets of A, so that A is the union of the subsets
in the collection. So for example {{1, 2, 3} {4, 5, 6}} is a partition of
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. The subsets forming a partition are called the parts of
the partition.

So to express the meaning of theorem 10.7 above in different

words: The different equivalence classes of an equivalence relation
on a set partition the set into nonempty disjoint pieces. More briefly:
the equivalence classes of E partition A.

10.5 Digraph of an equivalence relation

The fact that an equivalence relation partitions the underlying set

is reflected in the digraph of an equivalence relation. If we pick an
equivalence class [ a] of an equivalence relation E on a finite set A
and we pick b ∈ [ a], then b E c for all c ∈ [ a]. This is true since
a E b implies b E a and if a E c, then transitivity fills in b E c. So in any
digraph for E every vertex of [ a] is connected to every other vertex
in [ a] (including itself) by a directed edge. Also no vertex in [ a] is
connected to any vertex in A − [ a]. So the digraph of E consists of
separate components, one for each distinct equivalence class, where
each component contains every possible directed edge.

10.6 Matrix representation of an equivalence relation

In terms of a matrix representation of an equivalence relation E on

a finite set A of size n, let the distinct equivalence classes have size
k1 , k2 , ...kr , where k1 + k2 + ... + kr = n. Next list the elements of A as
a1,1 , ..., ak1 ,1 , a1,2 , ..., ak2 ,2 , ....., a1,r , ..., akr ,r where the ith equivalence class
is { a1,i , ..., aki ,i }. Then the matrix for R with respect to this ordering is
112 math208: discrete mathematics

of the form  
Jk1 0 0 ... 0
 
0 Jk2 0 ... 0
 
 
.. ..
 
 .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
 
 

 0 ... 0 Jkr−1 0 
0 ... 0 0 Jkr

where Jm is the all 1’s matrix of size k m × k m . Conversely if the di-

graph of a relation can be drawn to take the above form, or if it has
a matrix representation of the above form, then it is an equivalence
relation and therefore reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
 equivalence relations 113

10.7 Exercises

Exercise 10.1. Let A = {0, 1, 2}. Let R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (0, 1), (1, 0)}.
Is R and equivalence relation on A? If it is, what are the equivalence
classes?

Exercise 10.2. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Let R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (0, 1), (1, 0)}.
Is R and equivalence relation on A? If it is, what are the equivalence
classes?

Exercise 10.3. Let A = {0, 1, 2}. Let R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (0, 1)}. Is
R and equivalence relation on A? If it is, what are the equivalence classes?

Exercise 10.4. Let A = {0, 1, 2}. Let R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 2), (2, 1)}.
Is R and equivalence relation on A? If it is, what are the equivalence
classes?

Exercise 10.5. True or False: The relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)} on A =
{1, 2} is both symmetric and antisymmetric.

Exercise 10.6. The relation S is defined on the set Z of all integers by the
rule m S n if and only if m2 = n2 . Is S an equivalence relation on Z? If it
is, what are the equivalence classes of S?

Exercise 10.7. Let L be the collection of all straight lines in the plane. Four
examples of elements in L: x + y = 0, 2x-y - 5, x = 7, y = 0. A relation
C on L is defined by the rule l1 C l2 provided the lines l1 and l2 have at least
one point in common. (The letter C should remind us of cross, and, loosely
speaking, two lines are related if they cross each other. We will have to agree
that a line crosses itself.) Is C an equivalence relation on L? If it is, what are
the equivalence classes of C?

Exercise 10.8. Let R be a relation on a non-empty set A that is both sym-

metric, transitive. And, suppose that for each a ∈ A, aRb for at least one
b ∈ A. Prove that R is reflexive, hence, an equivalence relation.

Exercise 10.9. Let E be an equivalence relation on a set A, and let a, b ∈ A.

Prove that either [ a] ∩ [b] = ∅ or else [ a] = [b].

Exercise 10.10. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Form a partition of A

using {1, 2, 4}, {3, 5, 7}, and {6, 8}. These are the equivalence classes for an
equivalence relation, E, on A.
114 math208: discrete mathematics

a) Draw a digraph of E. b) Determine a 0-1 matrix of E.

Exercise 10.11. Determine if each matrix represents an equivalence re-

lation on { a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h}. If the matrix represents an equivalence
relation find the equivalence classes. The natural order of the elements,
[ a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h], defines the matrices.
   
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
   
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
   
   
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
   
   
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
(a)  (b) 
   
 
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
   
   
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
   
   
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Exercise 10.12. Complete the proof of theorem 10.7 on page 110 by proving
part (1).
 equivalence relations 115

10.8 Problems

Problem 10.1. Let A be the set of people alive on earth. For each relation
defined below, determine if it is an equivalence relation on A. If it is, de-
scribe the equivalence classes. If it is not, determine which properties of an
equivalence relation fail.

a) a H b ←→ a and b are the same height.

b) a G b ←→ a and b have a common grandparent.

c) a L b ←→ a and b have the same last name.

d) a N b ←→ a and b have a name (first name or last name) in common.

e) a W b ←→ a and b were born less than a day apart.

Problem 10.2. Let L be the collection of all straight lines in the plane. Four
examples of elements in L: x + y = 0, 2x-y - 5, x = 7, y = 0. A relation P
on L is defined by the rule l1 P l2 provided the lines l1 and l2 are parallel. Is
P an equivalence relation on L? If it is, what are the equivalence classes of
P?

Problem 10.3.

a) Given an example of an equivalence relation on N for which there are

exactly two equivalence classes.

b) Given an example of an equivalence relation on N for which every

equivalence class has cardinality two.

Problem 10.4. Consider the relation B( x, y) : x is the brother of y on

the set, M, of living human males. Is M reflexive? Is M symmetric? Is M
transitive? (To be precise, brothers will mean two different males with the
same two parents. Don’t consider half-brothers for this problem.)

Problem 10.5. Let A = { a, b, c, d, e, f , g}. There are many different

equivalence relations on A.

a) Of all the equivalence relations on A, which have the smallest number

of ordered pairs?

b) Of all the equivalence relations on A, which have the largest number

of ordered pairs?
116 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 10.6. The relation R = {( a, a), ( a, b)} is not an equivalence

relation on the set A = { a, b, c}. What is the fewest number of ordered pairs
that need to be added to R so the result is an equivalence relation on A?

Problem 10.7. Prove or give a counterexample: Suppose R is an equiva-

lence relation on the lower case letters of the alphabet. True or False: All the
equivalence classes of R have the same cardinal number.

Problem 10.8. Let A be the set of all ordered pairs of positive integers.
So some members of A are (3, 6), (7, 7), (11, 4), (1, 2981). A relation on
A is defined by the rule ( a, b) R(c, d) if and only if ad = bc. For example
(3, 5) R(6, 10) is true since (3)(10) = (5)(6).

a) Explain why R is an equivalence relation on A.

b) List four ordered pairs in the equivalence class of (2, 3).

Problem 10.9. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Form a partition of A using

{1, 2}, {3, 4, 5}, and {6}. These are the equivalence classes for an equiva-
lence relation, E, on A. Draw the digraph of E.

Problem 10.10. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. The relation E = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)}
is an equivalence relation on A. F = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)} is
another equivalence relation on A. Compute the composition F ◦ E. Is F ◦ E
and equivalence relation on A?
11
Functions and Their Properties

In algebra, functions are thought of as formulas such as f ( x ) =

x2 where x is any real number. This formula gives a rule that de-
scribes how to determine one number if we are handed some number
x. So, for example, if we are handed x = 2, the function f says that
determines the value 4, and if we are handed 0, f says that deter-
mines 0. There is one condition that, by mutual agreement, such
a function rule must obey to earn the title function: the rule must
always determine exactly one value for each (reasonable) value it is
handed. Of course, for the example above, x = blue isn’t a reasonable
choice for x, so f doesn’t determine a value associated with blue. The
domain of this function is all real numbers.
Instead of thinking of a function as a formula, we could think of
a function as any rule which determines exactly one value for every
element of a set A. For example, suppose W is the set of all words in
English, and consider the rule, I, which associates with each word, w,
the first letter of w. Then I (cat) = c, I (dog) = d, I ( a) = a, and so on.
Notice that for each word w, I always determines exactly one value,
so it meets the requirement of a function mentioned above. Notice
that for the same set of all English words, the rule T (w) is the third
letter of the word w is not a function since, for example, T (be) has no
value.
118 math208: discrete mathematics

11.1 Definition of function

Here is the semi-formal definition of a function: A function from the

set A to the set B is any rule which describes how to determine ex-
actly one element of B for each element of A. The set A is called the
domain of f , and the set B is called the codomain of f . The notation
f : A → B means f is a function from A to B.
There are cases where it is not convenient to describe a function
with words or formulas. In such cases, it is often possible to sim-
ply make a table listing the members of the domain along with the
x f (x)
associated member of the codomain.
1 a
Example 11.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { a, b, c, d, e} and let 2 a
3 c
f : A → B be specified by table 11.1
4 b
It is hard to imagine a verbal description that would act like f , but the 5 d

table says it all. It is traditional to write such tables in a more compact form 6 e
Table 11.1: A simple function
as
f = { (1, a), (2, a), (3, c), (4, b), (5, d), (6, e) }.

The last result in example 11.1 looks like a relation, and that leads
to the modern definition of a function:

Definition 11.2. A function, f , with domain A and codomain B is a

relation from A to B (hence f ⊆ A × B) such that each element of A is
the first coordinate of exactly one ordered pair in f .

That completes the evolution of the concept of function from for-

mula, through rule, to set of ordered pairs. When dealing with func-
tions, it is traditional to write b = f ( a) instead of ( a, b) ∈ f .

11.2 Functions with discrete domain and codomain

y
In algebra and calculus, the functions of interest have a domain and a y = x2
4
codomain consisting of sets of real numbers, A, B ⊆ R. The graph of f
is the set of ordered pairs in the Cartesian plane of the form ( x, f ( x )). 3

Normally in this case, the output of the function f is determined by

2
some formula. For example, f ( x ) = x2 .
We can spot a function in this case by the vertical line test. A 1
relation from a subset A of R to another subset of R is a function if
x
1 2 3
Figure 11.1: Graph of y = x2
 functions and their properties 119

every vertical line of the form x = a, where a ∈ A intersects the graph

of f exactly once.
In discrete mathematics, most functions of interest have a domain
and codomain some finite sets, or, perhaps a domain or codomain
consisting of integers. Such domains and codomains are said to be
discrete.

11.2.1 Representions by 0-1 matrix or bipartite graph

When f : A → B is a function and both A and B are finite, then

since f is a relation, we can represent f either as a 0 − 1 matrix or a
bipartite graph. If M is a 0 − 1 matrix which represents a function,
then since every element of A occurs as the first entry in exactly one
ordered pair in f , it must be that every row of M has exactly one 1
in it. So it is easy to distinguish which relations are functions, and
which are not from the matrix for the relation. This is the discrete
analog of the vertical line test, (but notice that rows are horizontal).

Example 11.3. Again, let’s consider the function defined, as in example

11.1, by f is from A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} to B = { a, b, c, d, e} given by the 
1 0 0 0 0


relation f = { (1, a), (2, a), (3, c), (4, b), (5, d), (6, e) }. 1 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 1 0 0
If we take the given orderings of A and B, then the 0-1 matrix represent- 



0 1 0 0 0
 
ing the function f appears in figure 11.2. 0

0 0 1 0


Notice that in matrix form the number of 1’s in a column coincides with 0 0 0 0 1

the number of occurrences of the column label as output of the function. Figure 11.2: A function in 0-1 matrix
form
So the sum of all entries in a given column equals the number of times the
element labeling that column is an output of the function.

When a function from A to B is represented as a bipartite graph,

every vertex of A is connected to exactly one element of B.

11.3 Special properties

In the case of a function whose domain is a subset of R, the number

of times that the horizontal line y = b intersects the graph of f ,
is the number of inputs from A for which the function value is b.
Notice that these criteria are twisted again. In the finite case we are
now considering vertical information, and in the other case we are
120 math208: discrete mathematics

considering horizontal information. In either case, these criteria will

help us determine which of several special properties a function
either has or lacks.

11.3.1 One-to-one (injective)

We say that a function f : A → B is one-to-one provided f (s) = f (t)

implies s = t. The two dollar word for one-to-one is injective. The
definition can also be expressed in the contrapositive as: f is one-
-to-one provided s 6= t implies f (s) 6= f (t). But the definition is
even easier to understand in words: a function is one-to-one provided
different inputs always result in different outputs. As an example,
consider the function f : R → R given by the formula f ( x ) = x2 . This
function is not one-to-one since both inputs 2 and −2 are associated
with the same output: f (2) = 22 = 4 and f (−2) = (−2)2 = 4.

Example 11.4. Proving a function is one-to-one can be a chore. Let f :

R →→ R be given by f ( x ) = x3 − 2. Let’s prove f is one-to-one.

Proof. Suppose f (s) = f (t), then s3 − 2 = t3 − 2. Thus s3 = t3 . So

s3 − t3 = 0. Now s3 − t3 = (s − t)(s2 + st + t2 ) = 0 implies s − t = 0
or s2 + st + t2 = 0. The first case leads to √
s = t. Using the quadratic
t2 − 4t2
formula, the second case leads to s = −t ± . Since s has to be a
2
real number, the expression under the radical cannot be negative. The only
other option is that it is 0, and that means t = 0. Of course if t = 0 this
leads to s = 0 = t. So, in any case, s = t. ♣

The one-to-one property is very easy to spot from either the matrix
or the bipartite graph of a function. When f : A → B is one-to-one,
and | A| = m and | B| = n for some m, n ∈ N − {0}, then when f
is represented by a 0-1 matrix M, there can be no more than one 1 in
any column. So the column sums of any 0 − 1 matrix representing
a one-to-one function are all less than or equal to 1. Since every row
sum of M is 1 and there are m rows, we must have m ≤ n. The bipar-
tite graph of a one-to-one function can be recognized by the feature
that no vertex of the codomain has more than one edge leading to it.
 functions and their properties 121

11.3.2 Onto (surjective)

We say that a function f : A → B is onto, or surjective, if every

element of B equals f ( a) for some a ∈ A. Consequently any matrix
representing an onto function has each column sum at least one, and
thus m ≥ n. In terms of bipartite graphs, for an onto function, every
element of the codomain has at least one edge leading to it.
As an example, consider again the function L from all English
words to the set of letters of the alphabet defined by the rule L(w)
is the last letter of the word w. This function is not one-to-one since,
for example, L(cat) = L(mutt), so two different members of the
domain of L are associated with the same member (namely t) of the
codomain. However, L is onto. We could prove that by making a
list of twenty-six words, one ending with a, one ending with b, · · · ,
one ending with z. (Only the letters j and q might take more than a
moment’s thought.)

11.3.3 Bijective

A function f : A → B which is both one-to-one and onto is called

bijective. In the matrix of a bijection, every column has exactly one
1 and every row has exactly one 1. So the number of rows must
equal the number of columns. In other words, if there is a bijection
f : A → B, where A is a finite set, then A and B have the same
number of elements. In such a case we will say the sets have the
same cardinality or that they are equinumerous, and write that as
| A| = | B|. The general definition (whether A and B are finite or not)
is:

Definition 11.5. A and B are equinumerous provided there exists a

bijection from A to B.

Notice that for finite sets with the same number of elements, A, B,
any one-to-one function must be onto and vice versa. This is not true
for infinite sets. For example the function f : Z → Z by f (m) = 2m
is one-to-one, but not onto, since f (n) = 1 is impossible for any n.
On the other hand, the function g : Z → Z given by the rule g(n) is
n
the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to 2 is onto, but not
122 math208: discrete mathematics

one-to-one. As examples, g(6) = 3 and g(−5) = −2. This function is

onto since clearly g(2n) = n for any integer n, so every element of the
codomain has at least one edge leading to it. But g(1) = g(2) = 1, so
g is not one-to-one.

11.4 Composition of functions

Since functions are relations, the composition of a function g : A → B

by a function f : B → C, makes sense. As usual, this is written as
f ◦ g : A → C, but that’s a little presumptive since it seems to assume
that f ◦ g really is a function.

Theorem 11.6. If g : A → B and f : B → C, then f ◦ g is a function.

Proof. We need to show that for each a ∈ A there is exactly one c ∈ C

such that ( a, c) ∈ f ◦ g. So suppose a ∈ A. since g : A → B, there is
some b ∈ B with ( a, b) ∈ g. Since f : B → C, there is a c ∈ C such that
(b, c) ∈ f . So, by the definition of composition, ( a, c) ∈ f ◦ g. That proves
there is at least one c ∈ C with ( a, c) ∈ f ◦ g. To complete the proof, we
need to show that there is only one element of C that f ◦ g pairs up with a.
So, suppose that ( a, c) and ( a, d) are both in f ◦ g. We need to show c = d.
Since ( a, c) and ( a, d) are both in f ◦ g, there must be elements s, t ∈ B such
that ( a, s) ∈ g and (s, c) ∈ f , and also ( a, t) ∈ g and (t, d) ∈ f . Now, since
g is a function, and both ( a, s) and ( a, t) are in g, we can conclude s = t. So
when we write (t, d) ∈ f , we might as well write (s, d) ∈ f . So we know
(s, c) and (s, d) are both in f . As f is a function, we can conclude c = d. ♣

If g : A → B and f : B → C, and ( a, b) ∈ g and (b, c) ∈ f , then

( a, c) ∈ f ◦ g. Another way to write that is g( a) = b and f (b) = c.
So c = f (b) = f ( g( a)). That last expression look like the familiar
formula for the composition of functions found in algebra texts:
( f ◦ g)( x ) = f ( g( x )).

11.5 Invertible discrete functions

When f : A → B is a function, we can form the relation f −1 from

B to A. But f −1 might not be a function. For example, suppose f :
 functions and their properties 123

{ a, b} → {1, 2} is f = {( a, 1), (b, 1)}. Then f −1 = {(1, a), (1, b)},

definitely not a function.
If in fact f −1 is a function, then for all a ∈ A with b = f ( a), we
have f −1 (b) = a so ( f −1 ◦ f )( a) = f −1 ( f ( a)) = f −1 (b) = a, ∀ a ∈ A.
Similarly ( f ◦ f −1 )(b) = b, ∀b ∈ B. In this case we say f is invertible.
Another way to say the same thing: the inverse of a function f :
A → B is a function g : B → A which undoes the operation of f .
As a particular example, consider the function f : Z → Z given
by the formula f (n) = n + 3. In words, f is the add 3 function.
The operation which undoes the effect of f is clearly the subtract 3
function. That is, f −1 (n) = n − 3.
For any set, S, define 1S : S → S by 1S ( x ) = x for every x ∈ S.
In other words, 1S = {( x, x ) | x ∈ S}. The function 1S is called the
identity function on S. So the computations above show f −1 ◦ f =
1 A and f ◦ f −1 = 1B .

Theorem 11.7. A function f : A → B is invertible iff f is bijective.

Proof. First suppose that f : A → B is invertible. Then f −1 : B → A

exists. If f ( a1 ) = f ( a2 ), then since f −1 is a function, a1 = f −1 ( f ( a1 )) =
f −1 ( f ( a2 )) = a2 . Thus f is one-to-one. Also if b ∈ B with f −1 (b) = a,
then f ( a) = f ( f −1 (b)) = b. So f is onto. Since f is one-to-one and onto, f
is bijective.
Now suppose that f is bijective, and let b ∈ B. Since f is onto, we have
some a ∈ A with f ( a) = b. If e ∈ A with f (e) = b, then e = a since
f is one-to-one. Thus b is the first entry in exactly one ordered pair in the
inverse relation f −1 . Whence, f −1 is a function. ♣

Do not make the error1 of confusing inverses and reciprocals when 

1
(Danger ahead!) They are entirely
dealing with functions. The reciprocal of f : Z → Z given by the different things.
1 1
formula f (n) = n + 3 is = which is not the inverse
f (n) n+3
function for f . For example f (0) = 3, but the reciprocal of f does
1
not convert 3 back into 0, instead the reciprocal associates 6 with 3.
In fact, there are other problems with the reciprocal: it doesn’t even
make sense when n = −3 since that would give a division by 0,
which is undefined. So, be very careful when working with functions
not to confuse the words reciprocal and inverse.
124 math208: discrete mathematics

11.6 Characteristic functions

The characteristic vector (see section 6.10) of a set may be used to

define a special 0-1 function representing the given set.

Example 11.8. Let U be a finite universal set with n elements ordered

u1 , ..., un . Let Bn denote all binary strings of length n. The characteristic
function χ : P (U ) → Bn , which takes a subset A to its characteristic
vector is bijective. Thus there is no danger of miscomputation. We can either
manipulate subsets of U using set operations and then represent the result
as a binary vector or we can represent the subsets as binary vectors and
manipulate the vectors with appropriate bit string operations. We’ll get
exactly the same answer either way.

The process in example 11.8 allows us therefore to translate any

set theory problem with finite sets into the world of 0’s and 1’s. This
is the essence of computer science.
 functions and their properties 125

11.7 Exercises

Exercise 11.1. Recall that R is the set of all real numbers. In each case,
give an example of a function f : R → R with the indicated properties, or
explain why no such function exists.

(a) f is bijective, but f is not the identity function f ( x ) = x.

(b) f is neither one-to-one nor onto.

(c) f is one-to-one, but not onto.

(d) f is onto, but not one-to-one.

Exercise 11.2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = { a, b, c, d, e, f }. In each

case, give an example of a function f : A → B with the indicated properties,
or explain why no such function exists.

(a) f : A → B, f is one-to-one.

(b) g : B → A, g is one-to-one.

(c) f : A → B, f is onto.

(d) g : B → A, g is onto.

Exercise 11.3. Prove or give a counterexample: If E is an equivalence

relations on a set A, then E ◦ E is an equivalence relation on A.

Exercise 11.4. Suppose g : A → B and f : B → C are both one-to-one.

Prove f ◦ g is one-to-one.
 126 math208: discrete mathematics

11.8 Problems

Problem 11.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. In each case, give an example of a

function f : A → A with the indicated properties, or explain why no such
function exists.

(a) f is bijective, but is not the identity function f ( x ) = x.

(b) f is neither one-to-one nor onto.

(c) f is one-to-one, but not onto.

(d) f is onto, but not one-to-one.

Problem 11.2. Repeat problem 11.1 with the set A = N.

Problem 11.3. Repeat problem 11.1 with the set A = Z.

12
Special Functions

Certain functions arise frequently in discrete mathematics. Here

is a catalog of some important ones.

12.1 Floor and ceiling functions

To begin with, the floor function is a function from R to Z which

assigns to each real number x, the largest integer which is less than y
3
or equal to x. We denote the floor function by b x c. So b x c = n means
n ∈ Z and n ≤ x < n + 1. For example, b4.2c = 4, and b7c = 2

7. Notice that for any integer n, bnc = n. Be a little careful with 1

negatives: bπ c = 3, but b−π c = −4. A dual function is denoted d x e,
where d x e = n means n ∈ Z and n ≥ x > n − 1. This is the ceiling −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x

function. For example, d4.2e = 5 and d−4.2e = −4. −1

The graph (in the college algebra sense!) of the floor function −2
appears in figure 12.1.
−3

−4

12.2 Fractional part

Figure 12.1: Floor function

The fractional part1 of a number x ≥ 0 is denoted f rac( x ) and

1
This is the Mathematica and Wol-
equals x − b x c. For numbers x ≥ 0, the fractional part of x is just fram/Alpha definition. Often, the
Graham definition is used:
what would be expected: the stuff following the decimal point. For
f rac( x ) = x − b x c, for all x.
example, f rac(5.2) = 5.2 − b5.2c = 5.2 − 5 = 0.2. When x is negative
128 math208: discrete mathematics

its fractional part is defined to be f rac( x ) = x − d x e. Hence, we have

 y
2
 x − b x c,

x ≥ 0,
f rac( x ) = 1
 x − d x e,

x < 0.
0
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
For example, f rac(−5.2) = −5.2 − d−5.2e = −5.2 − (−5) = −0.2 −1
In plain English, to determine the fractional part of a number x, take −2
the stuff after the decimal point and keep the sign of the number. The
Figure 12.2: Fractional part function
graph of the fractional part function is shown in figure 12.2.
y
3

12.3 Integral part 2

For any real number x its integral part is defined to be x − f rac( x ). 1

The integral part can equivalently be defined by

x
 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
 b x c,

x ≥ 0, −1
[x] =
 d x e,

x < 0. −2

The integral part of x is denoted by [ x ], or, sometimes, by int( x ). −3

In words, the integral part of x is found by discarding everything

following the decimal (at least if we agree not to end decimals with
an infinite string of 9’s such as 2.9999 · · · ). The graph of the integral Figure 12.3: Integral part function

part function is displayed in figure 12.3.

12.4 Power functions

The power functions are familiar from college algebra. They are
functions of the form f ( x ) = x2 , f ( x ) = x3 , f ( x ) = x4 , and so on. By
extension, f ( x ) = x a , where a is any constant greater than or equal to
1 will be called a power function.
For any set X, the unit power function 1X ( x ) = x for all x ∈ X is
called the identity function.

12.5 Exponential functions

Exchanging the roles of the variable and the constant in the power
functions leads to a whole class of interesting functions, those of
 special functions 129

the form f : R → R, where f ( x ) = a x , and 0 < a. Such a func-

tion f is called the base a exponential function. The function is not
very interesting when a = 1. Also if 0 < b < 1, then the function
1 1
g( x ) = b x = , where f ( x ) = a x , and a = > 1. So we may focus
f (x) b y = 2x
on a > 1. In fact the most important values for a are 2, e and 10. The 10

number e ≈ 2.718281828459... is called the natural base, but that story

belongs to calculus. Base 2 is the usual base for computer science. 5
y = log2 ( x )

Engineers are most interested in base 10, while mathematicians often

use the natural exponential function, e x .
−5 5 10

−5
12.6 Logarithmic functions

By graphing the function f : R → (0, ∞) defined by y = f ( x ) = e x

Figure 12.4: 2x and log2 ( x ) functions
we can see that it is bijective. We denote the inverse function f −1 ( x )
by ln x and call it the natural log function. Since these are inverse
functions we have

eln a = a, ∀ a > 0 and ln(eb ) = b, ∀b ∈ R.

As a consequence a x = (eln a ) x = e(ln a)· x = e x ln a is determined as

the composition of y = (ln a) x by the natural exponential function.
So every exponential function is invertible with inverse denoted as
loga x, the base a logarithmic function. Besides the natural log, ln x,
we often write lg x for the base 2 logarithmic function, and log x with
no subscript to denote the base 10 logarithmic function.

12.7 Laws of logarithms

The basic facts needed for manipulating exponential and logarithmic

functions are the laws of exponents.

Theorem 12.1 (Laws of Exponents). For a, b, c ∈ R, ab+c = ab · ac ,

abc = ( ab )c and ac bc = ( ab)c .

From the laws of exponents, we can derive the

Theorem 12.2 (Laws of Logarithms). For a, b, c > 0, loga bc = loga b +

loga c, and loga (bc ) = c loga b.
130 math208: discrete mathematics

Proof. We rely on the fact that all exponential and logarithmic functions
are one-to-one. Hence, we have that

aloga bc = bc = aloga b aloga c = aloga b+loga c ,

implies
loga bc = loga b + loga c.

Similarly, the second identity follows from

c
aloga b = bc = ( aloga b )c = ac loga b .

♣
1
Notice that loga = loga b−1 = − loga b.
b
Calculators typically have buttons for logs base e and base 10. If
loga b is needed for a base different from e and 10, it can be com-
puted in a roundabout way. Suppose we need to find c = loga b. In
other words, we need the number c such that ac = b. Taking the ln of
both sides of that equation we get

ac = b

ln ( ac ) = ln b

c ln a = ln b
ln b
c=
ln a

Hence, we have the general relation between logarithms as follows.

ln x
Corollary 12.3. So, we have loga ( x ) = ln a .

ln 100
Example 12.4. For example, we see that log2 100 = ln 2 ≈ 6.643856.
 special functions 131

12.8 Exercises

Exercise 12.1. In words, b x c is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

Complete the sentence: In words,d x e is the smallest . . . . . . .

Exercise 12.2. Draw a (college algebra) graph of f ( x ) = d x e.

Exercise 12.3. Draw a (college algebra) graph of f ( x ) = b2x − 1c.

Exercise 12.4. Draw a (college algebra) graph of f ( x ) = 2b x − 1c.

x3
Exercise 12.5. Let f ( x ) = 18x and let g( x ) = . Sketch the graphs of
2
f and g for x ≥ 1 on the same set of axes. Notice that the graph g is lower
then the graph of f when x = 1, but it is above the graph of f when x = 9.
Where does g cross the graph of f (in other words, where does g catch up
with f )?

Exercise 12.6. Let f ( x ) = 4x5 and let g( x ) = 2x . For values of x ≥ 1 it

appears that the graph of g is lower than the graph of f . Does g ever catch
up with f , or does f always stay ahead of g?

Exercise 12.7. The x y button on your calculator is broken. Show how can
√
you approximate 2 2 with your calculator anyhow.
132 math208: discrete mathematics

12.9 Problems

5
Problem 12.1. Write ln 5 − 4 ln 3 as a single logarithm.
2
Problem 12.2. Draw the college algebra style graph of f ( x ) = e x+3 − 1.

Problem 12.3. Let f ( x ) = 2x3 and g( x ) = 3x . Notice that f (1) < g(1)
and f (2) = g(2). Does g ever catch up with f again, or does f always stay
ahead of g?

Problem 12.4. Write lg 1 + lg 2 + lg 3 + lg 4 + lg 5 + lg 6 as a single

logarithm.
n
Problem 12.5. Write ∑ lg n as a single logarithm.
k =1
13
Sequences and Summation

A sequence is a list of numbers in a specific order. For example,

the positive integers 1, 2, 3, · · · is a sequence, as is the list 4, 3, 3, 5,
4, 4, 3, 5, 5, 4 of the number of letters in the English words of the ten
digits in order zero, one, · · · , nine. Actually, the first is an example
of an infinite sequence, the second is a finite sequence. The first se-
quence goes on forever; there is no last number. The second sequence
eventually comes to a stop. In fact the second sequence has only ten
items. A term of a sequence is one of the numbers that appears in
the sequence. The first term is the first number in the list, the second
term is the second number in the list, and so on.

13.1 Specifying sequences

A more general way to think of a sequence is as a function from

some subset of Z having a least member (in most cases either { 0, 1, 2, · · · }
or { 1, 2, · · · }) with codomain some arbitrary set. In most mathemat- Computer science texts use the former
and elementary math application texts
ics courses the codomain will be a set of numbers, but that isn’t nec-
use the later. Mathematicians use any
essary. For example, consider the finite sequence of initial letters of such well-ordered domain set.
the words in the previous paragraph: a, s, i, a, l, o, n, · · · , a, s, o. If the
letter L is used to denote the function that forms this sequence, then
L(1) = a, L(2) = s, and so on.
134 math208: discrete mathematics

13.1.1 Defining a Sequence With a Formula

The examples of sequences given so far were described in words, but

there are other ways to tell what objects appear in the sequence. One
way is with a formula. For example, let s(n) = n2 , for n = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
As the values 1, 2, 3 and so on are plugged into s(n) in succession,
the infinite sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, · · · is built up. It is traditional
to write sn (or tn , etc) instead of s(n) when describing the terms of
a sequence, so the formula above would usually be seen as sn = n2 .
Read that as s sub n equals n2 . When written this way, the n in the sn
is called a subscript or index. The subscript of s173 is 173.

Example 13.1. What is the 50th term of the sequence defined by the formula
j+1
sj = , where j = 1, 2, 3, . . .? We see that
j+2

51
s50 = .
52

Example 13.2. What is the 50th term of the sequence defined by the formula
k+1
tk = , where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .? Since the indicies start at 0, the 50th
k+2
term will be t49 :
50
t49 = .
51

13.1.2 Defining a Sequence by Suggestion

A sequence can also be specified by listing an initial portion of the

sequence, and trust the reader to successfully perform the mind
reading trick of guessing how the sequence is to continue based on
the pattern suggested by those initial terms. For example, consider
the sequence 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, · · · . The symbol · · · means and so on.
In other words, you should be able to figure out the way the sequence
will continue. This method of specifying a sequence is dangerous of
course. For instance, the number of terms sufficient for one person
to spot the pattern might not be enough for another person. Also,
maybe there are several different obvious ways to continue the pattern

Example 13.3. What is the next term in the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7 · · · ? One

possible answer is 9, since it looks like we are listing the positive odd inte-
gers in increasing order. But another possible answer is 8: maybe we are
 sequences and summation 135

listing each positive integer with an e in its name. You can probably think of
other ways to continue the sequence.

In fact, for any finite list of initial terms, there are always infinitely
many more or less natural ways to continue the sequence. A reason
can always be provided for absolutely any number to be the next
in the sequence. However, there will typically be only one or two
obvious simple choices for continuing a sequence after five or six
terms.

13.2 Arithmetic sequences

The simple pattern suggested by the initial terms 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, · · ·
is that the sequence begins with a 7, and each term is produced by
adding 3 to the previous term. This is an important type of sequence.
The general form is s1 = a (a is just some specific number), and, from
the second term on, each new term is produced by adding d to the
previous term (where d is some fixed number). In the last example,
a = 7 and d = 3. A sequence of this form is called an arithmetic
sequence. The number d is called the common difference, which
makes sense since d is the difference of any two consecutive terms
of the sequence. It is possible to write down a formula for sn in this
case. After all, to compute sn we start with the number a, and begin
adding d’s to it. Adding one d gives s2 = a + d, adding two d’s gives
s3 = a + 2d, and so on. For sn we will add n − 1 d’s to the a, and so
we see sn = a + (n − 1)d. In the numerical example above, the 5th
term of the sequence ought to be s5 = 7 + 4 · 3 = 19, and sure enough
it is. The 407th term of the sequence is s407 = 7 + 406 · 3 = 1225.

Example 13.4. The 1st term of an arithmetic sequence is 11 and the the 8th
term is 81. What is a formula for the nth term?
We know a1 = 11 and a8 = 81. Since a8 = a1 + 7d, where d is
the common difference, we get the equation 81 = 11 + 7d. So d = 10.
We can now write down a formula for the terms of this sequence: an =
11 + (n − 1)10 = 1 + 10n. Checking, we see this formula does give the
required values for a1 and a8 .
136 math208: discrete mathematics

13.3 Geometric sequences

For an arithmetic sequence we added the same quantity to get from

one term of the sequence to the next. If instead of adding we multi-
ply each term by the same thing to produce the next term the result
is called a geometric sequence.

Example 13.5. Let s1 = 2, and suppose we multiply by 3 to get from one

term to the next. The sequence we build now looks like 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, · · · ,
each term being 3 times as large as the previous term.

In general, if s1 = a, and, for n ≥ 1, each new term is r times the

preceeding term, then the formula for the nth term of the sequence
is sn = ar n−1 , which is reasoned out just as for the formula for the
arithmetic sequence above. The quantity r in the geometric sequence
is called the common ratio since it is the ratio of any term in the
sequence to its predecessor (assuming r 6= 0 at any rate).

13.4 Summation notation

A sequence of numbers is an ordered list of numbers. A summation

(or just sum) is a sequence of numbers added up. A sum with n
terms (that is, with n numbers added up) will be denoted by Sn
typically. Thus if we were dealing with sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, · · · , 2n −
1, · · · , then S3 = 1 + 3 + 5, and Sn = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1).
For the arithmetic sequence a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, · · · , we see Sn =
a + ( a + d) + ( a + 2d) + · · · + ( a + (n − 1)d).
It gets a little awkward writing out such extended sums and so
a compact way to indicate a sum, called summation notation, is
introduced. For the sum of the first 3 odd positive integers above
3
we would write ∑ (2j − 1). The Greek letter sigma (Σ) is supposed
j =1
to be reminiscent of the word summation. The j is called the index
of summation and the number on the bottom of the Σ specifies the
starting value of j while the number above the Σ gives the ending
value of j. The idea is that we replace j in turn by 1, 2 and 3, in each
case computing the value of the expression following the Σ, and then
add up the terms produced. In this example, when j = 1, 2j − 1 = 1,
 sequences and summation 137

when j = 2, 2j − 1 = 3 and finally, when j = 3, 2j − 1 = 5. We’ve

3
reached the stopping value, so we have ∑ (2j − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9.
j =1
Notice that the index of summation takes only integer values. If it
starts at 6, then next it is replaced by 7, and so on. If it starts at −11,
then next it is replaced by −10, and then by −9, and so on.
The symbol used for the index of summation does not have to be
j. Other traditional choices for the index of summation are i, k, m and
n. So for example,

4
∑ ( j2 + 2) = 2 + 3 + 6 + 11 + 18,
j =0

and
4
∑ (i2 + 2) = 2 + 3 + 6 + 11 + 18,
i =0

and
4
∑ (m2 + 2) = 2 + 3 + 6 + 11 + 18,
m =0

and so on. Even though a different index letter is used, the formulas
produce the same sequence of numbers to be added up in each case,
so the sums are the same.
Also, the starting and ending points can for the index can be
changed without changing the value of the sum provided care is
taken to change the formula appropriately. Notice that

3 2
∑ (3k − 1) = ∑ (3k + 2)
k =1 k =0

In fact, if the terms are written out, we see

3
∑ (3k − 1) = 2 + 5 + 8
k =1

and
2
∑ (3k + 2) = 2 + 5 + 8
k =0

Example 13.6. We see that

5
127
∑ 2m = 2−1 + 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 =
2
.
m=−1
138 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 13.7. We find that

6
∑ 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8.
n =3

13.5 Formulas for arithmetic and geometric summations

There are two important formulas for finding sums that are worth
remembering. The first is the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic
sequence.

Sn = a + ( a + d) + ( a + 2d) + · · · + ( a + (n − 1)d).

Here is a clever trick that can be used to find a simple formula for the
quantity Sn : the list of numbers is added up twice, once from left to
right, the second time from right to left. When the terms are paired
up, it is clear the sum is 2Sn = n[ a + ( a + (n − 1)d)]. A diagram will
make the idea clearer:

a +( a + d) + ( a + 2d) + · · · + ( a + ( n − 1) d )
+( a + (n − 1)d) +( a + (n − 2)d) + ( a + (n − 3)d) +···+ a
(2a + (n − 1)d) +(2a + (n − 1)d) + (2a + (n − 1)d) + · · · + (2a + (n − 1)d)

The bottom row contains n identical terms, each equal to 2a +

(n − 1)d, and so 2Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d)]. Dividing by 2 gives the
important formula, for n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., An easy way to remember the formula
is to think of the quantity in the paren-
2a + (n − 1)d a + ( a + ( n − 1) d )
   
theses as the average of the first and last
Sn = n =n . (13.1)
2 2 terms to be added, and the coefficient,
n, as the number of terms to be added.
Example 13.8. The first 20 terms of the arithmetic sequence 5, 9, 13, · · · is
found to be 
5 + 81
S20 = 20 = 860.
2
For a geometric sequence, a little algebra produces a formula for
the sum of the first n terms of the sequence. The resulting formula
for Sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ar n−1 , is

a − ar n 1 − rn
 
Sn = =a , if r 6= 1.
1−r 1−r
 sequences and summation 139

Example 13.9. The sum of the first ten terms of the geometric sequence
2, 32 , 29 , · · · would be Notice that the numerator in this case
 10
1 is the difference of the first term we
2−2 3
S10 =   have to add in and the term immediately
1
1− 3
following the last term we have to add
in.
The expression for S10 can be simplified as
 10   10    10 
1 1 1
2−2 3 1 − 3 1 − 3

1

1
S10 = = 2    = 2  = 3 1 − 10 = 3 − 9
   
2
 
1− 1
1− 3 1
3
3 3
3

Here is the algebra that shows the geometric sum formula is cor-
rect.
Let Sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ar n−1 . Multiply both sides of that
equation by r to get

rSn = r ( a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ar n−1 ) = ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + ar n−1 + ar n

Now subtract, and observe that most terms will cancel:

Sn − rSn = ( a + ar + ar2 + · · · + ar n−1 ) − ( ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + ar n−1 + ar n )

= a + ( ar + ar2 + · · · + ar n−1 ) − ( ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + ar n−1 ) − ar n

= a − ar n

So Sn (1 − r ) = a − ar n . Assuming r 6= 1, we can divide both sides of

that equation by 1 − r, producing the promised formula1 : 1
Find a formula for Sn when r = 1.

a − ar n 1 − rn
 
Sn = =a , if r 6= 1. (13.2)
1−r 1−r
140 math208: discrete mathematics

13.6 Exercises

Exercise 13.1. Guess the next term in the sequence 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, · · · .

What’s another possible answer?

Exercise 13.2. What is the 100th term of the arithmetic sequence with
initial term 2 and common difference 6?

Exercise 13.3. The 10th term of an arithmetic sequence is −4 and the 16th
term is 47. What is the 11th term?

Exercise 13.4. What is the 5th term of the geometric sequence with initial
term 6 and common ratio 2?

Exercise 13.5. The first two terms of a geometric sequence are g1 = 5 and
g2 = −11. What is the g5 ?

Exercise 13.6. Which sequences are both a geometric sequence also an

arithmetic sequence?

Exercise 13.7. Evaluate ∑4j=1 ( j2 + 1).

Exercise 13.8. Evaluate ∑4k=−2 (2k − 3).

Exercise 13.9. What is the sum of the first 100 terms of the arithmetic
sequence with initial term 2 and common difference 6?

Exercise 13.10. What is the sum of the first five terms of the geometric
sequence with initial term 6 and common ratio 2?

i
Exercise 13.11. Evaluate ∑4i=0 − 32 .
1 1 1 1
Exercise 13.12. Express in summation notation: + + +···+ ,
2 4 6 2n
the sum of the reciprocals of the first n even positive integers.
 sequences and summation 141

13.7 Problems

Problem 13.1. Guess the next term in the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 · · · .

What’s another possible answer?

Problem 13.2. Guess the next term in the sequence 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 4, 3 · · · .

Problem 13.3. A sequence begins 1, 3, 9, 15. Could it be an arithmetic

sequence? Could it be a geometric sequence?

Problem 13.4. What is the 20th term of the arithmetic sequence with initial
term 4 and common difference 5?

Problem 13.5. The 8th term of an arithmetic sequence is 20 and the 12th
term is 40. What is the 25th term?

Problem 13.6. What is the 7th term of the geometric sequence with initial
term 3 and common ratio 4?

Problem 13.7. Two terms of a geometric sequence are g3 = 2 and g5 = 72.

There two possible values for g4 . What are those two values?

Problem 13.8. A geometric sequence has initial term 3, and common ration
7. Determine the smallest value of n so that the nth term of the sequence is
more that one million.

Problem 13.9. Evaluate ∑4j=1 ( j + 1)2 .

Problem 13.10. Evaluate ∑4k=−2 (2k + 3).

Problem 13.11. What is the sum of the first 100 terms of the arithmetic
sequence with initial term 2 and common difference 6?

Problem 13.12. What is the sum of the first four terms of the geometric
sequence with initial term 3 and common ratio −2?

Problem 13.13. What is the sum of the first four thousand terms of the
geometric sequence with initial term 3 and common ratio −1?

Problem 13.14. You have two parents, and four grandparents, and eight
great grandparents, for a total fourteen ancestors three generations back.
How many ancestors do you have 50 generations back? (A generation is
generally taken to be about 30 years, so 50 generations is about 1500 years.
142 math208: discrete mathematics

That would take us back to about the time the decimal system was invented
in India. How can you explain the obviously impossible answer to this
problem?)

3 i
Problem 13.15. Evaluate ∑4i=0


2 .

1 1 1
Problem 13.16. Express in summation notation: + + + ··· +
1 3 5
1
, the sum of the reciprocals of the first n odd positive integers.
2n − 1
14
Recursively Defined Sequences

Besides specifying the terms of a sequence with a formula, such

as an = n2 , an alternative is to give an initial term, usually something
like b1 , (or the first few terms, b1 , b2 ,b3 . . . ) of a sequence, and then
give a rule for building new terms from old ones. In this case, we say
the sequence has been defined recursively.

Example 14.1. For example, suppose b1 = 1, and for n > 1, bn = 2bn−1 .

Then the 1st term of the sequence will be b1 = 1 of course. To determine
b2 , we apply the rule b2 = 2b2−1 = 2b1 = 2 · 1 = 2. Next, applying
the rule again, b3 = 2b3−1 = 2b2 = 2 · 2 = 4. Next b4 = 2b3 = 8.
Continuing in this fashion, we can form as many terms of the sequence as
we wish: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, · · · . In this case, it is easy to guess a formula for
the terms of the sequence: bn = 2n−1 .

In general, to define a sequence recursively, (1) we first give one or

more initial terms (this information is called the initial condition(s)
for the sequence), and then (2) we give a rule for forming new terms
from previous terms (this rule is called the recursive formula).

Example 14.2. Consider the sequence defined recursively by a1 = 0, and,

for n ≥ 2, an = 2an−1 + 1. The five terms of this sequence are

0, 2 · 0 + 1 = 1, 2 · 1 + 1 = 3, 2 · 3 + 1 = 7, 2 · 7 + 1 = 15 ···

In words, we can describe this sequence by saying the initial term is 0

and each new term is one more than twice the previous term. Again, it is
144 math208: discrete mathematics

easy to guess a formula that produces the terms of this sequence: an =

2n−1 − 1.

Such a formula for the terms of a sequence is called a closed form

formula to distinguish it from a recursive formula.

14.1 Closed form formulas

There is one big advantage to knowing a closed form formula for

a sequence. In example 14.2 above, the closed form formula for the
sequence tells us immediately that a101 = 2100 − 1, but using the
recursive formula to calculate a101 means we have to calculate in turn
a1 , a2 , · · · a100 , making 100 computations. The closed form formula
allows us to jump directly to the term we are interested in. The re-
cursive formula forces us to compute 99 additional terms we don’t
care about in order to get to the one we want. With such a major
drawback why even introduce recursively defined sequences at all?
The answer is that there are many naturally occurring sequences
that have simple recursive definitions but have no reasonable closed
form formula, or even no closed form formula at all in terms of fa-
miliar operations. In such cases, a recursive definition is better than
nothing.

14.1.1 Pattern recognition

There are methods for determining closed form formulas for some
special types of recursively defined sequences. Such techniques are
studied later in chapter 35. For now we are only interested in under-
standing recursive definitions, and determining some closed form
formulas by the method of pattern recognition (aka guessing).

14.1.2 The Fibonacci Sequence

The most famous recursively defined sequence is due to Fibonacci.

There are two initial conditions: f 0 = 0 and f 1 = 1. The recursive The index starts at zero, by tradition.

rule is, for n ≥ 2, f n = f n−1 + f n−2 . In words, each new term is the
sum of the two terms that precede it. So, the Fibonacci sequence
 recursively defined sequences 145

begins

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, · · ·

There is a closed form formula for the Fibonacci Sequence, but it is

not at all easy to guess:
√ !n √ !n
1 1+ 5 1 1− 5
fn = √ −√
5 2 5 2

14.1.3 The Sequence of Factorials

For a positive integer n, the symbol n! is read n factorial and it is

defined to be the product of all the positive integers from 1 to n. For example, 5! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 = 120.

In order to make many formulas work out nicely, the value of 0! is

defined to be 1.
A recursive formula can be given for n!. The initial term is 0! = 1,
and the recursive rule is, for n ≥ 1, n! = n[(n − 1)!]. Hence, the first
few factorial values are:

1! = 1[0!] = 1 · 1 = 1,

2! = 2[1!] = 2 · 1 = 2,

3! = 3[2!] = 3 · 2 = 6,

4! = 4[3!] = 4 · 6 = 24,
..
.

We sometimes write a general formula for the factorial as Why is this not a closed form formula?

n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · · · n, for n > 0.

The sequence of factorial grows very quickly. Here are the first few
terms:

1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800, 39916800, 479001600, 6227020800, · · ·
146 math208: discrete mathematics

14.2 Arithmetic sequences by recursion

Consider the terms of an arithmetic sequence with initial term a and

common difference d:

a, ( a + d), ( a + 2d), · · · , ( a + (n − 1)d), · · · .

These terms may clearly be found by adding d to the current term to

get the next. That is, the arithmetic sequence may be defined recur-
sively as (1) a1 = a, and (2) for n ≥ 2, an = an−1 + d.
 recursively defined sequences 147

14.3 Exercises

Exercise 14.1. List the first five terms of the sequence defined recursively by
a1 = 3, and, for n ≥ 2, an = an−1 (2 + an−1 ).

Exercise 14.2. List the first seven terms of the sequence defined recursively
by a0 = 1, a1 = 1, and, for n ≥ 2, an = 1 + an−1 an−2 .

Exercise 14.3. List the first ten terms of the sequence defined recursively by
a0 = 1, and, for n ≥ 1, an = 1 + ab n c .
2

Exercise 14.4. List the first ten terms of the sequence defined recursively
by a0 = 1, and for n ≥ 1, an = 2n − an−1 − 1, and guess a closed form
formula for an .

Exercise 14.5. The first few terms of a sequence are

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, 1113213211.

There is an easy recursive rule for building the terms of this sequence. Guess
the next term.

Exercise 14.6. Let d be a fixed real number. For a positive integer n, the
symbol nd means the sum of n d’s. Give a recursive definition of nd analo-
gous to the definition of n! given in this chapter.
148 math208: discrete mathematics

14.4 Problems

Problem 14.1. List the first five terms of the sequence defined recursively
by a1 = 2, and, for n ≥ 2, an = a2n−1 − 1.

Problem 14.2. List the first five terms of the sequence defined recursively
by a1 = 2, and, for n ≥ 2, an = 3an−1 + 2. Guess a closed form formula Hint: This is a lot like example 14.2.

for the sequence.

Problem 14.3. List the first five terms of the sequence with initial terms
u0 = 2 and u1 = 5, and, for n ≥ 2, un = 5un−1 − 6un−2 . Guess a closed Hint: The terms are simple combina-
tions of powers of 2 and powers of
form formula for the sequence.
3.

Problem 14.4. Let r be a fixed real number different from 0. For a positive
integer n, the symbol r n means the product of n r’s. For convenience, r0 is
defined to be 1. Give a recursive definition of r n analogous to the definition
of n! given in this chapter.

Problem 14.5. Give a recursive definition of the geometric sequence with

initial term 3 and common ratio 2.

Problem 14.6. Generalize problem 5: give a recursive definition of the

geometric sequence with initial term a and common ratio r.
15
Recursively Defined Sets

Two different ways of defining a set have been discussed. We can

describe a set by the roster method, listing all the elements that are to
be members of the set, or we can describe a set using set-builder no-
tation by giving a predicate that the elements of the set are to satisfy.
Here we consider defining sets in another natural way: recursion.

15.1 Recursive definitions of sets

Recursive definitions can also be used to build sets of objects. The

spirit is the same as for recursively defined sequences: give some ini-
tial conditions and a rule for building new objects from ones already
known.

Example 15.1. For instance, here is a way to recursively define the set
of positive even integers, E. First the initial condition: 2 ∈ E. Next the
recursive portion of the definition: If x ∈ E, then x + 2 ∈ E. Here is what
we can deduce using these two rules. First of course, we see 2 ∈ E since
that is the given initial condition. Next, since we know 2 ∈ E, the recursive
portion of the definition, with x being played by 2, says 2 + 2 ∈ E, so that
now we know 4 ∈ E. Since 4 ∈ E, the recursive portion of the definition,
with x now being played by 4, says 4 + 2 ∈ E, so that now we know 6 ∈ E.
Continuing in this way, it gets easy to believe that E really is the set of
positive even integers.
150 math208: discrete mathematics

Actually, there is a little more to do with example 15.1. The claim

is that E consists of exactly all the positive even integers. In other
words, we also need to make sure that no other things appear in E
besides the positive even integers. Could 312211 somehow have slith-
ered into the set E? To verify that such a thing does not happen, we
need one more fact about recursively defined sets. The only elements
that appear in a set defined recursively are those that make it on the
basis of either the initial condition or the recursive portion of the def-
inition. No elements of the set appear, as if by magic, from nowhere.
In this case, it is easy to see that no odd integers sneak into the
set. For if so, there would be a smallest odd integer in the set and the
only way it could be elected to the set is if the integer two less than it
were in the set. But that would mean a yet smaller odd integer would
be in the set, a contradiction. We won’t go into that sort of detail for
the following examples in general. We’ll just consider the topic at the
intuitive level only.

Example 15.2. Give a recursive definition of the set, S, of all nonnegative

integer powers of 2.
Initial condition: 1 ∈ S. Recursive rule: If x ∈ S, then 2x ∈ S.
Applying the initial condition and then the recursive rule repeatedly gives
the elements:

1 2·1 = 2 2·2 = 4 2·4 = 8 2 · 8 = 16

and so on, and that looks like the set of nonnegative powers of 2.

Example 15.3. A set, S, is defined recursively by

(1) (initial conditions) 1 ∈ S and 2 ∈ S, and
(2) (recursive rule) If x ∈ S, then x + 3 ∈ S. Describe the integers in S.
The plan is to use the initial conditions and the recursive rule to build
elements of S until we can guess a description of the integers in S. From the
initial conditions we know 1 ∈ S and 2 ∈ S. Applying the recursive rule
to each of those we get 4, 5 ∈ S, and using the recursive rule on those gives
7, 8 ∈ S, and so on.
So we get S = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, · · · } and it’s apparent that S
consists of of the positive integers that are not multiples of 3.
 recursively defined sets 151

15.2 Sets of strings

Recursively defined sets appear in certain computer science courses

where they are used to describe sets of strings. To form a string, we
begin with an alphabet which is a set of symbols, traditionally de-
noted by Σ. For example Σ = { a, b, c} is an alphabet of three symbols,
and Σ = {!, @, #, $, %, &, X, 5} is an alphabet of eight symbols. A
string over the alphabet Σ is any finite sequence of symbols from
the alphabet. For example aaba is a string of length four over the
alphabet Σ = { a, b, c}, and !!5X$$5@@ is a length nine string over
Σ = {!, @, #, $, %, &, X, 5}. There is a special string over any alphabet
denoted by λ called the empty string. It contains no symbols, and
has length 0.

Example 15.4. A set, S, of strings over the alphabet Σ = { a, b} is given

recursively by (1) λ ∈ S, and (2) If x ∈ S, then axb ∈ S. Describe the
strings in S.
The notation axb means write down the string a followed by the string
x followed by the string b. So if x = aaba then axb = aaabab. Let’s
experiment with the recursive rule a bit, and then guess a description for the
strings in S. Starting with the initial condition we see λ ∈ S. Applying the
recursive rule to λ gives aλb = ab ∈ S. Applying the recursive rule to ab
gives aabb ∈ S, and applying the recursive rule to aabb shows aaabbb ∈ S.
It’s easy to guess the nature of the strings in S: Any finite string of a’s
followed by the same number of b’s.

Example 15.5. Give a recursive definition of the set S of strings over Σ =

{ a, b, c} which do not contain adjacent a’s. For example ccabbbabba is
acceptable, but abcbaabaca is not.
For the initial conditions we will use (1) λ ∈ S, and a ∈ S. If we have a
string with no adjacent a’s, we can extend it by adding b or c to either end.
But we’ll need to be careful when adding more a’s. For the recursive rule we
will use (2) if x ∈ S, then bx, xb, cx, xc ∈ S and abx, xba, acx, xca ∈ S.
Notice how the string a had to be put into S in the initial conditions since
the recursive rule won’t allow us to form that string from λ.

Here is different answer to the same question. It’s a little harder

to dream up, but the rules are much cleaner. The idea is that if we
152 math208: discrete mathematics

take two strings with no adjacent a’s, we can put them together and
be sure to get a new string with no adjacent a’s provided we stick
either b or c between them. So, we can define the set recursively by
(1) λ ∈ S and a ∈ S, and (2) if x, y ∈ S, then xby, xcy ∈ S.

Example 15.6. Give a recursive definition of the set S of strings over Σ =

{ a, b} which contain more a’s than b’s.
The idea is that we can build longer strings from smaller ones by (1)
sticking two such strings together, or (2) sticking two such strings together
along with a b before the first one, between the two strings, or after the last
one. That leads to the following recursive definition: (1) a ∈ S and (2) if
x, y ∈ S then xy, bxy, xby, xyb ∈ S. That looks a little weird since in the
recursive rule we added b, but since x and y each have more a’s than b’s, the
two together will have a least two more a’s than b’s, so it’s safe to add b in
the recursive rule.
Starting with the initial condition, and then applying the recursive rule
repeatedly, we form the following elements of S:

a, aa, baa, aba, aab, aaa, baaa, abaa, aaba, baaa, · · ·

Example 15.7. A set, S, of strings over the alphabet Σ = { a, b} is defined

recursively by the rules (1) a ∈ S, and (2) if x ∈ S, then xbx ∈ S. Describe
the strings in S.
Experimenting we find the following elements of S:

a, aba, abababa, abababababababa, · · ·

It looks like S is the set of strings beginning with a followed by a certain

number of ba’s. If we look at the number of ba’s in each string, we can see a
pattern: 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, · · · , which we recognize as being the numbers that
are one less than the positive integer powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, · · · ). So it
appears S is the set of strings which consisting of a followed by 2n − 1 pairs
ab for some integer n ≥ 0.
 recursively defined sets 153

15.3 Exercises

Exercise 15.1. The set S is described recursively by (1) 1 ∈ S, and (2) if

n ∈ S, then n + 1 ∈ S.
To what familiar set is S equal?

Exercise 15.2. Give a recursive definition of the set of positive integers that
end with the digits 17.

Exercise 15.3. Give a recursive definition of the set of positive integers that
are not multiples of 4.

Exercise 15.4. Describe the strings in the set S of strings over the alphabet
Σ = { a, b, c} defined recursively by (1) λ ∈ S and (2) if x ∈ S, then
axbc ∈ S.

Exercise 15.5. Describe the strings in the set S of strings over the alphabet
Σ = { a, b, c} defined recursively by (1) c ∈ S and (2) if x ∈ S then ax ∈ S
and bx ∈ S and xc ∈ S.

Exercise 15.6. A palindrome is a string that reads the same in both

directions. For example, aabaa is a palindrome of length five and babccbab A classic palindrome:
A man, a plan, a canal: panama.
is a palindrome of length eight. The empty string is also a palindrome. Give
a recursive definition of the set of palindromes over the alphabet
Σ = { a, b, c}.
 154 math208: discrete mathematics

15.4 Problems

Problem 15.1. A set S of integers is defined recursively by the rules:

(1) 1 ∈ S, and (2) If n ∈ S, then 2n + 1 ∈ S.

(1) Is 15 ∈ S?

(2) Is 65 ∈ S?

Explain your answers.

Problem 15.2. A set of integers is defined recursively by the rules (1)

0 ∈ S, and (2) if n ∈ S, then 2n + 2 ∈ S. Give a simple description of the
integers in S.

Problem 15.3. Give a recursive definition of the set

{3n − 3 | n a positive integer} = {0, 6, 24, 78, 240, 726, 2184, . . .}.

Problem 15.4. A set, S, of strings over the alphabet Σ = { a, b, c} is defined

recursively by (1) a ∈ S and (2) if x ∈ S then bxc ∈ S. List all the strings
in S of length seven or less.

Problem 15.5. A set, S, of positive integers is defined recursively by the

rule:
(1) 1 ∈ S, and (2) If n ∈ S, then 2n − 1 ∈ S. List all the elements in the
set S.

Problem 15.6. Give a recursive definition of the set of positive integers that
end with the digit 1.

Problem 15.7. Give a recursive definition of the set of strings over the
alphabet Σ = { a, b, c} of the form aaa · · · abccc · · · c. More carefully: zero
or more a’s followed by a single b followed by the same number of c’s as a’s.

Problem 15.8. Describe the strings in the set S of strings over the alphabet
Σ = { a, b, c} defined recursively by (1) a ∈ S and (2) if x ∈ S then ax ∈ S
and xb ∈ S and xc ∈ S.

Hint: Your description should be a sentence that provides an easy test

to check if a given string is in the set or not. An example of such a descrip-
tion is: S consists of all strings of a’s, b’s, and c’s, with more a’s than b’s.
 recursively defined sets 155

That isn’t a correct description since abb is in S and doesn’t have more a’s
than b’s, and also baac isn’t in S, but does have more a’s than b’s. So that
attempted description is really terrible. One way to do this problem is to
use the rules to build a bunch of strings in S until a suitable description be-
comes obvious. Alternatively, just thinking about the recursive rules might
be sufficient for you to see a simple description of the strings in S.

Problem 15.9. A set S of ordered pairs of integers is defined recursively

by (1) (1, 1) ∈ S, and (2) if (m, n) ∈ S, then (m + 2, n) ∈ S, and
(m, n + 2) ∈ S, and (m + 1, n + 1) ∈ S. Give a simple description of the
ordered pairs in S.
16
Mathematical Induction

As mentioned earlier, to show that a proposition of the form

∀ x P( x ) is true, it is necessary to check that P(c) is true for every
possible choice of c in the domain of discourse. If that domain is not
too big, it is feasible to check the truth of each P(c) one by one. For
instance, consider the proposition For every page in these notes, the
letter e appears at least once on the page. To express the proposition in
symbolic form we would let the domain of discourse be the set of
pages in these notes, and we would let the predicate E be has an oc-
currence of the letter e, so the proposition becomes ∀ p E( p). The truth
value of this proposition can be determined by the tedious but feasi-
ble task of checking every page of the notes for an e. If a single page
is found with no e’s, that page would constitute a counterexample to
the proposition, and the proposition would be false. Otherwise it is
true.
When the domain of discourse is a finite set, it is, in principle, al-
ways possible to check the truth of a proposition of the form ∀ x P( x )
by checking the members of the domain of discourse one by one. But
that option is no longer available if the domain of discourse is an in-
finite set since no matter how quickly the checks are made there is no
practical way to complete the checks in a finite amount of time. For
example, consider the proposition For every natural number n, n5 − n
ends with a 0.The truth of the proposition could be established by Here the domain of discourse is the set
N = { 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }.
158 math208: discrete mathematics

checking:

05 − 0 = 0 15 − 1 = 0 25 − 2 = 30 35 − 3 = 240

45 − 4 = 1020 55 − 5 = 3120 65 − 6 = 7770 75 − 7 = 16800

85 − 8 = 32760 95 − 9 = 59040 105 − 10 = 99990 115 − 11 = 161040

.. .. .. ..
. . . .

(and so on forever.)

Checking these facts one by one is obviously a hopeless task, and,

of course, just checking a few of them (or even a few billion of them)
will never suffice to prove they are all true. And it is not sufficient to
check a few and say that the facts are all clear. That’s not a proof, it’s
only a suspicion. So verifying the truth of ∀ n (n5 − n) ends with a 0
for domain of discourse N seems tough.

16.1 Mathematical induction

In general, proving a universally quantified statement when the

domain of discourse is an infinite set is a tough nut to crack. But,
in the special case when the domain of discourse is the set N =
{ 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }, there is a technique called mathematical induction
that comes to the rescue.
The method of proof by induction provides a way of checking that
all the statements in the list are true without actually verifying them
one at a time. The process is carried out in two steps. First (the basis
step) we check that the first statement in the list is correct. Next (the
inductive step), we show that if any statement in the list is known
to be correct, then the one following must also be correct. Putting
these two facts together, it ought to appear reasonable that all the
statements in the list are correct. In a way, it’s pretty amazing: we
learn infinitely many statements are true just by checking two facts.
It’s like killing infinitely many birds with two stones.
So, suppose a list of statements, p(0), p(1), p(2), · · · , p(k), p(k +
1) · · · is presented and we want to show they are all true. The plan is
to show two facts:
 mathematical induction 159

(1) p(0) is true, and

(2) for any n ∈ N, p(n) −→ p(n + 1).

We then conclude all the statements in the list are true.

16.2 The principle of mathematical induction

The well ordering property of the positive integers provides the

justification for proof by induction. This property asserts that every
non-empty subset of the natural numbers contains a smallest number.
In fact, given any nonempty set of natural numbers, we can deter-
mine the smallest number in the set by the process of checking to see,
in turn, if 0 is in the set, and, if the answer is no, checking for 1, then
for 2, and so on. Since the set is nonempty, eventually the answer will
be yes, that number is in the set, and in that way, the smallest natural
number in the set will have been found. Now let’s look at the proof
that induction is a valid form of proof. The statement of the theorem
is a little more general than described above. Instead of beginning
with a statement p(0), we allow the list to begin with a statement
p(k) for some integer k (almost always, k = 0 or k = 1 in practice).
This does not have any effect of the concept of induction. In all cases,
we have a list of statements, and we show the first statement is true,
and then we show that if any statement is true, so is the next one.
The particular name for the starting point of the list doesn’t really
matter. It only matters that there is a starting point.

Theorem 16.1 (Principle of Mathematical Induction). Suppose we have

a list of statements p(k), p(k + 1), p(k + 2), · · · , p(n), p(n + 1) · · · .

(1) p(k) is true, and

(2) p(n) −→ p(n + 1) for every n ≥ k,

then all the statements in the list are true.

Proof. The proof will be by contradiction.

Suppose that 1 and 2 are true, but that it is not the case that p(n) is true
for all n ≥ k. Let S = {n|n ≥ k and p(n) is false}, so that S 6= ∅. Since
S is a non-empty set of integers ≥ k it has a least element, say t. So t is the
160 math208: discrete mathematics

smallest positive integer for which p(n) is false. In the ever colorful jargon
of mathematics, t is usually called the minimal criminal.
Since p(k) is true, k ∈
/ S. Therefore t > k. So t − 1 ≥ k. Since t is the
smallest integer ≥ k for which p is false, it must be that p(t − 1) is true.
Now, by part 2, we also know p(t − 1) → p(t) is true. So it must be that
p(t) is true, and that is a contradiction. ♣

16.3 Proofs by induction

Many people find proofs by induction a little bit black-magical at

first, but just keep the goals in mind (namely check [1] the first state-
ment in the list is true, and [2] that if any statement in the list is true,
so is the one that follows it) and the process won’t seem so confusing.
A handy way of viewing mathematical induction is to compare
proving the sequence p(k) ∧ p(k + 1) ∧ p(k + 2) ∧ ... ∧ p(m) ∧ ... to
knocking down a set of dominos set on edge and numbered consecu-
tively k, k + 1, ..... If we want to knock all of the dominos down, which
are numbered k and greater, then we must knock the kth domino
down, and ensure that the spacing of the dominos is such that ev-
ery domino will knock down its successor. If either the spacing is off
(∃m ≥ k with p(m) not implying p(m + 1)), or if we fail to knock
down the kth domino (we do not demonstrate that p(k ) is true), then
there may be dominos left standing. When checking the inductive step,
p(n) → p(n + 1), the statement p(n), is
To discover how to prove the inductive step most people start by
called the inductive hypothesis.
explicitly listing several of the first instances of the inductive hypoth-
esis p(n). Then, look for how to make, in a general way, an argument
from one, or more, instances to the next instance of the hypothesis.
Once an argument is discovered that allows us to advance from the
truth of previous one, or more, instances, that argument, in general
form, becomes the pattern for the proof on the inductive hypothesis.
Let’s examine an example.
 mathematical induction 161

Example 16.2. Let’s prove that, for each positive integer n, the sum of the
n ( n + 1)
first n positive integers is . Here is the list of statements we want
2
to verify:

1(1 + 1)
p (1) : 1= add 2 to both sides, can you make p(2) appear?
2
2(2 + 1)
p (2) : 1+2 = add 3 to both sides, can you make p(3) appear?
2
3(3 + 1)
p (3) : 1+2+3 =
2
..
.
n ( n + 1)
p(n) : 1+2+···+n =
2
(n + 1)((n + 1) + 1)
p ( n + 1) : 1 + 2 + · · · + ( n + 1) =
2
..
.

Once you figure out the general form of the argument1 that takes us from one 1
For this example it will be some
calculation
instance of p(·) to the next, you have form of the inductive argument.

Proof. Basis: Let’s check the first statement in the list,

1(1 + 1)
p (1) : 1 = , is correct. The left-hand side is 1, and the
2
1(1 + 1) 2
right-hand side is = = 1, so the two sides are equal as claimed.
2 2
Inductive Step: Suppose p(n) is true for some integer n ≥ 1. In other
n ( n +1)
words, suppose 1 + 2 + · · · + n = 2 . We need to show p(n + 1) is
(n+1)((n+2)
true. In other words, we need to verify 1 + 2 + · · · + (n + 1) = 2 .
Here are the computations: To prove an equality, the usual strategy
is to start on one side of the equation,
p(n + 1) in this case, obtain the other
1 + 2 + · · · + ( n + 1) = 1 + 2 + · · · + n + ( n + 1)
side. We do this through a series of
n ( n + 1) algebraic manipulations and using the
= + (n + 1) using the inductive hypothesis
2 general induction hypothesis, p(n),
n ( n + 1) 2( n + 1) along the way.
= +
2 2
n ( n + 1) + 2( n + 1)
=
2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
2

as we needed to show. So we conclude all the statements in the list are true.
♣
162 math208: discrete mathematics

16.4 Examples

The next example reproves the useful formula for the sum of the
terms in a geometric sequence. Recall that to form a geometric se-
quence, fix a real number r 6= 1, and list the integer powers of r
starting with r0 = 1: 1, r, r2 , r3 , · · · , r n , · · · . The formula given in the
next example shows the result of adding 1 + r + r2 + · · · r n .
n
r n +1 − 1
Example 16.3. For all n ≥ 0, we have ∑ rk = r−1
, (if r 6= 1). In this example, p(n) is the statement:
k =0 n
r n +1 − 1
Proof (by induction on n:). (We assume r 6= 1.)
p(n) : ∑ rk = r−1
k =0
0
.
Basis: When n = 0 we have ∑ rk = r0 = 1. We also have
k =0
r n +1 − 1 r−1
= = 1.
r−1 r−1
n
r n +1 − 1
Inductive Step: Now suppose that ∑ rk =
r−1
is true for some
k =0
n ≥ 0. Then, we see that
!
n +1 n
∑r k
= ∑r k
+ r n +1 by the recursive definition of a sum
k =0 k =0
r n +1 − 1
= + r n+1 by inductionhypothesis,
r−1
r n +1 − 1 r n +2 − r n +1
= +
r−1 r−1
 n +1
− 1 + r n +2 − r n +1

r
=
r−1
r n +2 − 1
= .
r−1

Example 16.4. For every integer n ≥ 2, 2n > n + 1.

Proof. Basis: When n = 2, the inequality to check is 22 > 2 + 1, and that

is correct.
Inductive Step: Now suppose that 2n > n + 1 for some integer n ≥ 2.
Then 2n+1 = 2 · 2n > 2(n + 1) = 2n + 2 > n + 2, as we needed to show.
♣
 mathematical induction 163

Example 16.5. Show that using only 5c/ stamps and 9c/ stamps, any
postage amount 32c/ or greater can be formed.

Proof. Basis: 32c/ can be formed by using one 5c/ stamp and three 9c/
stamps.
/ postage for some n ≥ 32.
Inductive Step: Now suppose we can form nc
c postage. Since n ≥ 32, when we
We need to show we can form (n + 1)/
form nc/ postage, we must use either (1) at least seven 5c/ stamps, or (2) at
least one 9c/ stamps. For if both of those possibilities are wrong, we will have
at most 30c/ postage.
case 1: If there are seven (or more) 5c
/ stamps in the nc/ postage, remove
seven 5c/, and put in four 9c/ stamps. Since we removed 35c/ and put back
36c/, we now have (n + 1)/
c postage.
case 2: If there is one (or more) 9c
/ stamps in the nc/ postage, remove one
9c/, and put back two 5c/. Since we removed 9c/ and put back 10c/, we now
have (n + 1)/
c postage.
So, in any case, if we can make nc/ postage for some n ≥ 32, we can form
(n + 1)/
c postage. Thus, by induction, we can make any postage amount
32c/ or greater. ♣

Example 16.6. Let’s now look at an example of an induction proof with a

geometric flavor. Suppose we have a 4 × 5 chess board:
and a supply of 1 × 2 dominos:
Each domino covers exactly two squares on the board. A perfect cover
of the board consists of a placement of dominos on the board so that each
Figure 16.1: 4 × 5 chessboard
domino covers two squares on the board (dominos can be either vertically or
horizontally orientated), no dominos overlap, no dominos extend beyond the
edge of the board, and all the squares on the board are covered by a domino.
It’s easy to see that the 4 × 5 board above has a perfect cover. More generally,
it is not hard to prove:

Theorem 16.7. An m × n board has a perfect cover with 1 × 2 dominos if

and only if at least one of m and n is even.

Example 16.8. Now consider a 2n × 2n board for n a positive integer.

Suppose somewhere on the board there is one free square which does not have
to be covered by a domino. For n = 3 the picture could appear as in figure
16.2, where the shaded square is the free square.

Figure 16.2: 23 × 23 chessboard

 164 math208: discrete mathematics

This time we have a supply of L-shaped dominos: These dominos

(which can be rotated) each cover exactly three squares on the board. We will
prove by induction that every such board has a perfect cover using L-shaped
dominos.

Proof. Basis: For n = 1, the board to cover is an L-shaped domino, so it

certainly has a perfect cover.
Inductive Step: Assume now that for some integer n ≥ 1, any 2n × 2n
with one free square can be perfectly covered by L-shaped dominos. Consider
a 2n+1 × 2n+1 board with one free square. Divide the board in half horizon-
tally and vertically. Each quarter of the board will be a 2n × 2n board, and
one of those quarters will have a free square in it (see figure 16.2).
We now add one L-shaped domino as shown in figure 16.4.
This leaves us with essentially four 2n × 2n boards, each with one free
square. So, by the inductive assumption, they can each be perfectly covered
by the L-shaped dominos, and so the entire board can be perfectly covered. ♣
Figure 16.3: Divided 23 × 23 chessboard

16.5 Second principle of mathematical induction

There is a second version of mathematical induction. Anything that

can be proved with this second version can be proved with the
method described above, and vice versa, but this second version is
often easier to use. The change occurs in the induction assumption
made in the inductive step of the proof. The inductive step of the
method described above (p(n) → p(n + 1) for all n ≥ k) is replaced
with [ p(k) ∧ p(k + 1) ∧ · · · ∧ p(n)] → p(n + 1) for all n > k. The
Figure 16.4: 23 × 23 board with domino
effect is that we now have a lot more hypotheses to help us derive
p(n + 1). In more detail, the second form of mathematical induction
is described in the following theorem.

Theorem 16.9 (Second Principle of Mathematical Induction).

For integers k and n, if

(1) p(k) is true, and

(2) [ p(k) ∧ p(k + 1) ∧ ... ∧ p(n)] → p(n + 1) for an arbitrary n ≥ k,

then p(n) is true for all n ≥ k.

 mathematical induction 165

This principle is shown to be valid in the same way the first form
of induction was justified. The utility lies in dealing with cases where
we want to use inductive reasoning, but cannot deduce the (n + 1)st
case form the nth case directly. Let’s do a few examples of proofs
using this second form of induction. One more comment before
doing the examples. In many induction proofs, it is convenient to
check several initial cases in the basis step to avoid having to include
special cases in the inductive step. The examples below illustrate this
idea.

Example 16.10. Show that using only 5c/ stamps and 9c/ stamps, any
postage amount 32c/ or greater can be formed.

Proof.
Basis: We can certainly make

32c/ = (1)5c/ + (3)9c/

33c/ = (3)5c/ + (2)9c/

34c/ = (5)5c/ + (1)9c/

35c/ = (7)5c/ + (0)9c/

36c/ = (0)5c/ + (4)9c/

Inductive Step: Suppose we can make all postage amounts from 32c
/ up
to some amount kc/ where k ≥ 36. Now consider the problem of making
c . We can make (k + 1 − 5)/
(k + 1)/ c = (k − 4)/
c postage since k − 4
is between 32 and k. Adding a 5c/ stamp to that gives the needed k + 1c/
postage. ♣

In that example, the basis step was a little messier than our first
solution to the problem, but to make up for that, the inductive step
required much less cleverness.

Example 16.11. Induction can be used to verify a guessed closed from

formula for a recursively defined sequence. Consider the sequence defined
recursively by the initial conditions a0 = 2, a1 = 5 and the recursive rule,
for n ≥ 2, an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 . The first few terms of this sequence are
2, 5, 13, 35, 97, · · · . A little experimentation leads to the guess an = 2n + 3n .
166 math208: discrete mathematics

Let’s verify that guess using induction. For the basis of the induction we
check our guess gives the correct value of an for n = 0 and n = 1. That’s
easy. For the inductive step, let’s suppose our guess is correct up to n where
n ≥ 2. Then, we have

an+1 = 5an − 6an−1

= 5 (2n + 3n ) − 6 (2n −1 + 3n −1 )
= (5 · 2 − 6 )2n −1 − (6 − 5 · 3 )3n −1
= 4 · 2n−1 − (−9) · 3n−1
= 2n+1 + 3n+1 as we needed to show.

Example 16.12. In the game of Nim, two players are presented with a pile
of matches. The players take turns removing one, two, or three matches at
a time. The player forced to take the last match is the loser. For example, if
the pile initially contains 8 matches, then first player can, with correct play,
be sure to win. Here’s how: player 1: take 3 matches leaving 5; player 2’s
options will leave 4, 3, or 2 matches, and so player 1 can reduce the pile to
1 match on her turn, thus winning the game. Notice that if player 1 takes
only 1 or 2 matches on her first turn, she is bound to lose to good play since
player 2 can then reduce the pile to 5 matches.
Let’s prove that if the number of matches in the pile is 1 more than a
multiple of 4, the second player can force a win; otherwise, the first player
can force a win.

Proof. For the basis, we note that obviously the second player wins if there
is 1 match in the pile, and for 2, 3, or 4 matches the first player wins by
taking 1, 2, or 3 matches in each case, leaving 1 match.
For the inductive step, suppose the statement we are to prove is correct
for the number of matches anywhere from 1 up to k for some k ≥ 4. Now
consider a pile of k + 1 matches.
case 1: If k + 1 is 1 more than a multiple of 4, then when player 1 takes
her matches, the pile will not contain 1 more than a multiple of 4 matches,
and so the next player can force a win by the inductive assumption. So
player 2 can force a win.
case 2: If k + 1 is not 1 more than a multiple of 4, then player 1 can
select matches to make it 1 more than a multiple of 4, and so the next player
 mathematical induction 167

is bound to lose (with best play) by the inductive assumption. So player 1

can force a win. ♣

So, to win at Nim, when it is your turn, make sure you leave 1
more than a multiple of 4 matches in the pile (which is easy to do
unless your opponent knows the secret as well, in which case you can
just count the number of matches in the pile to see who will win, and
skip playing the game altogether!).
168 math208: discrete mathematics

16.6 Exercises

Exercise 16.1. Prove: For every integer n ≥ 1,

n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
1 · 3 + 2 · 4 + 3 · 5 + · · · + n ( n + 2) = .
6

Exercise 16.2. Prove: For every integer n ≥ 1,

1 · 21 + 2 · 22 + 3 · 23 + ... + n · 2n = (n − 1)2n+1 + 2.

Exercise 16.3. The Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively by f 0 = 0,

f 1 = 1, and, for n ≥ 2, f n = f n−1 + f n−2 . Use induction to prove that for
all n ≥ 0, f 0 + f 1 + f 2 + · · · + f n = f n+2 − 1.

Exercise 16.4. Prove by induction: For every integer n > 4, we have

2n > n 2 .

Exercise 16.5. Prove by induction: For every integer n ≥ 0, 11n − 6 is

divisible by 5.

Exercise 16.6. A pizza is cut into pieces (maybe some pretty oddly shaped)
by making some integer n ≥ 0 number of straight line cuts. Prove: The
n2 + n + 2
maximum number of pieces is .
2
Exercise 16.7. A sequence is defined recursively by a0 = 0, and, for n ≥ 1,
an = 5an−1 + 1. Use induction to prove the closed form formula for an is

5n − 1
an = .
4

Exercise 16.8. A sequence is defined recursively by a0 = 1, a1 = 4, and for

n ≥ 2, an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 . Use induction to prove that the closed form
formula for an is an = 2 · 3n − 2n , n ≥ 0.
 mathematical induction 169

16.7 Problems

Problem 16.1. Prove: For every integer n ≥ 1,

n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · · + n ( n + 1) = .
3

Problem 16.2. Prove by induction: For n ≥ 2,

     
1 1 1 1 n+1
1− 1− 1− ··· 1− 2 = .
4 9 16 n 2n

Problem 16.3. Show that using only 3c/ stamps and 5c/ stamps, any
postage amount 8c/ or greater can be formed. Do this twice, using both
styles of induction.

Problem 16.4. Prove by induction: For every integer n ≥ 1,

n
n ( n + 1)
∑ (−1)k k2 = (−1)n 2 .
k =1

Problem 16.5. Prove by induction: For every integer n ≥ 1, the number

n5 − n is divisible by 5.

Problem 16.6. Prove by induction: For the Fibonacci sequence, for all
n ≥ 0,
f 02 + f 12 + f 32 + · · · + f n2 = f n f n+1 .

Problem 16.7. Prove by induction: For the Fibonacci sequence, for all
n ≥ 1,
f n−1 f n+1 = f n2 + (−1)n .

Problem 16.8. Here is a proof that for n ≥ 0,

1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n = 2n+1 .

Proof. Suppose 1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n = 2n+1 for some n ≥ 0. Then

1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n + 2n+1 = 2n+1 + 2n+1 using the inductive hypothesis

= 2(2n+1 ) = 2n+2 = 2(n+1)+1

as we needed to show. ♣

Now, obviously there is something wrong with this proof by induction

since, for example, 1 + 2 + 22 = 7, but 22+1 = 23 = 8. Where does the
proof good bad?
170 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 16.9. Prove by induction: Suppose that for some n ≥ 1, 2n dots

are placed around the outside of the circle, with n dots colored red and the
remaining n colored blue. Going around the circle clockwise, you keep a
count of how many red and blue dots you have passed. If at all times the
number of red dots you have passed is at least the number of blue dots, you
consider it a successful trip around the circle. Prove that no matter how the
dots are colored red and blue, it is possible to have a successful trip around
the circle if you start at the correct point.
 17
Algorithms

An algorithm is a recipe to solve a problem. For example, here is

an algorithm that solves the problem of finding the distance traveled
by a car given the time it has traveled, t, and its average speed, s:
multiply t and s.

17.1 Properties of an algorithm

Over time, the requirements of what exactly constitutes an algorithm

have matured. A really precise definition would be filled with all
sorts of technical jargon, but the ideas are commonsensible enough
that an informal description will suffice for our purposes. So, sup-
pose we have in mind a certain class of problems (such as determine
the distance traveled given time traveled and average speed). The
properties of an algorithm to solve examples of that class of problems
are:

(1) Input: The algorithm is provided with data.

(2) Output: The algorithm produces a solution.

(3) Definiteness: The instructions that make up the algorithm are

precisely described. They are not open to interpretation.

(4) Finiteness: The output is produced in a finite number of steps.

(5) Generality: The algorithm produces correct output for any set of
input values.
172 math208: discrete mathematics

The algorithm for finding distance traveled given time traveled

and average speed obviously meets all five requirements of an algo-
rithm. Notice that, in this example, we have assumed the user of the
algorithm understands what it means to multiply two numbers. If we
cannot make that assumption, then we would need to add a number
of additional steps to the algorithm to solve the problem of multiply-
ing two numbers together. Of course, that would make the algorithm
significantly longer. When describing algorithms, we’ll assume the
user knows the usual algorithms for solving common problems such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers, and
knows how to determine if one number is larger than another, and so
on.

17.2 Non-algorithms

Just as important as an example of what an algorithm is, is an exam-

ple of what is not an algorithm. For example, we might describe the
method by which most people look up a number in a phone book.
You open the book and look to see if the listing you’re looking for is
on that page or not. If it is you find the number using the fact that
the listings are alphabetized and you’re done. If the number you’re
looking for is not on the page, you use the fact that the listings are al-
phabetized to either flip back several pages, or forward several pages.
This page is checked to see if the listing is on it. If it is not we repeat
the process. One problem in this case is that this description is not
definite. The phrase flip back several pages is too vague, it violates the
definiteness requirement. Another problem is that someone could
flip back and forth between two pages and never find the number,
and so violate the finiteness requirement. So this method is not an
algorithm.

17.3 Linear search algorithm

Continuing the example from section 17.2 of looking up a phone

number, one algorithm for completing this is to look at the first entry
in the book. If it’s the number you’re looking for you’re done. Else
 algorithms 173

move to the next entry. It’s either the number you’re looking for or
you move to the next entry. This is an example of a linear search
algorithm. It’s not too bad for finding Adam Aaronson’s number if
he is in the book, but it is terrible if you’re trying to reach Zebulon
Zyzniewski.

17.4 Binary search algorithm

Another algorithm to complete that task of finding a phone number

is the binary search algorithm. We open the phone book to the mid-
dle entry. If it’s the number we’re looking for, we’re done. Else we
know the number is listed in the first half of the book, or the last half
of the book since the entries are alphabetized. We then pick the mid-
dle entry of the appropriate half, and repeat the halving process on
that half, until eventually the name is located. There are a few details
to fix up to make this a genuine algorithm. For example, what is the
middle entry if there are an even number of items listed? Also, what
happens if the name we are looking for isn’t in the phone book? But
it is clear with a little effort we can add a few lines to the instructions
to make this process into an algorithm.

17.5 Presenting algorithms

It is traditional to present algorithms in a pseudocode form similar

to a program for a computer. For instance, the linear search name
lookup algorithm given above could be written in pseudocode form,
as shown in Algorithm 17.1 on page 174. Another version using a for
loop is displayed in Agorithm 17.2.
174 math208: discrete mathematics

Input: (name,phonelist): name to be found in a given phonelist Algorithm 17.1: Linear search (re-
peat/until). (A B indicates a comment
Output: phonelist(namespot) = phone number of name in phonelist follows.)
1: namespot ← 1 . set namespot to 1, position of first name in list
2: repeat . execute the block of code between repeat and until
3: if list(namespot) is name then . if True execute code to end if
4: output phonelist(namespot)
5: stop . We’re Done!
6: end if . execute the lines between if and end if
7: namespot ← namespot + 1 . increment namespot by 1
8: until length(list) < namespot . if False, jump back to repeat
9: output name not found
10: stop

Input: (name,phonelist) Algorithm 17.2: Linear search (for loop)

Output: phonelist(namespot)
Output: phonelist(namespot) = phone number of name in phonelist
1: for namespot ∈ {1, 2, . . . , length ( phonelist )} do
2: if list(namespot) is name then
3: output phonelist(namespot)
4: stop
5: end if
6: end for
7: output name not found
8: stop
 algorithms 175

17.6 Examples

Example 17.1. Here is an algorithm for determining bm/nc for positive

integers m, n.

Input: positive integers m and n Algorithm 17.3: Calculate bm/nc

Output: integer value of bm/nc

1: k ← 0 . k will eventually hold our answer
2: while m ≥ 0 do
3: m ← m−n . We’re doing division by repeated subtraction
4: k ← k+1 . k counts the number of subtractions
5: end while
6: output k − 1 . We counted one too many subtractions!(How?)

Here are the sequence of steps this algorithm would carry out with input
m = 23 and n = 7: [initial status. m = 23, n = 7, k = (undefined)]

instr 1: Set k to be 0 [status: m = 23, n = 7, k = 0]

instr 2: is m ≥ 0? Yes, (23 ≥ 0) is true. Do next instruction (i.e. instr 3).

instr 3: m reset to be m − n = 23 − 7 = 16. [status: m = 16, n = 7, k = 0]

instr 4: k reset to be k + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1. [status: m = 16, n = 7, k = 1]

instr 5: jump back to the matching while (i.e. instr 2).

instr 2: is m ≥ 0? Yes, (16 ≥ 0) is true. Do next instruction.

instr 3: m reset to be m − n = 16 − 7 = 9. [status: m = 9, n = 7, k = 1]

instr 4: k reset to be k + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3. [status: m = 9, n = 7, k = 2]

instr 5: jump back to the matching while.

instr 2: is m ≥ 0? Yes, (9 ≥ 0) is true. Do next instruction.

instr 3: m reset to be m − n = 9 − 7 = 2. [status: m = 2, n = 7, k = 2]

instr 4: k reset to be k + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3. [status: m = 2, n = 7, k = 3]

instr 5: jump back to the matching while.

instr 2: is m ≥ 0? Yes, (2 ≥ 0) is true. Do next instruction.

instr 3: m reset to be m − n = 2 − 7 = −5. [status: m = −5, n = 7,

k = 2]

instr 4: k reset to be k + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4. [status: m = −5, n = 7, k = 4]

instr 5: jump back to the matching while.

 176 math208: discrete mathematics

instr 2: is m ≥ 0? No, () − 5 ≥ 0) is false. Jump to instr after end while.

instr 6: output value of k − 1 (i.e. 3). [status: m = −5, n = 7, k = 4]

stop! (This is what happens when there are no more instructions to exe-
cute.)

Here is a second algorithm for the same problem.

Input: positive integers m and n Algorithm 17.4: Calculate bm/nc

(again)
Output: integer value of bm/nc
1: divide m by n to one place beyond the decimal, call the result r.
2: output the digits of r preceding the decimal point.

So, again, given input m = 23 and n = 7 we go through the steps.

instr 1: r = 3.2

instr 2: Output 3

stop!
 algorithms 177

Example 17.2. An algorithm to make $n change using $10, $5, and $1

bills.

Input: positive integers m and n Algorithm 17.5: Make change

Output: integer value of bm/nc

1: while n ≥ 10 do
2: output $10
3: n ← n − 10
4: end while
5: while n ≥ 5 do
6: output $5
7: n ← n−5
8: end while
9: while n ≥ 1 do
10: output $1
11: n ← n−1
12: end while

For an input of 27, the output would be $10, $10, $5, $1, $1.
 178 math208: discrete mathematics

17.7 Exercises

Exercise 17.1. Consider the following algorithm: The input will be two
integers, m ≥ 0, and n ≥ 1.

Input: positive integers m ≥ 0 and n ≥ 1

Output: (to be determined)
s←0
while m 6= 0 do
s ← n+s
m ← m−1
end while
output s

Describe in words what this algorithm does. In other words, what prob-
lem does this algorithm solve?

Exercise 17.2. Consider the following algorithm: The input will be any
integer n, greater than 1.

Input: integer n > 1

Output: (to be determined)
t←0
while n is even do
t ← t+1
n ← n/2
end while
output t

(a) List the steps the algorithm follows for the input n = 12.

(b) Describe in words what this algorithm does. In other words, what prob-
lem does this algorithm solve?
Such an algorithm is needed quite often
Exercise 17.3. Design an algorithm that takes any positive integer n and in computer science.

returns half of n if it is even and half of n + 1 if n is odd.

 algorithms 179

Exercise 17.4. Consider the following algorithm. The input will be a func-
tion f together with its finite domain, D = {d1 , d2 , · · · , dn }.

Input: function f with domain D = {d1 , d2 , · · · , dn }

Output: (to be determined)
1: i ← 1
2: while i < n do
3: j ← i+1
4: while j < n do
5: if f (d j ) = f (di ) then
6: output NO
7: stop
8: end if
9: j ← j+1
10: end while
11: i ← i+1
12: end while
13: output YES

(a) List the steps the algorithm follows for the input f : { a, b, c, d, e} −→
{+, ∗, &, $, #, @} given by f ( a) = ∗, f (b) = $, f (c) = +, f (d) = $,
and f (e) = @.

(b) Describe in words what this algorithm does. In other words, what prob-
lem does this algorithm solve?

Exercise 17.5. Design an algorithm that will convert the ordered triple
( a, b, c) to the ordered triple (b, c, a). For example, if the input is (7, X, ∗),
the ouput will be ( X, ∗, 7).

Exercise 17.6. Design an algorithm whose input is a finite list of positive

integers and whose output is the sum of the even integers in the list. If there
are no even integers in the list, the output should be 0.

Exercise 17.7. A palindrome is a string of letters that reads the same in

each direction. For example, refer and redder are palindromes of length five
and six respectively. Design an algorithm that will take a string as input
and output yes if the string is a palindrome, and no if it is not.
180 math208: discrete mathematics

17.8 Problems
18
Algorithm Efficiency

There are many different algorithms for solving any partic-

ular class of problems. In the last chapter, we considered two algo-
rithms for solving the problem of looking up a phone number given
a person’s name.
Algorithm L: Look at the first entry in the book. If it’s the number
you’re looking for you’re done. Else move to the next entry. It’s either
the number you’re looking for or you move to the next entry, and so
on. (The linear search algorithm)
Algorithm B: The second algorithm took advantage of the arrange-
ment of a phone book in alphabetical order. We open the phone book
to the middle entry. If it’s the number we’re looking for, we’re done.
Otherwise we know the number is listed in the first half of the book,
or the last half of the book. We then pick the middle entry of the ap-
propriate half, and repeat the process. After a number of repetitions,
we will either be at the name we want, or learn the name isn’t in the
book. (The binary search algorithm)
The question arises, which algorithm is better? The question is
pretty vague. Let’s assume that better means uses fewer steps. Now if
there are only one or two names in the phone book, it doesn’t matter
which algorithm we use, the look-up always takes one or two steps.
But what if the phone book contains 10000 names? In this case, it is
hard to say which algorithm is better: looking up Adam Aaronson
will likely only take one step by the linear search algorithm, but
binary search will take 14 steps or so. But for Zebulon Zyzniewski,
 182 math208: discrete mathematics

the linear search will take 10000 steps, while the binary search will
again take about 14 steps.

18.1 Comparing algorithms

There are two lessons to be learned from those last examples:

(1) Small cases of the problem can be misleading when judging the
quality of an algorithm, and

(2) It’s unlikely that one algorithm will always be more efficient than
another.

The common approach to compare the efficiency of two algorithms

takes those two lessons into account by agreeing to the following
protocol:

(1) only compare the algorithms when the size, n, of the problem it is
applied to is huge. In the phone book example, don’t worry about
phone books of 100 names or even 10000 names. Worry instead
about phone books with n names where n gets arbitrarily large.

(2) to compare two algorithms, first, for each algorithm, find the max-
imum number of steps ever needed when applied to a problem of
size n. For a phone book of size n the linear search algorithm will
require n steps in the worst possible case of the name not being
in the book. On the other hand, the halving process of the binary
search algorithm means that it will never take more than about
log2 n steps to locate a name (or discover the name is missing)
in the phone book. This information is expressed compactly by
saying the linear search algorithm has worst case scenario effi-
ciency w L (n) = n while the binary search algorithm has worst case
scenario efficiency wB (n) = log2 n.

(3) we declare that algorithm #1 is more efficient than algorithm

#2 provided, for all problems of huge sizes n, w1 (n) < w2 (n),
where w1 and w2 are the worst case scenario efficiencies for each
algorithm.
 algorithm efficiency 183

Notice that for huge n, wB (n) < w L (n). In fact, there is no real
contest. For example, when n = 1048576 = 220 , we get wB (n) = 20
while w L (n) = 1048576, and things only get better for wB as n gets
larger.
In summary, to compare two algorithms designed to solve the
same class of problems we:

(1) Determine a number n that indicates the size of the a problem. For
example, if the algorithm manipulates a list of numbers, n could
be the length of the list. If the algorithm is designed to raise a
number to a power, the size could be the power n.

(2) Decide what will be called a step when applying the algorithms.
In the phone book example, we took a step to mean a comparison.
When raising a number to a power, a step might consist of per-
forming a multiplication. A step is usually taken to be the most
time consuming action in the algorithm, and other actions are ig-
nored. Also, when determining the function, w don’t get hung up
worrying about miniscule details. Don’t spend time trying to de-
termine if w(n) = 2n + 7 or w(n) = 2n + 67. For huge values of n,
the +7 and +67 become unimportant. In such a case, w(n) = 2n
has all the interesting information. Don’t sweat the small stuff.

(3) Determine the worst case scenario functions for the two algo-
rithms, and compare them. The smaller of the two (assuming they
are not essentially the same) is declared the more efficient algo-
rithm.

Example 18.1. Let’s do a worst case scenario computation for the following
algorithm designed to determine the largest number in a list of n numbers.
It would be natural to use the number of items in the list, n, to represent
the size of a problem. And let’s use the comparisons as steps. We are going
to make two comparisons each for each of the items in the list in every case
(every case is a worst case for this algorithm!). So we give this algorithm an
efficiency w(n) = 2n. Notice that we actually only need comparisons for the
last n − 1 items in the list, and the exact number of times the comparisons
in instructions (3) and (4) are carried out might take a few minutes to figure
out. But it’s clear that both are carried out about n times, and since we are
184 math208: discrete mathematics

Input: a list of n numbers a1 , a2 , · · · , an Algorithm 18.1: Maximum list value

Output: maximum( a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
1: max ← a1
2: k ← 2
3: while k ≤ n do
4: if max < ak then
5: max ← ak
6: end if
7: end while
8: output max

only interested in huge n’s, being off by a few (or a few billion) isn’t really
going to matter at all.
 algorithm efficiency 185

18.2 Exercises

Exercise 18.1. For the algorithm presented in exercise 17.2 from the last
chapter:

(a) Select a value to represent the size of an instance of the problem the algo-
rithm is designed to solve.

(b) Decide what will constitute a step in the algorithm.

(c) Determine the worst case scenario function w(n).

Exercise 18.2. Repeat exercise 18.1 for the following algorithm:

Input: Sets of reals: { x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } and {y1 , y2 , . . . , yn } of size n

Output: (to be determined)
1: S ← 0
2: i ← 1
3: while i ≤ n do
4: S ← S + xi · yi
5: i ← i+1
6: end while
7: output S
186 math208: discrete mathematics

18.3 Problems
19
The Growth of Functions

Now that we have an idea of how to determine the efficiency of

an algorithm by computing its worst case scenario function, w(n),
we need to be able to decide when one algorithm is better than an-
other. For example, suppose we have two algorithms to solve a cer-
tain problem, the first with w1 (n) = 10000n2 , and the second with
w2 (n) = 2n . Which algorithm would be the better choice to imple-
ment based on these functions? To find out, let’s assume that our
computer can carry out one billion steps per second, and estimate
how long each algorithm will take to solve a worst case problem for
various values of n.

Table 19.1: Problem size vs. CPU time

w(n) n = 10 n = 20 n = 50 n = 100
used
10000n2 .001 sec .004 sec .025 sec .1 sec
2n .000001 sec .001 sec 4.2 months 4 × 1011 centuries

So, it looks like the selection of the algorithm depends on the size
of the problems we expect to run into. Up to size 20 or so, it doesn’t
look like the choice makes a lot of difference, but for larger values of
n, the 10000n2 algorithm is the only practical choice.
It is worth noting that the values of the efficiency functions for
small values of n can be deceiving. It is also worth noting that, from
a practical point of view, simply designing an algorithm to solve a
problem without analyzing its efficiency can be a pointless exercise.
188 math208: discrete mathematics

19.1 Common efficiency functions

There are a few types of efficiency functions that crop up often in the
analysis of algorithms. In order of decreasing efficiency for large n
√
they are: log2 n, n, n, n2 , n3 , 2n , n!.
Assuming one billion steps per second, here is how these effi-
ciency functions compare for various choices of n.

w(n) n = 10 n = 20 n = 50 n = 100 Table 19.2: Common efficiency func-

tions for small values of n
log2 n .000000003 sec .000000004 sec .000000005 sec .000000006 sec
√
n .000000003 sec .000000004 sec .000000006 sec .000000008 sec
n .00000001 sec .00000002 sec .00000004 sec .00000006 sec
n2 .0000001 sec .0000004 sec .0000016 sec .0000036 sec
n3 .000001 sec .000008 sec .000064 sec .00022 sec
2n .000001 sec .001 sec 18.3 minutes 36.5 years
n! .0036 sec 77 years 2.6 × 1029 centuries 2.6 × 1063 centuries

Even though the values in the first five rows of the table look
w(n) n = 1000000
reasonably close together, that is a false impression fostered by the
log2 n .00000002 sec
small values of n. For example, when n = 1000000, those five entries √
n .000001 sec
would be as in table 19.3. n .001 sec
√ n2 17 minutes
And, for even larger values of n, the n algorithm will require
n3 31.7 years
billions more years than the log2 n algorithm.
Table 19.3: Efficiency functions where
n = 1000000

19.2 Big-oh notation

There is a traditional method of estimating the efficiency of an al-

gorithm. As in the examples above, one part of the plan is to ignore
tiny contributions to the efficiency function. In other words, we won’t
write expressions such as w(n) = n2 + 3, since the term 3 is insignifi-
cant for the large values of n we are interested in. As far as behavior
for large values of n is concerned, the functions n2 and n2 + 3 are
indistinguishable. A second part of the plan is to not distinguish
between functions if one is always say 10 times the other. In other
words, as far as analyzing efficiency, the functions n2 and 10n2 are
indistinguishable. And there is nothing special about 10 in those re-
marks. These ideas lead us to the idea of the order of growth with
respect to n, O(g(n)), in the next definition.
 the growth of functions 189

Definition 19.1. The function w(n) is O(g(n))provided there is a The symbol O( g(n)) is read in english
as big-oh of g(n).
number k > 0 such that w(n) ≤ kg(n) for all n (or at least for all large
values of n).

As an example, n3 + 2n2 + 10n + 4 ≤ (1 + 2 + 10 + 4)n3 = 17n3

is O(n3 ). So if we have an algorithm with efficiency function w(n) =
n3 + 2n2 + 10n + 4, we can suppress all the unimportant details,
and simply say the efficiency is O(n3 ). In this example, it is also true
that w(n) is O(n4 ), but that is less precise information. On the other
hand, saying w(n) is O(n2 ) is certainly false. To indicate that we have
the best possible big-oh estimate allowed by our analysis, we would
say w(n) is at best O(n3 ). O( g(n)) actually represents the set
of functions dominated by g(n). So,
Loosely speaking, finding the O estimate for a function selects the
it would be proper to write w(n) =
most influential, or dominant, term (for large values of the variable) n3 + 2n2 + 10n + 4 ∈ O(n3 ). Moreover,
in the function, and suppresses any constant factor for that term. we could write O(n2 ) ⊂ O(n3 ) since
the functions dominated by n2 are
among those dominated by n3 .
19.3 Examples

In each example, we find a big-oh estimate for the given expression.

Example 19.2. We have that n4 − 3n3 + 2n2 − 6n + 14 is O(n4 ), since for

large n the first term dominates the others.

Example 19.3. For large n, we have the inequalities:

(n3 log2 n + n2 − 3)(n2 + 2n + 8),

≤ (1 + 1 + 3)n3 (log2 n)(1 + 2 + 8)n2 ,
≤ 55n5 log2 n.

Hence, (n3 log2 n + n2 − 3)(n2 + 2n + 8) is O(n5 log2 n). Alternatively,

we have that n3 log2 n and n2 dominate their respective factors. Thus,
again, the product is O(n5 log2 n). Dominant factors may be multiplied.

Example 19.4. We see that n5 + 3(2)n − 14n22 + 13 ≤ (1 + 3 + 14 +

13)2n = 31(2n ). Hence, the expression is O(2n ). Or, since 3 · 2n dominates
all the other terms for large n, we see that the expression is O(3 · 2n ). That
is, it is of order O(2n ) since the constant factor is really irrelevant.
190 math208: discrete mathematics

19.4 Exercises

Exercise 19.1. You have been hired for a certain job that can be completed
in less than two months, and offered two modes of payment. Method 1: You
get $1,000,000,000 a day for as long as the job takes. Method 2: You get
$1 the first day, $2 the second day, $4 the third day, $8 the fourth day, and
so on, your payment doubling each day, for as long as the job lasts. Which
method of payment do you choose?

Exercise 19.2. Suppose an algorithm has efficiency function w(n) =

n log2 n. Compute the worst case time required for the algorithm to solve
problems of sizes n = 10, 20, 40, 60 assuming the operations are carried out
at the rate of one billion per second. Where does this function fit in the table
on the second page of this chapter?

Exercise 19.3. Repeat exercise 2 for w(n) = nn .

√
Exercise 19.4. Explain why 3n3 + 400n2 + 2 n is at least O(n2 ).
√
Exercise 19.5. Explain why 10n2 + 4n + 2 n in not O(1000n).
√
Exercise 19.6. Find the best possible big-oh estimate for 5n + log2 10n +
1.
3
Exercise 19.7. Find the best possible big-oh estimate of 2n2 + .
n
2n2 + 2n + 1
Exercise 19.8. Find the best possible big-oh estimate of .
2n + 1
Hint: Begin by doing a long division.
 the growth of functions 191

19.5 Problems
20
The Integers

Number theory is concerned with the integers and their prop-

erties. In this chapter the rules of the arithmetic of integers are re-
viewed. The surprising fact is that all the dozens of rules and tricks
you know for working with integers (and for doing algebra, which
is just arithmetic with symbols) are consequences of just a few basic
facts. The list of facts given in sections 20.1 and 20.2 is actually longer
than necessary; several of these rules can be derived from the others.

20.1 Integer operations

The set of integers, {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · · }, is denoted by the sym-

bol Z. The two familiar arithmetic operations for the integers, ad-
dition and multiplication, obey several basic rules. First, notice that
addition and multiplication are binary operations. In other words,
these two operations combine a pair of integers to produce a value. It
is not possible to add (or multiply) three numbers at a time. We can
figure out the sum of three numbers, but it takes two steps: we select
two of the numbers, and add them up, and then add the third to the
preliminary total. Never are more than two numbers added together
at any time. A list of the seven fundamental facts about addition and
multiplication of integers follows.
 194 math208: discrete mathematics

(1) The integers are closed with respect to addition and multiplica-
tion.

That means that when two integers are added or multiplied, the
result is another integer. In symbols, we have

∀ a, b ∈ Z, ab ∈ Z and a + b ∈ Z.

(2) Addition and multiplication of integers are commutative opera-

tions.

That means that the order in which the two numbers are combined
has no effect on the final total. Symbolically, we have

∀ a, b ∈ Z, a + b = b + a and ab = ba.

(3) Addition and multiplication of integers are associative operations.

In other words, when we compute the sum (or product) of three
integers, it does not matter whether we combine the first two and
then add the third to the total, or add the first to the total of the
last two. The final total will be the same in either case. Expressed
in symbols, we have

∀ a, b, c ∈ Z, a(bc) = ( ab)c and a + (b + c) = ( a + b) + c.

(4) There is an additive identity denoted by 0. It has the property that

when it is added to any number the result is that number right
back again. In symbols, we see that

0 + a = a = a + 0 for all a ∈ Z.

(5) Every integer has an additive inverse: ∀n ∈ Z, ∃m ∈ Z so that

n + m = 0 = m + n. As usual, m is denoted by −n. So, we write
n + (−n) = (−n) + n = 0.

(6) 1 is a multiplicative identity. That is, we have 1a = a = a1 for all

a ∈ Z.

And finally, there is a rule which establishes a connection between

the operations of addition and multiplication.
 the integers 195

(7) Multiplication distributes over addition. Again, we symbolically

write
∀ a, b, c ∈ Z, a(b + c) = ab + ac.

The seven facts in section 20.1, together with a few concerning or-
dering stated in section 20.2, tell all there is to know about arithmetic.
Every other fact can be proved from these. For example, here is a
proof of the cancellation law for addition using the facts listed above.

Theorem 20.1 (Integer cancellation law). For integers a, b, c, if a + c =

b + c then a = b.

Proof. Suppose a + c = b + c. Add −c to both sides of that equation

(applying fact 5 above) to get ( a + c) + (−c) = (b + c) + (−c). Using
the associative rule, that equation can be rewritten as a + (c + (−c)) =
b + (c + (−c)), and that becomes a + 0 = b + 0. By property 4 above, that
means a = b. ♣

Theorem 20.2. For any integer a, a0 = 0.

Proof. Here are the steps in the proof. You supply the justifications for the
steps.

a0 = a(0 + 0)

a0 = a0 + a0

a0 + (−( a0)) = ( a0 + a0) + (−( a0))

a0 + (−( a0)) = a0 + ( a0 + (−( a0)))

0 = a0 + 0

0 = a0

Your justification for each step should be stated as using one, or

more, of the fundamental facts as applied to the specific circumstance
in each line.
 196 math208: discrete mathematics

20.2 Order properties

The integers also have an order relation, a is less than or equal to b:

a ≤ b. This relation satisfies three fundamental order properties: ≤ is
a reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive relation on Z.
The notation b ≥ a means the same as a ≤ b. Also a < b (and
b > a) are shorthand ways to say a ≤ b and a 6= b.
The trichotomy law holds: for a ∈ Z exactly one of a > 0, a = 0, or
a < 0 is true.
The ordering of the integers is related to the arithmetic by several
rules:

(1) If a < b, then a + c < b + c for all c ∈ Z.

(2) If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.

(3) If a < b and c < 0, then bc < ac.

And, finally, the rule that justifies proofs by induction:

The Well Ordering Principle for Z: The set of positive integers is
well-ordered: every nonempty subset of positive integers has a least
element.
 the integers 197

20.3 Exercises

Exercise 20.1. Prove that if a > 0 and b > 0, then ab > 0.

Exercise 20.2. Prove that if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0. Hint: Try an

indirect proof with four cases. Case 1: Show that if a > 0 and b > 0, then
ab 6= 0. Case 2: Show that if a > 0 and b < 0, then ab 6= 0. There are two
more similar cases. (This fact is called the zero property.)

Exercise 20.3. Prove the cancellation law for multiplication: For integers
a, b, c, with c 6= 0, if ac = bc, then a = b. (Hint: Use exercise 20.2)

Exercise 20.4. Prove: For a, b, c ∈ Z, if a|b, then − a|b.

20.4 Problems

Problem 20.1. Prove that if a > 0 and b < 0, then ab < 0.

Problem 20.2. Prove that if n is an integer, then n2 ≥ 0.

Problem 20.3. Prove that is m2 = n2 , then m = n or m = −n.

(Hint from algebra: a2 − b2 = ( a + b)( a − b).)
 21
The divides Relation and Primes

Given integers a and b we say that a divides b and write a | b

provided1 there is an integer c with b = ac. In that case we also say 1
That is, a divides into b evenly.

that a is a factor of b, or that a is a divisor of b, or that b is a multiple

of a. For example 3|12 since 12 = 3 · 4. Keep in mind that divides
is a relation. When you see a|b you should think is that true or false.
Don’t write things like 3|12 = 4! If a does not divide b, write a/|b. For
example, it is true2 that 3/|13. 2
Fact: 3 does not divide into 13 evenly.

21.1 Properties of divides

Here is a list of a few simple facts about the divisibility relation.

Theorem 21.1. For a, b, c ∈ Z we have

(1) a|0

(2) ±1| a

(3) If a|b, then − a|b

(4) If a|b and b|c, then a|c. So a|b is a transitive relation on Z

(5) a| − a

(6) If a|b and b 6= 0, then 0 < | a| ≤ |b|

(7) If a|1, then a = ±1

(8) If a|b and b| a, then a = ±b

 200 math208: discrete mathematics

(9) a|b and a|c, then a|(mb + nc) for all m, n ∈ Z

(10) If a|b, then a|bc for all c ∈ Z

Here are the proofs of a few of these facts.

(1) Proof. For any integer a, a0 = 0, so a|0. ♣

(4) Proof. Suppose a|b and b|c. That means there are integers s, t so that
as = b and bt = c. Substituting as for b in the second equation gives
( as)t = c, which is the same as a(st) = c. That shows a|c. ♣

(9) Proof. Suppose a|b and a|c. That means there are integers s, t such
that as = b and at = c. Multiply the first equation by m and the
second by n to get a(sm) = mb and a(tn) = nc. Now add those two
equations: a(sm) + a(tn) = mb + nc. Factoring out the a on the left
shows a(sm + tn) = mb + nc, and so we see a|(mb + nc). ♣

21.2 Prime numbers

The prime integers play a central role in number theory. A positive

integer larger than 1 is said to be prime if its only positive divisors
are 1 and itself. The first few primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37.
A positive integer larger than 1 which is not prime is composite.
So a composite number n has a positive divisor a which is neither 1
nor n. By part (6) of the theorem above, 1 < a < n.
So, to check if an integer n is a prime, we can trial divide it in turn
by 2, 3, 4, 5, · · · n − 1, and if we find one of these that divides n, we
can stop, concluding that n is not a prime. On the other hand, if we
find that none of those divide n, then we can conclude n is a prime.
This algorithm for checking a number for primeness can be made
more efficient. For example, there is really no need to test to see if
4 divides n if we have already determined that 2 does not divide n.
And the same reasoning shows that to test n for primeness we need
only check in to see if n is divisible by any of 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 and so
on up to the largest prime less than n. For example, to test 15 for
primeness, we would trial divide by the six values 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13.
But even this improved algorithm can be made more efficient by the
following theorem.
 the DIVIDES relation and primes 201

Theorem 21.2. Every composite number n has a divisor a, with

√
2≤a≤ n.

Proof. Suppose n is a composite integer. That means n = ab where 1 <

√
a, b < n. Not both a and b are greater than n, for if so n = ab >
√ √ √
n n = ( n)2 = n, and that is a contradiction. ♣
√
So, if we haven’t found a divisor of n by the time we reach n,
then n must be a prime.
We can be a little more informative, as the next theorem shows.

Theorem 21.3. Every integer n > 1 is divisible by a prime.

Proof. Let n > 1 be given. The set, D, of all integers greater than 1 that
divide n is nonempty since n itself is certainly in that set. Let m be the
smallest integer in that set. Then m must be a prime since if k is an integer
with 1 < k < m and k |m, then k |n, and so k ∈ D. That is a contradiction
since m is the smallest element of D. Thus m is a prime divisor of n. ♣

Among the more important theorems in number theory is the

following.

Theorem 21.4. The set of prime integers is infinite.

Proof. Suppose that there were only finitely many primes. List them all:
2, 3, 5, 7, · · · , p. Form the number N = 1 + 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 · · · p. According
to the last theorem, there must be a prime that divides N, say q. Certainly q
also divides 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 · · · p since that is the product of all the primes, so q
is one of its factors. Hence q divides N − 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 · · · p. But that’s crazy
since N − 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 · · · p = 1. We have reached a contradiction, and so we
can conclude there are infinitely many primes. ♣

21.3 The division algorithm for integers

Theorem 21.5 (The Division Algorithm for Integers). If a, d ∈ Z, with

d > 0, there exist unique integers q and r, with a = qd + r, and 0 ≤ r < d. The quantities q and r are called the
quotient and remainder when a is
Proof. Let S = { a − nd|n ∈ Z, and a − nd ≥ 0}. Then S 6= ∅, since divided by d.

a − (−| a|)d ∈ S for sure. Thus, by the Well Ordering Principle, S has a
202 math208: discrete mathematics

least element, call it r. Say r = a − qd. Then we have a = qd + r, and

0 ≤ r. If r ≥ d, then a = (q + 1)d + (r − d), with 0 ≤ r − d contradicting
the minimality of r.
To prove uniqueness, suppose that a = q1 d + r1 = q2 d + r2 , with
0 ≤ r1 , r2 < d. Then d(q1 − q2 ) = r2 − r1 which implies that r2 − r1 is a
multiple of d. Since 0 ≤ r1 , r2 < d, we have −d < r2 − r1 < d. Thus the
only multiple of d which r2 − r1 can possibly be is 0d = 0. So r2 − r1 = 0
which is the same thing as r1 = r2 . Thus d(q1 − q2 ) = 0 = d0. Since d 6= 0
we can cancel d to get q1 − q2 = 0, whence q1 = q2 . ♣
 the DIVIDES relation and primes 203

21.4 Exercises

Exercise 21.1. Determine the quotient and remainder when 107653 is

divided by 22869.

Exercise 21.2. Determine if 1297 is a prime.

Exercise 21.3. Prove or give a counterexample: The divides relation is

reflexive.

Exercise 21.4. Prove or give a counterexample: The divides relation is

symmetric.

Exercise 21.5. Prove or give a counterexample: The divides relation is

transitive.

Exercise 21.6. What is wrong with the expression 4|12 = 3?

Exercise 21.7. Show that none of the 1000 consecutive integers 1001! + 2
to 1001! + 1001 are primes.

Exercise 21.8. Prove: For a, b, c ∈ Z, if a|b, then − a|b.

21.5 Problems

Problem 21.1. For positive integers, a and b, if the quotient when a is

divided by b is q, what are the possible quotients when a + 1 is divided by b?

Problem 21.2. For positive integers, a and b, if the quotient when a is

divided by b is q, what are the possible quotients when 2a is divided by b?

Problem 21.3. Prove: For integers a, b, if a|b, then − a|b.

Problem 21.4. Prove or give a counterexample: If p is a prime, then 2p + 1

is a prime.

Problem 21.5. Determine all the integers that 0 divides.

(Hint: Think about the definition of the divides relation.
The correct answer is probably not what you expect.)

Problem 21.6. Determine if 3599 is a prime. (Hint: This is easy since

3599 = 3600 − 1)

Problem 21.7. Determine if 5129 is a prime.

204 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 21.8. Prove property 10 of Theorem 21.1: For integers a, b, c, if

a|b, then a|bc.

Problem 21.9. Suppose the remainder when a is divided by b is r. Deter-

mine the remainder when a + 2b is divided by b. More generally, if k is any
integer, determine the remainder when a + kb is divided by b.

Problem 21.10. Show that for any integer n, there are n consecutive non-
prime integers.
22
GCD’s and the Euclidean Algorithm

The greatest common divisor of a and b, not both 0, is the

largest integer which divides both a and b. For example, the greatest
common divisor of 21 and 35 is 7. We write gcd ( a, b ) , as shorthand
for the greatest common divisor of a and b. So gcd ( 35, 21 ) = 7.
There are several ways to find the gcd of two integers, a and b
(not both 0).
First, we could simply list all the positive divisors of a and b and
pick the largest number that appears in both lists. Notice that 1 will
appear in both lists. For the example above the positive divisors of
35 are 1, 5, 7, and 35. For 21 the positive divisors are 1, 3, 7, and 21.
The largest number appearing in both lists is 7, so gcd ( 35, 21 ) = 7.
Another way to say the same thing: If we let D a denote the set
of positive divisors of a, then gcd ( a, b ) = the largest number in
Da ∩ Db .
The reason gcd ( 0, 0 ) is not defined is that every positive inte-
ger divides 0, and so there is no largest integer that divides 0. From
now on, when we use the symbol gcd ( a, b ) , we will tacitly assume
a and b are not both 0. The integers a and b can be negative. For
example if a = − 34 and b = 14, then the set of positive divi-
sors of − 34 is { 1, 2, 17, 34 } and the set of positive divisors of 14
is { 1, 2, 7, 14 } . The set of positive common divisors of 14 and − 34 is
the set { 1, 2, 17, 34 } ∩ { 1, 2, 7, 14 } = { 1, 2 } . The largest number in
this set is 2 = gcd (− 34, 14 ) .
Obviously then gcd ( a, b ) = gcd (− a, b ) since a and − a have the
 206 math208: discrete mathematics

same set of positive divisors. So when computing the gcd ( a, b ) we

may as well replace a and b by their absolute values if one or both
happen to be negative.
Here are a few easy facts about gcd’s:

(1) If a 6 = 0, then gcd ( a, a ) = a.

(2) gcd ( a, 1 ) = 1.

(3) gcd ( a, b ) = gcd ( b, a ) . (The order a and b are given is not impor-
tant,
but it is traditional to list them with a ≥ b.)

(4) If a 6 = 0 and a | b, then gcd ( a, b ) = | a | .

(5) If a 6 = 0, gcd ( a, 0 ) = | a | .

If gcd ( a, b ) = 1, we say that a and b are relatively prime. When a

and b are relatively prime, they have no common prime divisor. For
example 12 and 35 are relatively prime.

22.1 Euclidean algorithm

It’s pretty clear that computing gcd ( a, b ) by listing all the positive
visors of a and all the positive divisors of b, and selecting the largest
integers that appears in both lists is not very efficient. There is a
better way of computing gcd ( a, b ) .

Theorem 22.1. If a and b are integers (not both 0) and a = sb + t for

integers s and t, then gcd ( a, b ) = gcd ( b, t ) .

Proof. To prove the theorem, we will show that the list of positive integers
that divide both a and b is identical to the list of positive integers that divide
both b and t = a − sb. So, suppose d | a and d | b. Then d |( a − sb ) so
d | t. Hence d divides both b and t. On the other hand, suppose d | b and d | t.
Then d |( sb + t ) , so that d | a. Hence d divides both a and b. It follows that
gcd ( a, b ) = gcd ( b, t ) . ♣

Euclid is given the credit for discovering this fact, and its use for
computing gcd’s is called the Euclidean algorithm in his honor.
The idea is to use the theorem repeatedly until a pair of numbers
 gcd’s and the euclidean algorithm 207

is reached for which the gcd is obvious. Here is an example of the

Euclidean algorithm in action.

Example 22.2. Since 14 = 1 · 10 + 4, gcd(14, 10) = gcd(10, 4). In turn

10 = 2 · 4 + 2 so gcd(10, 4) = gcd(4, 2). Since 4 = 2 · 2, gcd(4, 2) =
gcd(2, 0) = 2. So gcd(10, 14) = 2.
The same example, presented a little more compactly, and without explic-
itly writing out the divisions, looks like

gcd(14, 10) = gcd(10, 4) = gcd(4, 2) = gcd(2, 0) = 2

At each step, the second number is replaced by the remainder when the first
number is divided by the second, and the second moves into the first spot.
The process is repeated until the second number is a 0 (which must happen
eventually since the second number never will be negative, and it goes down
by at least 1 with each repetition of the process). The gcd is then the number
in the first spot when the second spot is 0 in the last step of the algorithm.

Now, a more exciting example.

Example 22.3. Find the greatest common divisor of 540 and 252. We may
present the computations compactly, without writing1 out the divisions. We 1
Do the divisions yourself to verify the
results.
have
gcd(540, 252) = gcd(252, 36) = gcd(36, 0) = 36.

22.2 Efficiency of the Euclidean algorithm

Using the Euclidean algorithm to find gcd’s is extremely efficient.

Using a calculator with a ten digit display, you can find the gcd of
two ten digit integers in a matter of a few minutes at most using the
Euclidean algorithm. On the other hand, doing the same problem by
first finding the positive divisors of the two ten digit integers would
be a tedious project lasting several days. Some modern cryptographic
systems rely on the computation of the gcd’s of integers of hundreds
of digits. Finding the positive divisors of such large integers, even
with a computer, is, at present, a hopeless task. But a computer im-
plementation of the Euclidean algorithm will produce the gcd of
integers of hundreds of digits in the blink of an eye.
208 math208: discrete mathematics

22.3 The Euclidean algorithm in quotient/remainder form

The Euclidean algorithm can also be written out as a sequence of

divisions:

a = q1 · b + r1 , 0 < r1 < b

b = q2 · r1 + r2 , 0 < r2 < r1

r1 = q3 · r2 + r3 , 0 < r3 < r2
.. ..
.=.

r k = q k +2 · r k +1 + r k +2 , 0 < r k +2 < r k +1
.. ..
.=.

r n −2 = q n · r n −1 + r n , 0 < r n < r n −1

r n −1 = q n +1 · r n + 0

The sequence of integer remainders b > r1 > ... > rk > ... ≥ 0
must eventually reach 0. Let’s say rn 6= 0, but rn+1 = 0, so that
rn−1 = qn+1 · rn . That is, in the sequence of remainders, rn is the last
non-zero term. Then, just as in the examples above we see that the
gcd of a and b is the last nonzero remainder:

gcd( a, b) = gcd(b, r1 ) = gcd(r1 , r2 ) = · · · = gcd(rn−1 , rn )

= gcd(rn , rn+1 ) = gcd(rn , 0) = rn .

Let’s find gcd(317, 118) using this version of the Euclidean algorithm.
Here are the steps:

317 = 2 · 118 + 81

118 = 1 · 81 + 37

81 = 2 · 37 + 7

37 = 5 · 7 + 2

7 = 3·2+1

2 = 2·1+0
 gcd’s and the euclidean algorithm 209

Since the last non-zero remainder is 1, we conclude that gcd(317, 118) =

1. So, in the terminology introduced above, we would say that 317
and 118 are relatively prime.
210 math208: discrete mathematics

22.4 Exercises

Exercise 22.1. Use the Euclidean algorithm to compute gcd( a, b) in each

case.
a) a = 233, b = 89 b) a = 1001, b = 13 c) a = 2457, b = 1458
d) a = 567, b = 349

Exercise 22.2. Compute gcd(987654321, 123456789).

Exercise 22.3. Write a step-by-step algorithm that implements the Eu-

clidean algorithm for finding gcd’s.

Exercise 22.4. If n is a positive integer, what is gcd(n, 2n)?

22.5 Problems

Problem 22.1. Use the Euclidean algorithm to compute gcd( a, b) in each

case.
a) a = 216, b = 111 b) a = 1001, b = 11 c) a = 663, b = 5168
d) a = 1357, b = 2468

Problem 22.2. Compute gcd(733103, 91637).

Problem 22.3. If p is a prime, and n is any integer, what are the possible
values of gcd( p, n)?

Problem 22.4. Prove or give a counterexample: If p and q are two different

primes, then gcd(2p, 2q) = 2.

Problem 22.5. If p is a prime, and m is a positive integer, determine

gcd( p, pm ).

Problem 22.6. If p is a prime, and m ≤ n are positive integers, determine

gcd( pm , pn ).

Problem 22.7. Show that if n is a positive integer, then gcd(n, n + 1) = 1.

23
GCD’s Reprised

The gcd of a and b is defined to be the largest integer that di-

vides them both. But there is another way to describe that gcd. First,
a little vocabulary: by a linear combination of a and b we mean any
expression of the form as + bt where s, t are integers. For example,
4 · 5 + 10 · 2 = 40 is a linear combination of 4 and 10. Here are some
more linear combinations of 4 and 10:

4 · 1 + 10 · 1 = 14, 4 · 0 + 10 · 0 = 0, and, 4 · (− 11 ) + 10 · 1 = − 34.

23.1 The gcd( a, b) as a linear combination of a and b

If we make a list of all possible linear combinations of 4 and 10, an

unexpected pattern appears: · · · , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, · · · . Since 4 and
10 are both even, we are sure to see only even integers in the list of
linear combinations, but the surprise is that every even number is in
the list. Now here’s the connection with gcd’s: The gcd of 4 and 10 is
2, and the list of all linear combinations is exactly all multiples of 2.
Let’s prove that was no accident.

Theorem 23.1. Let a, b be two integers (not both zero). Then the smallest
positive number in the list of the linear combinations of a and b is gcd( a, b).
In other words, the gcd( a, b) is the smallest positive integer that can be
written as a linear combination of a and b.

Proof. Let L = { as + bt | s, t are integers and as + bt > 0 }. Since a, b are

not both 0, we see this set is nonempty. As a nonempty set of positive inte-
212 math208: discrete mathematics

gers, it must have a least element, say m. Since m ∈ L, m is a linear combi-

nation of a and b. Say m = as0 + bt0 . We need to show m = gcd( a, b) = d.
As noted above, since d| a and d|b, it must be that d|( as0 + bt0 ), so d|m.
That implies d ≤ m. We complete the proof by showing m is a common
divisor of a and b. The plan is to divide a by m and show the remainder
must be 0. So write a = qm + r with 0 ≤ r < m. Solving for r we get
0 ≤ r = a − qm = a − q( as0 + bt0 ) = a(1 − qs0 ) + b(−qt0 ) < m.
That shows r is a linear combination of a and b that is less than m. Since m
is the smallest positive linear combination of a and b, the only option for r is
r = 0. Thus a = qm, and so m| a. In the same way, m|b. Since m is a com-
mon divisor or a and b, it follows that m ≤ d. Since the reverse inequality is
also true, we conclude m = d. ♣

And now we are ready for the punch-line.

Theorem 23.2. Let a, b be two integers (not both zero). Then the list of all
the linear combinations of a and b consists of all the multiples of gcd( a, b).

Proof. Since gcd( a, b) = d certainly divides any linear combination of

a and b, only multiples of d stand a chance to be in the list. Now we need
to show that if n is a multiple of the d then n will appear in the list for
sure. According to the last theorem, we can find integers s0 , t0 so that d =
as0 + bt0 . Now since n is a multiple of d, we can write n = de. Multiplying
both sides of d = as0 + bt0 by e gives a(s0 e) + b(t0 e) = de = n, and that
shows n does appear in the list of linear combinations of a and b. ♣

So, without doing any computations, we can be sure that the set of
all linear combinations of 15 and 6 will be all multiples of 3.

23.2 Back-solving to express gcd( a, b) as a linear combination

In practice, finding integers s and t so that as + bt = d = gcd( a, b) is

carried out by using the Euclidean algorithm applied to a and b and
then back-solving.
 gcd’s reprised 213

Example 23.3. Let a = 35 and b = 55. Then the Euclidean algorithm gives

55 = 35 · 1 + 20

35 = 20 · 1 + 15

20 = 15 · 1 + 5

15 = 5 · 3 + 0

The penultimate equation allows us to write 5 = 1 · 20 + (−1) · 15 as

a linear combination of 20 and 15. We then use the equation 35 = 20 ·
1 + 15, to write 15 = 1 · 35 + (−1) · 20. We can substitute this into
the previous expression for 5 as a linear combination of 20 and 15 to get
5 = 1 · 20 + (−1) · 15 = 1 · 20 + (−1) · (1 · 35 + (−1) · 20). Which can
be simplified by collecting 35’s and 20’s to write 5 = 2 · 20 + (−1) · 35.
Now we can use the top equation to write 20 = 1 · 55 + (−1) · 35 and
substitute this into the expression giving 5 as a linear combination of 35 and
20. We get 5 = 2 · (1 · 55 + (−1) · 35) + (−1) · 35. This simplifies to
5 = 2 · 55 + (−3) · 35.

23.3 Extended Euclidean Algorithm

The sort of computation in section 23.2 gets a little tedious, keeping

track of equations and coefficients. Moreover, the back-substitution
method isn’t very pleasant from a programming perspective since
all the equations in the Euclidean algorithm need to be saved before
solving for the coefficients in a linear combination for the gcd( a, b).
The Extended Euclidean Algorithm is a forward-substition method
that allows us to compute linear combinations as we calculate re-
mainders on the way to finding gcd( a, b).
There are two new ideas that we need to add to our Euclidean
Algorithm for computing gcd( a, b): every remainder can be written
as a linear combination of a and b, and we can use the quotient–
remainder computation to generate new linear combinations. An
example is the best way to see how this works.

Example 23.4. Let a = 6567 and b = 987. We would like to find

gcd( a, b) = gcd(6567, 987) and coefficients s and t in a linear combi-
214 math208: discrete mathematics

nation: a(s) + b(t) = gcd( a, b). Suppose that we had found the remainders
r3 = 303 and r4 = 39, and had found corresponding linear combinations:

eqn 3: 6567(2) + 987(−13) = 303, and

eqn 4: 6567(−3) + 987(20) = 39.

To find the next remainder, r5 , the Euclidean Algorithm has us calculate

the quotient, q4 = 7, and then the remainder as r5 = r3 − r4 × q5 = 30. Check this computation!

The Extended Euclidean Algorithm finds the next equation, (eqn 5), by
performing the same operation on (eqn 3) and (eqn 4):
eqn -1: 6567( 1) + 987( 0), = 6567,
eqn 0: 6567( 0) + 987( 1), = 987,
(6567(2) + 987(−13)) − (6567(−3) + 987(20)) × (7) = (303) − (39) × (7), eqn 1: 6567( 1) + 987(−6), = 645, (q1 = 6),
eqn 2: 6567( -1) + 987( 7), = 342, (q2 = 1),
6567(23) + 987(−153) = 30.
eqn 3: 6567( 2) + 987( −13), = 303, (q3 = 1),
eqn 4: 6567( -3) + 987( 20), = 39, (q4 = 1),
In order to get the process started we need two initial equations based on eqn 5: 6567( 23) + 987( −153), = 30, (q5 = 7),
the values of a and b. That is, we will pretend that they are “remainders”, eqn 6: 6567( -26) + 987( 173), = 9, (q6 = 1),
eqn 7: 6567( 101) + 987( −672), = 3, (q7 = 3),
say r−1 = 6567 and r0 = 987, that come before the first true remainder, r1 . eqn 8: 6567( -329) + 987( 2189), = 0, (q8 = 3).
The complete Extended Euclidean Algorithm process is shown in the table.
The last equation with a non-zero remainder is a linear combination of 6567
and 987 equal to the gcd(6567, 987) = 3. That is, we have

6567(101) + 987(−672) = 3.

Notice that every equation in Example 23.4 has the same form:

6567(si ) + 987(ti ) = ri . (23.1)

The only values that change are the linear combination coefficients, The si and ti are called Bézout Coeffi-
cients.
si and ti , the remainders, ri , and the quotient values qi . If we remem-
ber the equation form 23.1, we could just write the changing values i si ti ri qi
in a tabular form (see Table 23.1).
−1 1 0 6567
To generate a new, ith row in a table consider the two consecutive 0 0 1 987
previous rows as equations: 1 1 −6 645 6

2 −1 7 342 1
a(si−2 ) + b(ti−2 ) = ri−2 , and a(si−1 ) + b(ti−1 ) = ri−1 . 3 2 −13 303 1

4 −3 20 39 1
After finding the quotient qi so that ri−2 = qi ṙi−1 + ri , we subtract qi
5 23 −153 30 7
times the i − 1 equation from the i − 2 equation.
6 −26 173 9 1

7 101 −672 3 3

8 −329 2189 0 3

Table 23.1: i: 6567(si ) + 987(ti ) = ri , qi

 gcd’s reprised 215

Simplifying the resulting expression, we obtain

a ( s i −2 − q i · s i −1 ) + b ( t i −2 − q i · t i −1 ) = r i −2 − q i · r i −1 . (23.2)

This is our new, ith equation:

a ( si ) + b ( ti ) = ri . (23.3)

Comparing equations 23.2 with equation 23.3, we see that the si and
ti are calculated in exactly the same way from the previous two val-
ues as the remainder ri is.
Since the equation number i plays no role in the computations, we
need not include that column in the tableaux. si ti ri qi

1 0 55

Example 23.5. Find d = gcd(55, 35) and a linear combination 55(s) + 0 1 35

35(t) = d. 1 −1 20 1

Complete the tableaux in the table using the Extended Euclidean Algo- −1 15 1

1
rithm. Compare these calculations to those of Example 23.3, where we used
3
the back-substitution method.

Often, when performing the Algorithm by hand it is more conve-

nient to write the tableaux horizontally, as in the following example.

Example 23.6. Find gcd(107653, 22869), and write it as a linear combi-

nation of those two numbers. The complete Extended Euclidean Algorithm
table is displayed in table 23.2, where the rows correspond to ri , qi , ti , si ,
respectively.

107653 22869 16177 6692 2793 1106 581 525 56 21 14 7 0

4 1 2 2 2 1 1 9 2 1 2
0 1 -4 5 -14 33 -80 113 -193 1850 -3893 5743 -15379
1 0 1 -1 3 -7 17 -24 41 -393 827 -1220 3267
Table 23.2: gcd(107653, 22869)

Thus, we may conclude that

gcd(107653, 22869) = 7 = (107653)(−1220) + (22869)(5743).

216 math208: discrete mathematics

23.4 General Linear Combinations for gcd( a, b)

In section 23.3 we saw how the Extended Euclidean Algorithm may

be used to find a linear combination of the form a(s) + b(t) =
gcd( a, b). It is often necessary to find all such linear combinations,
(see section 25.3). In particular, such general linear combinations are
found in the study of cryptography. The Algorithm stops when we
reach a remainder of zero. It turns out that the corresponding values
of si and ti , which we haven’t used yet, allow us to find the form for
all linear combinations that equal gcd( a, b).

Example 23.7. Consider example 23.4 wherein we wanted to express

gcd(6567, 987) as a linear combination. We found at the end of the pro-
cess that gcd(6567, 987) = 3 and

6567(101) + 987(−672) = 3, and,

6567(−329) + 987(2189) = 0.

Now, for any integer, say n, we may multiply the last equation by n and
retain zero on the right. Finally, if we add that new equation to the previous
one, we obtain

6567(101 − 329n) + 987(−672 + 2189n) = 3, and,

6567(−329n) + 987(2189n) = 0.

The new penultimate equation gives the form for all the linear combinations
equal to the gcd(6567, 987):

6567(101 − 329n) + 987(−672 + 2189n) = gcd(6567, 987) = 3.

Each pair of Bézout Coefficients can be shown to be relatively

prime1 . In particular, the last equation in the Extended Euclidean 1
See page 206 for the definition of
relatively prime.
Algorithm,
a(sk+1 ) + b(tk+1 ) = 0,

has minimal coefficients sk+1 and tk+1 in that every other such pair is
a common multiple of these two2 . This means that, given any integer 2
See section 25.3.

n, nsk+1 and ntk+1 also satisfy the equation. In fact, it is easy to see
 gcd’s reprised 217

that
a(nsk+1 ) + b(ntk+1 ) = 0.

Finally, to obtain the general solution, as we did in example 23.7, we

add this to the Bézout equation for the gcd( a, b), obtaining One of sk+1 and tk+1 will always be
negative!

a(sk + nsk+1 ) + b(tk + ntk+1 ) = gcd( a, b).

218 math208: discrete mathematics

23.5 Exercises

Exercise 23.1. Determine gcd(13447, 7667) and write it as a linear combi-

nation of 13447 and 7667. Try both the method of back-substitution and the
Extended Euclidean Algorithm to determine a suitable linear combination.

Exercise 23.2. What can you conclude about gcd( a, b) if there are integers
s, t with as + bt = 1?

Exercise 23.3. What can you conclude about gcd( a, b) if there are integers
s, t with as + bt = 19?

Exercise 23.4. What can you conclude about gcd( a, b) if there are integers
s, t with as + bt = 18?

23.6 Problems

Problem 23.1. Determine gcd(41559, 39417) and write it as a linear com-

bination of 41559 and 39417. Try both the method of back-substitution and
the Extended Euclidean Algorithm to determine a suitable linear combina-
tion.

Problem 23.2. What can you conclude about gcd( a, b) if there are integers
s, t with as + bt = 12?

Problem 23.3. What is the smallest positive integer that can be written as a
linear combination of 2191 and 1351?

Problem 23.4. Definition: The least common multiple of the positive

integers a and b is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a
and b.

Example: the least common multiple of 24 and 18 is 72. Write that as

lcm(24, 18) = 72. You might recall the notion of least common multiple
from the time you learned how to add fractions. The idea was that to add
a
two fractions, b and dc , first write the two as equivalent fractions with the
2
same denominator. For example, to add 3 and 54 , write them as 8 15
12 and 12 ,
then add to get 23
12 . The least common denominator when adding ba and dc is
the least common multiple of the denominators, lcm(b, d)
Determine lcm(22, 33). (The answer is not 726.)
 gcd’s reprised 219

Problem 23.5. The result when gcd( a, b) and lcm( a, b) are multiplied is
always a simple combination of a and b. Example: gcd(6, 4) lcm(6, 4) =
2 · 12 = 24. Try a few more examples, and see if you can guess the value of
gcd( a, b) lcm( a, b).
24
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states the fa-

miliar fact that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written
in exactly one way as a product of primes. For example, the prime
factorization of 60 is 22 · 3 · 5, and the prime factorization of 625 is
54 . The factorization of 60 can be written is several different ways:
60 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 5 = 5 · 2 · 3 · 2, and so on. The order in which the factors
are written does not matter. The factorization of 60 into primes will
always have two 2’s, one 3, and one 5. One more example: The fac-
torization if 17 consists of the single factor 17. In the standard form of
the factorization of an integer greater than 1, the primes are written
in order of size, and exponents are used for primes that are repeated
in the factorization. So, for example, the standard factorization of 60
is 60 = 22 · 3 · 5.

24.1 Prime divisors

Before proving the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we will

need to assemble a few facts.

Theorem 24.1. If n| ab and n and a are relatively prime, then n|b.

Proof. Suppose n| ab and that gcd(n, a) = 1. We can find integers s, t

such that ns + at = 1. Multiply both sides of that equation by b to get
nsb + abt = b. Since n divides both terms on the left side of that equation, it
divides their sum, which is b. ♣
 222 math208: discrete mathematics

One consequence of this theorem is that if a prime divides a prod-

uct of some integers, then it must divide one of the factors. That is so
since if a prime does not divide an integer, then it is relatively prime
to that integer. That is useful enough to state as a theorem.

Theorem 24.2. If p is a prime, and p| a1 a2 · · · an , then p| a j for some j =

1, 2, · · · , n.

24.2 Proving the Fundamental Theorem

Theorem 24.3 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). If n > 1 is an

integer, then there exist prime numbers p1 ≤ p2 ≤ ... ≤ pr such that
n = p1 p2 · · · pr and there is only one such prime factorization of n.

Proof. There are two things to prove: (1) every n > 1 can be written in
at least one way as a product of primes (in increasing order) and (2) there
cannot be two different such expressions equal to n.
We will prove these by induction. For the basis, we see that 2 can be
written as a product of primes (namely 2 = 2) and, since 2 is the smallest
prime, this is the only way to write 2 as a product of primes.
For the inductive step, suppose every integer from 2 to k can be writ-
ten uniquely as a product of primes. Now consider the number k + 1. We
consider two cases:

(1) If k + 1 is a prime then k + 1 is already an expression for k + 1 as a

product of primes. There cannot be another expression for k + 1 as a
product of primes, for if k + 1 = pm with p a prime, then p|k + 1 and p
and k + 1 both primes tells us p = k + 1, and so m = 1.

(2) If k + 1 is not a prime, then we can write k + 1 = ab with 2 ≤ a, b ≤ k.

By the inductive hypothesis, each of a and b can be written as prod-
ucts of primes, say a = p1 p2 · · · ps and b = q1 q2 · · · qt . That means
k + 1 = p1 p2 · · · ps q1 q2 · · · qt , and we can rearrange the primes in
increasing order. To complete the proof, we need to show k + 1 can-
not be written in more than one way as a product of an increasing
list of primes. So suppose k + 1 has two different such expressions:
k + 1 = u1 u2 · · · ul = v1 v2 · · · vm . Since u1 |v1 v2 · · · vm , u1 must
divide some one of the vi ’s and since u1 and that vi are both primes,
 the fundamental theorem of arithmetic 223

they must be equal. As the v’s are listed in increasing order, we can con-
clude u1 ≥ v1 . The same reasoning shows v1 ≥ u1 . Thus u1 = v1 .
Now cancel u1 , v1 from each side of u1 u2 · · · ul = v1 v2 · · · vm to get
u2 · · · ul = v2 · · · vm . Since k + 1 was not a prime, both sides of this
equation are greater than 1. Both sides are also less than k + 1. Since
we started with two different factorizations, and canceled the same thing
from both sides, we now have two different factorizations of a number be-
tween 2 and k. That contradicts the inductive assumption. We conclude
the the prime factorization of k + 1 is unique.

Thus, our induction proof is complete. ♣

24.3 Number of positive divisors of n

We can apply the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic to the prob-

lem of counting the number of positive divisors of an integer greater
than 1. For example, consider the integer 12 = 22 3. It follows from
the Fundamental Theorem that the positive divisors of 12 must look
like 2a 3b where a = 0, 1, 2, b = 0, 1. So there are six positive divisors
of 12:

20 30 = 1 21 30 = 2 22 30 = 4 20 31 = 3 21 31 = 6 22 31 = 12
224 math208: discrete mathematics

24.4 Exercises

Exercise 24.1. Determine the prime factorization of 345678.

Exercise 24.2. Determine the prime factorization of 1016.

Exercise 24.3. List all the positive divisors of 1016.

Exercise 24.4. How many positive divisors does 345678 have?

24.5 Problems

Problem 24.1. Determine the prime factorization of 13579.

Problem 24.2. List all the positive divisors of 13579.

Problem 24.3. Prove that if n is an even integer bigger than 2, then 2n − 1

is not a prime. Examples: 24 − 1 = 15 = (3)(5), 210 − 1 = 1023 =
(3)(11)(31), and Hint: Recall the factorization from college algebra s2 −
t2 = (s + t)(s − t).

Problem 24.4. Prime factorizations can be used to find greatest common di-
visors. The method is very inefficient compared to the Euclidean Algorithm
since there is no known fast method of finding prime factorizations. Suppose
a and b are two positive integers. Factor them each as product of primes.
Say
e e f f f f
a = p11 p2e2 p33 · · · penn and b = p11 p22 p33 · · · pnn .

Note that the same list of primes is used for both factorizations, so we will
need to allow exponents to be 0 or more. For example, for a = 12 and
b = 15 we will write a = 12 = 22 · 31 · 50 and 15 = 20 · 31 · 51 .
min(e1 , f 1 ) min(e2 , f 2 ) min(e3 , f 3 ) min(en , f n )
Prove: gcd( a, b) = p1 p2 p3 · · · pn .

Example: gcd(12, 15) = 2min(2,0) 3min(1,1) 5min(0,1) = 20 31 50 = 3.

Problem 24.5. Prime factorizations can be used to find least common

multiples The method, which is likely the one you were taught in grade
school for adding fractions, is, once again, very inefficient. Say

e e f f f f
a = p11 p2e2 p33 · · · penn and b = p11 p22 p33 · · · pnn .

max(e1 , f 1 ) max(e2 , f 2 ) max(e3 , f 3 ) max(en , f n )

Prove: lcm( a, b) = p1 p2 p3 · · · pn .
 the fundamental theorem of arithmetic 225

Example: gcd(12, 15) = 2max(2,0) 3max(1,1) 5max(0,1) = 22 31 51 = 60.

Problem 24.6. Using the formulas for gcd and lcm in the previous two
problems, prove the result you guessed in the last chapter for the product of
gcd( a, b) lcm( a, b). (Hint: The fact you need is min(s, t) + max(s, t) =
s + t, which is not hard to prove.)
25
Linear Diophantine Equations

Consider the following problem:

Al buys some books at $25 each, and some magazines at $3 each.
If he spent a total of $88, how many books and how many magazines
did Al buy? At first glance, it does not seem we are given enough
information to solve this problem. Letting x be the number of books
Al bought, and y the number of magazines, then the equation we
need to solve is 25x + 3y = 88. Thinking back to college algebra
days, we recognize 25x + 3y = 88 as the equation of a straight line
in the plane, and any point along the line will give a solution to the
88
equation. For example, x = 0 and y = 3 is one solution. But, in
the context of this problem, that solution makes no sense because Al
cannot buy a fraction of a magazine. We need a solution in which x
and y are both integers. In fact, we need even a little more care than
that. The solution x = −2 and y = 46 is also unacceptable since Al
cannot buy a negative number of books. So we really need solutions
in which x and y are both nonnegative integers. The problem can be
solved by brute force: If x = 0, y is not an integer. If x = 1, then
y = 21, so that is one possibility. If x = 2, y is not an integer. If
x = 3, y is not an integer. And, if x is 4 or more, then y would have
to be negative. So, it turns out there is only one possible solution: Al
bought one book, and 21 magazines.
 228 math208: discrete mathematics

25.1 Diophantine equations

The above question is an example of a Diophantine problem. Pro-

nounce Diophantine as dee-uh-FAWN-teen or dee-uh-FAWN-tine, or,
the more common variations, die-eh-FAN-teen or die-eh-FAN-tine.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/audio.php?file=diopha01&word=

Diophantineequation) . In general, problems in which we are inter- For a modern pronunciation of Dio-
phantus’s name (∆ιoφαντoζ) see http:
ested in finding solutions in which the variables are to be integers are
//www.pronouncenames.com/Diophantus
called Diophantine problems.
In this chapter we will learn how to easily find the solutions to
all linear Diophantine equations: ax + by = c where a, b, c are given
integers. To show some of the subtleties of such problems, here are
two more examples:

(1) Al buys some books at $24 each, and some magazines at $3 each.
If he spent a total of $875, how many books and how many maga-
zines did Al buy? For this question we need to solve the Diophan-
tine equation 24x + 3y = 875. In this case there are no possible
solutions. For any integers x and y, the left-hand side will be a
multiple of 3 and so cannot be equal to 875 which is not a multiple
of 3.

(2) Al buys some books at $26 each, and some magazines at $3 each.
If he spent a total of $157, how many books and how many mag-
azines did Al buy? Setting up the equation as before, we need to
solve the Diophantine equation 26x + 3y = 157. A little trial and
error, testing x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on shows there are two possible
answers this time: ( x, y) ∈ {(2, 35), (5, 9)}.

25.2 Solutions and gcd( a, b)

Determining all the solutions to ax + by = c is closely connected

with the idea of gcd’s. One connection is theorem 23.1. Here is how
solutions of ax + by = c are related.

Theorem 25.1. ax + by = c has a solution in the integers if and only if

gcd( a, b) divides c.
 linear diophantine equations 229

So, for example, 9x + 6y = 211 has no solutions (in the integers)

while 9x + 6y = 213 does have solutions. To find a solution to the last
equation, apply the Extended Euclidean Algorithm method to write
the gcd(9, 6) as a linear combination of 9 and 6 (actually, this one is
easy to do by sight): 9 · 1 + 6 · (−1) = 3, then multiply both sides by
213/gcd(9, 6) = 213/3 = 71 to get (71)9 + (−71)6 = 213. That shows
x = 71, y = −71 is a solution to 9x + 6y = 213.
But that is only one possible solution. When a linear Diophantine
equation has one solution it will have infinitely many. In the example
above, another solution will be x = 49 and y = −38. Checking shows
that (49)9 + (−38)6 = 213.

25.3 Finding all solutions

There is a simple recipe for all solutions, once one particular solution
has been found.

Theorem 25.2. Let d = gcd( a, b). Suppose x = s and y = t is one

solution to ax + by = c. Then all solutions are given by

b a
x = s+k and y = t−k where, k = any integer.
d d

Proof. It is easy to check that all the displayed x, y pairs are solutions
simply by plugging in:
 
b  a abk abk
a s+k +b t−k = as + + bt − = as + bt = c.
d d d d

Checking that the displayed formulas for x and y give all possible solu-
tions is trickier. Let’s assume a 6= 0. Now suppose x = u and y = v
is a solution. That means au + bv = c = as + bt. It follows that
a(u − s) = b(t − v). Divide both sides of that equation by d to get

a b
( u − s ) = ( t − v ).
d d

a b a b
That equation shows (t − v). Since and are relatively prime, we
d d d d
a a
conclude that (t − v). Let’s say k = t − v. Rearrange that equation to
d d
230 math208: discrete mathematics

get
a
v = t−k .
d
a b a
Next, replacing t − v in the equation (u − s) = (t − v) with k gives
d d d

a b b  a
(u − s) = (t − v) = k .
d d d d
a
Since 6= 0, we can cancel that factor. So, we have
d

b b
u−s = k so that u = s+k .
d d

That proves the solution x = u, y = v is given by the displayed formulas.

♣

25.4 Examples

Example 25.3. Determine all the solutions to 221x + 91y = 39.

Using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm method, we learn that gcd(221, 91) =
13 and since 13|39, the equation will have infinitely many solutions. The
Extended Euclidean Algorithm table provides a linear combination of 221
and 91 equal to 13: 221(−2) + 91(5) = 13. Multiply both sides by
3 and we get 221(−6) + 91(15) = 39. So one particular solution to
221x + 91y = 39 is x = −6, y = 15. According the the theorem above, all
solutions are given by

91 221
x = −6 + k = −6 + 7k and y = 15 − k = 15 − 17k,
13 13

where k is any integer.

Example 25.4. Armand buys some books for $25 each and some cd’s for $12
each. If he spent a total of $331, how many books and how many cd’s did he
buy?
Let x = the number of books, and y = the number of cd’s. We need to
solve 25x + 12y = 331. The gcd of 25 and 12 is 1, and there is an obvious
linear combination of 25 and 12 which equals 1: 25(1) + 12(−2) = 1.
Multiplying both sides by 331 gives 25(331) + 12(−662) = 331. So one
particular solution to 25x + 12y = 331 is x = 331 and y = −662. Of
course, that won’t do for an answer to the given problem since we want
 linear diophantine equations 231

x, y ≥ 0. To find the suitable choices for x and y, let’s look at all the possible
solutions to 25x + 12y = 331. We have that

x = 331 + 12k and y = −662 − 25k.

We want x and y to be at least 0, and so we need

331 + 12k ≥ 0 and − 662 − 25k ≥ 0.

Which means that

331 662
k≥− and k≤− ,
12 25

or

331 662
− ≤k ≤ − .
12 25

The only option for k is k = −27, and so we see Armand bought x =

331 + 12(−27) = 7 books and y = −662 − 25(−27) = 13 cd’s.
232 math208: discrete mathematics

25.5 Exercises

Exercise 25.1. Find all integer solutions to 21x + 48y = 8.

Exercise 25.2. Find all integer solutions to 21x + 48y = 9.

Exercise 25.3. Find all integer solutions to 33x + 12y = 7.

Exercise 25.4. Find all integer solutions to 33x + 12y = 6.

Exercise 25.5. Sal sold some ceramic vases for $59 each, and a number of
ash trays for $37 each. If he took in a total of $4270, how many of each item
did he sell?

25.6 Problems

Problem 25.1. Find all integer solutions to 14x + 77y = 69.

Problem 25.2. Find all integer solutions to 14x + 77y = 70.

Problem 25.3. Beth stocked her video store with a number of video game
machines at $79 each, and a number of video games at $41 each. If she spent
a total of $6358, how many of each item did she purchase?

Problem 25.4. If you all you have are dimes and quarters, in how many
ways can you pay a $7 bill?
(For example, one way would be 10 dimes and 24 quarters.)

Problem 25.5. How many integer solutions are there to the equation 11x +
7y = 137 if the value of x has to be at least −15 and not more than 20.

Problem 25.6. Determine all integer solutions to 5x − 7y = 99. (Watch

that minus sign!)
26
Modular Arithmetic

Karl Friedrich Gauss made the important discovery of modular

arithmetic. Modular arithmetic is also called clock arithmetic, and we
are actually used to doing modular arithmetic all the time (pun in-
tended). For example, consider the question If it is 7 o’clock now, what
time will it be in 8 hours?. Of course the answer is 3 o’clock, and we
found the answer by adding 7 + 8 = 15, and then subtracting 12 to
get 15 − 12 = 3. Actually, we are so accustomed to that sort of cal-
culation, we probably just immediately blurt out the answer without
stopping to think how we figured it out. But trying a less familiar
version of the same sort of problem makes it plain exactly what we
needed to do to answer such questions: If it is 7 o’clock now, what time
will it be in 811 hours? To find out, we add 7 + 811 = 818, then divide
that by 12, getting 818 = (68)(12) + 2, and so we conclude it will be
2 o’clock. The general rule is: to find the time h hours after t o’clock,
add h + t, divide by 12 and take the remainder.
There is nothing special about the number 12 in the above dis-
cussion. We can imagine a clock with any integer number of hours
(greater than 1) on the clock. For example, consider a clock with 5
hours. What time will it be 61 hours after 2 o’clock. Since 61 + 2 =
63 = (12)(5) + 3, the answer is 3 o’clock.
In the general case, if we have a clock with m hours, then the time
h hours after t o’clock will be the remainder when t + h is divided by
m.
234 math208: discrete mathematics

26.1 The modulo m equivalence relation

This can all be expressed in more mathematical sounding language.

The key is obviously the notion of remainder. That leads to the fol-
lowing definition:
So, the reason it is 2 o’clock 811 hours
Definition 26.1. Given an integer m > 1, we say that two integers a after 7 o’clock is that

and b are congruent modulo m, and write a ≡ b (mod m), in case a 811 + 7 ≡ 2 (mod 12)

and b leave the same remainder when divided by m.

Theorem 26.2. Congruence modulo m defines an equivalence relation on

Z.

Proof. The relation is clearly reflexive since every number leaves the same
remainder as itself when divided by m. Next, if a and b leave the same
remainder when divided by m, so do b and a, so the relation is symmetric.
Finally, if a and b leave the same remainder, and b and c leave the same
remainder, then a and c leave the same remainder, and so the relation is
transitive. ♣

There is an alternative way to think of congruence modulo m.

Theorem 26.3. a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if m|( a − b).

Proof. Suppose a ≡ b (mod m). That means a and b leave the same
remainder, say r when divided by m. So we can write a = jm + r and
b = km + r. Subtracting the second equation from the first gives a − b =
( jm + r ) − (km + r ) = jm − km = ( j − k)m, and that shows m|( a − b).
For the converse, suppose m|( a − b). Divide a, b by m to get quotients
and remainders: a = jm + r and b = km + s, where 0 ≤ r, s < m.
We need to show that r = s. Subtracting the second equation from the
first gives a − b = m( j − k ) + (r − s). Since m divides a − b and m
divides m( j − k), we can conclude m divides ( a − b) − m( j − k) = r − s.
Now since 0 ≤ r, s < m, the quantity r − s must be one of the numbers
m − 1, m − 2, · · · , 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, · · · − (m − 1). The only number in that
list that m divides is 0, and so r − s = 0. That is, r = s, as we wanted to
show. ♣
 modular arithmetic 235

26.2 Equivalence classes modulo m

The equivalence class of an integer a with respect to congruence

modulo m will be denoted by [ a], or [ a]m in case we are employing
more than one number m as a modulus. In other words, [ a] is the set
of all integers that leave the same remainder as a when divided by
m. Or, another way to say the same thing, [ a] comprises all integers
b such that b − a is a multiple of m. That means b − a = km, or
b = a + km.
That last version is often the easiest way to think about the inte- For example, the equivalence class of 7
modulo 11 would be
gers that appear in [ a]: start with a and add and subtract any number
of m’s. [7] = {· · · , −15, −4, 7, 18, 29, 40, · · · }.

We know that the distinct equivalence classes partition Z. Since di-

viding an integer by m leaves one of 0, 1, 2, · · · , m − 1 as a remainder,
we can conclude that there are exactly m equivalence classes modulo
m. In particular, [0], [1], [2], [3], ...[m − 1] is a list of all the different
equivalence classes modulo m. It is traditional when working with 

modular arithmetic to drop the [ ] symbols denoting the equivalence

classes, and simply write the representatives. So we would say, mod-
ulo m, there are m numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · , m − 1. But keep in mind
that each of those numbers really represents a set, and we can replace
any number in that list with another equivalent to it modulo m. For
example, we can replace the 0 by m. The list 1, 2, 3 · · · , m − 1, m still
consists of all the distinct values modulo m.

26.3 Modular arithmetic

One reason the relation of congruence modulo m useful is that addi-

tion and multiplication of numbers modulo m acts in many ways just
like arithmetic with ordinary integers.

Theorem 26.4. If a ≡ c (mod m), and b ≡ d (mod m), then a + b ≡

c + d (mod m) and ab ≡ cd (mod m).

Proof. Suppose a ≡ c (mod m) and b ≡ d (mod m). Then there exist

integers k and l with a = c + km and b = d + lm. So a + b = c + km +
d + lm = (c + d) + (k + l )m. This can be rewritten as ( a + b) − (c + d) =
236 math208: discrete mathematics

(k + l )m, where k + l ∈ Z. So a + b ≡ c + d (mod m). The other part is

done similarly. ♣

Example 26.5. What is the remainder when 1103 + 112 is divided by 11?
We can answer this problem in two different ways. We could add 1103 and
112, and then divide by 11. Or, we could determine the remainders when
each of 1103 and 112 is divided by 11, then add those remainders before
dividing by 11. The last theorem promises us the two answers will be the
same. In fact 1103 + 112 = 1215 = (110)(11) + 5 so that 1103 +
112 ≡ 5 (mod 11). On the other hand 1103 = (100)(11) + 3 and
112 = (10)(11) + 2, so that 1103 + 112 ≡ 3 + 2 ≡ 5 (mod 11).

Example 26.6. A little more impressive is the same sort of problem with
operation of multiplication: what is the remainder when (1103)(112) is
divided by 11? The calculation looks like (1103)(112) ≡ (3)(2) ≡ 6
(mod 11).

Example 26.7. For a really awe inspiring example, let’s find the re-
mainder when 1103112 is divided by 11. In other words, we want to find
x = 0, 1, 2, · · · 10 so that 1103112 ≡ x (mod 11).
Now 1103112 is a pretty big number (in fact, since log 1103112 =
112 log 1103 = 340.7 · · · , the number has 341 digits). In order to solve
this problem, let’s start by thinking small: Let’s compute 1103n , for n =
1, 2, 3, · · · .

11031 ≡ 1103 ≡ 3 (mod 11)

11032 ≡ 32 ≡ 9 (mod 11)
11033 ≡ 1103(11032 ) ≡ 3(9) ≡ 27 ≡ 5 (mod 11)
11034 ≡ (1103)(11033 ) ≡ 3(5) ≡ 15 ≡ 4 (mod 11)
11035 ≡ (1103)(11034 ) ≡ 3(4) ≡ 12 ≡ 1 (mod 11)

Now that last equation is very interesting. It says that whenever we see
11035 we may just as well write 1 if we are working modulo 11. And now
we see there is an easy way to determine 1103112 modulo 11:

1103112 ≡ 11035(22)+2 ≡ (11035 )22 (11032 ) ≡ 122 (9) ≡ 9 (mod 11)

 modular arithmetic 237

The sort of computation in example 26.7 appears to be just a cu-

riosity, but in fact the last sort of example forms the basis of one
version of public key cryptography. Computations of exactly that
type (but with much larger integers) are made whenever you log into
a secure Internet site. It’s reasonable to say that e-commerce owes its
existence to the last theorem.
While modular arithmetic in many ways behaves like ordinary
arithmetic, there are some differences to watch for. One important
difference is the familiar rule of cancellation: in ordinary arithmetic, if 

ab = ac and a 6= 0, then b = c. This rule fails in modular arithmetic.

For example, 3 6≡ 0 (mod 6) and (3)(5) ≡ (3)(7) (mod 6), but 5 6≡ 7
(mod 6).

26.4 Solving congruence equations

Solving congruence equations is a popular sport. Just as with regular

arithmetic with integers, if we want to solve a + x ≡ b (mod m),
we can simply set x ≡ b − a (mod m). So, for example, solving
55 + x ≡ 11 (mod 6) we would get x ≡ 11 − 55 ≡ −44 ≡ 4 (mod 6).
Equations involving multiplication, such as ax ≡ b (mod m), are
much more interesting. If the modulus m is small, equations of this
sort can be solved by trial-and-error: simply try all possible choices
for x. For example, testing x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in the equation 4x ≡ 5
(mod 7), we see x ≡ 3 (mod 7) is the only solution. The equation
4x ≡ 5 (mod 8) has no solutions at all. And the equation 2x ≡ 4
(mod 6) has x ≡ 2, 5 (mod 6) for solutions.
Trial-and-error is not a suitable approach for large values of m.
There is a method that will produce all solutions to ax ≡ b (mod m).
It turns out that such equations are really just linear Diophantine
equations in disguise, and that is the key to the proof of the following
theorem.
This is why 4x ≡ 5 (mod 7) has a
solution: gcd(4, 7) = 1 and 1|5. And,
Theorem 26.8. The congruence ax ≡ b (mod m) can be solved for x if
why 4x ≡ 5 (mod 8) has no solutions:
and only if d = gcd( a, m) divides b. gcd(4, 8) = 4, but 4/|5.

Proof. Solving ax ≡ b (mod m) is the same as finding x so that

m|( ax − b) and that’s the same as finding x and y so that ax − b = my.
238 math208: discrete mathematics

Rewriting that last equation in the form ax + (−m)y = b, we can see

solving ax ≡ b (mod m) is the same as solving the linear Diophantine
equation ax + (−m)y = b. We know that equation has a solution if and
only if gcd( a, m)|b, so that proves the theorem. ♣

The theorem also shows that 2x ≡ 4 (mod 6) has a solution

since gcd(2, 6) = 2 and 2|4. But why does this last equation have
two solutions? The answer to that is also provided by the results
concerning linear Diophantine equations.
Let gcd( a, m) = d. The solutions to ax ≡ b (mod m) are the
same as the solutions for x to ax + (−m)y = b. Supposing that last
equation has a solution with x = s, then we know all possible choices
of x are given by x = s + k md . So if x = s is one solution to ax ≡ b
(mod m), then all solutions are given by x = s + k md , where k is any
m
integer. In other words, all solutions are given by x ≡ s (mod d ),
and so there are d solutions modulo m,

Example 26.9. Let’s find all the solutions to 2x ≡ 4 (mod 6). Since x = 2
is obviously one solution, we see all solutions are given by x = 2 + k 62 =
2 + 3k, where k is any integer. When k = 0, 1 we get x = 2, 5, and other
values of k repeat these two modulo 6. Looking at the solutions written as
x = 2 + k 62 = 2 + 3k, we can see another way to express the solutions
would be as x ≡ 2 (mod 3).

Example 26.10. Find all solutions to 42x ≡ 35 (mod 91).

Using the continued fraction method (or just staring at the numbers
42 and 91 long enough) we see gcd(91, 42) = 7 and, since 7|35, the
equation will have a solution. In fact, since gcd(42, 91) = 7, there are
going to be seven solutions modulo 91. All we need is to find one particu-
lar solution, then the others will all be easy to determine. Again using the
continued fraction method (or just playing with 42 and 91 a little bit) we
discover (42)(−2) + (91)(1) = 7 = gcd(42, 91). Multiplying by 5 gives
(42)(−10) + (91)(5) = 35. The only thing we care about is that x = −10
is one solution to 42x ≡ 35 (mod 91). As above, it follows that all solu-
tions are given by x ≡ −10 (mod ) gcd(91
42,91)
. That’s the same as x ≡ −10
(mod 13), or, even more neatly, x ≡ 3 (mod 13). In other words, the
solutions are 3, 16, 29, 42, 55, 68, 81 modulo 91.
 modular arithmetic 239

26.5 Exercises

Exercise 26.1.

(a) On a military (24-hour) clock, what time is it 3122 hours after 16 hun-
dred hours?

(b) What day of the week is it 3122 days after a Monday?

(c) What month is it 3122 months after November?

Exercise 26.2. List the integers in [7]11 .

Exercise 26.3. In a listing of the five equivalence classes modulo 5, four of

the values are 1211, 218, −100, and −3333. What are the possible choices
for the fifth value?

Exercise 26.4. Determine n between 0 and 24 such that

2311 + 3912 ≡ n (mod 25).

Exercise 26.5. Determine n between 0 and 24 such that

(2311)(3912) ≡ n (mod 25).

Exercise 26.6. Determine n between 0 and 8 such that

11112222 ≡ n (mod 9).

Exercise 26.7. Solve: 4x ≡ 3 (mod 7).

Exercise 26.8. Solve 11x ≡ 8 (mod 57).

Exercise 26.9. Solve: 14x ≡ 3 (mod 231).

Exercise 26.10. Solve 8x ≡ 16 (mod 28)

Exercise 26.11. Solve: 91x ≡ 189 (mod 231)

Exercise 26.12. Let d = gcd( a, m), and let s be a solution

to ax ≡ b (mod m).

(a) Show that if ax ≡ b (mod m), then there is an integer r such that
x = s + r md .

m


(b) If 0 ≤ r1 < r2 < d, then the numbers x1 = s + r1 d and
x2 = s + r2 md are not congruent modulo m.


240 math208: discrete mathematics

26.6 Problems

Problem 26.1. Suppose we have a 52 card deck with the cards in order, top
to bottom, ace , 2, 3, . . . , queen, king for clubs, then diamonds, then hearts,
then spades. A step consists to taking the top card and moving it to the
bottom of the deck. We start with the ace of clubs as the top card. After two
steps, the top card is the 3 of clubs. What is the top card after 735 steps?

Problem 26.2. The marks on a combination lock are numbered 0 to 39. If

the lock is at mark 19, and the dial is turned one mark clockwise, it will be at
mark 18. If the lock is at mark 19 and turned 137 marks clockwise, at what
mark will it be?

Problem 26.3. List the integers in [11]7 .

Problem 26.4. Arrange the numbers −39, −27, −8, 11, 37, 68, 91
so they are in the order 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 modulo 7.

Problem 26.5. Determine n between 0 and 16 such that

311 + 891 ≡ n ( mod 17).

Problem 26.6. Determine n between 0 and 16 such that

(405)(777) ≡ n ( mod 17).

Problem 26.7. Determine n between 0 and 16 such that

710447 ≡ n ( mod 17).

Problem 26.8. Solve: 3x ≡ 5 ( mod 8).

Problem 26.9. Solve: 13x ≡ 12 ( mod 68).

Problem 26.10. Solve: 15x ≡ 12 ( mod 27).

Problem 26.11. Solve: 12x ≡ 9 ( mod 88).

Problem 26.12. Solve: 33x ≡ 183 ( mod 753).

Problem 26.13. There is exactly one n between 0 and 55 such that

n ≡ 6 ( mod 7) and n ≡ 1 ( mod 8). Determine that n.

Problem 26.14. There is exactly one n between 0 and 19548 such that
n ≡ 22 ( mod 173) and n ≡ 80 ( mod 113). Determine that n.
27
Integers in Other Bases

The usual way of writing integers is in terms of groups of ones

(units), and groups of tens, and groups of tens of tens (hundreds),
and so on. Thus 237 stands for 7 units plus 3 tens and 2 hundreds, or
2(102 ) + 3(10) + 7. This is the familiar decimal notation for numbers
(deci = ten). But there is really nothing special about the number ten
here, and it could be replaced by any integer bigger than one. That is,
we could use say 7 the way 10 was used above to describe a number.
Thus we would specify how many units, how many 7’s and 72 ’s and
73 ’s, and so on are needed to make up the number. When a num-
ber is expressed in this fashion with b in place of the 10, the result is
called the base-b expansion (or radix-b expansion) of the integer.
For example, the decimal integer 132, is made up of two 72 ’s,
four 7’s and finally six units. Thus we express the base ten number
132 as 246 in base 7, or as 2467 , the little 7 indicating the base. For
small numbers, with a couple of minutes practice, conversion from
base 10 (decimal) to other bases, and back again can be carried out
mentally. For larger numbers, mental arithmetic will prove a little
awkward. Luckily there is a handy algorithm to do the conversion
automatically.

27.1 Converting to and from base-10

For base 10 integers, we use the decimal digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

In general, for base b, the digits will be 0, 1, 2, 3 · · · , b − 1. So, for
example, a base 7 numbers use digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
242 math208: discrete mathematics

Conversion from the base b expansion of a number to its decimal

version is a snap: For example, the meaning of 23025 is

23025 = 2 · 53 + 3 · 52 + 0 · 5 + 2 = 2(125) + 3(25) + 0(5) + 2 = 327

That sort of computation is so easy because we have been prac-

ticing base 10 arithmetic for so many years. If we were as good at
arithmetic in some base b, then conversion from base 10 to base b
would be just as simple. But, lacking that comfort with base b arith-
metic, we need to describe the conversion algorithm from decimal to
base b a little more formally. Here’s the idea.
Suppose we have a decimal number n that we want to convert to
some base b. Let’s say the base b expansion is dk dk−1 · · · d2 d1 d0 , with
the base b digits between 0 and b − 1. That means

n = d k · b k + d k −1 · b k −1 + · · · + d 2 · b 2 + d 1 · b + d 0

Now, if we divide n by b, we can see the equation above tells us

n = ( d k · b k −1 + d k −1 · b k −2 + · · · + d 2 · b + d 1 ) b + d 0

So the quotient is q = dk · bk−1 + dk−1 · bk−2 + · · · + d2 · b + d1 , and

and the remainder is the base b digit d0 of n. So we have found the
units digit in the base b expansion of n. If we repeat that process on
the quotient q, the result is

q = ( d k · b k −2 + d k −1 · b k −3 + · · · + d 2 ) b + d 1

so the next base b digit, d1 appears as the remainder. Continuing in

this fashion, the base b expansion is produced one digit at a time.
Briefly, to convert a positive decimal integer n to its base b repre-
sentation, divide n by b, to find the quotient and the remainder. That
remainder will be needed units digit. Then divide the quotient by b
again, to get a new quotient and a new remainder. That remainder
gives the next base b digit. Then divide the new quotient by b again,
and so on. In this way producing the base b digits one after the other.
 integers in other bases 243

Example 27.1. To convert 14567 from decimal to base 5, the steps are:

14567 = 2913 · 5 + 2

2913 = 582 · 5 + 3

582 = 116 · 5 + 2

116 = 23 · 5 + 1

23 = 4 · 5 + 3

4 = 0 · 5 + 4.

So, we see that 14567 = 4312325 .

27.2 Converting between non-decimal bases

Example 27.2. Convert n = 33557 to base 5.

The least confusing way to do such a problem would be to convert n
from base 7 to base 10, and then convert the base 10 expression for n to
base 5. This method allows us to do all our work in base 10 where we are
comfortable. The computations start with:

n = 3 · 73 + 3 · 72 + 5 · 7 + 5 = 1216.

Then, we calculate:

1216 = 243 · 5 + 1

243 = 48 · 5 + 3

48 = 9 · 5 + 3

9 = 1·5+4

1 = 0 · 5 + 1.

So, we have 33557 = 143315 .

An alternative method, not for the faint of heart, is convert di-

rectly from base 7 to base 5 skipping the middle man, base 10. In
this method, we simply divide n by 5, take the remainder, getting the
units digit, then divide the quotient by 5 to get the next digit, and so
on, just as described above. The rub is that the arithmetic must all be
244 math208: discrete mathematics

done in base 7, and we don’t know the base 7 times table very well.
For example, in base 7, 3 · 5 = 21 is correct since three 5’s add up to
two 7’s plus one more.
The computation would now look like (all the 7 ’s indicating base 7
are suppressed for readability):

3355 = 465 · 5 + 1 (yes, that’s really correct!),

465 = 66 · 5 + 3

66 = 12 · 5 + 3

12 = 1 · 5 + 4

1 = 0 · 5 + 1.

Hence, once again, we have 33557 = 143315 .

27.3 Computer science bases: 2, 8, and 16

Particularly important in computer science applications of discrete

mathematics are the bases 2 (called binary), 8 (called octal) and 16
(called hexadecimal, or simply hex). Thus the decimal number 75
would be 10010112 (binary), 1138 (octal) and 4B16 in hex. Note that
for hex numbers, symbols will be needed to represent hex digits for
10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15. The letters A, B, C, D, E and F are tradition-
ally used for these digits.
 integers in other bases 245

27.4 Exercises

Exercise 27.1. Convert to decimal: 213 , 3214 , 43215 , and FED16 .

Exercise 27.2. Convert the decimal integer 11714 to bases 2, 6, and 16.
Remember to use A, B, · · · , F to represent base 16 digits from 10 to 15, if
needed.

Exercise 27.3. Complete the following base 7 multiplication table.

× 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 2 4

3 12

4 22

Exercise 27.4. Make base 6 addition and multiplication tables similar to

the base 7 multiplication table of exercise 27.3.

Exercise 27.5. (For those with a sweet tooth for punishment!) Use the
Euclidean algorithm to compute gcd(51227 , 13127 ) without converting the
numbers to base 10.

27.5 Problems

Problem 27.1. Convert to decimal: 123 , 1234 , 12345 , and DDD16 .

Problem 27.2. Convert the decimal integer 3177 to bases 2, 6, and 16.
Remember to use A, B, · · · , F to represent base 16 digits from 10 to 15, if
needed.

Problem 27.3. Make base 8 addition and multiplication tables similar to

the base 7 multiplication table of exercise 27.3.

Problem 27.4. Using the table in problem 27.3, add 1268 + 4578 .
246 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 27.5. Using the table in problem 27.3, multiply (1268 )(4578 ).

Problem 27.6. Determine all choices of base b ≥ 2 such that when the
decimal number 100 is written in base b, the units digit is 0.

Problem 27.7. Determine all choices of base b ≥ 2 such that when the
decimal number 100 is written in base b, the units digit is 1.
28
The Two Fundamental Counting Principles

The next few chapters will deal with the topic of combina-
torics: the art of counting. By counting we mean determining the
number of different ways of arranging objects in certain patterns or
the number of ways of carrying out a sequence of tasks. For example,
suppose we want to count the number of ways of making a bit string
of length two. Such a problem is small enough that the possible ar-
rangements can be counted by brute force. In other words, we can
simply make a list of all the possibilities: 00, 01, 10, 11. So the answer
is four. If the problem were to determine the number of bit strings of
length fifty, the brute force method loses a lot of its appeal. For prob-
lems where brute force counting is not a reasonable alternative, there
are a few principles we can apply to aid in the counting. In fact, there
are just two basic principles on which all counting ultimately rests.
Throughout this chapter, all sets mentioned will be finite sets, and
if A is a set, | A| will denote the number of elements in A.

28.1 The sum rule

The sum rule says that if the sets A and B are disjoint, then

| A ∪ B | = | A | + | B |.
248 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 28.1. For example, if A = { a, b, c} and B = { j, k, l, m, n}, then

| A| = 3, | B| = 5, and, sure enough,

| A ∪ B| = |{ a, b, c, j, k, l, m, n}| = 8 = 3 + 5.

Care must be used when applying the sum principle that the sets 

are disjoint. If A = { a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d}, then | A ∪ B| = 4, and

not 6.

Example 28.2. As another example of the sum principle, if we have a

collection of 3 dogs and 5 cats, then we can select one of the animals in 8
ways.

28.1.1 Counting two independent tasks

The sum principle is often expressed in different language: If we can

do task 1 in m ways and task 2 in n ways, and the tasks are indepen-
dent (meaning that both tasks cannot be done at the same time), then
there are m + n ways to do one of the two tasks. The independence of
the tasks is the analog of the disjointness of the sets in the set version
of the sum rule.
A serious type of error is trying to use the sum rule for tasks that 

are not independent. For instance, suppose we want to know in how

many different ways we can select either a deuce or a six from an ordinary
deck of 52 cards. We could let the first task be the process of selecting a
deuce from the deck. That task can be done in 4 ways since there are
4 deuces in the deck. For the second task, we will take the operation
of selecting a six from the deck. Again, there are 4 ways to accom-
plish that task. Now these tasks are independent since we cannot
simultaneously pick a deuce and a six from the deck. So, according
to the sum rule, there are 4 + 4 = 8 ways of selecting one card from a
deck, and having that card be either a deuce or a six.
Now consider the similar sounding question: In how many ways can
we select either a deuce or a diamond from a deck of 52 cards? We could
let the first task again be the operation of selecting a deuce from
the deck, with 4 ways to carry out that task. And we could let the
second task be the operation of selecting a diamond from the deck,
 the two fundamental counting principles 249

with 13 ways to accomplish that. But in this case, the answer to the
question is not 4 + 13 = 17, since these tasks are not independent. It
is possible to select a card that is both a deuce and a diamond. So the
sum rule cannot be used. What is the correct answer? Well, there are
13 diamonds, and there are 3 deuces besides the two of diamonds,
and so there are actually 16 cards in the deck that are either a deuce
or a diamond. That means there are 16 ways to select a card from a
deck and have it turn out to be either a deuce or a diamond.

28.1.2 Extended sum rule

The sum rule can be extended to the case of more than two sets (or
more than two tasks): If A1 , A2 , A3 , · · · , An is a collection of pairwise
disjoint sets, then | A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ · · · ∪ An | = | A1 | + | A2 | + | A3 | +
· · · + | An |. Or, in terms of tasks: If task 1 can be done in k1 ways, and
task 2 in k2 , and task 3 in k3 ways, and so on, until task n can be done
in k n ways, and if the tasks are all independent1 , then we can do one 1
They must be pairwise independent!

task in k1 + k2 + k3 + · · · + k n ways.

Example 28.3. For example, if we own three cars, two bikes, a motorcycle,
four pairs of roller skates, and two scooters, then we can select one of these
modes of transportation in 3 + 2 + 1 + 4 + 2 = 12 ways.

28.1.3 Sum rule and the logical or

The sum rule is related to the logical connective or. That is reasonable
since the sum rule counts the number of elements in the set A ∪ B =
{ x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B }. In terms of tasks, the sum rule counts the
number of ways to do either task 1 or task 2. Generally speaking,
when the word or occurs in a counting problem, the sum rule is the
tool to use. But, verify independence!

28.2 The product rule

The logical connective and is related to the second fundamental

counting principle: the product rule. The product rule says:

| A × B | = | A | · | B |.
250 math208: discrete mathematics

An explanation of this is that A × B consists of all ordered pairs ( a, b)

where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. There are | A| choices for a and then | B|
choices for b.

28.2.1 Counting two sequential tasks: logical and

In terms of tasks, the product rule says that if task 1 can be done in
m ways and task 2 can be done in n ways after task 1 has been done,
then there are mn ways to do both tasks, the first then the second.
Here the relation with the logical connective and is also obvious. We
need to do task 1 and task 2. Generally speaking, the appearance of
and in a counting problem suggests the product rule will come into
play.

28.2.2 Extended product rule

As with the sum rule, the product rule can be used for situations
with more than two sets or more than two tasks. In terms of sets,
the product rule reads | A1 × A2 × · · · An | = | A1 | · | A2 | · · · | An |. In
terms of tasks, it reads, if task 1 can be done in k1 ways, and for each
of those ways, task 2 can be done in k2 ways, and for each of those
ways, task 3 can be done in k3 ways, and so on, until for each of those
ways, task n can be done in k n ways, then we can do task 1 followed
by task 2 followed by task 3, etc, followed by task n in k1 k2 k3 · · · k n
ways. That sounds worse than it really is.

Example 28.4. How many bit strings are there of length five?

Solution. We can think of task 1 as filling in the first (right hand) position,
task 2 as filling in the second position, and so on. We can argue that we
have two ways to do task 1, and then two ways to do task 2, and then two
ways to do task 3, and then two ways to do task 4, and then two ways to do
task 5. So, by the product rule, there are 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 25 = 32 ways to The same reasoning shows that, in
general, there are 2n bit strings of
do all five tasks, and so there are 32 bit strings of length five.
length n.
Example 28.5. Suppose we are buying a car with five choices for the ex-
terior color and three choices for the interior color. Then there is a total of
3 · 5 = 15 possible color combinations that we can choose from. The first task
is to select an exterior color, and there are 5 ways to do that. The second task
 the two fundamental counting principles 251

is to select an interior color, and there are 3 ways to do that. So the product
rule says there are 15 ways total to do both tasks. Notice that there is no
requirement of independence of tasks when using the product rule. However,
also notice that the number of ways of doing the second task must be the
same no matter what choice is made for doing the first task.

Example 28.6. For another, slightly more complicated, example of the

product rule in action, suppose we wanted to make a two-digit number
using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. How many different such two-
digit numbers could we form? Let’s make the first task filling in the left
digit, and the second task filling in the right digit. There are 9 ways to do
the first task. And, no matter how we do the first task, there are 9 ways to do
the second task as well. So, by the product rule, there are 9 · 9 = 81 possible
such two-digit numbers.

Example 28.7. Now, let’s change the problem in example 28.6 a little bit.
Suppose we wanted two-digit numbers made up of those same nine digits,
but we do not want to use a digit more than once in any of the numbers.
In other words, 37 and 91 are OK, but we do not want to count 44 as a
possibility. We can still make the first task filling in the left digit, and the
second task filling in the right digit. And, as before, there are 9 ways to do
the first task. But now, once the first task has been done, there are only 8
ways to do the second task, since the digit used in the first task is no longer No matter in what way the first task
was done, there are always 8 ways to
available for doing the second task. For instance, if the digit 3 was selected
to the second task in sequence. What if
in the first task, then for the second task, we will have to choose from the you chose to pick the second digit first?
eight digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. So, according to the product rule, there
are 9 · 8 = 72 ways of building such a number.

Example 28.8. Just for fun, here is another way to see the answer in ex-
ample 28.7 is 72. We saw above that there are 81 ways to make a two-digit
number when we allow repeated digits. But there are 9 two digit numbers
that do have repeated digits (namely 11, 22, · · · , 99). That means there must
be 81 − 9 = 72 two-digit numbers without repeated digits.

28.2.3 Counting by subtraction: Good = Total − Bad

The trick we used in example 28.8 looks like a new counting princi-
ple, but it is really the sum rule being applied in a tricky way. Here’s
252 math208: discrete mathematics

the idea. Call the set of all the two-digit numbers (not using 0) T, call
the set with no repeated digits N, and call the set with repeated dig-
its R. By the sum rule, | T | = | N | + | R|, so | N | = | T | − | R|. This is a
very common trick.
Generally, suppose we are interested in counting some arrange-
ments, let’s call them the Good arrangements. But it is not easy for
some reason to count the Good arrangements directly. So, instead, we
count the Total number of arrangements, and subtract the number of
Bad arrangements:
Good = Total − Bad.

Let’s have another example of this trick.

Example 28.9. By a word of length five, we will mean any string of five
letters from the 26 letter alphabet. How many words contain at least one
vowel. The vowels are: a,e,i,o,u.
By the product rule, there is a total of 265 possible words of length five.
The bad words are made up of only the 21 non-vowels. So, by the sum rule,
the number of good words is 265 − 215 .

28.3 Using both the sum and product rules

As in example 28.9, most interesting counting problems involve a

combination of both the sum and product rules.

Example 28.10. Suppose we wanted to count the number of different

possible bit strings of length five that start with either three 0’s or with two
1’s. Recall that a bit string is a list of 0’s and 1’s, and the length of the bit
string is the total number of 0’s and 1’s in the list. So, here are some bit
strings that satisfy the stated conditions: 00001, 11111, 11011, and 00010.
On the other hand, the bit strings 00110 and 10101 do not meet the required
condition.
To do this problem, let’s first count the number of good bit strings that
start with three 0’s. In this case, we can think of the construction of such a
bit string as doing five tasks, one after the other, filling in the leftmost bit,
then the next one, then the third, the next, and finally the last bit. There
is only one way to do the first three tasks, since we need to fill in 0’s in the
first three positions. But there are two ways to do the last two tasks, and
 the two fundamental counting principles 253

so, according to the product rule there are 1 · 1 · 1 · 2 · 2 = 4 bit strings

of length five starting with three 0’s. Using the same reasoning, there are
1 · 1 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 8 bit strings of length five starting with two 1’s. Now, a
bit string cannot both start with three 0’s and also with two 1’s, (in other
words, starting with three 0’s and starting with two 1’s are independent).
And so, according to the sum rule, there will be a total of 4 + 8 = 12 bit
strings of length five starting with either three 0’s or two 1’s.

Example 28.11. How many words of six letters (repeats OK) contain
exactly one vowel?

Solution. Let’s break the construction of a good word down into a number
of tasks.

Task 1: Select a spot for the vowel: 6 choices.

Task 2: Select a vowel for that spot: 5 choices.

Task 3: Fill first empty spot with a non-vowel: 21 choices

Task 4: Fill next empty spot with a non-vowel: 21 choices

Task 5: Fill next empty spot with a non-vowel: 21 choices

Task 6: Fill next empty spot with a non-vowel: 21 choices

Task 7: Fill last empty spot with a non-vowel: 21 choices

By the product rule, the number of good words is 6 · 5 · 215 .

Example 28.12. Count the number of strings on license plates which either
consist of three capital English letters, followed by three digits, or consist of
two digits followed by four capital English letters.

Solution. Let A be the set of strings which consist of three capital English
letters followed by three digits, and B be the set of strings which consist
of two digits followed by four capital English letters. By the product rule
| A| = 263 · 103 since there are 26 capital English letters and 10 digits. Also
by the product rule | B| = 102 · 264 . Since A ∩ B = ∅, by the sum rule the
answer is 263 · 103 + 102 · 264 .
254 math208: discrete mathematics

28.4 Answer form ←→ solution method

In the previous examples we might continue on with the arithmetic.

For instance, in the last, example 28.12, using the distributive law
on our answer to factor out common terms we see | A ∪ B| = 102 ·
263 (10 + 26) is an equivalent answer. This, in turn, simplifies to
| A ∪ B| = 102 · 263 · 36, and that gives

| A ∪ B| = 100 · 17576 · 36 = 63, 273, 600.

Of all of these answers the most valuable is probably 263 · 103 +

102 · 264 , since the form of the answer is indicative of the manner
of solution. We can readily observe that the sum rule was applied to
two disjoint subcases. For each subcase the product rule was applied
to compute the intermediate answer. As a general rule, answers to
counting problems should be left in this uncomputed form.
The next most useful solution is the last one. When we have an
answer of this form we can use it to consider whether or not our
answer makes sense intuitively. For example if we knew that A and
B both were subsets of a set of cardinality 450 and we computed that
| A ∪ B| > 450, this would indicate that we made an error, either in
the logic of our counting, or in arithmetic, or both.
 the two fundamental counting principles 255

28.5 Exercises

Exercise 28.1. To meet the science requirement a student must take one of
the following courses: a choice of 5 biology courses, 4 physics courses, or 6
chemistry courses. In how many ways can the one course be selected?

Exercise 28.2. Using the data of problem 1, a student has decided to take
one biology, one physics, and one chemistry course. How many different
such selections are possible?

Exercise 28.3. A serial code is formed in one of three ways: (1) two letters
followed by two digits, or (2) three letters followed by one digit, or (3) four
letters. How many different codes are there? (Unless otherwise indicated,
letters will means upper case letters chosen from the usual 26-letter alphabet
and digits are selected from {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.)

Exercise 28.4. How many words of length six are there if letters may be
repeated? (Examples: BBBXBB, ABATBC are OK).

Exercise 28.5. How many words of length six are there if letters may not be
repeated? (Examples: BBBBXB, ABATJC are bad but ABXHYR is OK).

Exercise 28.6. A true/false test contains 25 questions.

(a) How many ways can a student complete the test if every question must
be answered?

(b) How many ways can a student complete the test if questions can be left
unanswered?

Exercise 28.7. How many binary strings of length less than or equal to
nine are there?

Exercise 28.8. How many eight-letter words contain at least one A?

Exercise 28.9. How many seven-letter words contain at most one A?

Exercise 28.10. How many nine-letter words contain at least two A’s?

28.6 Problems

Problem 28.1. My piggy bank contains 20 pennies, 4 nickels, 7 dimes, and

2 quarters. In how many ways can I select one coin?
 256 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 28.2. My piggy bank contains 20 pennies, 4 nickels, 7 dimes, and

2 quarters. In how many ways can I select four coins, one of each value?

Problem 28.3. A multiple choice test contains 10 questions. There are four
possible answers for each question.

(a) How many ways can a student complete the test if every question must
be answered?

(b) How many ways can a student complete the test if questions can be left
unanswered?

Problem 28.4. Computer ID’s are length seven strings made up of any
combination of seven different letters and digits. How many different ID’s
are there?

Problem 28.5. Computer ID’s are length seven strings made up of any
combination of seven letters and digits, with repeats allowed. How many
different ID’s are there?

Problem 28.6. A code word is either a sequence of three letters followed

by two digits or two letters followed by three digits. (Unless otherwise
indicated, letters will means upper case letters chosen from the usual 26-
letter alphabet and digits are selected from {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.) How
many different code words are possible?

Problem 28.7. Code words consist of five letters followed by five digits.
How many code word contain at least one X?

Problem 28.8. Code words consist of five letters followed by five digits.
How many code word contain exactly one X?

Problem 28.9. Code words consist of five letters followed by five digits.
How many code word contain exactly two X’s?

Problem 28.10. How many bit strings of length ten begin and end with
1’s?

Problem 28.11. How many bit strings of length t least two but no more
than ten begin and end with 1’s?

Problem 28.12. There are five roads from A to B, three roads from B to C,
and five roads from C to D. How many different routes are there from A to
B to C to D?
 the two fundamental counting principles 257

Problem 28.13. There are five roads from A to B, three roads from B to C,
and five roads from C to D. How many different round trip routes are there
from A to D and back to A?

Problem 28.14. There are five roads from A to B, three roads from B to C,
and five roads from C to D. How many different round trip routes are there
from A to D and back to A if you cannot travel over any road more than
once?
29
Permutations and Combinations

By a permutation of a set of objects we mean a listing of the

objects of the set in a specific order. For example, there are six possi-
ble permutations of the set A = { a, b, c}. They are

abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba.

The product rule explains why there are six permutation of A:

there are 3 choices for the first letter, once that choice has been made
there are 2 choices for the second letter, and finally that leaves 1
choice for the last letter. So the total number of permutations is 3 · 2 ·
1 = 6.

29.1 Permutations

A set with n elements is called an n-set. We have just shown that a

3-set has 6 permutations. The same reasoning shows that an n-set has
n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1 = n! permutations. So the total number
of different ways to arrange a deck of cards is 52!, a number with 68
digits: 80658175170943878571660636856403766975289505440883277824000000000000.
Instead of forming a permutation of all the elements of an n-set,
we might consider the problem of first selecting some of the ele-
ments of the set, say r of them, and then forming a permutation
of just those r elements. In that case we say we have formed an r-
permutation of the n-set. All the possible 2-permutations of the 4-set
260 math208: discrete mathematics

A = { a, b, c, d} are

ab, ac, ad, ba, bc, bd, ca, cb, cd, da, db, dc

Hence, there are twelve 2-permutations of a 4-set.

Notation. In general, P(n, r ) denotes the number of different r-permutations The number of 2-permutations of a
4-set is P(4, 2)=12.
of an n-set.

The product rule provides a simple formula for P(n, r ). There are
n choices for the first element, and once that choice has been made,
there are n − 1 choices for the second element, then n − 2 for the
third, and so on, until finally, there are n − (r − 1) = n − r + 1
choices for the r th element. So P(n, r ) = n(n − 1) · ... · (n − r + 1).
That expression can be written more neatly as follows: And, that is the way to remember the
formula:

P(n, r ) = n(n − 1) · ... · (n − r + 1) n!

P(n, r ) = .
(n − r )!
n(n − 1) · ... · (n − r + 1)(n − r )(n − r − 1) · · · 2 · 1 n!
= =
(n − r )(n − r − 1) · · · 2 · 1 (n − r )!

Example 29.1. As an example, the number of ways of selecting a president,

vice-president, secretary, and treasurer from a group of 20 people is P(20, 4)
(assuming no person can hold more than one office). If you want the actual
20!
numerical value, it is = 20 · 19 · 18 · 17 = 116280, but the best
(20 − 4)!
20!
way to write the answer in most cases would be just P(20, 4) = , and
16!
skip the numerical computations.

Example 29.2. How many one-to-one functions are there from a 5-set to a
7-set?
While this question doesn’t sound on the surface like a problem of per-
mutations, it really is. Suppose the 5-set is A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the 7-set
is B = { a, b, c, d, e, f , g}. One example of a one-to-one function from A to
B would be f (1) = a, f (2) = c, f (3) = g, f (4) = b, f (5) = d. But, if
we agree to think of the elements of A listed in their natural order, we could
specify that function more briefly as acgbd. In other words, each one-to-one
function specifies a 5-permutation of B, and, conversely, each 5-permutation
of B specifies a one-to-one function. So the number of one-to-one functions The same reasoning shows there are
P(n, r ) one-to-one functions from an
from a 5-set to a 7-set is equal to the number of 5-permutations of a 7-set,
r-set to an n-set.
and that is P(7, 5) = 2520.
 permutations and combinations 261

Example 29.3. Here are a few easily seen values of P(n, r ):

(1) P(n, n) = n!

(2) P(n, 1) = n

(3) P(n, 0) = 1 There is only one 0-permutation, the

one with no symbols!
(4) P(n, r ) = 0 if r > n There are no permutations with length
greater than n of n objects.

29.2 Combinations

When forming permutations, the order in which the elements are

listed is important. But there are many cases when we are interested
only in which elements are selected and we do not care about the
order. For example, when playing poker, a hand consists of five cards
dealt from a standard 52-card deck. The order in which the cards
arrive in a hand does not matter, only the final selection of the five
cards is important. When order is not important, the selection is
called a combination rather than a permutation. More carefully, an r-
combination from an n-set is an r-subset of the n-set. In other words
an r-combination of an n-set is an unordered selection of r distinct
elements from the n-set.

Example 29.4. The 2-combinations of the 5-set { a, b, c, d, e} are

{ a, b}, { a, c}, { a, d}, { a, e}, {b, c},

{b, d}, {b, e}, {c, d}, {c, e}, {d, e}.

Notation. The number  ofr-combinations from an n-set is denoted by Example 29.4 shows
 that
n C (5, 2) =
5
= 10.
C (n, r ) or, sometimes, . 2
r
Example 29.5. Here are a few easily seen values of C (n, r ):

(1) C (n, n) = 1

(2) C (n, 1) = n

(3) C (n, 0) = 1 There is only one 0-subset, the empty

set.
(4) C (n, r ) = 0 if r > n There are no subsets of an n-set with
size greater than n.
262 math208: discrete mathematics

There is a compact formula for C (n, r ) which can be derived using

the product rule in a sort of back-handed way. An r-permutation
of an n-set can be built using a sequence of two tasks. First, select r
elements of the n-set. There are C (n, r ) ways to do that task. Next,
arrange those r elements in some specific order. There are r! ways
to do that task. So, according to the product rule, the number of r-
permutations of an n-set will be C (n, r )r!. However, we know that
the number of r-permutations of an n-set are P(n, r ). So we may
conclude that P(n, r ) = C (n, r )r!, or, rearranging that, we see
 
n P(n, r ) n!
C (n, r ) = = =
r r! r!(n − r )!

Example 29.6. Suppose we have a club with 20 members. If we want to

select a committee of 4 members, then there are

20! 20 · 19 · 18 · 17
C (20, 4) = = = 4845
4!(20 − 4)! 4·3·2·1

ways to do this since the order of people on the committee doesn’t matter.

Compare this answer with example 29.1 where we counted the

number of possible selections1 for president, vice-president, secretary, 1
P(5, 4) = 20!/16! = 116280 ways

and treasurer from the group of 20. The difference between the two
cases is that the earlier example is a question about permutations (or-
der matters), whereas this example is a question about combinations
(order does not matter).
 permutations and combinations 263

29.3 Exercises

Exercise 29.1. In how many ways can the 26 volumes (labeled A through
Z) of the Encyclopedia of PseudoScience be placed on a shelf?

Exercise 29.2. In how many ways can those same 26 volumes be placed
on a shelf if superstitions demand the volumes labeled with vowels must be
adjacent? In how many ways can they be placed on the shelf obeying the
conflicting superstition that volumes labeled with vowels cannot touch each
other?

Exercise 29.3. For those same 26 volumes, how many ways can they be
placed in a two shelf bookcase if volumes A-M go on the top shelf and N-Z
go on the bottom shelf?

Exercise 29.4. In how many ways can seven men and four women sit in a
row if the men must sit together?

Exercise 29.5. 20 players are to be divided into two 10-man teams. In how
many ways can that be done?

Exercise 29.6. A lottery ticket consists of five different integers selected

from 1 to 99. How many different lottery tickets are possible? How many
tickets would you need to buy to have a one-in-a-million chance of winning
by matching all five randomly selected numbers?

Exercise 29.7. A committee of size six is selected from a group of nine

clowns and thirteen lion tamers.

(a) How many different committees are possible?

(b) How many committees are possible if there must be exactly two clowns
on the committee?

(c) How many committees are possible if lion tamers must outnumber
clowns on the committee?

29.4 Problems

Problem 29.1. In how many ways can the ten digits be written in a row?
264 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 29.2. In how many ways can the ten digits be written in a row if
the odd digits have to be adjacent?

Problem 29.3. In how many ways can the ten digits be written in a row if
the even and odd digits have to alternate?

Problem 29.4. How many bit strings of length ten have exactly four 0’s?

Problem 29.5. How many bit strings of length ten have at most four 0’s?

Problem 29.6. How many length twenty strings of a’s, b’s, and c’s have
ten a’s, six b’s, and four c’s?

Problem 29.7. How many bit strings of length ten have more 0’s than 1’s?

Problem 29.8. In how many ways can a subset of two numbers from 1 to
100 (inclusive) be selected if the selected numbers cannot be consecutive?
30
The Binomial Theorem and Pascal’s Triangle

 
n
The quantity C ( n, k ) is also written as , and called a
k
binomial coefficient . It gives the number of k-subsets of an n-set, or,
equivalently, it gives the number of ways of selecting k items from n
items.

30.1 Combinatorial proof

Facts involving thebinomial

 coefficients can be proved algebraically,
n n!
using the formula = . But often the same facts can
k k! ( n − k ) !  
n
be proved much more neatly by recognizing gives the number
k
of k-subsets of an n-set. This second sort of proof is called a combina-
torial proof. Here is an example of each type of proof.

Theorem 30.1 (Pascal’s Identity). Let n and k be non-negative integers,

then      
n+1 n n
= + .
k k−1 k
266 math208: discrete mathematics

Proof. (an algebraic proof)

   
n n n! n!
+ = +
k−1 k ( k − 1 ) ! ( n − ( k − 1 )) ! k! ( n − k ) !
n! n!
= +
(k − 1)!(n − k + 1)! k! ( n − k ) !
 
n! 1 1
= +
(k − 1)!(n − k)! n − k + 1 k
n−k+1
 
n! k
= +
(k − 1)!(n − k)! k(n − k + 1) k(n − k + 1)
n! k + (n − k + 1)
=
(k − 1)!(n − k)! k(n − k + 1)
n! n+1
=
(k − 1)!(n − k)! k(n − k + 1)
n! ( n + 1 )
=
( k − 1 ) !k ( n − k ) ! ( n − k + 1 )
(n + 1)!
=
k! ( n + 1 − k ) !
 
n+1
=
k

Proof. (a combinatorial proof) Let S be a set with n + 1 elements. Select

one particular element a ∈ S. There are two ways to produce a subset
of S of size k. We can include a in thesubset, and toss in k − 1 of the
n
remaining n elements of S. There are to do that. Or, we can
k−1
avoid
 a,and choose all k elements from the other n elements of S. There
n
are ways to do that. So, according to the sum rule, there is a total of
 k    
n n n+1
+ subsets of size k of S. But we know there are
k−1 k     k 
n+1 n n
subsets of size k of S. So it must be that = + .♣
k k−1 k

30.1.1 Constructing combinatorial proofs

The idea of a combinatorial proof is to ask a counting problem that

can be answered in two different ways, and then conclude the two
answers must be equal. In the proof above, we asked how many k-
subsets there are of an ( n + 1 ) -set.
 We provided
  an argument
  to
n+1 n n
show two answers were correct: and + , and
k k−1 k
 the binomial theorem and pascal’s triangle 267

so we could conclude the two answers must be equal:

     
n+1 n n
= + .
k k−1 k

As in the combinatorial proof of Pascal’s Identity 30.1, such ar-

guments can be much less work, far less tedious, and much more
illuminating, than algebraic proofs. Unfortunately, they can also be
much more difficult to discover since it is necessary to dream up a
good counting problem that will have as answers the two expressions
we are trying to show are equal, and there is no algorithm for coming
up with such a suitable counting problem.
   
n n
Example 30.2. Give a combinatorial1 proof of = . 1
An algebraic proof of this identity is
k n−k absolutely trivial:
 
Solution. To provide a combinatorial proof, we ask how manyways n n!
 are =
n k k!(n − k )!
there to grab k elements of an n-set?. One answer of course is . But
k and
here is a second way to view the problem. We can select k elements
 of an  
n n n!
=
n-set by deciding on n − k elements not to pick. Since there are n−k (n − k)!(n − (n − k))!
n−k
  n!
n = .
ways to select the n − k not to pick, there must be ways to select k k!(n − k )
n−k
elements Thus, we see that the two expressions
  of an n-set. Since the two answers must be equal we conclude that are indeed equal.
n n
= .♣
k n−k

Example 30.3. Give a combinatorial proof of Vandermonde’s Identity:

             
n+m n m n m n m n m
= + + +···+ .
k 0 k 1 k−1 2 k−2 k 0

Solution. Consider the set { a1 , a2 , · · · , an , b1 , b2 , · · · bm } of n + m ele-

ments. We ask, how may k-subsets
 does
 the set have?.
n+m
One answer of course is .
k
But here’s another way to answer the question:
we can select 0 of the a’s and k of the b’s. There are (n0 )(mk) ways to do
that.
Or we select 1 of the a’s and k − 1 of the b’s. There are (n1 )(k−
m
1) ways to
do that.
Or we select 2 of the a’s and k − 2 of the b’s. There are (n2 )(k−
m
2) ways to
do that.
268 math208: discrete mathematics

And so on, until we reach the option of selecting k of the a’s and 0 of the
b’s. There are (nk)(m0 ) ways to do that.
By the sum rule, it follows that another way to count the number of
k-subsets is
           
n m n m n m n m
+ + +···+
0 k 1 k−1 2 k−2 k 0

and that proves Vandermonde’s Identity. ♣

30.2 Pascal’s Triangle

The binomial coefficients are so named because they appear when a

binomial x + y is raised to an integer power ≥ 0. To appreciate  the
n
connection, let’s look at a table of the binomial coefficients . The
k Row 0: (00)
table is arranged in rows starting with row n = 0, and within each Row 1: (10) (11)

row, the entries are arranged from left to right for k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n. Row 2: (20) (21) (22)
Row 3: (30) (31) (32) (33)
The result, called Pascal’s Triangle, is shown in figure 30.1. Row 4: (40) (41) (42) (43) (44)
Row 5: (50) (51) (52) (53) (54) (55)
Filling in the numerical values for the binomial coefficients gives . .. ..
.. . .
the table shown in figure 30.2. Figure 30.1: Pascal’s Triangle
Note that we number the rows starting with 0. We already
  know
  Row 0: 1
n n Row 1: 1 1
quite a bit about the entries in Pascal’s Triangle. Since = =
0 n Row 2: 1 2 1
1 for all n,
 each
 row
 begins
 and ends with a 1. From the symmetry Row 3: 1 3 3 1
n n Row 4: 1 4 6 4 1
formula = , the rows read the same in both directions.
k n−k Row 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1
. .. ..
By Pascal’s Identity, each entry in a row is the sum of the two entries .. . .

diagonally above it. That last fact makes it easy to add new rows to Figure 30.2: Pascal’s Triangle (numeric)

Pascal’s Triangle.
The numbers in the first, second, and third rows of Pascal’s trian-
gle probably seem familiar. In fact, we see that The coefficients in these binomial
expansions are exactly the entries in
0 the corresponding rows of Pascal’s
( x + y ) =1
Triangle. This even works for the 0th
1
( x + y) = x + y = 1 · x + 1 · y row: ( x + y)0 = 1.

( x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 = 1 · x2 +2 · xy + 1 · y2
( x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy2 + y3 = 1 · x3 + 3 · x2 y + 3 · xy2 + 1 · y3
 the binomial theorem and pascal’s triangle 269

30.3 The Binomial Theorem

The fact that the coefficients in the expansion of the binomial ( x + y)n
(where n ≥ 0 is an integer) can be read off from the nth row of
Pascal’s Triangle is called the Binomial Theorem. We will give two
proofs of this theorem, one by induction, and the other a combinato-
rial proof.

Theorem 30.4 (The Binomial Theorem). When n is a non-negative

integer and x, y ∈ R

n  
n
( x + y)n = ∑ k x k yn−k .
k =0

Proof. (by induction on n) When n = 0 the result is clear. So suppose that

n  
n k n−k
for some n ≥ 0 we have ( x + y)n = ∑ x y , for any x, y ∈ R.
k =0
k
Then, we have

( x + y ) n +1 = ( x + y ) n ( x + y ),
h n n i
= ∑ x k yn−k ( x + y) by inductive hypothesis,
k =0
k
h n n  i h n n i
= ∑ k +1 n − k
x y + ∑ x k y n +1− k
k =0
k k =0
k
n n +1 h n −1 n k +1 n − k i h n n k n +1− k i
       
n n +1
= x + ∑ x y + ∑ x y + y
n k =0
k k =1
k 0
n n +1 h n i h n n
    i n
n
= x + ∑ l n−(l −1)
xy + ∑ k n +1− k
x y + y n +1
n l =1
l − 1 k =1
k 0
n n +1 h n i h n n
    i n
n
= x + ∑ l n +1− l
xy + ∑ k n +1− k
x y + y n +1
n l =1
l−1 k =1
k 0
n n +1 h n h
     i i n
n n
= x + ∑ + k n +1− k
x y + y n +1
n k =1
k − 1 k 0
n + 1 n +1 h n n + 1 k n +1− k i
     
n + 1 n +1
= x + ∑ x y + y by Pascal’s identity,
n+1 k =1
k 0
n +1  
n + 1 k n +1− k
= ∑ x y .
k =0
k

♣
270 math208: discrete mathematics

Now, let’s look at a combinatorial proof of the Binomial Theorem.

Proof. When the binomial ( x + y)n = ( x + y)( x + y)( x + y) · · · ( x + y)

is expanded, the terms are produced by selecting either the x or the y from
each of the n factors x + y appearing on the right side of the equation.
  The
n
number of ways of selecting exactly k x’s from the n available is , and
k
so that will be the coefficient of the term x k yn−k in the expansion. ♣ Isn’t this amazing!

Example 30.5. The coefficient of x7 y3 in the expansion of ( x + y)10 is

10 · 9 · 8
 
10 10!
= = = 120.
7 7!3! 1·2·3

Example 30.6. The coefficient of x7 y3 in the expansion of (2x − 3y)10 is

10 · 9 · 8 7 3
 
10 7 10! 7
2 (−3)3 = 2 (−3)3 = − 2 3 = −120 · 128 · 27 = −414720.
7 7!3! 1·2·3

From the binomial theorem we can derive facts such as

Theorem 30.7. A finite set with n elements has 2n subsets.

Proof. By the sum rule the number of subsets of an n-set is

n   n  
n n
∑ k = ∑ k 1k 1n − k .
k =0 k =0

n
 
n k n−k
By the Binomial Theorem ∑ 1 1 = (1 + 1 ) n = 2n . ♣
k =0
k

Theorem 30.8. If n ≥ 1, then

       
n n n n
− + − · · · + (−1)n = 0.
0 1 2 n

Proof. By the Binomial Theorem,

       
n n n n
− + − · · · + (−1)n = (1 − 1)n = 0.
0 1 2 n

♣
 the binomial theorem and pascal’s triangle 271

30.4 Exercises

Exercise 30.1. Determine the sixth row of Pascal’s Triangle.

Exercise 30.2. Determine the coefficient of x3 y7 in the expansion

of (3x − 2y)10 .

  
2n n
Exercise 30.3. Give an algebraic proof that =2 + n2 .
2 2
r−t
     
r s r
Exercise 30.4. Give an algebraic proof that = .
s t t s−t
r−t
     
r s r
Exercise 30.5. Give a combinatorial proof that = .
s t t s−t
Exercise 30.6. Using the same reasoning as in the combinatorial proof of
the Binomial Theorem, determine the coefficient of x4 y5 z6 in the expansion
of ( x + y + z)15 .

Exercise
  30.7. Show  if p is a prime and 0 < k < p, then p divides
 that
p p
. Hint: When is written out, how many times does p occur as a
k k
factor of the numerator and how many times as a factor of the denominator?

30.5 Problems

Problem 30.1. Determine the seventh row of Pascal’s Triangle.

Problem 30.2. Determine the coefficient of x5 y2 in the expansion

of (2x − 5y)7 .
  
2n n
Problem 30.3. Give a combinatorial proof that =2 + n2 .
2 2
Hint: How many ways are there to select a 2-subset of { a1 , a2 , · · · , an , b1 , b2 , · · · bn }?
n−2
     
n n m
Problem 30.4. Give an algebraic proof that = .
2 m−2 m 2
n−2
     
n n m
Problem 30.5. Give a combinatorial proof that = .
2 m−2 m 2
n−1
   
n
Problem 30.6. Give an algebraic proof that m =n .
m m−1
n−1
   
n
Problem 30.7. Give a combinatorial proof that m =n .
m m−1
         
3m m m 2m 2m
Problem 30.8. Give a combinatorial proof that = + 2m +m + .
3 3 2 2 3
Problem 30.9. Determine the coefficient of x3 y2 z3 in the expansion
of ( x + 2y − 3z)8 .
31
Inclusion-Exclusion Counting

The sum rule says that if A and B are disjoint sets, then | A ∪ B| =
| A| + | B|. If the sets are not disjoint, then this formula over counts
the number of elements in the union of A and B. For example, if
A = { a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e}, then

| A ∪ B| = |{ a, b, c} ∪ {c, d, e}| = |{ a, b, c, d, e}| = 5.

So, we see that | A ∪ B| 6= 3 + 3 = | A| + | B|.

31.1 Inclusion-Exclusion principle

The correct way to count the number of elements in | A ∪ B| when A

and B might not be disjoint is via the inclusion-exclusion formula.
To derive this formula, notice that A ∪ B = ( A − B) ∪ B, and that
the sets A − B and B are disjoint. So we can apply the sum rule to A B
conclude

| A ∪ B| = |( A − B) ∪ B| = | A − B| + | B|.

Next, notice that A = ( A − B) ∪ ( A ∩ B), and the two sets on the right Figure 31.1: A ∪ B = ( A − B) ∪ B

are disjoint. So, using the sum rule, we get

| A| = |( A − B) ∪ ( A ∩ B)| = | A − B| + | A ∩ B|,
274 math208: discrete mathematics

which we can rearrange as

| A − B | = | A | − | A ∩ B |.

So, replacing | A − B| by | A| − | A ∩ B| in the formula | A ∪ B| =

|( A − B) ∪ B| = | A − B| + | B|, we end up with the inclusion-exclusion
formula:
| A ∪ B | = | A | + | B | − | A ∩ B |.

In words, to count the number of items in the union of two sets,

include one for everything in the first set, and include one for ev-
erything in the second set, then exclude one for each element in the
overlap of the two sets (since those elements will have been counted
twice).

Example 31.1. How many students are there in a discrete math class if 15
students are computer science majors, 7 are math majors, and 3 are double
majors in math and computer science?

Solution. Let C denote the subset of computer science majors in the class,
and M denote the math majors. Then |C | = 15, | M| = 7 and |C ∩ M | = 3.
So by the principle of inclusion-exclusion there are |C | + | M | − |C ∩ M | =
15 + 7 − 3 = 19 students in the class. ♣

Example 31.2. How many integers between 1 and 1000 are divisible by
either 7 or 11?

Solution. Let S denote the set of integers between 1 and 1000 divisible by
7, and E denote the set of integers between 1 and 1000 divisible by 11. We
need to count the number of integers in S ∪ E. By the principle of inclusion-
exclusion, we have
     
1000 1000 1000
|S ∪ E| = |S| + | E| − |S ∩ E| = + −
7 11 77
= 142 + 90 − 12 = 120.

♣
 inclusion-exclusion counting 275

31.2 Extended inclusion-exclustion principle

The inclusion-exclusion principle can be extended to the problem of

counting the number of elements in the union of three sets. The trick
is the think of the union of three sets as the union of two sets. It goes
as follows:

| A ∪ B ∪ C | = |( A ∪ B) ∪ C |
= | A ∪ B|+|C |−|( A ∪ B) ∩ C |
= | A|+| B|+|C |−| A ∩ B|−|( A ∪ B) ∩ C |
= | A|+| B|+|C |−| A ∩ B|−|( A ∩ C ) ∪ ( B ∩ C )|
= | A|+| B|+|C |−| A ∩ B|−|( A ∩ C ) ∪ ( B ∩ C )|
= | A|+| B|+|C |−| A ∩ B|− (| A ∩ C |+| B ∩ C |−|( A ∩ C ) ∩ ( B ∩ C )|)
= | A|+| B|+|C |−| A ∩ B|−| A ∩ C |−| B ∩ C |+| A ∩ B ∩ C |.

This might more appropriately be named the inclusion-exclusion-

inclusion formula, but nobody calls it that. In words, the formula
says that to count the number of elements in the union of three sets,
first, include everything in each set, then exclude everything in the
overlap of each pair of sets, and finally, re-include everything in the
overlap of all three sets.

Example 31.3. How many integers between 1 and 1000 are divisible by at
least one of 7, 9, and 11?

Solution. Let S denote the set of integers between 1 and 1000 divisible by
7, let N denote the set of integers between 1 and 1000 divisible by 9, and E
denote the set of integers between 1 and 1000 divisible by 11. We need to
count the number of integers in S ∪ N ∪ E. By the principle of inclusion-
exclusion,

|S ∪ N ∪ E| = |S| + | N | + | E| − |S ∩ N | − |S ∩ E| − | N ∩ E| + |S ∩ N ∩ E|
             
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
= + + − − − +
7 9 11 63 77 99 693
= 142 + 111 + 90 − 15 − 12 − 10 + 1 = 307.
276 math208: discrete mathematics

There are similar inclusion-exclusion formulas for the union of

four, five, six, · · · sets. The formulas can be proved by induction with
the inductive step using the trick we used above to go from two sets
to three. However, there is a much neater way to prove the formula
based on the Binomial Theorem.

Theorem 31.4. Given finite sets A1 , A2 , ..., An

n n n
∑ | Ak | − ∑ | A j ∩ Ak | + · · · + (−1)n−1
[ \
Ak = Ak .
k =1 k =1 1≤ j < k ≤ n k =1

Sn
Proof. Suppose x ∈ k =1 Ak . We need to show that x is counted exactly
once by the right-hand side of the promised formula. Say x ∈ Ai for exactly
p of the sets Ai , where 1 ≤ p ≤ n.
The key to the proof is being able to count the number of intersections in
each summation on the right-hand side of the offered formula that contain
x since we will account for x once
 for each such term. The number of such  
p p
terms in the first sum is n = , the number in the second term is ,
1   2
p
and, in general, the number of terms in the jth sum will be provided
j
j ≤ p. If j > p then x will not be any of the intersections of j of the sets, and
so will not contribute any more to the right side of the formula.
So the total number of times x is accounted for on the right hand side is
     
p p p −1 p
− − ... + (−1)
1 2 p
       
p p p p p
= 1− − + − ... + (−1)
0 1 2 p
= 1 − (1 − 1) p = 1.

Just as we hoped. ♣

Example 31.5. How many students are in a calculus class if 14 are math
majors, 22 are computer science majors, 15 are engineering majors, and 13
are chemistry majors, if 5 students are double majoring in math and com-
puter science, 3 students are double majoring in chemistry and engineering,
10 are double majoring in computer science and engineering, 4 are double
majoring in chemistry and computer science, none are double majoring in
math and engineering and none are double majoring in math and chemistry,
and no student has more than two majors?
 inclusion-exclusion counting 277

Solution. Let A1 denote the math majors, A2 denote the computer science
majors, A3 denote the engineering majors, and A4 the chemistry majors.
Then the information given is

| A1 | = 14, | A2 | = 22, | A3 | = 15, | A4 | = 13,

| A1 ∩ A2 | = 5, | A1 ∩ A3 | = 0, | A1 ∩ A4 | = 0,

| A2 ∩ A3 | = 10, | A2 ∩ A4 | = 4, | A3 ∩ A4 | = 3,

| A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 | = 0, | A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A4 | = 0,
| A1 ∩ A3 ∩ A4 | = 0, | A2 ∩ A3 ∩ A4 | = 0,

and

| A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ A4 | = 0.

So, by inclusion-exclusion, the number of students in the class is

14 + 22 + 15 + 13 − 5 − 10 − 4 − 3 = 42.

Example 31.6. How many ternary strings (using 0’s, 1’s and 2’s) of length
8 either start with a 1, end with two 0’s or have 4th and 5th positions 12,
respectively?

Solution. Let A1 denote the set of ternary strings of length 8 which start
with a 1, A2 denote the set of ternary strings of length 8 which end with two
0’s, and A3 denote the set of ternary strings of length 8 which have 4th and
5th positions 12. By inclusion-exclusion, the answer is 37 + 36 + 36 − 35 −
35 − 34 + 33 .

31.3 Inclusion-exclusion with the Good=Total-Bad trick

The inclusion-exclusion formula is often used along with the Good=Total-

Bad trick.

Example 31.7. How many integers between 1 and 1000 are divisible by
none of 7, 9, and 11?

Solution. There are 1000 numbers between 1 and 1000 (assuming 1 and
1000 are included). As counted before, there are 307 of those that are divisi-
278 math208: discrete mathematics

ble by at least one of 7, 9, and 11. That means there are 1000 − 307 = 693
that are divisible by none of 7, 9, or 11.
 inclusion-exclusion counting 279

31.4 Exercises

Exercise 31.1. At a certain college no student is allowed more than two

majors. How many students are in the college if there are 70 math majors,
160 chemistry majors, 230 biology majors, 56 geology majors, 24 physics
majors, 35 anthropology majors, 12 double math-physics majors, 10 double
math-chemistry majors, 4 double biology-math majors, 53 double biology-
chemistry majors, 5 double biology-anthropology majors, and no other dou-
ble majors?

Exercise 31.2. How many bit strings of length 15 start with the string
1111, end with the string 1000 or have 4th through 7th bits 1010?

Exercise 31.3. How many positive integers between 1000 and 9999 inclu-
sive are not divisible by any of 4, 10 or 25 (careful!)?

Exercise 31.4. How many permutations of the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, have at

least one digit in its own spot? In other words, a 1 in the first spot, or a 2 in
the second, etc. For example, 35241 is OK since it has a 4 in the fourth spot,
and 14235 is OK, since it has a 1 in the first spot (and also a 5 in the fifth
spot). But 31452 is no good. Hint: Let A1 be the set of permutations that
have 1 in the first spot, let A2 be the set of permutations that 2 in the second
spot, and so on.

Exercise 31.5. How many permutations of the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 have no

digit in its own spot?

31.5 Problems

Problem 31.1. The membership of a language club consists of seven people

who speak only English, eight speak only French, five speak only Spanish,
seven speak only English and Spanish, two speak only French and Spanish,
there are none who speak only English and French, and there are four who
speak all three languages. How many members are in the club?

Problem 31.2. How many integers between 1 and 10000 (inclusive) are
divisible by at least one of 9, 10, or 11?

Problem 31.3. Suppose p, q are two different primes. How many integers
between 1 and the product pq are relatively prime to pq (or, same thing, how
280 math208: discrete mathematics

many are divisible by neither of p and q)? (The correct answer will factor
neatly.)

Problem 31.4. Suppose p, q, r are three different primes. How many in-
tegers between 1 and the product pqr are relatively prime to pqr (or, same
thing, how many are divisible by none of p, q and r)? (The correct answer
will factor neatly.)

Problem 31.5. Suppose p, q, r, s are four different primes. How many

integers between 1 and the product pqrs are relatively prime to pqrs (or,
same thing, how many are divisible by none of p, q, r and s)? (The correct
answer will factor neatly.)

Problem 31.6. Based on the results of the previous three problems, can you
guess the neat formula for five, six, seven, and so on, different primes?

Problem 31.7. Of the words of length ten using the alphabet Σ = { a, b, c},
how many either begin abc or end cba or have cccccc as the middle six
letters?

Problem 31.8. There are 6! permutations of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

In some of these there is a run of three (or more) consecutive numbers that
increase (left to right) such as 514632 which has the increasing run 146.
Others do not have any increasing runs of length three such as (a cheap
example) 654321 and (not quite as cheap) 615243. How many of the 6!
permutations contain no increasing runs of length three (or more)? (Hint:
runs of length three can start with the first, second, third, or fourth spot in
the permutation.)
32
The Pigeonhole Principle

The pigeonhole principle, like the sum and product rules, is an-
other one of those absolutely obvious counting facts. The statement
is simple: If n + 1 objects are divided into n piles (some piles can be
empty), then at least one pile must have two or more objects in it. Or,
more colorfully, if n + 1 pigeons land in n pigeonholes, then at least
one pigeonhole has two or more pigeons. What could be more obvi-
ous? The pigeonhole principle is used to show that no matter how a
certain task is carried out, some specific result must always happen.
As a simple example, suppose we have a drawer containing ten
identical black socks and ten identical white socks. How many socks
do we need to select to be sure we have a matching pair? The answer
is three. Think of the pigeonholes as the colors black and white, and
as each sock is selected put it in the pigeonhole of its color. After we
have placed the third sock, one of the two pigeonholes must have at
least two socks in it, and we will have a matching pair. Of course, we
may have been lucky and had a pair after picking the second sock,
but the pigeonhole principle guarantees that with the third sock we
will have a pair.
As another example, suppose license plates are made consisting of
four digits followed by two letters. Are there enough license plates
for a state with seven million cars? No, since there are only 104 ·
262 = 6760000 possible license plates, and so, by the pigeonhole
principle, at least two of the seven million plates assigned would
have to be the same.
282 math208: discrete mathematics

32.1 General pigeonhole principle

A slightly fancier version of the pigeonhole principle says that if N

objects are distributed in k piles, then there must be a least one pile
l m
with Nk objects in it.
That formula looks impressive, but actually is easy to understand.
For example, if there are 52 people in a room, we can be absolutely
certain that there are at least eight born on the same day of the week.
Think of it this way: with 49 people, it would be possible to have
seven born on each of the seven days of the week. But when the Avoidance principle: how long can we
go before our hand is forced?
50th one is reached, it must boost one day up to an eighth person.
That is really about all there is to it. The general proof of the fancy
pigeonhole principle uses this same sort of reasoning. It is a proof by
contradiction, and goes as follows:

Theorem 32.1 (Pigeonhole Principle). If N objects are distributed in k

l m
piles, then there must be a least one pile with Nk objects in it.

Proof. Suppose we have N objects distributed in k piles, and suppose

l m
that every pile has fewer than Nk objects in it. That means that the piles
l m l m
each contain Nk − 1 or fewer objects. We will use the fact that Nk <
N
+
k l 1 to complete the proof. The total number of object will be at most
m    
N N
k k −1 < k k + 1 − 1 = N. That is a contradiction since we
know there is a total of N objects in the k piles. ♣

32.2 Examples

Even though the pigeonhole principle sounds very simple, clever

applications of it can produce totally unexpected results.

Example 32.2. Five misanthropes move to a perfectly square deserted island

that measures two kilometers on a side. Of course, being misanthropes, they
want to live as far from each other as possible. Show that, no matter where
√
they build on the island, some two will be no more than 2 kilometers of
each other.

Solution. Divide the island into four one kilometer by one kilometer squares
by drawing lines joining the midpoints of opposite sides. Since there are five
 the pigeonhole principle 283

people and four squares, the pigeonhole principle guarantees there will be
two people living in one of those four squares. But people in one of those
squares cannot be further apart than the length of the diagonal of the square
√
which is, according to Pythagoras, 2. ♣

Example 32.3. For any positive integer n, there is a positive multiple of

n made up of a number of 1’s followed by a number of 0’s. For example, for
n = 1084, we see 1084 · 1025 = 1111100.

Solution. Consider the n + 1 integers 1, 11, 111, · · · , 11 · · · 1, where the

last one consists of 1 repeated n + 1 times. Some two of these must be the
same modulo n, and so n will divide the difference of some two of them. But
the difference of two of those numbers is of the required type. ♣

Example 32.4. Bill has 20 days to prepare his tiddledywinks title defense.
He has decided to practice at least one hour every day. But, to avoid burn-
out, he will not practice more than a total of 30 hours. Show there is a se-
quence of consecutive days during which he practices exactly 9 hours.

Solution. For j = 1, 2, · · · 20, let t j = the total number of hours Bill

practices up to and including day j. Since he practices at least one hour
every day, and the total number of hours is no more than 30, we see

0 < t1 < t2 < · · · < t20 ≤ 30.

Adding 9 to each term we get

9 < t1 + 9 < t2 + 9 < · · · < t20 + 9 ≤ 39.

So we have 40 integers t1 , t2 , · · · , t20 , t1 + 9, · · · t20 + 9, all between

1 and 39. By the pigeonhole principle, some two must be equal, and the
only way that can happen is for ti = t j + 9 for some i and j. It follows
that ti − t j = 9, and since the difference ti − t j is the the total number of
hours Bill practiced from day j + 1 to day i, that shows there is a sequence of
consecutive days during which he practiced exactly 9 hours. ♣
284 math208: discrete mathematics

32.3 Exercises

Exercise 32.1. Show that in any group of eight people, at least two were
born on the same day of the week.

Exercise 32.2. Show that in any group of 100 people, at least 15 were born
on the same day of the week.

Exercise 32.3. How many cards must be selected from a deck to be sure that
at least six of the selected cards have the same suit?

Exercise 32.4. Show that in any set of n integers, where n ≥ 2, there must
be a pair with a difference that is a multiple of n − 1.

Exercise 32.5. Al has 75 days to master discrete mathematics. He decides

to study at least one hour every day, but no more than a total of 125 hours.
Show there must be a sequence of consecutive days during which he studies
exactly 24 hours.

Exercise 32.6. Show that in any set of 217 integers, there must be a pair
with a difference that is a multiple of 216.

32.4 Problems

Problem 32.1. Show that in a town with population 18, 000, there must be
at least two people with the same three initials.

Problem 32.2. What is the smallest town population that will guarantee
there will be at least two people with the same three initials?

Problem 32.3. What is the smallest town population that will guarantee
there will be at least five people with the same three initials?

Problem 32.4. How many cards have to be selected from a 52 card deck to
be sure there will be two cards of the same suit?

Problem 32.5. How many cards have to be selected from a 52 card deck to
be sure there will be two cards of the same rank?

Problem 32.6. Five misanthropes buy a six mile by twelve mile rectangular
plot in the arctic. Show that no matter where they build their igloos, there
will be at least two people that are no more than five miles apart. (You can
assume the ice sheet they buy is perfectly flat.)
 the pigeonhole principle 285

Problem 32.7. In any list of n integers, there will be a chunk of consecutive

entries from the list that add up to a multiple of n. For example: in the list
−8, 4, 22, −11, 7, we have 4 + 22 − 11 = 15 is a multiple of 5.

Problem 32.8. Suppose a1 , a2 , a3 . . . , a99 is a permutation of 1, 2, . . . , 99.

Show that the product

( a1 + 1)( a2 + 2)( a3 + 3) . . . ( a99 + 99)

is even.

Problem 32.9. In a rematch, Bill has 30 days to train for a new defense of
his tiddledywinks title. He plans to practice at least one hour every day, but
no more than 45 hours total. Show there is a sequence of consecutive days
during which he practices exactly 14 hours.
 33
Tougher Counting Problems

All of the counting exercises you’ve been asked to complete so

far have not been realistic. In general it won’t be true that a counting
problem fits neatly into a section. So we need to work on the bigger
picture.
When we start any counting exercise it is true that there is an
underlying exercise at the basic level that we want to consider first.
So instead of answering the question immediately we might first
want to decide on what type of exercise we have. So far we have
seen three types which are distinguishable by the answers to two
questions.

(1) In forming the objects we want to count, is repetition allowed?

(2) In forming the objects we want to count, does the order of selec-
Order Repetition Type Form
tion matter?
Y Y r-strings nr
The three scenarios we have seen so far are described in table 33.1. Y N r-permutations P(n, r )
N N r-combinations (nr)
There are two problems to address. First of all, table 33.1 is incom-
plete. What about, for example, counting objects where repetition is Table 33.1: Basic counting problems

allowed, but order doesn’t matter. Second of all, there are connec-
tions among the types which make some solutions appear mislead-
ing. But as a general rule of thumb, if we correctly identify the type
of problem we are working on, then all we have to do is use the prin-
ciples of addition, multiplication, inclusion/exclusion, or exclusion to
decompose our problem into subproblems. The solutions to the sub-
problems often have the same form as the underlying problem. The
288 math208: discrete mathematics

principles we employed direct us on how the sub-solutions should be

recombined to give the final answer.

Example 33.1. As an example of the second problem, if we ask how many

binary strings of length 10 contain exactly three 1’s, then the underlying
 
10
problem is an r-string problem. But in this case the answer is . Of
  3
10 3 7
course this is really 1 1 from the binomial theorem. In this case
3
the part of the answer which looks like nr is suppressed since it’s trivial.
To see the difference we might ask how many  ternary
 strings of length 10
10 3 7
contain exactly three 1’s. Now the answer is 1 2 , since we choose the
3
three positions for the 1’s to go in, and then fill in each of the 7 remaining
positions with a 0 or a 2.

33.1 The Basic Donut Shop Problem

To begin to address the first problem we introduce If you get to the

donut shop before the cops get there, you will find that they have a
nice variety of donuts. You might want to order several dozen. They
will put your order in a box. You don’t particularly care what order
the donuts are put into the box. You do usually want more than one
of several types. The number of ways for you to complete your order
is therefore a counting problem where order doesn’t matter, and
repetition is allowed.
In order to answer the question of how many ways you can com-
plete your order, we first recast the problem mathematically. From
among n types of objects we want to select r objects. If xi denotes the
number of objects of the ith type selected, we have 0 ≤ xi , (since we
cannot choose a negative number of chocolate donouts), also xi ∈ Z,
(since we cannot select fractional parts of donuts). So, the different
ways to order are in one-to-one correspondence with the solutions to

x1 + x2 + ... + xn = r, with xi ≥ 0, xi ∈ Z, for i − 1, 2, . . . , n.

Next, in order to compute the number of solutions in non-negative

integers to x1 + x2 + ... + xn = r, we model each solution as a string
(possibly empty) of x1 1’s followed by a +, then a string of x2 1’s
 tougher counting problems 289

followed by a +, ... then a string of xn−1 1’s followed by a +, then a

string of xn 1’s. So for example, if x1 = 2, x2 = 0, x3 = 1, x4 = 3 is a
solution to x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 6 the string we get is 11 + +1 + 111.
Finally, we see that the total number of solutions in non-negative
integers to x1 + ... + xn = r, is the number of binary strings of length
r + n − 1 with exactly r 1’s and (n − 1) +’s. From the remark above,
the number of ways to select r donuts from n different types is

n+r−1
 
.
r

33.2 The More Realistic Donut Shop Problem

The basic donut shop problem is not very realistic in two ways. First
it is common that some of your order will be determined by other
people. You might for example canvas the people in your office be-
fore you go to see if there is anything you can pick up for them. So
whereas you want to order r donuts, you might have been asked to
pick up a certain number of various types.
Now suppose that we know that we want to select r donuts from
among n types so that at least ai ( ai ≥ 0) donuts of type i are selected.
In terms of our equation, we have x1 + x2 + ... + xn = r, where ai ≤ xi ,
n
and xi ∈ Z. If we set yi = xi − ai for i = 1, ..., n, and a = ∑ ai , then
i =1
0 ≤ yi , yi ∈ Z and
" # " #
n n n n
∑ yi = ∑ ( xi − ai ) = ∑ xi − ∑ ai = r − a.
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

n + (r − a ) − 1


So, the number of ways to complete our order is . First ask for the donuts your colleagues
(r − a )
wanted (total of a), then randomly get
Still, we qualified the donut shop problem by supposing that we
the rest (r − a).
arrived before the cops did.

33.3 The Real Donut Shop Problem

If we arrive at the donut shop after canvassing our friends, we want

to select r donuts from among n types. The problem is that there
are probably only a few left of each type. This may place an upper
290 math208: discrete mathematics

limit on how often we can select a particular type. So now we wish to

count solutions to

x1 + x2 + ... + xn = r, with ai ≤ xi ≤ bi , xi ∈ Z.

We proceed by replacing r by s = r − a, where a is the sum of

lower bounds. We also replace bi by ci = bi − ai for i = 1, ..., n. So
we want to find the number of solutions to 0 ≤ yi ≤ ci , yi ∈ Z, and
y1 + y2 + ... + yn = s. There are several ways to proceed. We choose
inclusion/exclusion. Let us set U to be all solutions in non-negative
integers to y1 + ... + yn = s. Next let Ai denote those solutions in non-
negative integers to y1 + ... + yn = r, where ci < yi . Then we want
to compute | A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ ... ∩ An |, which we can do by general
inclusion/exclusion, and the ideas from the more realistic donut shop
problem.

Example 33.2. Let us count the number of solutions to

x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 34,

where 0 ≤ x1 ≤ 4, 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 5, 0 ≤ x3 ≤ 8 and 0 ≤ x4 ≤ 40.

As discussed above, we have c1 = 4, c2 = 5, c3 = 8, and c4 = 40. Hence,
we see that
34 + 4 − 1
 
|U | = .
34
Now, Ai will denote the solutions in non-negative integers to

x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 34, with xi > ci , for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Next, realize that A4 = ∅, so we have

A4 = U and A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ A4 = A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 .

Now, to compute A1 , we must first rephrase x1 > 4 as a non-strict inequal-

ity, i.e. 5 ≤ x1 . So, it follows that

29 + 4 − 1
 
| A1 | = .
29
 tougher counting problems 291

Similarly, we have

28 + 4 − 1 25 + 4 − 1
   
| A2 k = , and | A3 | = .
28 25

Next, we observe that A1 ∩ A2 represents the set of all solutions in non-

negative integers to

x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 34 with 5 ≤ x1 and 6 ≤ x2 .

So, we have
23 + 4 − 1
 
| A1 ∩ A2 | = .
23
Also, we find that

20 + 4 − 1 19 + 4 − 1
   
| A1 ∩ A3 | = and | A2 ∩ A3 | = .
20 19

Finally, we see that

14 + 4 − 1
 
| A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 | = .
14

Hence, the final answer is1 1

We leave the answer in this form for
clarity. The numerical value is not
34 + 4 − 1 29 + 4 − 1 28 + 4 − 1 25 + 4 − 1 illuminating.
       
− − −
34 29 28 25
23 + 4 − 1 20 + 4 − 1 19 + 4 − 1 14 + 4 − 1
       
+ + + − .
23 20 19 14

We can now solve general counting exercises where order is unim-

portant and repetition is restricted somewhere between no repetition,
and full repetition.

33.4 Problems with order and some repetition

To complete the picture we should be able to also solve counting

exercises where order is important and repetition is partial. This is
somewhat easier. It suffices to consider the subcases in example 33.3.

Example 33.3. Let us take as initial problem the number of quaternary

strings of length 15. There are 415 of these.  
15 13
Now, if we ask how many contain exactly two 0’s, the answer is 3 .
2
292 math208: discrete mathematics

If we ask how many contain exactly two 0’s and four 1’s, the answer is
  
15 13 9
2 .
2 4

And, if we ask how many contain exactly two 0’s, four 1’s and five 2’s,
the answer is     
15 13 9 4 15!
= .
2 4 5 4 2! · 4! · 5! · 4!
So, in fact many types of counting are related by what we call the
multinomial theorem.

Theorem 33.4. When r is a non-negative integer and x1 , x2 , ..., xn ∈ R, we

have
 
r
∑
e
( x1 + x2 + ... + xn ) = r
x 1 x e2 ...xnen ,
e1 +e2 +...+en =r e1 , e2 , ..., en 1 2
0≤ ei

 
r r!
where = .
e1 , e2 , ...en e1 !e2 !...en !

33.5 The six fundamental counting problems

To recap, when we have a counting exercise, we should first ask

whether order is important and then ask whether repetition is al-
lowed. This will get us into the right ballpark as far as the form of
the solution. We must use basic counting principles to decompose
Order Repetition Form
the exercise into sub-problems. Solve the sub-problems, and put
Y Y nr
the pieces back together. Solutions to sub-problems usually take the
Y N P(n, r )
same form as the underlying problem, though they may be related to
r+n−1
 
it via the multinomial theorem. Table 33.2 synopsizes our six funda- N Y
r
 
mental cases. n
N N
r
 
r
Y some
k1 , k2 , ..., k n
r+n−1
 
N some w/ I-E
r

Table 33.2: Six counting problems

 tougher counting problems 293

33.6 Exercises

Exercise 33.1. How many quaternary strings of length n are there (a

quaternary string uses 0’s, 1’s, 2’s, and 3’s)?

Exercise 33.2. How many quaternary strings of length less than or equal to
7 are there?

Exercise 33.3. How many solutions in integers are there to x1 + x2 +

x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 = 54, where 3 ≤ x1 , 4 ≤ x2 , 5 ≤ x3 , and
6 ≤ x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 ?

Exercise 33.4. How many ternary strings of length n start 0101 and end 212?

Exercise 33.5. A doughnut shop has 8 kinds of doughnuts: chocolate,

glazed, sugar, cherry, strawberry, vanilla, caramel, and jalapeno. How many
ways are there to order three dozen doughnuts, if at least 4 are jalapeno, at
least 6 are cherry, and at least 8 are strawberry, but there are no restrictions
on the other varieties?

Exercise 33.6. How many strings of twelve lowercase English letters are
there

(a) which start and end with the letter x, if letters may be repeated?

(b) which contain the letter x exactly once, if letters can be repeated?

(c) which contain each of the letters x and y both exactly once, if letters can
be repeated?

(d) which contain at least one letter from the first half of the alphabet (a
through m), where letters may be repeated?

Exercise 33.7. How many bit strings of length 19 either begin 0101, or
have 4th, 5th and 6th digits 101, or end 1010?

Exercise 33.8. How many pentary strings of length 15 consist of three 0’s,
four 1’s, three 2’s, four 3’s and one 4?

Exercise 33.9. 9

Exercise 33.10. Seven lecturers and fourteen professors are on the faculty of
a math department.
 294 math208: discrete mathematics

(a) How many ways are there to form a committee with seven members
which contains more lecturers than professors?

(b) How many ways are there to form a committee with seven members
where the professors outnumber the lecturers on the committee by at least
a two-to-one margin?

(c) How many ways are there to form a committee consisting of at least five
lecturers?

Exercise 33.11. In how many ways can twenty people form a line at a ticket
window if Hans and wife Brunhilda are having a spat, and refuse to stand in
consecutive places in the line?

Exercise 33.12. Prove that a set with n ≥ 1 elements has the same number
of subsets with an even number of elements, as subsets with an odd number
of elements.

33.7 Problems

Problem 33.1. A doughnut shop has 8 kinds of doughnuts: chocolate,

glazed, sugar, cherry, strawberry, vanilla, caramel, and jalapeno. How many
ways are there to order three dozen doughnuts, if at most 4 are jalapeno, at
most 6 are cherry, and at most 8 are strawberry, but there are no restrictions
on the other varieties?

Problem 33.2. How many strings of twelve lowercase English letters are there

(a) which start with the letter x, if letters may be repeated?

(b) which contain the letter x at least once, if letters can be repeated?

(c) which contain each of the letters x and y at least once, if letters can be
repeated?

(d) which contain at least one vowel, where letters may not be repeated?

Problem 33.3. How many ternary strings of length 9 have

(a) exactly four 1’s?

(b) at least three 0’s?

 tougher counting problems 295

(c) at most three 1’s?

Problem 33.4. How many ways are there to seat six people at a circular
table where two seatings are considered equivalent if one can be obtained
from the other by rotating the table?

Problem 33.5. A donut shop sells six types of donut. You buy a scratch-off
ticket that promises you will win anywhere from one to two dozen donuts.
How many different prizes are possible?

Problem 33.6. How many ternary strings of length n contain no two

adjacent identical symbols? Examples: (n = 8) 13123231 is good, but
13112321 is bad.

Problem 33.7. How many ternary strings of length n contain at least two
adjacent identical symbols? Examples: (n = 9) 131212321 is bad, but
131123321 is good.

Problem 33.8. We have five identical buckets, and six markers numbered
1 to 6. How many final distributions of the markers are possible? Exam-
ples: one distribution: markers 1, 3 together in one bucket, markers 2, 4, 5
in another bucket, and marker 6 in another bucket. A second possible distri-
bution: markers 1,2,3,4 together in one bucket and markers 5,6 in another
bucket. One more example: markers 1,2,3,4, each in a different bucket, and
5,6 together in one bucket.
 34
Counting Using Recurrence Relations

It is not always convenient to use the methods of earlier chap-

ters to solve counting problems. Another technique for finding the
solution to a counting problem is recursive counting. The method
will be illustrated with several examples.

34.1 Recursive counting method

Example 34.1. Recall that a bit string is a list of 0’s and 1’s, and the length
of a bit string is the total number of 0’s and 1’s in the string. For example,
10111 is a bit string of length five, and 000100 is a bit string of length six.
The problem of counting the number of bit strings of length n is duck soup.
There are two choices for each bit, and so, applying the product rule, there
are 2n such strings. However, consider the problem of counting the number
of bit strings of length n with no adjacent 0’s.
Let’s use an to denote the number of bit strings of length n with no adja-
cent 0’s. Here are a few sample cases for small values of n.

n=0: Just one good bit string of length zero, and that is λ, the empty bit string.
So a0 = 1.

n=1: There are two good bit strings of length one. Namely 0 and 1. So a1 = 2.

n=2: There are three good bit strings of length two. Namely, 01, 10 and 11.
(Of course, 00 is a bad bit string.) That means a2 = 3.

n=3: Things start to get confusing now. But here is the list of good bit strings
of length three: 010, 011, 101, 110, and 111. So a3 = 5.
 298 math208: discrete mathematics

n=4: A little scratch work produces the good bit strings 0101, 0111, 1011,
1101, 1111, 0110, 1010, and 1110, for a total of eight. That means a4 =
8.

We can do a few more, but it is hard to see a formula for an like the 2n
formula that gives the total number of all bit strings of length n. Even
though a formula for an is difficult to spot, there is a pattern to the list of
values for an which looks like the Fibonacci sequence pattern. In fact, the
list so far looks like 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and if a few more are worked out by brute
force, it turns out the list continues 13, 21, 34. So, it certainly seems that
the solution to the counting problem can be expressed recursively as a0 = 1,
a1 = 2, and for n ≥ 2, an = an−1 + an−2 . If this guess is really correct,
then we can quickly compute the number of good bit strings of length n. We
just calculate a0 , a1 , a2 , etc., until we reach the an we are interested in.

Such a recursive solution to counting problems is certainly less

satisfactory than a simple formula, but some counting problems
are so messy that a simple formula might not be possible, and the
recursive solution is better than nothing in such a case.
There is one problem with the recursive solution offered in ex-
ample 34.1. We said that it seems that the solution to the counting
problem can be expressed recursively as a0 = 1, a1 = 2, and for
n ≥ 2, an = an−1 + an−2 . That it seems that is not an acceptable justifi-
cation of the formula. After all, we are basing that guess on just eight
or ten values of the infinite sequence an , and it is certainly possible
that those values happen to follow the pattern we’ve guessed simply
by accident. Maybe the true pattern is much more complicated, and
we have been tricked by the small number of cases we have consid-
ered. It is necessary to show that the guessed pattern is correct by
supplying a logical argument.
Our argument would begin by checking the initial conditions we
offered. In other words, we would verify by hand that a0 = 1 and
a1 = 2. This serves as a basis for the verification of the recursive
formula. Now what we want to do is assume that we have already
calculated all the values a0 , a1 , · · · , ak for some k ≥ 1, and show
that ak+1 must equal ak + ak−1 . It is very important to understand
that we do not want to compute the value of ak+1 . We only want to prove
 counting using recurrence relations 299

that ak+1 = ak + ak−1 . The major error made doing these types of
problems is attempting to compute the specific value of ak+1 . Don’t
fall for that trap! After all, if it were possible to actually compute the
specific value of ak+1 , then we could find a formula for an in general,
and we wouldn’t have to be seeking a recursive relation at all.
Here is how the argument would go in the bit string example.
Suppose we have lists of the good bit strings of lengths 0, 1, · · · , k.
Here is how to make a list of all the good bit strings of length k + 1.
First, take any good bit string of length k and add a 1 on the right
hand end. The result must be a good bit string of length k + 1 (since
we added a 1 to the end, and the original bit string didn’t have two
consecutive 0’s, the new bit string cannot have two consecutive 0’s
either). In that way we form some good bit strings of length k +
1. In fact, we have built exactly ak good bit strings of length k +
1. But wait, there’s more! (as they say in those simple-minded TV
ads). Another way to build a good bit string of length k + 1 is to
take a good bit string of length k − 1 and add 10 to the right end.
Clearly these will also be good bit strings of length k + 1. And these
all end with a 0, so they are all new ones, and not ones we built in
the previous step. How many are there of this type? One for each
of the good bit strings of length k − 1, or a total of ak−1 . Thus, so
far we have built ak + ak−1 good bit strings of length k + 1. Now we
will show that in fact we have a complete list of all good bit string of
length k + 1, and that will complete the proof that ak+1 = ak + ak−1 .
But before driving that last nail into the coffin, let’s look at the steps
outlined above for the case k + 1 = 4.
The previous paragraph essentially provides an algorithm for
building good bit strings of length k + 1 from good bits strings of
lengths k and k − 1. The algorithm instructs us to add 1 to the right
end of all the good bit strings of length k and 10 to the right of all the
good bit strings of length k − 1. Applying the algorithm for the case
k + 1 = 4, gives the following list, where the added bits are put in
parentheses to make them stand out. 010(1), 011(1), 101(1), 110(1),
111(1), 01(10), 10(10), and 11(10).
There remains one detail to iron out. It is clear that the algorithm
300 math208: discrete mathematics

will produce good bit strings of length k + 1. But, does it produce

every good bit string of length k + 1? If it does not, then the recursive
relation we are offering for the solution to the counting problem will
eventually begin to produce answers that are too small, and we will
undercount the number of good bit strings. To see that we do count
all good bit strings of length k + 1, consider any particular good bit
string of length k + 1, call it s for short, and look at the right most
bit of s. There are two possibilities for that bit. It could be a 1. If that
is so, then when the 1 is removed the remaining bit string is a good
of length k (it can’t have two adjacent 0’s since s doesn’t have two
adjacent 0’s). That means the bit string s is produced by adding a 1
to the right end of a good bit string of length k, and so s is produced
by the first step in the algorithm. The other option for s is that the
right most bit is a 0. But then the second bit in from the right must be
a 1, since s is a good bit string, so it doesn’t have adjacent 0’s. So the
last two bits on the right of s are 10. If those two bits are removed,
there remains a good bit string of length k − 1. Thus s is produced by
adding 10 to the right end of a good bit string of length k − 1, and so
s is produced by the second case in the algorithm.
In a nutshell, we have shown our algorithm produces ak + ak−1
good bit strings of length k + 1, and that the algorithm does not
miss any good bit strings of length k + 1. Thus we have proved that
ak+1 = ak + ak−1 for all k ≥ 2.
Example 34.1 was explained in excruciating detail. Normally, the
verifications will be much more briefly presented. It takes a while to
get used to recursive counting, but once the light goes on, the beauty
and simplicity of the method will become apparent.

34.2 Examples

Example 34.2. This example is a little silly since it is very easy to write
down a formula to solve the counting problem. But the point of the example
is not find the solution to the problem but rather to exhibit recursive count-
ing in action. The problem is to compute the total number of individual
squares on an n × n checkerboard. If we let the total number of squares be
 counting using recurrence relations 301

denoted by sn , then obviously sn = n2 . For example, an ordinary checker-

board is an 8 × 8 board, and it has a total of s8 = 82 = 64 individual
squares. But let’s count the number of squares recursively. Clearly s0 = 0.
Now suppose we have computed the values of s0 , s1 , · · · , sk , for some k ≥ 0.
We will show how to compute sk+1 from those known values. To determine
sk+1 , draw a (k + 1) × (k + 1) checkerboard. (You should make a little
sketch of such a board for say k + 1 = 5 so you can follow the process de-
scribed next.) From that (k + 1) × (k + 1) board, slice off the right hand
column of squares, and the bottom row of squares. What is left over will be a
k × k checkerboard, so it will have sk individual squares. That means that

sk+1 = sk + the number of squares sliced off

Now ignore the lower right hand corner square for a moment. There are k
other squares in the right hand column that was sliced off. Likewise, ignor-
ing the corner square, there are k other squares in the bottom row that was
sliced off. Hence the total number of squares sliced off was k + k + 1, the 1
accounting for the corner square. Thus

sk+1 = sk + k + k + 1 = sk + 2k + 1

So a recursive solution to the problem of counting sn = number of indi-

vidual squares on an n × n checkerboard is

s0 = 0, and

sk+1 = sk + 2k + 1, for k ≥ 0.

Using the recursive relation, we get s0 = 0, s1 = s0 + 2(0) + 1 =

0 + 0 + 1 = 1, s2 = s1 + 2(1) + 1 = 1 + 2 + 1 = 4, s3 = s2 + 2(2) + 1 =
4 + 4 + 1 = 9, and so on, giving what we recognize as the correct answers.

Example 34.3. Suppose we have available an unlimited number of pennies

and nickels to deposit in a vending machine (a really old vending machine
it seems, since it even accepts pennies). Let dn be the number of different
ways of depositing a total of n cents in the machine. Just to make sure we
understand the problem, let’s compute dn for a few small values of n. Clearly
d0 = 1 since there is only one way to deposit no money in the machine
302 math208: discrete mathematics

(namely don’t put any money in the machine!). d1 = 1 (put in one penny),
d2 = 1 (put in two pennies), d3 = 1 (put in three pennies), d4 = 1 (put in
four pennies). Now things start to get exciting! d5 = 2 (put in five pennies
or put in one nickel). And even more thrilling is d6 = 3 (the three options
are (1) six pennies, (2) one penny followed by a nickel, and (3) one nickel
followed by a penny). That last count indicates a fact that may not have been
clear: the order on which pennies and nickels are deposited is considered
important. With a little more trial and error with pencil and paper, further
values are found to be d7 = 4, d8 = 5, d9 = 6, d10 = 8, d11 = 11, and
d12 = 15. It is hard to see a formula for these values. But it is duck soup to
write down a recursive relation that produces this sequence of values. Think
of it this way, suppose we wanted to put n cents in the machine, where
n ≥ 5. We can make the first coin either a penny or a nickel. If we make
the first coin a penny, then we will need to add n − 1 more cents, which can
be done in dn−1 ways. On the other hand, if we make the first coin a nickel,
we will need to deposit n − 5 more cents, and that can be done in dn−5
ways. By the sum rule of counting, we conclude that the number of ways of
depositing n cents is dn−1 + dn−5 . In other words, dn = dn−1 + dn−5 for
n ≥ 5.
Since our recursive relation for dn does not kick in until n reaches 5, we
will need to include d0 , d1 , d2 , d3 , and d4 as initial terms. So the recursive
solution to this counting problem is

d0 = 1 d1 = 1 d2 = 1 d3 = 1 d4 = 1

for n ≥ 5, d n = d n −1 + d n −5

Example 34.4 (The Tower of Hanoi). The classic example of recursive

counting concerns the story of the Tower of Hanoi. A group of monks wished
a magical tower to be constructed from 1000 stone rings. The rings were to
be of 1000 different sizes. The size and composition of the rings was to be
designed so that any ring could support the entire weight of all of the rings
smaller than itself, but each ring would be crushed beneath the weight of any
larger ring.
The monks hired the lowest bidder to construct the tower in a clearing
in the dense jungle nearby. Upon completion of construction the engineers
brought the monks to see their work. The monks admired the exquisite work-
 counting using recurrence relations 303

manship, but informed the engineers that the tower was not in the proper
clearing.
In the jungle there were only three permanent clearings. The monks had
labelled them A, B and C. The engineers had labelled them in reverse order.
The monks instructed the engineers to move the tower from clearing A to
clearing C!
Because of the massive size of the rings, the engineers could only move
one per day. No ring could be left anywhere in the jungle except one of A,
B, or C. Finally each clearing was only large enough so that rings could be
stored there by stacking them one on top of another.
The monks then asked the engineers how long it would take for them to
fix the problem.
Before they all flipped a gasket, the most mathematically talented engineer
came upon the following solution.
Let Hn denote the minimum number of days required to move an n ring
tower from A to C under the constraints given. Then H1 = 1, and in
general an n ring tower can be moved from A to C by first moving the top
(n − 1) rings from A to B leaving the bottom ring at A, then moving the
bottom ring from A to C, and then moving the top (n − 1) rings from
clearing B to clearing C. That shows Hn ≤ 2 · Hn−1 + 1, for n ≥ 2, and
a little more thought shows the algorithm just described cannot be improved
upon. Thus Hn = 2 · Hn−1 + 1.
Using the initial condition H1 = 1 together with the recursive relation
Hn = 2 · Hn−1 + 1, we can generate terms of the sequence:

1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127, 255, 511, · · · ,

and it looks like Hn = 2n − 1 for n ≥ 1, which can be verified by an easy

induction.
So, the problem would be fixed in 21000 − 1 days, or approximately
2.93564 × 10296 centuries. Now, that is job security!

34.3 General rules for finding recursive solutions

Here are a few general rules for solving counting problems recur-
sively:
 304 math208: discrete mathematics

(1) do a few small cases by brute force,

(2) think recursively: how can a larger case be solved if the solutions
to smaller cases are known, and

(3) check the numbers produced by the recursive solution to make

sure they agree with the values obtained by brute force.
 counting using recurrence relations 305

34.4 Exercises

Exercise 34.1. On day zero, a piggy bank contains $0. Each day, one more
penny is added to the bank than the day before. So, on day 1, one penny is
added, on day 2, two pennies are added. Write a recursive formula for the
total number of pennies in the bank each day, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..

Exercise 34.2. Al climbs stairs by taking either one or two steps at a time.
For example, he can climb a flight of three steps in three different ways: (1)
one step, one step, one step or (2) two step, one step, or (3) one step, two
step. Determine a recursive formula for the number of different ways Al can
climb a flight of n steps.

Exercise 34.3. Find a recurrence relation for the number of bit strings of
length n that contain an even number of 0’s.

Exercise 34.4. Find a recurrence relation for the number of bit strings of
length n that contain two consecutive 0’s.

Exercise 34.5. Find a recurrence relation for the number of bit strings of
length n that contain the string 01.

Exercise 34.6. Find a recurrence relation for the number of ternary strings
of length n that contain two consecutive 0’s.

Exercise 34.7. Find a recurrence relation for the number of subsets of

{1, 2, 3, . . . , n} that do not contain any consecutive integers. Examples for
n = 9: the subset {1, 3, 8} is good, but the subset {2, 5, 6, 9} is bad since it
contains the consecutive integers 5, 6.

Exercise 34.8. Suppose in the original Tower of Hanoi problem there are
four clearings A, B, C, D. Find a recursive relation for Jn , the minimum
number of moves needed to transfer the tower from clearing A to clearing D.

34.5 Problems

Problem 34.1. Suppose on December 31, 2000, a deposit of $100 is made in

a savings account that pays 10% annual interest (Ah, those were the days!).
So one year after the initial deposit, on December 31, 2001, the account will
be credited with $10, and have a value of $110. On December 31, 2002 that
 306 math208: discrete mathematics

account will be credited with an additional $11, and have value $121. Find a
recursive relation that gives the value of the account n years after the initial
deposit.

Problem 34.2. Sal climbs stairs by taking either one, two, or three steps at
a time. Determine a recursive formula for the number of different ways Sal
can climb a flight of n steps. In how many ways can Sal climb a flight of 10
steps?

Problem 34.3. Passwords for a certain computer system are strings of

uppercase letters. A valid password must contain an even number of X’s.
Determine a recurrence relation for the number of valid passwords of length
n.

Problem 34.4. A (cheap) vending machine accepts pennies, nickels, and

dimes. Let dn be the number of ways of depositing n cents in the machine,
where the order in which the coins are deposited matters. Determine a recur-
rence relation for dn . Give the initial conditions.

Problem 34.5. Suppose the Tower of Hanoi rules are changed so that stones
may only be transferred to an adjacent clearing in one move. Let In be the
minimum number of moves required to transfer tower from clearing A to
clearing C?

(a) By brute force, determine I1 , I2 , and I3 .

(b) Find a recursive relation for In .

(c) Guess a formula for In .

Problem 34.6. Find a recurrence relation for the number of binary strings
of length n which do not contain the substring 010.

Problem 34.7. Find a recurrence relation for the number of ternary strings
of length n that contain three consecutive zeroes.

Problem 34.8. Find a recurrence relation for the number of quaternary

strings which contain two consecutive 1’s.

Problem 34.9. Let n be a positive integer. Find a recurrence relation that

counts the number of increasing sequences of distinct integers that start
with 1 and end with n. Example: For n = 4, there are 4 such sequences.
They are 1, 4, 1, 2, 4, 1, 3, 4, and 1, 2, 3, 4.
 counting using recurrence relations 307

Problem 34.10. Find a recurrence relation that counts the number of ways
of painting the squares of an n × n chess board with blue, green, and yellow
paint so that no two squares that share an edge have the same color.
35
Solutions to Recurrence Relations

In chapter 34, it was pointed out that recursively defined se-

quences suffer from one major drawback: In order to compute a
particular term in the sequence, it is necessary to first compute all the
terms of the sequence leading up to the one that is wanted. Imagine
the chore to calculate the 250th Fibonacci number, f 250 ! For problems
of computation, there is nothing like having a formula like an = n2 ,
into which it is merely necessary to plug the number of interest.

35.1 Solving a recursion by conjecture

It may be possible to find a formula for a sequence that is defined

recursively. When that can be done, you have the best of both the
formula and recursive worlds. If we find a formula for the terms of a
recursively defined sequence, we say we have solved the recursion.

Example 35.1. Here is an example: The sequence { an } is defined re-

cursively by the initial condition a0 = 2, and the recursive formula
an = 2an−1 − 1 for n ≥ 1. If the first few terms of this sequence are
written out, the results are

2, 3, 5, 9, 17, 33, 65, 129, · · · ,

and it shouldn’t be too long before the pattern becomes clear. In fact, it looks You have to recognize the slightly hid-
den powers of 2: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, . . . .
like an = 2n + 1 is the formula for an .
To prove that guess is correct, induction would be the best way to go.
310 math208: discrete mathematics

Here are the details. Just to make everything clear, here is what we are going
to show: If a0 = 2, and an = 2an−1 − 1 for n ≥ 1, then an = 2n + 1 for
all n ≥ 0. The basis for the inductive proof is the case n = 0. The correct
value for a0 is 2, and the guessed formula has value 2 when n = 0, so that
checks out. Now for the inductive step: suppose that the formula for ak is
correct for a particular k ≥ 0. That is, assume ak = 2k + 1 for some k ≥ 0.
Let’s show that the formula must also be correct for ak+1 . That is, we want
to show ak+1 = 2k+1 + 1. Well, we know that ak+1 = 2ak − 1, and hence
ak+1 = 2(2k + 1) − 1 = 2k+1 + 2 − 1 = 2k+1 + 1, just as was to be proved.
It can now be concluded that the formula we guessed is correct for all n ≥ 0.

In example 35.1, it was possible to guess the correct formula for

an after looking at a few terms. In most cases the formula will be so
complicated that that sort of guessing will be out of the question.

35.2 Solving a recursion by unfolding

There is a method that will nearly automatically solve any recurrence

of the form a0 = a and for, n ≥ 1, an = ban−1 + c (where a, b, c are
constants). The method is called unfolding.

Example 35.2. As an example, let’s solve a0 = 2 and, for n ≥ 1, an =

5 + 2an−1 . The plan is to write down the recurrence relation, and then
substitute for an−1 , then for an−2 , and so on, until we reach a0 . It looks like
this

an = 5 + 2an−1

= 5 + 2(5 + 2an−2 ) = 5 + 5(2) + 22 an−2

= 5 + 5(2) + 22 (5 + 2an−3 ) = 5 + 5(2) + 5(22 ) + 23 an−3 .

If this substitution is continued, eventually we reach an expression we

can compute in closed form: In the next to last step we use the
formula for adding the terms of a
geometric sequence.
 solutions to recurrence relations 311

an = 5 + 5(2) + 5(22 ) + 5(23 ) + · · · + 5(2n−1 ) + 2n a0

= 5(1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n−1 ) + 2n (2)

2n − 1
=5 + 2 (2n )
2−1
= 5 (2n − 1 ) + 2 (2n )
= 7(2n ) − 5.
312 math208: discrete mathematics

35.3 Exercises

Exercise 35.1. Guess the solution to a0 = 2, and a1 = 4, and, for n ≥ 2,

an = 4an−1 − 3an−2 and prove your guess is correct by induction.

Exercise 35.2. Solve by unfolding: a0 = 2, and, for n ≥ 1, an = 5an−1 .

Exercise 35.3. Solve by unfolding: a0 = 2, and, for n ≥ 1, an = 5an−1 + 3.

Hint: This one will involve applying the geometric sum formula.

35.4 Problems

Problem 35.1. Guess the solution to a0 = 1, and a1 = 5, and, for n ≥ 2,

an = an−1 + 2an−2 and prove your guess is correct by induction.

Problem 35.2. Solve by unfolding: a0 = 2, and, for n ≥ 1, an = 7an−1 .

Problem 35.3. Solve by unfolding: a0 = 2, and, for n ≥ 1, an = 7an−1 +

3.
36
The Method of Characteristic Roots

There is no method that will solve all recurrence relations. How-

ever, for one particular type, there is a standard technique. The type
is called a linear recurrence relation with constant coefficients. In
such a recurrence relation, the recurrence formula has the form

an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + ... + ck an−k + f (n)

where c1 , · · · , ck are constants with ck 6= 0, and f (n) is any function

of n.
The degree of the recurrence is k, the number of terms we need to
go back in the sequence to compute each new term. If f (n) = 0, then
the recurrence relation is called homogeneous. Otherwise it is called
nonhomogeneous.
In chapter 35, we noted that some simple non-homogeneous lin-
ear recurrence relations with constant coefficients can be solved by
unfolding. This method is not powerful enough for more general
problems. In this chapter we introduce a basic method that, in princi-
ple at least, can be used to solve any homogeneous linear recurrence
relation with constant coefficients.

36.1 Homogeneous, constant coefficient recursions

We begin by considering the degree 2 case. That is, we have a re-

currence relation of the form an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 , for n ≥ 2,
where c1 and c2 are real constants. We must also have two initial con-
314 math208: discrete mathematics

ditions a0 and a1 . That is, we are given a0 and a1 and the formula
an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 , for n ≥ 2. Notice that c2 6= 0 or else we have
a linear recurrence relation with constant coefficients and degree 1.
What we seek is a closed form formula for an , which is a function of
n alone, and which is therefore independent of the previous terms of
the sequence.

36.1.1 Basic example of the method

Here’s the technique in a specific example:

The problem we will solve is to find a formula for the terms of the
sequence

a0 = 4 and a1 = 8, with

an = 4an−1 + 12an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

The first thing to do is to ignore the initial conditions, and concen-

trate on the recurrence relation. And the way to solve the recurrence
relation is to guess the solution. Well, actually, it is to guess the form
of the solution1 . For such a recurrence you should guess that the so- 1
An educated guess!

lution looks like an = r n , for some constant r. In other words, guess

the solution is simply the powers of some fixed number. The good
news is that this guess will always be correct! You will always find
some solutions of this form. When this guess is plugged into the
recurrence relation and the equation is simplified, the result is an
equation that can be solved for r. That equation is called the charac-
teristic equation for the recurrence. In our example, when an = r n
for each n, the result is r n = 4r n−1 + 12r n−2 , and canceling r n−2 from
each term, and rearranging the equation, we get r2 − 4r − 12 = 0.
That’s the characteristic equation. The left side can be factored, and
the equation then looks like (r − 6)(r + 2) = 0, and we see the solu-
tions for r are r = 6 and r = −2. And, sure enough, if you check it
out, you will see that an = 6n and an = (−2)n both satisfy the given
 the method of characteristic roots 315

recurrence relation. In other words, we find that

6n = 4 · 6n−1 + 12 · 6n−2 , for all n ≥ 2, and

(−2)n = 4 · (−2)n−1 + 12 · (−2)n−2 , for all n ≥ 2.

Using the characteristic equation, we have a method of finding

some solutions to a recurrence relation. This method will not find all
possible solutions however. BUT... if we find all the solutions to the
characteristic equation, then they can be combined in a certain way to
produce all possible solutions to the recurrence relation. The fact to
remember is that if r = a, b are the two solutions to the characteristic
equation (for a recurrence of order two), then every possible solution
to the linear homogenous recurrence relation must look like 2 2
Actually, that is not quite true. There
is a slight catch to be mentioned later
(see section 36.2).
αan + βbn ,

for some constants α, β. In the example we have been working on,

every possible solution looks like3 3
This expression is called the general
solution of the recurrence relation.

an = α(6)n + β(−2)n .

Once we have figured out the general solution to the recurrence

relation, it is time to think about the initial conditions. In our case,
the initial conditions are a0 = 4 and a1 = 8. The idea is to select
the constants α and β of the general solution an = α6n + β(−2)n so
it will produce the correct two initial values. For n = 0 we see we
need 4 = a0 = α60 + β(−2)0 = α + β, and for n = 1, we need
8 = a1 = α61 + β(−2)1 = 6α − 2β. Now, we solve the following pair
of equations for α and β:

α + β = 4,

6α − 2β = 8.

Performing a bit of algebra, we learn that α = 2 and β = 2. Thus the

solution to the recurrence is

an = 2 · 6n + 2 · (−2)n .
 316 math208: discrete mathematics

36.1.2 Initial steps: the characteristic equation and its roots

The steps in solving a recurrence problem are:

(1) Determine the characteristic equation.

(2) Find the solutions to the characteristic equation.

(3) Write down the general solution to the recurrence relation.

(4) Select the constants in the general solution to produce the correct
initial conditions.

36.2 Repeated characteristic roots.

And now, about the little lie mentioned above: One catch with the
method of characteristic equation occurs when the equation has
repeated roots. Suppose, for example, that when the characteristic
equation is factored the result is (r − 2)(r − 2)(r − 3)(r + 5) = 0.
The characteristic roots are 2, 2, 3 and −5. Here 2 is a repeated root. If
we follow the instructions given above, then the general solution we
would write down is

an = α2n + β2n + γ3n + δ(−5)n . (36.1)

However, this expression will not include all possible solutions to the
recurrence relation. Happily, the problem is not too hard to repair:
each time a root of the characteristic equation is repeated, multiply it
by an additional factor of n in the general solution, and then proceed
with step 4 as described earlier.
For our example, we modify one of the 2n terms in equation 36.1.
The correct general solution looks like Notice the extra factor of n in the
second term.
n n n n
an = α2 + βn · 2 + γ3 + δ(−5) .

If (r − 2) had been a four fold factor of the characteristic equation4 , 4

in other words, if 2 had been a charac-
teristic root four times
then the part of the general solution involving the 2’s would look like
Each new occurrence of a 2 is multi-
n n 2 n 3 n plied by one more factor of n.
α2 + βn · 2 + γn · 2 + δn · 2 .
 the method of characteristic roots 317

36.3 The method of characteristic roots more formally

Let’s describe the method of characteristic equation a little more

formally. First, the characteristic equation is denoted by χ( x ) = 0
5. Notice that the degree of χ( x ) coincides with the degree of the 5
For the general degree 2 case above we
have χ( x ) = x2 − c1 x − c2 .
recurrence relation. Notice also that the non-leading coefficients of
χ( x ) are simply the negatives of the coefficients of the recurrence
relation. In general, the characteristic equation of an = c1 an−1 + ... +
ck an−k is
χ( x ) = x k − c1 x k−1 − ... − ck−1 x − ck = 0.

A number r (possibly complex) is a characteristic root if χ(r ) = 0.

From basic algebra we know that r is a root of a polynomial if and
only if ( x − r ) is a factor of the polynomial. When χ( x ) is a degree 2
polynomial, by the quadratic formula, either χ( x ) = ( x − r1 )( x − r2 ),
where r1 6= r2 , or χ( x ) = ( x − r )2 , for some r.

Theorem 36.1. Let c1 and c2 be real numbers. Suppose that the polynomial
χ( x ) = x2 − c1 x − c2 has two distinct roots r1 and r2 . Then a sequence
a : N → R is a solution of the recurrence relation an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 ,
for n ≥ 2 if and only if am = αr1m + βr2m , for all m ∈ N, and for some
constants α and β. The constants are determined by the
initial conditions (see equation 36.2).

Proof. If am = αr1m + βr2m for all m ∈ N, where α and β are some

constants, then since ri2 − c1 ri − c2 = 0, we have ri2 = c1 ri + c2 , for i = 1
and n = 2. Hence, for n ≥ 2, we have

c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 = c1 (αr1n−1 + βr2n−1 ) + c2 (αr1n−2 + βr2n−2 )

= αr1n−2 (c1 r1 + c2 ) + βr2n−2 (c1 r2 + c2 ) distributing and combining,

= αr1n−2 · r12 + βr2n−2 · r22 by the remark above,
= αr1n + βr2n = an .

Conversely, if a is a solution of the recurrence relation and has initial terms

a0 and a1 , then one checks that the sequence am = αr1m + βr2m with

a1 − a0 · r2 a0 r1 − a1
α= , and β = (36.2)
r1 − r2 r1 − r2

also satisfies the relation and has the same initial conditions. The equations
318 math208: discrete mathematics

for α and β come from solving the system of linear equations

a0 = α (r1 )0 + β (r2 )0 = α + β

a1 = α(r1 )1 + β(r2 )1 = αr1 + βr2 .

This system is solved using techniques from a prerequisite course. ♣

Example 36.2. Solve the recurrence relation a0 = 2, a1 = 3 and an = an−2 ,

for n ≥ 2.

Solution. The recurrence relation is a linear homogeneous recurrence

relation of degree 2 with constant coefficients c1 = 0 and c2 = 1. The
characteristic polynomial is

χ( x ) = x2 − 0 · x − 1 = x2 − 1.

The characteristic polynomial has two distinct roots since

x2 − 1 = ( x − 1)( x + 1).

Let’s say r1 = 1 and r2 = −1. Then, we find the system of equations:

2 = a0 = α10 + β(−1)0 = α + β

3 = a1 = α11 + β(−1)1 = α + β(−1) = α − β.

Adding the two equations eliminates β and gives 5 = 2α, so α = 5/2.

Substituting this into the first equation, 2 = 5/2 + β, we see that β =
−1/2. Thus, our solution is

5 n −1 5 1
an = ·1 + (−1)n = − · (−1)n .
2 2 2 2

Example 36.3. Solve the recurrence relation a1 = 3, a2 = 5, and,

an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 , for n ≥ 3.

Solution. Here the characteristic polynomial is

χ( x ) = x2 − 5x + 6 = ( x − 2)( x − 3),
 the method of characteristic roots 319

with roots r1 = 2 and r2 = 3. Now, we suppose that

am = α2m + β3m , for all m ≥ 1.

The initial conditions give rise to the system of equations

3 = a1 = α21 + β31 = 2α + 3β

5 = a2 = α22 + β32 = 4α + 9β.

If we multiply the top equation through by 2, we obtain

6 = 4α + 6β

5 = 4α + 9β.

Subtracting the second equation from the first eliminates α and yields
1 = −3β. So, we have found that β = −1/3. Substitution into the
first equation yields 3 = 2α + 3 · (−1/3), so α = 2. Thus

1 m
a m = 2 · 2m − · 3 = 2m+1 − 3m−1 , for all m ≥ 1.
3

36.4 The method for repeated roots

The other case we mentioned had a characteristic polynomial of

degree two with one repeated root. Since the proof is similar we
simply state the theorem.

Theorem 36.4. Let c1 and c2 be real numbers with c2 6= 0 and suppose

that the polynomial x2 − c1 x − c2 has a root r with multiplicity 2, so that
x2 − c1 x − c2 = ( x − r )2 . Then, a sequence a : N → R is a solution of the
recurrence relation an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 , for n ≥ 2 if and only if

am = (α + βm)r m ,

for all m ∈ N, and for some constants α and β.

Example 36.5. Solve the recurrence relation a0 = −1, a1 = 4 and an =

4an−1 − 4an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

Solution. In this case we have χ( x ) = x2 − 4x + 4 = ( x − 2)2 . So, we

320 math208: discrete mathematics

may suppose that

am = (α + βm)2m , for all m ∈ N.

The initial conditions give rise to the system of equations

− 1 = a 0 = ( α + β · 0 ) 20 = ( α ) · 1 = α
4 = a1 = (α + β · 1)21 = 2(α + β) · 2.

Substituting α = −1 into the second equation gives 4 = 2( β − 1), so

2 = β − 1 and β = 3. Therefore am = (3m − 1)2m , for all m ∈ N.

36.5 The general case

Finally, we state6 the general method of characteristic roots. 6

without proof

Theorem 36.6. Let c1 , c2 , ..., ck ∈ R with ck 6= 0. Suppose that the

characteristic polynomial factors as

χ( x ) = x k − c1 x k−1 − c2 x k−2 − ... − ck−1 x − ck

= ( x − r1 ) j1 ( x − r2 ) j2 · · · ( x − rs ) js

where r1 , r2 , . . ., rs are distinct roots of χ( x ), and j1 , j2 , . . ., js are positive

integers such that
j1 + j2 + j3 + ... + js = k.

Then a sequence a : N → R is a solution of the recurrence relation

an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + ... + ck an−k for n ≥ k

if and only if

am = p1 (m)r1m + p2 (m)r2m + ... + ps (m)rsm for all m ∈ N,

where

pi (m) = α0,i + α1,i m + α2,i m2 + ... + α ji −1,i m ji −1 1≤i≤s

and the αl,i ’s are constants.

 the method of characteristic roots 321

There is a problem with the general case. It is true that given the
recurrence relation we can simply write down the characteristic poly-
nomial. However it can be quite a challenge to factor it as required
by the theorem. Even if we succeed in factoring it we are faced with
the tedious task of setting up and solving a system of k linear equa-
tions in k unknowns (the αl,i ’s). While in theory such a system can be
solved using the methods of elimination or substitution covered in a
college algebra course, in practice, the amount of labor involved can
become overwhelming. For this reason, computer algebra systems are
often used in practice to help solve systems of equations, or even the
original recurrence relation.
 322 math208: discrete mathematics

36.6 Exercises

Exercise 36.1. For each of the following sequences find a recurrence relation
satisfied by the sequence. Include a sufficient number of initial conditions to
completely specify the sequence.

(a) an = 2n + 3, n ≥ 0

(b) an = 3 · 2n , n ≥ 1

(c) an = n2 , n ≥ 1

(d) an = n + (−1)n , n ≥ 0

Solve each of the following recurrence relations:

Exercise 36.2. a0 = 3, a1 = 6, and an = an−1 + 6an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

Exercise 36.3. a0 = 4, a1 = 7, and an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

Exercise 36.4. a2 = 5, a3 = 13, and an = 7an−1 − 10an−2 , for n ≥ 4.

Exercise 36.5. a1 = 3, a2 = 5, and an = 4an−1 − 4an−2 , for n ≥ 3.

Exercise 36.6. a0 = 1, a1 = 6, and an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

Exercise 36.7. a1 = 2, a2 = 8, and an = an−2 , for n ≥ 3.

Exercise 36.8. a0 = 2, a1 = 5, a2 = 15, and an = 6an−1 − 11an−2 +

6an−3 , for n ≥ 3.

Exercise 36.9. Find a closed form formula for the terms of the Fibonacci
sequence: f 0 = 0, f 1 = 1, and for n ≥ 2, f n = f n−1 + f n−2 .

36.7 Problems

Problem 36.1. Solve a0 = 1, and an = 2an−1 , for n ≥ 1 using the

characteristic equation method.

Problem 36.2. Solve a0 = 2, a1 = 5 and an = an−1 + 6an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

Problem 36.3. a0 = 3, a1 = 7, and an = 6an−1 − 5an−2 , for n ≥ 2.

Problem 36.4. a2 = 5, a3 = 13, and an = 3an−1 + 10an−2 , for n ≥ 4.

Problem 36.5. a1 = 3, a2 = 5, and an = 8an−1 − 16an−2 , for n ≥ 3.

 the method of characteristic roots 323

Problem 36.6. a1 = 2, a2 = 8, and an = 4an−2 , for n ≥ 3.

Problem 36.7. a0 = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 2, and an = − an−1 + 4an−2 + 4an−3 ,

for n ≥ 3.

Problem 36.8. a0 = 0, a1 = 1, and for n ≥ 2, an = 2an−1 + an−2 .

 37
Solving Nonhomogeneous Recurrences

When a linear recurrence relation with constant coefficients

for a sequence {sn } looks like

s n = c 1 s n −1 + c 2 s n −2 + · · · + c k s n − k + f ( n ),

where f (n) is some (nonzero) function of n, then the recurrence rela-

tion is said to be nonhomogeneous. For example, sn = 2sn−1 + n2 + 1
is a nonhomogeneous recurrence. Here f (n) = n2 + 1. The methods
used in the last chapter are not adequate to deal with nonhomoge-
neous problems. But it wasn’t all a waste since those methods do
provide one step in the solution of nonhomogeneous problems.

37.1 Steps to solve nonhomogeneous recurrence relations

Step (1): Replace the f (n) by 0 to create a homogeneous recurrence relation,

s n = c 1 s n −1 + c 2 s n −2 + · · · + c k s n − k .

Now solve this and write down the general solution1 . For exam- 1
We learned to do this in chapter 36.

ple, in the case of no repeated roots, the general solution will look
something like:

sn = a1 r1n + a2 r2n + · · · + ak rkn ,

where the constants a1 , a2 , · · · , ak are to be determined.

 326 math208: discrete mathematics

Step (2): Next, find one particular solution to the original nonhomoge-
neous recursion. In other words, one specific sequence that obeys
the recursive formula (ignoring the initial conditions). A method
for finding a particular solution that works in many cases is to
guess! Actually, it is to make an educated guess. Reasonable
guesses depend on the form of f (n). There is an algorithm that
will produce the correct guess, but it is so complicated it isn’t
worth learning for the few simple examples we will be doing.
Instead, rely on the following guidelines to guess the form of a
particular solution.
f (n) Particular Solution Guess
Roughly, the plan is the guess a particular solution that is the most c (a constant) A (constant)
general function of the same type as f (n). Specifically, table 37.1 n An + B
n2 An2 + Bn + C
shows reasonable guesses.
n3 An3 + Bn2 + Cn + D
These guesses can be mixed-and-matched. For example, if 2n A2n
rn (r constant) Ar n

f (n) = 3n2 + 5n , Table 37.1: Particular solution patterns

then a reasonable candidate particular solution would be

An2 + Bn + C + D5n .

Once a guess has been made for the form of a particular solution,
that guess is plugged into the recurrence relation, and the coef-
ficients A, B, · · · are determined. In this way a specific particular
solution will be found.

It will sometimes happen that when the equations are set up to de-
termine the coefficients of the particular solution, an inconsistent
system will appear. In such a case, as with repeated characteris-
tic roots, the trick is (more-or-less) to multiply the guess for the
particular solution by n, and try again.

Step (3): Once a particular solution has been found, add the particular
solution of step (2) to the general solution of the homogeneous
recurrence found in step (1). If we denote a particular solution by
h(n), then the total general solution looks like

sn = a1 r1n + a2 r2n + · · · + ak rkn + h(n).

 solving nonhomogeneous recurrences 327

Step (4): Invoke the initial conditions to determine the values of the coeffi-
cients a1 , a2 , · · · , ak just as we did for the homogeneous problems
in chapter 36.

The major oversight made solving a nonhomogeneous recurrence

relation is trying to determine the coefficients a1 , a2 , · · · , ak before the
particular solution is added to the general solution. This mistake will
usually lead to inconsistent information about the coefficients, and no
solution to the recurrence will be found.

37.2 Examples

Example 37.1. Let’s solve the Tower of Hanoi recurrence using this method.
The recurrence is H0 = 0, and, for n ≥ 1, Hn = 2Hn−1 + 1. We know
the closed form formula for Hn is 2n − 1 already, but let’s work it out using
the method outlined above.

Step (1): Find the general solution of related homogeneous recursion (indicated by
(h) (h) (h)
the superscript (h)): Hn = 2Hn−1 . That will be Hn = A2n .
( p)
Step (2): Guess the particular solution (indicated by superscript ( p)): Hn = B, a
constant. Plugging that guess into the recurrence gives B = 2B + 1, and
so we see B = −1.

Step (3): Hence, the general solution to the Tower of Hanoi recurrence is

(h) ( p)
Hn = Hn + Hn = A2n − 1.

Step (4): Now, use the initial condition to determine A: When n = 0, we want
0 = A20 − 1 which means A = 1. Thus, we find the expected result:

Hn = 2n − 1, for n ≥ 0.
 328 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 37.2. Here is a more complicated example worked out in detail to

exhibit the method. Let’s solve the recurrence

s1 = 2, s2 = 5 and,

sn = sn−1 + 6sn−2 + 3n − 1, for n ≥ 3.

Step (1): Find the general solution of sn = sn−1 + 6sn−2 . After finding the
characteristic equation, and the characteristic roots, the general solution
turns out to be sn = a1 3n + a2 (−2)n .

Step (2): To find a particular solution let’s guess that there is a solution h(n) that
looks like h(n) = an + b, where a and b are to be determined. To find
values of a and b that work, we substitute this guess for a solution into
the original recurrence relation. In this case, the result of plugging in the
guess (sn = h(n) = an + b) gives us:

an + b = a(n − 1) + b + 6( a(n − 2) + b) + 3n − 1.

which can be rearranged to

(6a + 3)n + (−13a + 6b − 1) = 0.

If this equation is to be correct for all n, then, in particular, it must be

correct when n = 0 and when n = 1, and that tells us that

−13a + 6b − 1 = 0 and,

6a + 3 − 13a + 6b − 1 = 0.

Solving this pair of equations we find a = − 12 and b = − 11

12 . And, sure
enough, if you plug this alleged solution into the original recurrence, you
will see it checks.

Step (3): Write down the general solution to the original nonhomogeneous problem
by adding the particular solution of step (2) to the general solution from
step (1) getting:
   
n 1
n 11
sn = a1 3 + a2 (−2) + − n+ − .
2 12
 solving nonhomogeneous recurrences 329

Step (4): Now a1 , a2 can be calculated: For n = 1, the first initial condition gives
   
1 11
2 = a1 31 + a2 (−2)1 + − 1+ − ,
2 12

and for n = 2, we get

   
2 2 1 11
5 = a1 3 + a2 (−2) + − 2+ − .
2 12

11
Solving these two equations for a1 and a2 , we find that a1 = 12 and
a2 = − 13 .

So the solution to the recurrence is

   
11 n 1 1 11
sn = 3 − (−2)n + − n+ − .
12 3 2 12
330 math208: discrete mathematics

37.3 Exercises

Use the general solutions for the related homogeneous problems of chapter 36
to help solve the following nonhomogeneous recurrence relations with initial
conditions.

Exercise 37.1. a0 = 3, a1 = 6 and an = an−1 + 6an−2 + 1, for n ≥ 2.

Exercise 37.2. a2 = 5, a3 = 13 and an = 7an−1 − 10an−2 + n, for n ≥ 4.

Exercise 37.3. a0 = 0, a1 = 1 and an = 4an−1 − 4an−2 + 2n , for n ≥ 2.

Exercise 37.4. a0 = 1, a1 = 6 and an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 + n, for n ≥ 2.

Exercise 37.5. a0 = 2, a1 = 5, a2 = 15, and an = 6an−1 − 11an−2 +

6an−3 + 2n + 1, for n ≥ 3.

37.4 Problems

Problem 37.1. Solve a0 = 1, and an = 2an−1 + 1, for n ≥ 1.

Problem 37.2. Solve a0 = 2, a1 = 5 and an = an−1 + 6an−2 + 2, for

n ≥ 2.

Problem 37.3. a0 = 3, a1 = 7, and an = 6an−1 − 5an−2 + n, for n ≥ 2.

Problem 37.4. a2 = 5, a3 = 13, and an = 3an−1 + 10an−2 + n + 2, for

n ≥ 4.

Problem 37.5. a1 = 3, a2 = 5, and an = 8an−1 − 16an−2 n2 , for n ≥ 3.

Problem 37.6. a1 = 2, a2 = 8, and an = 4an−2 + 2n , for n ≥ 3.

Problem 37.7. a0 = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 2, and an = − an−1 + 4an−2 +

4an−3 + 2n, for n ≥ 3.

Problem 37.8. a0 = 0, a1 = 1, and for n ≥ 2, an = 2an−1 + an−2 + 1.

38
Graphs

In chapter 8 we represented a relation with a graph. In

this chapter we discuss a more general notion of a graph.

38.1 Some Graph Terminology

There is a lot of new vocabulary to absorb concerning graphs! For

this chapter, a graph will consist of a number of points (called ver-
tices) (singular: vertex) together with lines (called edges) joining
some (possibly none, possibly all) pairs of vertices. Unlike the graphs
of earlier chapters, we will not allow an edge from a vertex back to
itself (so no loops allowed), we will not allow multiple edges between
vertices, and the edges will not be directed (there will be no edges
with arrowheads on one or both ends). All of our graphs will have a
finite vertex sets, and consequently a finite number of edges. Graphs
are typically denoted by an uppercase letter such as G or H.
If you would like a formal definition: a graph, G consists of a set
of vertices V and a set E of edges, where an edge t ∈ E is written as
an unordered pair of vertices {u, v}, (in other words, a set consisting
of two different vertices). We say that the edge t = {u, v} has end-
points u and v, and that the edge t is incident to both u and v. The
vertices u and v are adjacent when there is an edge with endpoints
u and v; otherwise they are not adjacent. Such a formal definition is
necessary, but a more helpful way to think of a graph is as a diagram.
Here is an example of a graph G with vertex set { a, b, c, d, e} illus-
332 math208: discrete mathematics

trating these concepts.

b c

a d

G e

The placement of the vertices in a diagram representing a graph is

(within reason!) not important. Here is another diagram of that same
graph G.

a b c

G
d

In this diagram, we again have vertex set a, b, c, d, e, and edges

{ a, b}, {b, c}, {c, d}, { a, d}, { a, e}, {b, e}, {c, e}, and that is all that
matters. It is a good idea to draw a diagram that is easy to under-
stand! In particular, while any curve can be used to represent an
edge between two vertices, whenever it is reasonable, edges are nor-
mally drawn as straight lines. The vertices b and e are adjacent and
the vertices b and d are not adjacent. The vertices a and c are not ad-
jacent since there is no edge { a, c}. If we use s to denote the edge
joining b to c, then s has endpoints b and c, and s is incident to b and
c.
Applying the a-picture-is-worth-a-thousand-words principle, for the
small graphs we will be working with, a graph diagram is generally
the easiest way to represent a graph.

38.1.1 Representing a graph in a computer

There are two standard ways to represent a graph in computer mem-

ory, both involving matrices (in other words, tables of numbers).
The matrices are of a special type called 0, 1-matrices since the table
entries will all be either 0 or 1.
 graphs 333

Adjacency matrix: If there are n vertices in the graph G, the ad-

jacency matrix is an n by n square table of numbers. The rows and
columns of the table are labeled with the symbols used to name the
vertices. The names are used in the same order for the rows and
columns, so there are n! possible labelings. Often there will be some
natural choice of the order of the labels, such as alphabetic or numeric
order. The entries in the table are determined as follows: the matrix
entry with row label x and column label y is 1 if x and y are adjacent,
and 0 otherwise.
Incidence matrix: Suppose the graph G has n vertices and m
edges. The table will have n rows, labeled with the names of the
vertices, and m columns labeled with the edges. Which of the n!m!
possible orderings of these labelings has to be specified in some way.
The entry in the row labeled with vertex u and column labeled with
edge e is 1 if e is incident with u, and 0 otherwise. Since every edge is
incident to exactly two vertices, every column of the incidence matrix
will have exactly two 1’s.

Example 38.1. Let G have vertex set {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5 } and edges

{u1 , u2 }, {u2 , u3 }, {u3 , u4 }, {u4 , u5 }, {u5 , u1 }, {u5 , u3 }. A graphical
representation of G is

u1

u5 u2
G

u4 u3

Here are the adjacency matrix AG , and the incidence matrix MG of G

using the vertices and edges in the orders given above.
334 math208: discrete mathematics

   
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
   
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
   
   
AG = 
0 1 0 1 1 MG = 
0 1 1 0 0 1
   
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
   
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

38.2 An Historical Interlude: The origin of graph theory

Unlike most areas of mathematics, it is possible to point the a specific

person as the creator of graph theory and a specific problem that led
to its creation. On the following pages the Seven Bridges of Königsberg
problem and the graph theoretic approach to a solution provided by
Leonard Euler in 1736 is described.
The notion of a graph discussed in the article is a little more gen-
eral that the graphs we will be working with in the chapter. To model
the bridge problem as a graph, Euler allowed multiple edges between
vertices. In modern terminology, graphs with multiple edges are
called multigraphs.
While we are on the topic of extensions of the definition of a
graph, let’s also mention the case of graphs with loops. Here we al-
low an edge to connect a vertex to itself, forming a loop. Multigraphs
with loops allowed are called pseudographs. Another generaliza-
tion of the basic concept of a graph is hypergraph: in a hypergraph,
a single edge is allowed to connect not just two, but any number of
vertices.
Finally, for all these various types of graphs, we can consider the
directed versions in which the edges are given arrowheads on one
or both ends to indicate the permitted direction of travel along that
edge.
In the following article, multigraphs are employed. But after the
article we will again refer only to graphs with no multiple edges and and no
loops.
 Seven Bridges of Königsberg

This article is about an abstract problem. For the histori- 1 Euler’s analysis
cal group of bridges in the city once known as Königsberg,
and those of them that still exist, see § Present state of the
bridges. First, Euler pointed out that the choice of route inside
The Seven Bridges of Königsberg is a historically no- each land mass is irrelevant. The only important feature
of a route is the sequence of bridges crossed. This al-
lowed him to reformulate the problem in abstract terms
(laying the foundations of graph theory), eliminating all
features except the list of land masses and the bridges
connecting them. In modern terms, one replaces each
land mass with an abstract "vertex" or node, and each
bridge with an abstract connection, an "edge", which only
serves to record which pair of vertices (land masses) is
connected by that bridge. The resulting mathematical
structure is called a graph.

Map of Königsberg in Euler’s time showing the actual layout of

the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the bridges

table problem in mathematics. Its negative resolution by →

Leonhard Euler in 1736 laid the foundations of graph the-
ory and prefigured the idea of topology.[1]
The city of Königsberg in Prussia (now Kaliningrad,
Russia) was set on both sides of the Pregel River, and
included two large islands which were connected to each
other, or to the two mainland portions of the city, by seven
bridges. The problem was to devise a walk through the
city that would cross each of those bridges once and only
→
once.
By way of specifying the logical task unambiguously, so-
lutions involving either

1. reaching an island or mainland bank other than via

one of the bridges, or

2. accessing any bridge without crossing to its other

end
Since only the connection information is relevant, the
shape of pictorial representations of a graph may be dis-
are explicitly unacceptable. torted in any way, without changing the graph itself. Only
Euler proved that the problem has no solution. The dif- the existence (or absence) of an edge between each pair
ficulty he faced was the development of a suitable tech- of nodes is significant. For example, it does not mat-
nique of analysis, and of subsequent tests that established ter whether the edges drawn are straight or curved, or
this assertion with mathematical rigor. whether one node is to the left or right of another.

1
2 3 VARIATIONS

Next, Euler observed that (except at the endpoints of the In addition, Euler’s recognition that the key information
walk), whenever one enters a vertex by a bridge, one was the number of bridges and the list of their endpoints
leaves the vertex by a bridge. In other words, during any (rather than their exact positions) presaged the develop-
walk in the graph, the number of times one enters a non- ment of topology. The difference between the actual lay-
terminal vertex equals the number of times one leaves it. out and the graph schematic is a good example of the idea
Now, if every bridge has been traversed exactly once, it that topology is not concerned with the rigid shape of ob-
follows that, for each land mass (except for the ones cho- jects.
sen for the start and finish), the number of bridges touch-
ing that land mass must be even (half of them, in the par-
ticular traversal, will be traversed “toward” the landmass; 3 Variations
the other half, “away” from it). However, all four of the
land masses in the original problem are touched by an
odd number of bridges (one is touched by 5 bridges, and The classic statement of the problem, given above, uses
each of the other three is touched by 3). Since, at most, unidentified nodes—that is, they are all alike except for
two land masses can serve as the endpoints of a walk, the the way in which they are connected. There is a variation
proposition of a walk traversing each bridge once leads to in which the nodes are identified—each node is given a
a contradiction. unique name or color.

In modern language, Euler shows that the possibility of a

walk through a graph, traversing each edge exactly once,
depends on the degrees of the nodes. The degree of a
node is the number of edges touching it. Euler’s argu-
ment shows that a necessary condition for the walk of the
desired form is that the graph be connected and have ex-
actly zero or two nodes of odd degree. This condition
turns out also to be sufficient—a result stated by Euler
and later proven by Carl Hierholzer. Such a walk is now
called an Eulerian path or Euler walk in his honor. Fur-
ther, if there are nodes of odd degree, then any Eulerian
path will start at one of them and end at the other. Since
the graph corresponding to historical Königsberg has four
nodes of odd degree, it cannot have an Eulerian path.
An alternative form of the problem asks for a path that A variant with red and blue castles, a church and an inn.
traverses all bridges and also has the same starting and
ending point. Such a walk is called an Eulerian circuit or The northern bank of the river is occupied by the Schloß,
an Euler tour. Such a circuit exists if, and only if, the or castle, of the Blue Prince; the southern by that of
graph is connected, and there are no nodes of odd degree the Red Prince. The east bank is home to the Bishop’s
at all. All Eulerian circuits are also Eulerian paths, but Kirche, or church; and on the small island in the center is
not all Eulerian paths are Eulerian circuits. a Gasthaus, or inn.
Euler’s work was presented to the St. Petersburg It is understood that the problems to follow should be
Academy on 26 August 1735, and published as Solu- taken in order, and begin with a statement of the origi-
tio problematis ad geometriam situs pertinentis (The so- nal problem:
lution of a problem relating to the geometry of posi-
It being customary among the townsmen, after some
tion) in the journal Commentarii academiae scientiarum
hours in the Gasthaus, to attempt to walk the bridges,
Petropolitanae in 1741.[2] It is available in English in The
many have returned for more refreshment claiming suc-
World of Mathematics.
cess. However, none have been able to repeat the feat by
the light of day.
Bridge 8: The Blue Prince, having analyzed the town’s
2 Significance in the history of bridge system by means of graph theory, concludes that
mathematics the bridges cannot be walked. He contrives a stealthy
plan to build an eighth bridge so that he can begin in the
In the history of mathematics, Euler’s solution of the evening at his Schloß, walk the bridges, and end at the
Königsberg bridge problem is considered to be the first Gasthaus to brag of his victory. Of course, he wants the
theorem of graph theory and the first true proof in the Red Prince to be unable to duplicate the feat from the
theory of networks,[3] a subject now generally regarded Red Castle. Where does the Blue Prince build the eighth
as a branch of combinatorics. Combinatorial problems bridge?
of other types had been considered since antiquity. Bridge 9: The Red Prince, infuriated by his brother’s
3.1 Solutions 3

Gordian solution to the problem, wants to build a ninth

bridge, enabling him to begin at his Schloß, walk the
bridges, and end at the Gasthaus to rub dirt in his brother’s
face. As an extra bit of revenge, his brother should then
no longer be able to walk the bridges starting at his Schloß
and ending at the Gasthaus as before. Where does the Red
Prince build the ninth bridge?
Bridge 10: The Bishop has watched this furious
bridge-building with dismay. It upsets the town’s
Weltanschauung and, worse, contributes to excessive
drunkenness. He wants to build a tenth bridge that allows
all the inhabitants to walk the bridges and return to their
own beds. Where does the Bishop build the tenth bridge?

3.1 Solutions

The 8th edge

The colored graph

Reduce the city, as before, to a graph. Color each node.

As in the classic problem, no Euler walk is possible; col-
oring does not affect this. All four nodes have an odd
number of edges.
The 9th edge
Bridge 8: Euler walks are possible if exactly zero or two
nodes have an odd number of edges. If we have 2 nodes
with an odd number of edges, the walk must begin at one The desire is to enable the red castle and forbid the blue
such node and end at the other. Since there are only 4 castle as a starting point; the orange node remains the end
nodes in the puzzle, the solution is simple. The walk de- of the walk and the white node is unaffected. To change
sired must begin at the blue node and end at the orange the parity of both red and blue nodes, draw a new edge
node. Thus, a new edge is drawn between the other two between them.
nodes. Since they each formerly had an odd number of Bridge 10: The 10th bridge takes us in a slightly different
edges, they must now have an even number of edges, ful- direction. The Bishop wishes every citizen to return to his
filling all conditions. This is a change in parity from anstarting point. This is an Euler circuit and requires that
odd to even degree. all nodes be of even degree. After the solution of the 9th
Bridge 9: The 9th bridge is easy once the 8th is solved. bridge, the red and the orange nodes have odd degree,
4 6 REFERENCES

Modern map of Kaliningrad. Locations of the remaining bridges

are highlighted in green, while those destroyed are highlighted in
red.

The 10th edge

Canterbury University in Christchurch, New Zealand, has
incorporated a model of the bridges into a grass area
so their parity must be changed by adding a new edge between the old Physical Sciences Library and the Er-
between them. skine Building, housing the Departments of Mathemat-
ics, Statistics and Computer Science.[6] The rivers are
replaced with short bushes and the central island sports
a stone tōrō. Rochester Institute of Technology has in-
corporated the puzzle into the pavement in front of the
Gene Polisseni Center, an ice hockey arena that opened
in 2014.[7]

5 See also
• Eulerian path

• Five room puzzle

8th, 9th, and 10th bridges • Glossary of graph theory

• Hamiltonian path

4 Present state of the bridges • Icosian game

• Water, gas, and electricity

Two of the seven original bridges did not survive the
bombing of Königsberg in World War II. Two others were
later demolished and replaced by a modern highway. The
three other bridges remain, although only two of them are 6 References
from Euler’s time (one was rebuilt in 1935).[4] Thus, as
of 2000, there are five bridges in Kaliningrad that were a [1] See Shields, Rob (December 2012). 'Cultural Topology:
part of the Euler’s problem. The Seven Bridges of Königsburg 1736' in Theory Cul-
ture and Society 29. pp.43-57 and in versions online for
In terms of graph theory, two of the nodes now have de- a discussion of the social significance of Euler’s engage-
gree 2, and the other two have degree 3. Therefore, an ment with this popular problem and its significance as an
Eulerian path is now possible, but it must begin on one example of (proto-)topological understanding applied to
island and end on the other.[5] everyday life.
 5

3
• Euler’s original publication (in Latin)

• The Bridges of Königsberg

• How the bridges of Königsberg help to understand
the brain

5 3 • Euler’s Königsberg’s Bridges Problem at Math Dept.

Contra Costa College
• Pregel – A Google graphing tool named after this
problem

3 Coordinates: 54°42′12″N 20°30′56″E / 54.70333°N

20.51556°E

5 5
4 5 4
9
Comparison of the graphs of the Seven bridges of Konigsberg
(top) and Five-room puzzles (bottom). The numbers denote the
number of edges connected to each node. Nodes with an odd
number of edges are shaded orange.

[2] The Euler Archive, commentary on publication, and orig-

inal text, in Latin.

[3] Newman, M. E. J. The structure and function of com-

plex networks (PDF). Department of Physics, University
of Michigan.

[4] Taylor, Peter (December 2000). “What Ever Hap-

pened to Those Bridges?". Australian Mathematics Trust.
Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved
11 November 2006.

[5] Stallmann, Matthias (July 2006). “The 7/5 Bridges

of Koenigsberg/Kaliningrad”. Retrieved 11 November
2006.

[6] “About – Mathematics and Statistics – University of Can-

terbury”. math.canterbury.ac.nz. Retrieved 4 November
2010.

[7] https://twitter.com/ritwhky/status/
501529429185945600

7 External links
• Kaliningrad and the Konigsberg Bridge Problem at
Convergence
6 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text
• Seven Bridges of Königsberg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Bridges_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg?oldid=759230125 Contrib-
utors: Zundark, Eclecticology, Deb, D, Michael Hardy, Chris-martin, Gabbe, Seav, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Mark Foskey, Bogdan-
giusca, Berteun, Ed Cormany, Reddi, Dysprosia, Wik, Shizhao, AnonMoos, Jerzy, Robbot, Murray Langton, Fredrik, Donreed, Altenmann,
Kneiphof, Bkell, Matt Gies, Giftlite, JamesMLane, Harp, MSGJ, Dratman, Finn-Zoltan, Macrakis, Matthead, Gadfium, Antandrus, DRE,
Icairns, Ukexpat, Clubjuggle, Deadlock, Wikiacc, Ascánder, Bender235, Shanes, C S, Blotwell, La goutte de pluie, AllTom, Arthena,
Keenan Pepper, Cdc, Americanadian, Oghmoir, Gene Nygaard, Alai, Ghirlandajo, Hq3473, Jftsang, Apokrif, Tabletop, Cbdorsett, Au-
diovideo, Xiong, Marudubshinki, StefanFuhrmann~enwiki, Graham87, BD2412, Qwertyus, Salix alba, Mkehrt, FlaBot, Gurch, Bgwhite,
YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Snillet, Michael Slone, Sikon, Stallions2010, CptnMisc, Arthur Rubin, Cmglee, DVD R W, Smack-
Bot, McGeddon, Stegano~enwiki, Wzhao553, Betacommand, Anachronist, Bird of paradox, Thumperward, DHN-bot~enwiki, Scray, John
Reid, LtPowers, John, JLeander, NongBot~enwiki, DaBjork, TheFarix, BranStark, Dilip rajeev, Eyefragment, Courcelles, Stuart Wim-
bush, CmdrObot, Ivan Pozdeev, Phauly, Nalpdii~enwiki, Nczempin, WLior, Iempleh, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Lethargy, Gswitz, Seaphoto,
Smith2006, Hurmari, JAnDbot, MER-C, CheMechanical, The Anomebot2, David Eppstein, WPaulB, DerHexer, Gwern, LapisQuem,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nev1, Maproom, Smitty, Independentdependent, TXiKiBoT, David Condrey, LFStokols, Falcon8765, Dusti,
YonaBot, Hertz1888, Triwbe, Smsarmad, Foljiny, Ctxppc, Ken123BOT, Nic bor, Mikeharris111, Pnijssen, ClueBot, Kl4m, CounterVan-
dalismBot, Piledhigheranddeeper, Excirial, Steveheric, Manu-ve Pro Ski, Jth1994, Addbot, Andunie, Godwin100, Fottry55i6, LinkFA-
Bot, Numbo3-bot, Komischn, PV=nRT, Teles, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnakngAraw, Ciphers, Materialscientist, Smmlit, ArthurBot,
Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Zevyefa, RibotBOT, Tmgreen, Zmorell, Chenopodiaceous, AstaBOTh15, Winterst, MarcelB612, Bmclaughlin9,
Serols, Christopher1968, MFrawn, Nascar1996, Deadlyops, WikitanvirBot, TuHan-Bot, Thecheesykid, Cobaltcigs, Donaldm314, Don-
ner60, Scientific29, Orange Suede Sofa, Haythamdouaihy, ClueBot NG, Lord Chamberlain, the Renowned, Vacation9, Santacloud, Ianr790,
Athos, MusikAnimal, Cyberbot II, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Christallkeks, RockvilleRideOn, Ynaamad, MasterTriangle12, Monkbot, Acekqj,
Blois2014, Imdifferentyo123456789, Poppy sheppard and Anonymous: 170

8.2 Images
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342 math208: discrete mathematics

38.3 The First Theorem of Graph Theory

For a vertex v in a graph we denote the number of edges incident

to v as the degree of v, written as deg(v). For example, consider the
graph

u1

u5 u2
G

u4 u3

Vertices u1 , u2 , u4 each have degree 2, while deg(u3 ) and deg(u5 )

are each 3. The list of the degrees of the vertices of a graph is called
the degree sequence of the graph. The degrees are traditionally listed
in increasing order. So the degree sequence of the graph G above is
2, 2, 2, 3, 3.
The following theorem is usually referred to as the First Theorem of
Graph Theory

Theorem 38.2. The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph equals
twice the number of edges. In particular, the sum of the degrees is even.

Proof. Notice that, when adding the degrees for the vertices, each edge will
contribute two to the total, once for each end. So the sum of the degrees is
twice the number of edges. ♣

For example, in the graph G above, there are 6 edges, and the sum
of the degrees of the vertices is 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 = 12 = 2(6).

Corollary 38.3. A graph must have an even number of vertices of odd

degree.

Proof. Split the vertices into two groups: the vertices with even degree and
the vertices with odd degree. The sum of all the degrees is even, and the sum
of all the even degrees is also even. That implies that the sum of all the odd
degrees must also be even. Since an odd number of odd integers adds up to
an odd integer, it must be that there is an even number of odd degrees. ♣
 graphs 343

38.4 A Brief Catalog of Special Graphs

It is convenient to have names for some particular types of graphs

that occur frequently.
For n ≥ 1, Kn denotes the graph with n vertices where every pair
of vertices is adjacent. Kn is the complete graph on n vertices. So Kn
is the largest possible graph with n vertices in the sense that it has
the maximum possible number of edges.
For n ≥ 3, Cn denotes the graph with n vertices, v1 , ..., vn , where
K6
each vertex in that list is adjacent to the vertex that follows it and vn
is adjacent to v1 . The graph Cn is called the n-cycle. The graph C3 is
called a triangle.
For n ≥ 2, Ln denotes the n-link. An n-link is a row of n vertices
C6
with each vertex adjacent to the following vertex. Alternatively, for
n ≥ 3, an n-link is produced by erasing one edge from an n-cycle.
L6
For n ≥ 3, Wn denotes the n-wheel. To form Wn add one vertex
to Cn and make it adjacent to every other vertex. Notice that the n-
wheel has n + 1 vertices.
For n ≥ 1, the n-cube, Qn , is the graph whose vertices are labeled
W6
with the 2n bit strings of length n. The unusual choice of names for
the vertices is made so it will be easy to describe the edges in the
graph: two vertices are adjacent provided their labels differ in exactly
one bit. Except for n = 1, 2, 3 it is not easy to draw a convincing
diagram of Qn . The graph Q3 can be drawn so it looks like what you
would probably draw if you wanted a picture of a 3-dimensional
cube. In the graph below, there is a vertex placed at each of the eight
corners of the 3-cube labeled with the name of the vertex.

101 111

011
001

100
110

000 010
344 math208: discrete mathematics

A graph is bipartite if it is possible to split the vertices into two

subsets, let’s call them T and B for top and bottom, so that all the
edges go from a vertex in one of the subsets to a vertex in the other
subset.
For example, the graph below is a bipartite graph with T =
{ a, b, c} and B = {d, e, f , g}.

a b c

d e f g

If T has m vertices and B has n vertices, and every vertex in T

is adjacent to every vertex in B, the graph is called the complete
bipartite graph, and it is denoted by Km,n . Here is the graph K3,4 :

a b c

d e f g
K3,4

It is not always obvious if a graph is bipartite or not when looking

at a diagram. For example the square

d c

a b

is bipartite since the graph can be redrawn as

 graphs 345

a c

d b

so we can see the graph is actually K2,2 in disguise.

38.5 Graph isomorphisms

The graphs G and H are obviously really the same except for the
labels used for the vertices.

b c y z

G a H x

This idea of sameness (the official phrase is the graphs G and H

are isomorphic) for graphs is defined as follows: Two graphs G and
H are isomorphic provided we can relabel the vertices of one of the
graphs using the labels of the other graph in such a way that the two
graphs will have exactly the same edges. As you can probably guess,
the notion of isomorphic graphs is an equivalence relation on the
collection of all graphs.
In the example above, if the vertices of H are relabeled as a → x
(meaning replace x with a), and b → y, c → z, then the graph H will
have edges { a, b} and { a, c} just like the graph G. So we have proved
G and H are isomorphic graphs. The set of replacement rules, a → x,
b → y, c → z, is called an isomorphism.
The graph G is also isomorphic to the 3-link L3 :

r s t

L3

In this case, an isomorphism is a → s, b → r, c → t.

On the other hand, G is certainly not isomorphic to the 4-cycle,
C4 since that graph does not even have the same number of vertices
346 math208: discrete mathematics

as G. Also G is not isomorphic to the 3-cycles, C3 . In this case, the

two graphs do have the same number of vertices, but not the same
number of edges. For two graphs have a chance of being isomorphic,
the two graphs must have the same number of vertices and the same
number of edges. But warning: even if two graphs have the same
number of vertices and the same number of edges, they need not be
isomorphic. For example L4 and K1,3 are both graphs with 4 vertices
and 3 edges, but they are not isomorphic. This is so since L4 does not
have a vertex of degree 3, but K1,3 does.
Extending that idea: to have a chance of being isomorphic, two
graphs will have to have the same degree sequences since they will
end up with the same edges after relabeling. But even having the
same degree sequences is not enough to conclude two graphs are
isomorphic as the margin example shows. We can see those two
graphs are not isomorphic since G has three vertices that form a
triangle, but there are no triangles in H.
G H
Figure 38.1: Nonisomorphic grades
with the same degree sequences.
For graphs with a few vertices and a few edges, a little trial and
a
error is typically enough to determine if the graphs are isomorphic.
For more complicated graphs, it can be very difficult to determine
if they are isomorphic or not. One of the big goals in theoretical e b
computer science is the design of efficient algorithms to determine if G

two graphs are isomorphic.

Example 38.4. Let G be a 5-cycle on a, b, c, d, e drawn as a regular pen- d c

v
tagon with vertices arranged clockwise, in order, at the corners. Let H have
vertex set v, w, x, y, z and graphical presentation as a pentagram (five-
pointed star), where the vertices of the graph are the ends of the points of the z w
star, and are arranged clockwise, (see figure 38.2). H

An isomorphism is a → v, b → x, c → z, d → w, e → y.

y x

Figure 38.2: Isomorphic graphs

 graphs 347

Example 38.5. The two graphs in figure 38.3 are isomorphic as shown by
using the relabeling

u1 → v1 , u2 → v2 , u3 → v3 , u4 → v4 , u5 → v9 ,

u6 → v10 , u7 → v5 , u8 → v7 , u9 → v8 , u10 → v6 .

H v2 Figure 38.3: More Isomorphic graphs

G
u2

v1 v8 v3

u9

u1 u3
u10 u8 v10

v7 v9

v6 v4
u6 u7

u5 u4 v5

The graph G is the traditional presentation of the Petersen Graph.

It could be described as the graph whose vertex set is labeled with
all the two element subsets of a five element set, with an edge joining
two vertices if their labels have exactly one element in common.

38.6 Paths

The origins of graph theory had to do with bridges, and possible

routes crossing the bridges. In this section we will consider that sort
of question in graphs in general. We will think of walking along
edges, from one vertex in the list to the next, and visiting vertices.
Remember that we do not allow multiple edges or loops in our
graphs.
We begin with a collection of definitions. Warning: These terms
are used differently in different texts. If you look at another graph
theory text, be sure to see how the terms are used there.
A path of length n in a graph is a sequence of n + 1 vertices
348 math208: discrete mathematics

v0 , v1 , v2 , ..., vn , where each vertex in the list is adjacent to the fol-

lowing vertex. Repeated vertices and repeated edges in a path are
allowed. The vertices v0 and vn are the endpoints of the path. Think
of starting at v0 , walking along the edges, and ending up at vn . The
length n of the walk is the number of edges transversed in the path.
A path of length three or more for which the endpoints are the same
(so v0 = vn ) is called a circuit. A simple path (or circuit) is one that
does not repeat any edges. A single vertex v will be considered to be
a path (but not a circuit!) of length 0.
Here is an example illustrating these definitions.

Example 38.6. In the graph shown in figure 38.4, a, b, e, c, f , c is a path

of length 5. That is an example of an a, c-path, meaning it starts at vertex
a and ends at vertex c. That path is not simple since the edge c, f is re-
peated. Note that direction does not matter. The vertex sequence a, b, c, f , e a b c

is an a, e-path. Here are two simple circuits in that graph: a, b, e, d, a and

a, b, c, e, d, a. Notice that the circuit a, e, b, c, f , e, d, a is also simple even
though it repeats the vertex e. It does not repeat any edges.
d e f
A graph is connected if there is a path between any two vertices.
In plain English, a connected graph consists of a single piece. The Figure 38.4: paths and circuits
individual connected pieces of a graph are called its connected com-
ponents. The length of the shortest path between two vertices in a
connect component of a graph is called the distance between the
vertices. In figure 38.4, the distance between a and f is 2.

Theorem 38.7. In a connected graph there is a simple path between any

two vertices. In other words, if there is a way to get from one vertex to
another vertex along edges, then there is a way to get between those two
vertices without repeating any edges.

Proof. Problem 38.8. The idea is simple: in a path with a repeated edge, just
eliminate the side trip made between the two occurrences of that edge from
the path. Do that until all the repeated edges are eliminated. For example, in
the graph shown in figure 38.4, The a, c-path a, e, b, e, c can be reduced to the
path a, e, c, eliminating the side trip to b. ♣

A vertex in a graph is a cut vertex, if removal of the vertex and

edges incident to it results in a graph with more connected com-
 graphs 349

ponents. Similarly a bridge is an edge whose removal (keeping the

vertices it is incident to) yields a graph with more connected compo-
nents.
We close this section with a discussion of two special types of
paths.

38.6.1 Eulerian paths and circuits

An eulerian path in a graph is a simple path which transverses every

edge of the graph. In other words, an eulerian path in a graph is
a path that transverses every edge of the graph exactly once. An
interesting property of a graph with an eulerian path is that it can
be drawn completely without lifting pencil from paper and without
retracing any edges.
An eulerian circuit is a simple circuit in a graph that transverses
every edge of the graph. So an eulerian circuit is a path of length
three or more that transverses every edge of the graph and ends up
at its initial vertex. A graph is called eulerian if it has an eulerian
circuit.

Example 38.8. The graph C5 is an eulerian graph. In fact, the graph itself
is an eulerian circuit.

Example 38.9. The graph K5 is an eulerian graph.

Example 38.10. The graph Ln is itself an eulerian path, but does not have
an eulerian circuit.

Example 38.11. The graph K4 is not an eulerian graph. 1 . 1

Try it!

38.6.2 Hamiltonian paths and circuits

A hamiltonian path in a graph is a simple path that visits every

vertex in the graph exactly once. A hamiltonian circuit in a graph
is a simple circuit that, except for the last vertex of the circuit, visits
every vertex in the graph exactly once. A graph is hamiltonian if it
has a hamiltonian circuit.

Example 38.12. Kn is hamiltonian for n ≥ 3.

 350 math208: discrete mathematics

Example 38.13. Wn has a hamiltonian circuit for n ≥ 3.

Example 38.14. Ln has no hamiltonian circuit for n ≥ 2

38.6.3 Some facts about eulerian and hamiltonian graphs

A few easy observation: if G is a graph with either an eulerian circuit

or hamiltonian circuit, then

(1) G is connected.

(2) every vertex has degree at least 2.

(3) G has no bridges.

If G has a hamiltonian circuit, then G has no cut vertices.

Leonhard Euler gave a simple way to determine exactly when a
graph is eulerian. On the other hand, despite considerable effort, no
one has been able to devise a test to distinguish between hamiltonian
and nonhamiltonian graphs that is much better than a brute force
trial-and-error search for a hamiltonian circuit.

Theorem 38.15. A connected graph is eulerian if and only if every vertex

has even degree.

Proof. Let G be an eulerian graph, and suppose that v is a vertex in G with

odd degree, say 2m + 1. Let i denote the number of times an eulerian circuit
passes through v. Since every edge is used exactly once in the circuit, and
each time v is visited two different edges are used, we have 2i = 2m + 1,
which is impossible. →←. So G cannot have any vertices of odd degree.
Conversely, let G be a connected graph where every vertex has even
degree. Select a vertex u and build a simple path starting at u as long as
possible: each time we visit a vertex we select an unused edge leaving that
vertex to extend the simple path. For any vertex v 6= u we visit, its even
degree guarantees there will be an unused edge out, since each time v is
visited used two edges incident to v and one more edge to arrive at v, for
a total of an odd number of edges incident to v, and the vertex has even
degree, so there must be at least one unused edge leading out of v. Since the
process of extending the simple path must eventually come to an end, that
shows the end must be at u when the simple path cannot be extended, and so
we have constructed an eulerian circuit.
 graphs 351

If this simple path contains every edge we are done. Otherwise when
these edges are removed from G we obtain a set of connected components
H1 , ..., Hm which are subgraphs of G and which each satisfy that all vertices
have even degree. Since their sizes are smaller, we may inductively construct
an eulerian circuit for each Hi . Since each G is connected, each Hi contains
a vertex of the initial circuit, say v j . If we call the eulerian circuit of Hi , Ci ,
then v0 , ...v j , Ci , v j , ..., vn , v0 is a circuit in G. Since the Hi are disjoint, we
may insert each eulerian partial circuit thus obtaining an eulerian circuit for
G. ♣

As a corollary we have

Theorem 38.16. A connected graph has an eulerian path, but not an eule-
rian circuit, if and only if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree.

The following theorem is an example of a sufficient (but not neces-

sary) condition for a graph to have a hamiltonian circuit.

Theorem 38.17. Let G be a connected graph with n ≥ 3 vertices. If

deg(v) ≥ n/2 for every vertex v, then G is hamiltonian.

Proof. Suppose that the theorem is false. Let G be a connected graph with
deg(v) ≥ n/2 for every vertex v. Moreover suppose that of all counterex-
amples on n vertices, G is a graph with the largest possible number of edges.
G is not complete, since Kn has a hamiltonian circuit, for n ≥ 3. There-
fore G has two nonadjacent vertices v1 and vn . By maximality the graph G1
formed by adding the edge {v1 , vn } to G has a hamiltonian circuit. More-
over this circuit uses the edge {v1 , vn }, since otherwise G has a hamiltonian
circuit. So we may suppose that the hamiltonian circuit in G1 is of the form
v1 , v2 , ..., vn , v1 . Thus v1 , ..., vn is a path in G.
Let k = deg(v1 ). If vi+1 is adjacent to v1 , then vi cannot be adjacent to
vn , since otherwise v1 , ..., vi , vn , vn−1 , ..., vi+1 , v1 is a hamiltonian circuit in
G. Therefore, we have the contradiction

deg(vn ) ≤ (n − 1) − k ≤ n − 1 − n/2 = n/2 − 1. →←

WARNING: Do not read too much into this theorem. The condi-
tion is not a necessary condition. The 5-cycle, C5 , is obviously hamil-
352 math208: discrete mathematics

tonian, but the vertices all have degree 2 which is less than 52 .

38.7 Trees

Trees form an important class of graphs. A tree is a connected graph

with no circuits. Trees are traditionally drawn upside down, with the
tree growing down rather than up, starting at a root vertex.

root

left right

lleft rleft lright midright rright

Theorem 38.18. A graph G is a tree if and only if there is a unique path

between any two vertices.

Proof. Suppose that G is a tree, and let u and v be two vertices of G. Since
G is connected, there is a path of the form u = v0 , v1 , ..., vn = v. If there is
a different path from u to v, say u = w0 , w1 , ..., wn = v let i be the smallest
subscript so that wi = vi , but vi+1 6= wi+1 . Also let j be the next smallest
subscript where v j = w j . By construction vi , vi+1 , ..., v j , w j−1 , w j−2 , ..., wi
is a circuit in G →←.
Conversely, if G is a graph where there is a unique path between any
pair of vertices, then by definition G is connected. If G contained a circuit,
C, then any two vertices of C would be joined by two distinct paths.→←
Therefore G contains no circuits, and is a tree. ♣

A consequence of theorem 38.18 is that given any vertex r in a tree,

we can draw the tree with r at the top, as the root vertex, and the
other vertices in levels below. 2 The neighbors of r that appear at the 2
Redraw the tree diagram above with
vertex midright as the root vertex.
first level below r are called r’s children. The children of r’s children
are put in the second level below r, and are r’s grandchildren. In
general the ith level consists of those vertices in the tree which are at
distance i from r. The result is called a rooted tree. The height of a
rooted tree is the maximum level number.
 graphs 353

Naturally, besides child and parent, many genealogical terms ap-

ply to rooted trees, and are suggestive of the structure. For example
if a rooted tree has root r, and v 6 =r, the ancestors of v are all vertices
on the path from r to v, including r, but excluding v. The descen-
dants of a vertex, w consist of all vertices which have w as one of
their ancestors. The subtree rooted at w is the rooted tree consist-
ing of w, its descendants, and all the required edges. A vertex with
no children is a leaf, and a vertex with at least one child is called an
internal vertex.
To distinguish rooted trees by breadth, we use the term m-ary to
mean that any internal vertex has at most m children. An m-ary tree
is full if every internal vertex has exactly m children. When m = 2,
we use the term binary.

Theorem 38.19. A tree on n vertices has n − 1 edges.

Proof. (by induction on n.)

Basis: Let n = 1, this is the trivial tree with 0 edges. So true the theorem
is true for n = 1.
Inductive Step: Suppose that for some n ≥ 1 every tree with n vertices
has n − 1 edges. Now suppose T is a tree with n + 1 vertices. Let v be a leaf
of T. If we erase v and the edge leading to it, we are left with a tree with n
vertices. By the inductive hypothesis, this new tree will have n − 1 edges.
Since it has one less edge than the original tree, we conclude T has n edges.
♣
354 math208: discrete mathematics

38.8 Exercises

Exercise 38.1. Find a graph isomorphism φ : G → H. Verify the adjacency

φ
preserving property by showing the adjacency matrices satisfy AG = AG .

(G) (H)
a b s t
g z y
h f
e w x
d c v u

Exercise 38.2. Prove that G and H are not isomorphic.

(G) (H)
a b s t

h c z u

g d y v

f e x w

Exercise 38.3. Redraw the graph G as a bipartite graph.

(G)
1 2 3 4

8 7 6 5

Exercise 38.4. Explain why the graph G is not eulerian, but is hamiltonian.
(G)
 graphs 355

c e

a b d f g

j i h

Exercise 38.5. Find an eulerian circuit for the graph G as a list of vertices.

(G)
a b

h c

g d

f e

Exercise 38.6. Prove that the graph G has no hamiltonian circuit.

(G)
a c d

b e

i f

j h g
 356 math208: discrete mathematics

38.9 Problems

Problem 38.1.

(a) How many edges are there in Kn , the complete graph with n vertices?

(b) How many edges are there in Cn , the n-cycle with n vertices?

(c) How many edges are there in Ln , the n-link with n vertices?

(d) How many edges are there in Wn , the n-wheel with n + 1 vertices?

(e) How many edges are there in Qn , the n-cube with 2n vertices?

(f) How many edges are there in Km,n , the complete bipartite graph with m
top and n bottom vertices?

Problem 38.2. Determine whether each graph is bipartite. If it is, redraw it

as a bipartite graph.

(a) (b)
b c u2

u1 u3
a d

e u4 u5 u6

(c) (d)
v1 b
v2 v6 a c

v3 v5 f d
v4 e

Problem 38.3.

(a) For which values of n is Cn bipartite?

(b) For which values of n is Qn bipartite?

 graphs 357

Problem 38.4. Draw the Petersen graph with vertices labeled with the
ten different subsets of the five element set { a, b, c, d, e} as suggested in
example38.5.

Problem 38.5. For the graph below

(1) Determine all the bridges.

(2) Determine all the cut vertices.

a b c d e f

g h

Problem 38.6. For each candidate degree sequence below, either draw
a graph with that degree sequence or explain why that list cannot be the
degree sequence of a graph.

(1) 4, 4, 4, 4, 4

(2) 6, 4, 4, 4, 4

(3) 0, 0, 0, 0, 0

(4) 3, 2, 1, 1, 1

(5) 3, 3, 2, 2, 1
358 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 38.7. For each pair of graphs either prove that G1 and G2 are
not isomorphic, or else show they are isomorphic by exhibiting a graph
isomorphism.

(a) (b)
u3 v3 u3 v3
u2 v2 u4 u2 v4 v2
u4 v4
u1 v1 u5 u1 v5 v1
u5 v5
u7 v7 u6 u8 v6 v8
u6 v6 u7 v7
G1 G2 G1 G2

(c) (d)
u5 v5 u1 v1 v2

u4 u10 v9 v4 v10 u6 u2 v5

u7 u3 u9 v8 v3

u6 u2 u8 v7 v2 v6 u5 u3 v6

u1 v1 u4 v4 v3
G1 G2 G1 G2

Problem 38.8. Prove theorem 38.7 from section 38.6 on paths: If G is

a connected graph, then there is a simple path between any two
different vertices.
 graphs 359

Problem 38.9. For each graph below (i) find an eulerian circuit, or prove
that none exists, and (ii) find a hamiltonian circuit or prove that none exists.

(a) The 3-cube Q3 .

(b)

a b c d

i h g f e

(c)
a b c

d e f

g h i

(d) The Petersen Graph. (See figure 38.3.)

Problem 38.10. A forest is a graph consisting of one or more (separate)

trees. If the total number of vertices in a forest is f , and the number of trees
in the forest is t, what is the total number of edges in the forest?

Problem 38.11. A tree is called star-like if there is exactly one vertex with
degree greater than 2. How many different (that it, nonisomorphic) star-
like trees are there with six vertices? (Note: If you draw the graph with the
vertex of of degree greater than 2 having the arms of the tree radiating out
from it like spokes on a wheel, the name star-like will make sense.)
360 math208: discrete mathematics

Problem 38.12. Answer the following questions about the rooted tree
shown in figure 38.5.

(a) Which vertex is the root? (f) Which vertex is the parent of m?

(b) Which vertices are internal? (g) Which vertices are siblings of q?

(c) Which vertices are leaves? (h) Which vertices are ancestors of p?

(d) Which vertices are children of b? (i) Which vertices are descendants of d?

(e) Which vertices are grandchildren of b? (j) What level is i at?

a Figure 38.5: Tree for problem 38.12

b c

d e f g h

i j k l m

n o p q r s
A
Answers to Exercises

Chapter 1

1.1.

a) yes

b) no

c) no

d) This is not a proposition. As in many examples where a vari-

able is involved, this can be tricky. The truth value of this sen-
tence depends on the value assigned to x. For example, if x is
2, then x = 2 is T while x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 is F. So the entire
sentence is F. On the other hand, if x is 0, then both x = 2 and
x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 are F, so the sentence is T. Since the sentence
does not have a definite truth value, it is not a proposition.
We’ll have more to say about this example in the next lesson.

e) no (same reasoning as the previous item)

f) yes

1.2.
p q p ⊕ ¬ q p q ¬(q → p)
T T T T F T T T F T T T
a) T F T F T F b) T F F F T T
F T F F F T F T T T F F
F F F T T F F F F F T F
362 math208: discrete mathematics

p q q ∧ ¬ p p q ∼ q ∨ p
T T T F F T T T F T T T
c) T F F F F T d) T F T F T T
F T T T T F F T F T F F
F F F F T F F F T F T F

p q r p →(¬ q ∧ r )
T T T T F F T F T
T T F T F F T F F
T F T T T T F T T
e) T F F T F T F F F
F T T F T F T F T
F T F F T F T F F
F F T F T T F T T
F F F F T T F F F
1.3.
a) (1101 0111 ⊕ 1110 0010) ∧ 1100 1000 = (0011 0101) ∧ 1100 1000 = 0000 0000
b) (1111 1010 ∧ 0111 0010) ∨ (0101 0001) = (0111 0010) ∨ (0101 0001) = 0111 0011
c) (1001 0010 ∨ 0101 1101) ∧ (0110 0010 ∨ 0111 0101) = (1101 1111) ∧ (0111 0111) = 0101 0111

1.4.

a) s ∧ ¬ f b) b ∧ ¬s c) ¬s → ¬ f

1.5.

a) Jordan did not play and the Wizards won.

b) If Jordan played, then the Wizards lost.

c) The Wizards won or Jordan played.

d) Jordan didn’t play when the Wizards won. OR If the Wizards

won, then Jordan did not play.

1.6.

a) If Sam plays b) (c ∧ ¬w) → b

chess with the
white pieces, he
wins.
 answers to exercises 363

Chapter 2

2.1.
p q r (p ∨ q)∨ r p ∨(q ∨ r )
T T T T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T F T T T T F
T F T T T F T T T T F T T
a) T F F T T F T F T T F F F
F T T F T T T T F T T T T
F T F F T T T F F T T T F
F F T F F F T T F T F T T
F F F F F F F F F F F F F

p q p → q ¬ q → ¬ p
T T T T T F T T F T
b) T F T F F T F F F T
F T F T T F T T T F
F F F T F T F T T F

p q ¬ p ∧(p ∨ q) ¬(q → p)
T T F T F T T T F T T T
c) T F F T F T T F F F T T
F T T F T F T T T T F F
F F T F F F F F F F T F

p q r p ∨(q ∧ r ) (p ∨ q)∧(p ∨ r )
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F F T T T T T T F
T F T T T F F T T T F T T T T
d) T F F T T F F F T T F T T T F
F T T F T T T T F T T T F T T
F T F F F T F F F T T F F F F
F F T F F F F T F F F F F T T
F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
364 math208: discrete mathematics

2.2.

p q r p →(q → r ) (p → q)→ r
T T T T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T F T F F T T T F F
T F T T T F T T T F F T T
a) T F F T T F T F T F F T F
F T T F T T T T F T T T T
F T F F T T F F F T T F F
F F T F T F T T F T F T T
F F F F T F T F F T F F F

Consider either( p, q, r ) = ( F, T, F ) or ( p, q, r ) = ( F, F, F ).

p q p → q ¬ p → ¬ q
T T T T T F T T F T
b) T F T F F F T T T F
F T F T T T F F F T
F F F T F T F T T F
Consider either ( p, q) = ( T, F ) or ( p, q) = ( F, T ).

2.3.

p q ( p ∧ ( p → q )) → q
T T T T T T T T T
a) T F T F T F F T F
F T F F F T T T T
F F F F F T F T F
 answers to exercises 365

p q r (( p → q ) ∧ ( q → r )) → ( p → r )
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T F F T T F F
T F T T F F F F T T T T T T
b) T F F T F F F F T F T T F F
F T T F T T T T T T T F T T
F T F F T T F T F F T F T F
F F T F T F T F T T T F T T
F F F F T F T F T F T F T F

p q (p ∧ q)→ p
T T T T T T T
c) T F T F F T T
F T F F T T F
F F F F F T F

2.4. a) If I mow the lawn, then it is Saturday.

b) If it is not Saturday, then I do not mow the lawn.

c) If I do not mow the lawn, then it is not Saturday.

2.5. An implication is logically equivalent to its contrapositive. So,

(If it is Saturday, then I mow the lawn) is logically equivalent to (If
I do not mow the lawn, then it is not Saturday). The inverse and
converse of an implication are logically equivalent (but not logically
equivalent to the implication) so (If it is not Saturday, then I do not
mow the lawn) is logically equivalent to (If I mow the lawn, then it is
Saturday).

2.6.

a) ( p, q, r ) = ( T, F, F ), ( F, T, F ) b) ( p, q, r ) = ( F, T, T ), ( F, F, T )

2.7.(a)
 366 math208: discrete mathematics

Proof.

(¬ p ∧ ( p ∨ q)) → q ≡ ((¬ p ∧ p) ∨ (¬ p ∧ q)) → q Distributive Law

≡ (( p ∧ ¬ p) ∨ (¬ p ∧ q)) → q Commutative Law

≡ (F ∨ (¬ p ∧ q)) → q Law of Contradiction

≡ ((¬ p ∧ q) ∨ F) → q Commutative Law

≡ (¬ p ∧ q) → q Identity Law

≡ ¬(¬ p ∧ q) ∨ q Disjunctive Form

≡ (¬¬ p ∨ ¬q) ∨ q De Morgan’s Law

≡ ¬¬ p ∨ (¬q ∨ q) Associative Law

≡ ¬¬ p ∨ (q ∨ ¬q) Commutative Law

≡ ¬¬ p ∨ T Law of Excluded Middle

≡T Domination Law

(b)

Proof.

( p ∨ ¬r ) → ¬q ≡ ¬( p ∧ ¬r ) ∨ ¬q Disjunctive Form

≡ (¬ p ∨ ¬¬r ) ∨ ¬q De Morgan’s Law

≡ (¬ p ∨ r ) ∨ ¬q Double Negation Law

≡ ¬ p ∨ (r ∨ ¬ q ) Associative Law

≡ ¬ p ∨ (¬q ∨ r ) Commutative Law

≡ ¬ p ∨ (q → r ) Disjunctive Form

≡ p → (q → r ) Disjunctive Form

(c)
 answers to exercises 367

Proof.

p ∨ ( p ∧ q)) ≡ ( p ∧ T) ∨ ( p ∧ q) Identity Law

≡ p ∧ (T ∨ q ) Distributive Law

≡ p ∧ ( q ∨ T) Commutative Law

≡ p∧T Domination Law

≡p Identity Law

Chapter 3

3.1.

a) T b) F

c) F (e.g., (0 ≤ 10) → (2 · 0 ≥ 4) is false.)

d) T (e.g., ¬(2 · 0 ≥ 4) is true.)

3.2.

a) Everyone in class has read War and Peace.

b) Someone in class has not read The Great Gatsby.

c) Someone in class has read every novel.

d) For each novel there is at least one person in the class who has
read that novel.

3.3.

a) ∀y F (I, y)

b) ¬∃y F (George, y)] ≡ ∀y ¬ F (George, y)

c) ¬∃ x F ( x, x ) ≡ ∀ x ¬ F ( x, x )

d) ∃ x ∀y F ( x, y) e) ∃y ∀ x F ( x, y)

f) ∃y ∃z ((y 6= z) ∧ F (Ralph, y) ∧ F (Ralph, z))

368 math208: discrete mathematics

3.4.

a) Someone in class has not read War and Peace.

b) Everyone in class has read The Great Gatsby.

c) No student in class has read every novel.

d) There is a novel that no one in class has read.

3.5.

a) ∃y ¬ F ( I, y) b) ∃y F ( George, y)

c) ∃ x F ( x, x ) d) ∀ x ∃y ¬ F ( x, y)

e) ∀y ∃ x ¬ F ( x, y)

f) This one is a little complicated.

∀y∀z((y = z) ∨ ¬ F ( Ral ph, y) ∨ ¬ F ( Ral ph, z)).
In plain English name any two (not necessarily different) peo-
ple. Either they are the same person, or else Ralph cannot fool
at least one of the two. A logically equivalent, and maybe easier
to fathom version converting the disjunctive form above to an
implication:
∀y∀z(( F ( Ral ph, y) ∧ F ( Ral ph, z)) → (y = z)).
In plain English: If Ralph can fool both y and z, then y and z
are actually the same person. Or, in more natural sounding
English, Ralph can fool at most one person.

3.6. ∀ x ∀y (( E( x ) ∧ O(y)) → E( x · y)),

where E( x ): x is an even integer and O(y): y is an odd integer.

3.7. “There is an x so P( x ) holds, and, for any x and y, if both P( x )

and P(y) hold, then x and y are equal.”
Or, more succinctly: “There is exactly one x for which P( x ) is
true.”
 answers to exercises 369

Chapter 4

p q r (( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( ¬ p ∨ r )) → ( q ∨ r )
T T T T T T T F T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F F T F F T T T F
T F T T T F T F T T T T F T T
4.1. T F F T T F F F T F F T F F F
F T T F T T T T F T T T T T T
F T F F T T T T F T F T T T F
F F T F F F F T F T T T F T T
F F F F F F F T F T F T F F F
The statement is a tautology, hence a valid rule of inference.

4.2.
Proof: Make the assignments Porche( x ): “x owns a Porche”,
Speeder ( x ): “x is a speeder”, Sedan( x ): “x owns a sedan”,
and BuysPrem( x ):“x buys premium fuel”. The argument has the
symbolic form:
∀ x ( Porche( x ) → Speeder ( x ))
¬∃ x (Sedan( x ) ∧ BuysPrem( x ))
∀ x (¬ BuyPrem( x ) → ¬Speeder ( x ))
... ∀ x ( Porche( x ) → ¬Sedan( x ))

Proof: 1) ∀ x ( Porche( x ) → Speeder ( x )) Hypothesis

2) Porche(c) → Speeder (c) Universal Instantiation (1)
3) ∀ x (¬ BuyPrem( x ) → ¬Sedan( x )) Hypothesis
4) ¬ BuyPrem(c) → ¬Speeder (c) Universal Instantiation (3)
5) Speeder (c) → BuyPrem(c) Contrapositive (4)
6) Porche(c) → BuyPrem(c) Hypothetical syllogism (2) and (5)
7) ¬∃ x (Sedan( x ) ∧ BuysPrem( x )) Hypothesis
8) ∀ x ¬(Sedan( x ) ∧ BuysPrem( x )) De Morgan’s Law (Existential negation) (7)
9) ¬(Sedan(c) ∧ BuysPrem(c)) Universal Instantiation
10) ¬Sedan(c) ∨ ¬ BuysPrem(c) De Morgan’s Law (9)
11) ¬ BuysPrem(c) ∨ ¬Sedan(c) Commutative law (10)
12) BuysPrem(c) → ¬Sedan(c) Disjunctive form (11)
13) Porche(c) → ¬Sedan(c) Hypothetical syllogism (6) and (12)
14) ∀ x ( Porche( x ) → ¬Sedan( x )) Universal generalization (13)
370 math208: discrete mathematics

4.3. 1) ¬w Hypothesis
2) u∨w Hypothesis
3) u Disjunctive syllogism
4) u → ¬p Hypothesis
5) ¬p Modus Ponens (3) and (4)
6) ¬ p → (r ∧ ¬ s ) Hypothesis
7) r ∧ ¬s Modus Ponens (5) and (6)
8) ¬s Simplification
9) t→s Hypothesis
10) ¬t Modus Tollens (8) and (9)
11) ¬t ∨ w Addition

Chapter 5

5.1.

a) {2, 3, 4} b) {−5, 5} c) {4, 5, 6}

5.2.

a) {5x | x ∈ Z where − 1 ≤ x ≤ 3}

b) { x | x ∈ N where x ≤ 4} or { x | x ∈ Z where − 1 < x < 5}

c) { x ∈ R | π ≤ x < 4} or { x | x ∈ R where π ≤ x < 4}

5.3. Ex. 5.1: a) 3 b) 2 c) 3 Ex. 5.2: a) 5 b) 5 c) infinite set

5.4. This proposition is true. We may write this statement using

symbols as ∀ x (( x ∈ ∅) → (“x has three toes”)). The hypothesis,
( x ∈ ∅), of the implication is false, which makes the implication true.

5.5. P {1, ∅, {1}} = {∅, {1}, {∅}, {{1}}, {1, ∅}, {1, {1}}, {∅, {1}}, {1, ∅, {1}}}

5.6. True. Order and repetitions do not matter when the elements of
a set are listed.

5.7. False. For example, 2 is in the set of even integers, but not in the
set of integers that are multiples of four. In fact, just the reverse is
true since if an integer is a multiple of four, then it is certainly even.
So the set of integers that are multiples of four is a subset of the set
of even integers.
 answers to exercises 371

Chapter 6

6.1.

a) A ∩ B = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8} b) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

c) A − B = {3, 5} d) B − A = {1, 9}

6.2.

a) A = ( A − B) ∪ ( A ∩ B) = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

b) B = ( B − A) ∪ ( A ∩ B) = {3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10}

A B A ⊕ B (A ∪ B)− (A∩ B )
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
6.3. 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The columns in red are identical, and that shows the set equality is
correct.

6.4. A B − A B = A B

6.5. Let U denote the universal set.

Proof:

A ∪ ( A ∩ B) = ( A ∩ U ) ∪ ( A ∩ B) ∩-identity
= A ∩ (U ∪ B) Distributive law
= A∩U ∪-domination
=A ∩-identity
Compare this solution to the solution of problem c).

6.6.

a) A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c)}
b) B × A = {( a, 1), ( a, 2), ( a, 3), ( a, 4), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3), (b, 4), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4)}
c) C × B × D = {(α, a, 7), (α, a, 8), (α, a, 9), (α, b, 7), (α, b, 8), (α, b, 9), (α, c, 7), (α, c, 8), (α, c, 9),
( β, a, 7), ( β, a, 8), ( β, a, 9), ( β, b, 7), ( β, b, 8), ( β, b, 9), ( β, c, 7), ( β, c, 8), ( β, c, 9)}
372 math208: discrete mathematics

6.7. A = ∅, B = ∅, or A = B

6.8. χ({1, 2, 4, 8}) = 0110100010

6.9. The elements in B are (1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3).

Chapter 7

7.1. Proof Specification: (∀m, n ∈ Z)[(m is even) ∧ (n is even) →

(m + n is even)]
Proof: (List form)

I Let m, n ∈ Z be given.
I Suppose m and n are even.
I =⇒ m = 2i and n = 2j,
I =⇒ m + n = 2i + 2j = 2(i + j)
I =⇒ m + n = 2`, where ` = i + j.
I =⇒ m + n is even, by the definition of even.
I ∴ if m and n are even, then m + n is even. ♣

Proof. (Prose form) Suppose m and n are even integers. Then, by the
definition of even, m = 2i and n = 2j, for some i, j ∈ Z. Thus, we have

m + n = 2i + 2j = 2(i + j) = 2`, where ` = i + j.

Hence, m + n is even, by the definition of even. ♣

7.2. (∀n ∈ Z)[(n2 is odd) → (n is odd)]

≡ (∀n ∈ Z)[¬(n is odd) → ¬(n2 is odd)]
≡ (∀n ∈ Z)[(n is even) → (n2 is even)]

I Proof: (List form)

I Let n ∈ Z be given.
I Suppose n is even.
I =⇒ n = 2j,
I =⇒ n2 = (2j)2
I =⇒ n2 = 2(2j2 ) = 2`, where ` = 2j2
I =⇒ n2 is even, by the definition of even.
I ∴ if n is even, then n2 is even. ♣
 answers to exercises 373

Proof. (Prose form) Suppose n is an even integer. Then, by the definition of

even, n = 2j, for some j ∈ Z. Thus, we have

n2 = (2j)2 = 2(2j2 ) = 2`, where ` = 2j2 .

Hence, n2 is even, by the definition of even. ♣

7.3.

(∀ x, y ∈ R)[( x is rational) ∧ (y is irrational) → ( x + y is irrational)] ≡

(∀ x, y ∈ R)[( x is rational) ∧ (yis irrational) ∧ ¬( x + y is irrational) → F] ≡
(∀ x, y ∈ R)[( x is rational) ∧ (y is irrational) ∧ ( x + y is rational) → F]

I Proof: (List form)

I Let x, y ∈ R be given
I Suppose x is rational and y is irrational
I Suppose for the sake of argument that x + y were rational
I =⇒ y = ( x + y) − x is rational because the difference of rational
numbers is rational
I =⇒ y is rational and y is irrational →←
I This is impossible
I ∴ x + y must have been irrational. ♣

Proof. (Prose form) Suppose x is rational and y is irrational. Suppose, for

the sake of argument, that x + y were rational. Then, y = ( x + y) − x
would be rational, since the difference of two rational numbers is rational.
But, y was given to be irrational. This is impossible. Therefore, x + y must
have been irrational. ♣

7.4.

(∀n ∈ Z)[(5n − 1 is odd) → (n is even)] ≡

(∀n ∈ Z)[(5n − 1 is odd) ∧ ¬(n is even) → F] ≡
(∀n ∈ Z)[(5n − 1 is odd) ∧ (n is odd) → F]

I Proof: (List form)

I Let n ∈ Z be given
I Suppose 5n − 1 is odd.
374 math208: discrete mathematics

I Suppose for the sake of argument that n were odd

I =⇒ n = 2j + 1, for some j ∈ Z, by the definition of odd
I =⇒ 5n − 1 = 5(2j + 1) − 1 = 10j + 4 = 2(5j + 2)
I =⇒ 5n − 1 = 2`, where ` = 5j + 2
I =⇒ 5n − 1 is even, by the definition of even
I But, 5n − 1 was given to be odd →←
I This is impossible
I ∴, n must have been even. ♣

Proof. (Prose form) Suppose that 5n − 1 is odd for some n ∈ Z. And,

suppose, for the sake of argument, that n were odd. That is, n = 2j + 1, for
some j ∈ Z. Then, we have

5n − 1 = 5(2j + 1) − 1 = 10j + 4 = 2(5j + 2).

That is, 5n − 1 is even, since 5n − 1 = 2`, for ` = 5j + 2. But, 5n − 1 was

given to be odd. This is impossible. Therefore, n must have been even. ♣

7.5. The convention says that x is bound by a universal quantifier.

Thus, the sentence means, for example in R, the (False) proposition:

(∀ x ∈ R)[( x = 2) → ( x2 − 2x + 1 = 0)].

7.6. The positive integer 77 ends in a 7, but is not prime since 77 =

7 · 11.

Chapter 8

 
a b 1 0 0 1
 
0 1 1 0
8.1. MR = 
 

0 1 1 0
 
c d 1 0 0 1
R

8.2. S = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, c), (2, d), (3, a), (3, d), (4, a), (4, c), (5, b), (5, c)}
 answers to exercises 375

1 a

2 b
3 c
4 d
5 S

 
1 1 1 1
 
1 1 1 1
 
 
8.3. MR◦S = MS MR = 
1 1 1 1.
 
1 0 1 0
 
1 1 1 1

8.4.

(a)

R1 ∪ R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 6),

(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 1), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 6)}
R1 ∩ R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (5, 5), (6, 6)}

R1 ⊕ R2 = {(1, 3), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 4), (3, 6),

(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 1), (5, 6), (6, 2), (6, 3)}
 376 math208: discrete mathematics

(b)
 
0 1 1 0 1 1
 
1 1 1 1 1 0
 
 
1 0 1 1 0 1
M R1 ∪ R2 = M R1 ∨ M R2 =
 

1 1 1 1 1 0
 
 
1 0 0 0 1 1
 
0 1 1 0 0 1
 
0 1 0 0 0 0
 
1 1 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 1 0 0 0
M R1 ∩ R2 = M R1 ∧ M R2 =
 

0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 1 0 1 1
 
0 0 1 1 1 0
 
 
1 0 0 1 0 1
M R1 ⊕ R2 = M R1 ⊕ M R2 =
 

1 1 1 1 1 0
 
 
1 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 1 1 0 0 0

Chapter 9

9.1. R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} (There are seven more correct answers
since any subset of R would also be okay.)

9.2.

a) R is not reflexive since, for example (1, 1) 6∈ R.

b) R is irreflexive since none of (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4) are in R.

c) R is symmetric since the reverse of each ordered pair in R is

also in R.

d) R is not antisymmetric since, for example, (1, 2) and (2, 1) are

both in R, but 1 6= 2.
 answers to exercises 377

e) R is not transitive since, for example, (1, 2) and (2, 3) are both
in R, but (1, 3) is not in R.

9.3.

a) reflexive, symmetric, transitive b) transitive

c) symmetric d) reflexive, symmetric, transitive

9.4. Recall that for a set A, the notation | A| is the cardinal number of
A (in other words, the number of elements in A).

a) C is reflexive since any set A has the same number of elements

as itself!

b) C is not irreflexive since, for example, |{1}| = |{1}|, so {1} C {1}

is true.

c) C is not symmetric since, for example, {1} C {1, 2} is true, but

{1, 2} C {1} is false.

d) C is not antisymmetric since, for example, {1} C {2} and

{2} C {1} are both true, but {1} 6= {2}.

e) C is transitive since if | A| ≤ | B| and | B| ≤ | D |, then | A| ≤ | D |

(by the transitive property of the less than or equal to relation for
numbers).

9.5. For any universe of discourse U , a relation on U is defined to be

any subset of U × U . The empty set is a subset of U × U .

9.6. {1, 2} M {1, 2} is false, so M is not reflexive. {1} M{1} is true,

so M is not irreflexive. {1} M {1, 2} and {1, 2} M {1} are true, but
{1} 6= {1, 2} so M is not antisymmetric. If | A ∩ B| = 1 then
| B ∩ A| = 1, (since A ∩ B = B ∩ A), so M is symmetric. {1} M{1, 2}
and {1, 2} M {2} are true, but {1} M{2} is false, so M is not transitive.

Chapter 10

10.1. The relation R is reflexive since (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2) are all in R.
R is symmetric since the reverse of each ordered pair in R is also in
R. Finally, R is transitive (there are a lot of cases to check for this
378 math208: discrete mathematics

condition. For example, (1, 1) and (1, 0) are both in R, so we need

to check that (1, 0) is also in R! But it is of course. There is a total of
nine such checks needed to verify that R is transitive, but they are all
just as automatic as that one.) So R is an equivalence relation on A.
There are two equivalence classes: [0] = [1] = 0, 1 and [2] = 2.

10.2. The relation R is not reflexive on A since (3, 3) is not in R. So R

is not an equivalence relation on A. Notice that R is symmetric and
transitive.

10.3. The relation R is not symmetric on A since (1, 0) is in R, but

(0, 1) is not in R. So R is not an equivalence relation on A. Notice
that R is reflexive on A and is transitive.

10.4. The relation R is not transitive on A since (0, 1) and (1, 2) are
in R, but (0, 2) is not in R. So R is not an equivalence relation on A.
Notice that R is reflexive on A and is symmetric.

10.5. True. The relation is symmetric since the reverse of each or-
dered pair in R is also in R (after all, the reverse of each ordered pair
in R is just the ordered pair itself). To check the antisymmetric con-
dition, we need to look at all cases where an ordered pair and its
reverse are both in R, and make sure the two coordinates are equal
in each such case. There are only two cases to check: (1, 1) and its
reverse are both in R, and sure enough, 1 = 1. The story is the same
for (2, 2). So R passes the antisymmetry test. The moral of the story:
It is possible for a relation to be both symmetric and antisymmetric.

10.6. S is reflexive since, for any integer m, m2 = m2 . S is symmetric

since if m2 = n2 , then n2 = m2 . Finally, S is transitive since if m2 = n2
and n2 = t2 , then m2 = t2 . So S is an equivalence relation on Z.
The equivalence class of an integer m the the set of all integers
with the same square as m. For m = 0, the only element in the equiv-
alence class would be 0 itself: [0] = {0}. For any integer, m, other
than 0, we get [m] = {m, −m}. For example, [2] = {2, −2} since
22 = 4 and (−2)2 = 4.

10.7. The relation C is obviously reflexive and symmetric. But it is

not transitive. For example, The lines l1 : y = x crosses the l2 :
 answers to exercises 379

x + y = 2 at the point (1, 1) and the line l2 : x + y = 2 crosses the

line l3 : y = x + 2 at the point (0, 2). But the lines l1 : y = x and
l3 : y = x + 2 are distinct parallel lines, so they do not cross. In other
words l1 C l2 and l2 C l3 are both true, but l1 C l3 is false. So C is not
transitive.

10.8. Proof Specification: (∀ a ∈ A)[ aRa]

Definitions: R is symmetric ≡ (∀ a, b ∈ A)[ aRb → bRa]
R is transitive ≡ (∀ a, b, c ∈ A)[ aRb ∧ bRc → aRc]
Suppostition: (∀ a ∈ A)(∃b ∈ A)[ aRb]
Proof:

I Let a ∈ A be given, by Universal Instantiation

I There is a b ∈ A so that aRb, by supposition
I bRa, since R is symmetric
I Thus, we have aRb and bRa, by conjunction
I Thus, aRa, since aRb ∧ bRa → aRa by transitivity
I Therefore, R is reflexive
I Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, it is an equivalence
relation

10.9. Proof specification:

(∀ a, b ∈ A) [([ a] ∩ [b] = ∅) ∨ ([ a] = [b])] ≡ (∀ a, b ∈ A) [¬([ a] ∩ [b] = ∅) → ([ a] = [b])]

≡(∀ a, b ∈ A) [([ a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅) → ([ a] = [b])] ≡ (∀ a, b ∈ A) [([ a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅) → ([ a] ⊆ [b] ∧ [b] ⊆ [ a])]
≡(∀ a, b ∈ A) [([ a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅ → [ a] ⊆ [b]) ∧ ([ a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅ → [b] ⊆ [ a])]

Definition: [ a] ⊆ [b] ≡ (∀ x ∈ A)[ x ∈ [ a] → x ∈ [b]]

I Proof: (List form)

I Let a, b ∈ A be given
I Suppose that [ a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅.
I =⇒ there is a c ∈ [ a] ∩ [b]
I =⇒ c ∈ [ a] and c ∈ [b]
I =⇒ cEa and cEb, by definitions of [ a] and [b]
I =⇒ (*) aEc and bEc, by symmetry
I We show that [ a] ⊆ [b]
I Suppose x ∈ [ a] is given.
380 math208: discrete mathematics

I =⇒ xEa and aEc, by defintion of [ a] and line ∗

I =⇒ xEc, by transitivity
I =⇒ xEc and cEb, by line ∗
I =⇒ xEb, by transitivity
I =⇒ x ∈ [b], by definition of [b]
I Therefore, [ a] ⊆ [b].
I We show that [b] ⊆ [ a]
I Suppose y ∈ [b] is given.
I =⇒ yEb and bEc, by defintion of [b] and line ∗
I =⇒ yEc, by transitivity
I =⇒ yEc and cEa, by ∗
I =⇒ yEa, by transitivity
I =⇒ y ∈ [ a], by definition of [ a]
I Therefore, [b] ⊆ [b].
I Thus, [ a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅ implies [ a] = [b].

10.10.

a)
1 3
GE

4 2 7 5

6 8
 answers to exercises 381

b) Using the natural order [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]:

 
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
 
 
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
ME = 
 

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
 
 
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

Using an order grouped by equivalence classes [1, 2, 4|3, 5, 7|6, 8]:

 
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
 
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
ME = 
 

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

10.11. A matrix represents an equivalence relation if it defines a

partition of { a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h}.

(a) [ a] = { a, c, e, g} = [c] = [e] = [ g], [b] = {b, d, f } = [d] = [ f ], and

[h] = {h} partition { a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h}.

(b) [ a] = { a, b, g, h} = [b] = [ g] = [h], [c] = {c, d} = [d], and

[e] = {e, f } = [ f ] partition { a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h}.

10.12. Here are the facts we know: (1) E is an equivalence relation on

the set A, (2) a ∈ [b] (a is in the equivalence class of b). Our job is to
show that if c ∈ [ a], then c ∈ [b]. So, suppose c ∈ [ a]. That means cEa
is true according to the definition of equivalence class. We also know
aEb is true, since a is in the equivalence class of b. Since cEa and aEb
382 math208: discrete mathematics

are true, the transitive condition tells us cEb is true, and that means
c ∈ [b], as we needed to show.♣

Chapter 11

11.1. There are many different correct answers to these problems.

a) f ( x ) = x + 1

b) f ( x ) = 1

c) f ( x ) = e x

d) f ( x ) = x3 − x

11.2.

a) As a set of ordered pairs f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, d), (5, e)}

b) No such function can exist since | B| > | A|.

c) No such function can exist since | A| < | B|.

d) As a set of ordered pairs g = {( a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4), (e, 5), ( f , 5)}

11.3. The composition of two functions is a function, but the com-

position of two equivalence relations need not be an equivalence
relation. However, the composition of an equivalence relation with
itself will be an equivalence relation. Here is a proof.
Suppose E is an equivalence relation on a set A.
Since E is reflexive on A, for any a ∈ A, ( a, a) ∈ E is true, and since
( a, a) and ( a, a) are in E, the composition rule tells us ( a, a) ∈ E ◦ E!
So E ◦ E is reflexive on A.
Next, suppose ( a, b) ∈ E ◦ E. That means there is an x in A such
that ( a, x ) and ( x, b) are in E. Since E is an equivalence relation, it is
symmetric, so (b, x ) and ( x, a) are in E. The composition rule then
tells us (b, a) is in E ◦ E. That proves E ◦ E is symmetric.
Finally, suppose ( a, b) and (b, c) are in E ◦ E. That means there an x
in A such that ( a, x ) and ( x, b) are in E and there is a y in A such that
(b, y) and (y, c) are in E. From ( x, b) and (b, y) in E, we see ( x, y) is in
 answers to exercises 383

E. Then From ( a, x ) and ( x, y) in E, we get ( a, y) is in E. And finally,

( a, y) and (y, c) in E tells us ( a, c) is in E ◦ E. So E ◦ E is transitive.
Putting the pieces together, we have proved E ◦ E is an equivalence
relation on A.

11.4. Suppose g : A → B and f : B → C are both one-to-one. To

show f ◦ g : A → C is one-to-one, suppose x and y are in A, and
f ◦ g( x ) = f ◦ g(y). We want to show x = y.
Since f ◦ g( x ) = f ◦ g(y), the definition of the composition of
functions tells us f ( g( x )) = f ( g(y)). Since f is one-to-one, we can
conclude g( x ) = g(y), and then, since g is one-to-one, we get x = y.
♣

Chapter 12

12.1. d x e is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.

12.2.
y
3

x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

−4

12.3.

We could fall back on the classic plot-a-billion-points method of

graphing, but it is a better idea to think first. The graph ought to
look a lot like the graph of y = b x c, but the jumps will move to new
spots. In particular, there will be a jump up by 1 whenever x reaches
a value where 2x − 1 = n, for n equal an integer. In other words,
n +1
there will be jumps when x = 2 for integers n.
384 math208: discrete mathematics

So the graph will show jumps at

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
. . . , −2 = , , −1 = , ,0 = , ,1 , ,..., .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
n +1
Moreover, for the integer n, the jump at x = 2 will be from n − 1
to n. That’s enough to draw the graph: it looks exactly like the graph
1
of y = b x c, except jumps come at multiples of 2 instead of at the
integers. That makes the graph easy to draw since we can cheat by
dividing all the integer marks on the x-axis by 2 in the graph of y =
b x c.
y
3

x
− 32 −1 − 21−1 0 1
2
1 3
2

−2

−3

−4

12.4. Thinking: the graph of y = b x − 1c will look just like the graph
of y = b x c shifted one unit the the right, and the factor of 2 in y =
2b x − 1c will move each horizontal segment of the graph to twice
its original distance from the x-axis. Put those two pieces together:
y
6

x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−2

−4

−6

−8
 answers to exercises 385

x3 x3
12.5. The functons f ( x ) = 18 and g( x ) = 2 cross when 18x = 2 .
That is, when

36x = x3

x3 − 36x = 0

x ( x2 − 36) = 0

x ( x − 6)( x + 6) = 0

x = −6, 0, 6

as seen in the graph.

So, for x > 0, g catches f at x = 6 for x > 0.

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

12.6. The exponential function g( x ) = 2x ultimately beats the power

function f ( x ) = 4x5 . To show that, lets find a number x > 1 so
that ln(2x ) > ln(4x5 ). That inequality can be rewritten as x ln 2 >
ln 4 + 5 ln x. Since all we care about is showing there is an x for which
that inequality is true, we can make some simplifying substitutions: if
x
2 > 2 + 5 ln x, that would be guarantee x ln 2 > ln 4 + 5 ln x. So let’s
see if we can find x so that x > 4 + 10 ln x, and since we can make x
as large as we want, we can also guarantee ln x ≥ 4. Consequently
we need only be sure we can pick x with x > 11 ln x. Thinking about
the graphs of y = x and y = 11 ln x, we can see there will certainly
be such an x. If we know a bit of calculus, we can compute slopes of
tangent lines to the two curves to show there is such an x. If we have
386 math208: discrete mathematics

a computer algebra system, we can find a specific value of such an x.

In fact, it turns out that 41 is the smallest integer greater than 1 for
which x > 11 ln x.

12.7. Assuming the other buttons are in working order, we can use
√ √
the fact that log(2 2 ) = ( 2) log 2. Here are the steps:

• get square root of 2 (result: 1.41421 · · · )

• multiply by log 2 (result: .42572 · · · )

• take inverse log (10x button for if you are

√
using base 10 logs) (result 2.66514 · · · = 2 2 ).

Chapter 13
A great source of information about
13.1. One possible answer: It looks like the list of positive integers numerical sequences is The Online

in order, skipping the multiples of 3. So the next few terms will be Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences at
http://oeis.org. That site finds 183
10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17. sequences that either begin or are
Another answer: The positive integers n (in increasing order) for otherwise related to 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8.

which 2n + 3 is a prime. The next few terms would be 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20.

13.2. a100 = 2 + 6(99) = 596

13.3. Let a be the initial term and d be the common difference. We

have the system a + 9d = −4 and a + 15d = 47. Subtracting the
51 17
first from the second gives 6d = 51, so d = 6 = 2 , and then
a = −4 − 9d = −4 − 9 17 161 th
2 = − 2 . That means the 11 term is
 
− 161 17
2 + 10 2 = 92 .

13.4. a5 = 6(25 ) = 6(32) = 192

13.5. If r is the common ratio, then −11 = g2 = rg1 = 5r, and so

 4
r = − 11 4
5 . That means g5 = g1 r = 5 − 5
11
= 14641
125 .

13.6. Suppose we have a sequence with initial term a that is arith-

metic (with common difference d) as well as geometric (with com-
mon ration r). For the two terms following the initial term, we
have a + d = ar and a + 2d = ar2 . The first equation tells us that
d = a(r − 1). Subtracting the first equation from the second gives
 answers to exercises 387

d = ar2 − ar = ar (r − 1). So a(r − 1) = ar (r − 1), and that equation

leaves only a few options for a and r. It could be that a = 0, and that
means (1) d = 0 and the sequence is 0, 0, 0, 0 . . ., or (2) r − 1 = 0, so
r = 1, and that means d = 0, and the sequence is a, a, a, a, . . ., or (3)
neither a = 0 nor r = 1 in which case a(r − 1) = ar (r − 1) reduces to
r = 1 which can’t be in this case. Conclusion: the constant sequences
a, a, a, a, . . . are the only sequences that are both arithmetic (initial
term a and common difference 0) and geometric (initial term a and
common ratio 1).

13.7. ∑4j=1 ( j2 + 1) = 2 + 5 + 10 + 17 = 34

13.8. ∑4k=−2 (2k − 3) = −7 − 5 − 3 − 1 + 1 + 3 + 5 = −7

13.9. The initial term is 2, the 100th term is 2 + (99)(6), so the total is
 
2+2+(99)(6)
100 2 = 29900.

13.10. 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + 96 = 186

3
13.11. 1 − 2 + 49 − 27
8 + 81
16 = 211
16

n
1
13.12. ∑ 2k
k =1

Chapter 14

14.1. 3, 15, 255, 65535, 4294967295

14.2. 1, 1, 2, 3, 7, 22, 155

14.3. 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5

14.4. 1, 0, 3, 2, 5, 4, 7, 6, 9, 8. It looks like the terms alternately give

one more and one less then the term index.
That suggests an = n + (−1)n .

14.5. This is the Look-and-Say sequence introduced by John Horton

Conway. After the initial term equal to 1, each new term is produced
by reading the previous term. Examples:

• for the second term, read the first term (1) as "one 1" (so 11)
388 math208: discrete mathematics

• for the next term, read 11 as "two 1" (so 21)

• next, read 21 as "one 2 and one 1" (so 1211)

• next 1211 is "one 1, one 2, and two 1" (so 111221)

and so on. The term following 1113213211 is 31131211131221.

14.6. For n = 1, we define 1d to equal d. Now for the recursive part of

the definition: For n > 1, we define nd = (n − 1)d + d.

Chapter 15

15.1. S is the set of positive integers.

15.2. (1) 17 ∈ S,
and
(2) If n ∈ S, then n + 100 ∈ S.

15.3. (1) 1, 2, 3 ∈ S,
and
(2) If n ∈ S, then n + 4 ∈ S.

15.4. Each string in S consists of zero or more a’s followed on the

right by an equal number of of the two letter combination bc. Exam-
ples: aabcbc and aaaabcbcbcbc.

15.5. The strings is S consist of one or more c’s preceded on the left
by any combination of zero or more a’s and b’s. Examples: cccc,
abbbac, aaacc.

15.6. (1) λ, a, b, c ∈ S,
and
(2) If x ∈ S, then axa, bxb, and cxc ∈ S.

alternate solution:
(1) λ, a, b, c ∈ S,
and
(2) If x, y ∈ S, the xyx ∈ S.
In plain English, the recursive rule (2) says we can build longer
palindromes by adding a palindrome to either end of a palindrome.
 answers to exercises 389

Chapter 16

16.1. basis: For n = 1, the left side is 1 · 3 = 3, and the right side is
1·2·9
6 = 3, so the equality is correct for this case.
inductive hypothesis: Suppose

n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
1 · 3 + 2 · 4 + 3 · 5 + · · · + n ( n + 2) =
6

for some n ≥ 1. Then

inductive step:

1 · 3+2 · 4 + 3 · 5 + · · · + n(n + 2) + (n + 1)(n + 3)

n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
= + (n + 1)(n + 3) using the inductive hypothesis
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 7) 6(n + 1)(n + 3)
= +
6 6
n(n + 1)(2n + 7) + 6(n + 1)(n + 3)
= now factor out the common (n + 1)
6
(n + 1)[n(2n + 7) + 6(n + 3)]
= and the rest is just algebra
6
(n + 1)(2n2 + 7n + 6n + 18)
=
6
2
(n + 1)(2n + 13n + 18)
=
6
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 9)
=
6
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2(n + 1) + 7)
= ,
6

as we needed to show. ♣

16.2. basis: For n = 1, 1 · 21 = 2 and (1 − 1)21+1 + 2 = 2, so the

equality is correct when n = 1.
inductive hypothesis: Suppose

1 · 21 + 2 · 22 + 3 · 23 + ... + n · 2n = (n − 1)2n+1 + 2,

for some n ≥ 1, Then

390 math208: discrete mathematics

inductive step:

1 · 21 + 2 · 22 + 3 · 23 + ... + n · 2n + (n + 1)2n+1

= ( n − 1 )2n +1 + 2 + ( n + 1 )2n +1 using the inductive hypothesis

= ((n − 1) + (n + 1))2n+1 + 2 and the rest is just algebra

= (2n)2n+1 + 2
= n2n+2 + 2
= ((n − 1) + 1)2(n+1)+1 + 2,

as we needed to show. ♣

16.3. basis: f 0 = 0 = 1 − 1 = f 2 − 1, so the equation is correct for

n = 1.
inductive hypothesis: Suppose

f 0 + f 1 + f 2 + · · · + f n = f n +2 − 1

for some n ≥ 0. Then

inductive step:

f 0 + f 1 + f 2 + · · · + f n + f n +1

= ( f n +2 − 1 ) + f n +1 using the inductive hypothesis

= ( f n +1 + f n +2 − 1 )
= f n +3 − 1 using the recursive definition of the Fibonacci sequence

= f (n+1)+2 − 1,

as we needed to show.

16.4. basis: For n = 5, the inequality is correct: 25 = 32 > 25 = 52 .

inductive hypothesis: Suppose 2n > n2 for some n > 4. Then
inductive step:

2n+1 = 2(2n ) > 2n2 using the inductive hypothesis

now 2n2 = n2 + n2 = n2 + (n)(n) > n2 + 3n since for n > 4 it is true that (n)(n) > 3n

next n2 + 3n = n2 + 2n + n > n2 + 2n + 1 since for n > 4 it is true that n > 1

and n2 + 2n + 1 = (n + 1)2 ,
 answers to exercises 391

Putting the pieces together, we get 2n+1 > (n + 1)2 as we needed to

show.

16.5. basis: For n = 0, 11n − 6 = 1 − 6 = −5 = (5)(−1), so 110 − 6 is

divisible by 5.
inductive hypothesis: Suppose 11n − 6 is divisible by 5 for some
n ≥ 0. Then
inductive step:

11n+1 − 6 = 11(11n ) − 6 = 10(11n ) + (11n − 6) = 2(5)(11n ) + (11n − 6).

In that last expression, the term 2(5)(11n ) is certainly divisible by 5,

and the expression 11n − 6 is divisible by 5 by the inductive hypothe-
sis. That implies 2(5)(11n ) + (11n − 6) is divisible by 5 as we needed
to show.
Note: Here is another way to see that 11n − 6 is divisible by 5: for
any integer n ≥ 0, the number 11n will have units digit 1, and so
11n − 6 will have units digit 5. Numbers with units digit 5 are divis-
ible by 5. This proof does not answer the question posed however,
since it is not a proof by induction.

16.6. basis: With 0 cuts, we end up with one piece of pizza, namely
n2 + n +2 02 + 0 + 2
the whole thing. And, sure enough, for n = 0, 2 = 2 = 1.
inductive hypothesis: Suppose that for some n ≥ 0, n straight
n2 + n +2
lines cut produces a maximum number of 2 pieces. Then
inductive step: Suppose we add one more cut. Notice that when
the new cut crosses an old cut, it will slice one old piece into two
new piece. We can’t get more that two pieces when one cut crosses
another since two straight lines cannot cross each other more than
once. So, to get the maximum number of new pieces, we should
make the new cut not parallel to the n previous cuts (and so, with
care, be sure to cross all the previous cuts, and not at a point where
previous cuts cross each other). This will give the maximum number
of new pieces equal to n + 1. Conclusion: the maximum number of
pieces with n + 1 straight cuts is

n2 + n + 2 n2 + n + 2 + 2( n + 1) ( n + 1)2 + ( n + 1) + 2
+ ( n + 1) = = ,
2 2 2
392 math208: discrete mathematics

as we needed to show.
The list of maximums begins 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, 29, 37, 46, 56, 67, 79, 92.

50 − 1
16.7. basis: For n = 0, we re given a0 = 0 and we see 4 = 0, so the
basis step is good.
5n −1
inductive hypothesis: Suppose an = 4 for some n ≥ 0. Then
inductive step:

an+1 = 5an + 1 using the recursive definition of the sequence

 n
5 −1

=5 +1 using the inductive hypothesis
4
5n +1 − 5 4
= + and the rest is just algebra
4 4
5n +1 − 5 + 4
=
4
5n +1 − 1
= ,
4

as we needed to show.

16.8. basis: Since the recursive formula involves the two previous
terms, we are going to have to check the closed form formula for
the two terms a0 and a1 . But they both work ok since a0 = 1 and
2(30 ) − 20 = 2(1) − 1 = 1 and a1 = 4 and 2(31 ) − 21 = 2(3) − 2 = 4.
inductive hypothesis: For n ≥ 2, an depends on the two previous
terms in the sequence, so it would be wise to use the second form of
induction this time. So, let’s suppose that ak = 2 · 3k − 2k for all k
form 0 to some n ≥ 1. Then
inductive step:

an+1 = 5an − 6an−1 using the recursive definition, okay since n + 1 ≥ 2

= 5 (2 · 3n − 2n ) − 6 (2 · 3n −1 − 2n −1 ) using the inductive hypothesis

= (5 · 2 · 3 − 6 · 2 )3n −1 − (5 · 2 − 6 )2n −1 and the rest is just algebra

= 18 · 3n−1 − 4 · 2n−1
= 2 · 32 · 3n−1 − 22 · 2n−1
= 2 · 3n +1 − 2n +1 .

as we needed to show.
 answers to exercises 393

Chapter 17

X. XX

Chapter 18

X. XXX

Chapter 19

X. XXX

Chapter 20

20.1. Proof:
Suppose a > 0 and b > 0. Since a > 0, multiplying both sides of
b > 0 by a gives ab > a0. We know a0 = 0. It follows that ab > 0. ♣

20.2. Proof:
Suppose neither a nor b is 0. Consider four cases:

(1) a > 0 and b > 0: In this case, we proved ab > 0 in Exercise 1. In

particular then, ab 6= 0 in this case.

(2) a > 0 and b < 0: Since a > 0, multiplying both sides of b < 0 by a
gives ab < a0. We know a0 = 0. It follows that ab < 0. So ab 6= 0 in
this case.

(3) a < 0 and b > 0: Since a < 0, multiplying both sides of b > 0 by a
gives ab < a0. We know a0 = 0. It follows that ab < 0. So ab 6= 0 in
this case.

(4) a < 0 and b < 0: Since a < 0, multiplying both sides of b < 0
by a gives ab > a0. We know a0 = 0. It follows that ab > 0. In
particular then, ab 6= 0 in this case.

So, in any case, if neither a nor b is 0, then ab 6= 0. ♣

20.3. Proof:
Suppose c 6= 0 and ac = bc. We can rewrite ac = bc as ac − bc = 0,
and then use the distributive property to write that as ( a − b)c = 0.
394 math208: discrete mathematics

Applying the result of Exercise 2, we conclude either a − b = 0 or

c = 0. Since c 6= 0, it must be that a − b = 0. Adding b to each side of
that equation shows a = b. ♣

Chapter 21

21.1. 107653 = (4)(22869) + 16177. So the quotient is 4, and the

remainder is 16177.

21.2. The square root of 1297 is 36.01..., so if 1297 is not a prime, it

must have a prime divisor no more than 36. Testing 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29,
and 31, (use a calculator if you want), we find none of those ten inte-
gers divides 1297. That means 1297 is a prime.

21.3. The divides relation is reflexive: For every integer a, a| a is true

since a · 1 = a.

21.4. The divides relation is not symmetric. For example, 2|4 is true,
but 4|2 is false.

21.5. The divides relation is transitive. Suppose a|b and b|c are both
true. That means there are integers d and e such that ad = b and
be = c. Multiplying each side of the first of those two equations by
e gives ade = be, so a(de) = c. Since de is an integer, that equation
shows a|c is true. ♣

21.6. The expression 4|12 is a proposition, not a number. Correct is

12
4|12 is true. Note that 4 = 3 is correct notation.

21.7. The 1000 consecutive numbers are

1001! + 2, 1001! + 3, 1001! + 4, 1001! + 5, dots, 1001! + k, . . . , 1001! + 1001

The first number in the list is not a prime since 2 is a factor of each
term, and so 2 is a factor of 1001! + 2. Likewise, 3 is a proper factor
of the second number, 4 is a proper factor on the third number, and
so on, until 1001 is a proper factor of the 1000th number in the list. So
none of the integers can be a prime. clubsuit
 answers to exercises 395

21.8. Proof:
Suppose a|b. That means ac = b for some integer c. Then (− a)(−c) =
ac = b, so − a|b. ♣

Chapter 22

22.1a.

233 = 2 · 89 + 55

89 = 1 · 55 + 34

55 = 1 · 34 + 21

34 = 1 · 21 + 13

21 = 1 · 13 + 8

13 = 1 · 8 + 5

8 = 1·5+3

5 = 1·3+2

3 = 1·2+1

2 = 2·1+0

gcd(233, 89) = 1

22.1b.

1001 = 77 · 13 + 0

gcd(1001, 13) = 13
396 math208: discrete mathematics

22.1c.

2457 = 1 · 1458 + 999

1458 = 1 · 999 + 459

99 = 2 · 459 + 81

459 = 5 · 81 + 54

81 = 1 · 54 + 27

54 = 2 · 27 + 0

gcd(2457, 1458) = 27

22.1d.

567 = 1 · 349 + 218

349 = 1 · 218 + 131

218 = 1 · 131 + 87

131 = 1 · 87 + 44

87 = 1 · 44 + 43

44 = 1 · 43 + 1

43 = 43 · 1 + 0

gcd(567, 349) = 1

22.2.

987654321 = 8 · 123456789 + 9

123456789 = 13717421 · 9 + 0

gcd(987654321, 123456789) = 9

22.3. There are many good answers to this problem.

22.4. Since n divides both n and 2n, that means n is a common

divisor of n and 2n. On the other hand, no integer larger than n
 answers to exercises 397

Input: integers m ≥ 0 and n > 0

Output: integer value of gcd(m, n)
q←m . q represents a quotient of a division
r←n . r represents the remainder of a division
while r > 0 do
g←r . Save current r. It will hold the gcd eventually
q ← bm n c . New quotient when m is divided by n
r ← m − qn . New remainder when m is divided by n
m←n . Update m
n←r . Update n
end while
output g . The last nonzero remainder

can divide n. So n is the largest common divisor of n and 2n. So

gcd(n, 2n) = n.

Chapter 23

23.1. Part 1 (back-substitution method):

13447 = 1 · 7667 + 5780

7667 = 1 · 5780 + 1887

5780 = 3 · 1887 + 119

1887 = 15 · 119 + 102

119 = 1 · 102 + 17

102 = 6 · 17 + 0

gcd(13447, 7667) = 17.

17 = (1)(119) + (−1)(102)

= (1)(119) + (−1)(1887 + (−15)(119)) = (−1)(1887) + (16)(119)

= (−1)(1887) + (16)(5780 + (−3)(1887)) = (16)(5780) + (−49)(1887)

= (16)(5780) + (−49)(7667 + (−1)(5780) = (−49)(7667) + (65)(5780)

= (−49)(7667) + (65)(13447 + (−1)(7667)) = (65)(13447) + (−114)(7667)

398 math208: discrete mathematics

(65)(13447) + (−114)(7667) = 17 = gcd(13447, 7667)

Part 2 (Extended Euclidean Algorithm Table):

13447 7667 5780 1887 119 102 17 0

1 1 3 15 1 6
0 1 -1 2 -7 107 -114 791
1 0 1 -1 4 -61 65 -451

Thus, we may conclude that

gcd(13447, 7667) = 17 = (65)(13447) + (−114)(7667).

You’ll likely agree that the Extended Euclidean Algorithm table is

a lot neater and much less prone to error.

23.2. Since the only values that can be written as a linear combination
of a and b are multiples of gcd( a, b), it must be that 1 is a multiple of
gcd( a, b). Or, saying the same thing another way, gcd( a, b) must be a
positive divisor of 1. The only choice is gcd( a, b) = 1.

23.3. Since the only values that can be written as a linear combination
o a and b are multiples of gcd( a, b), it must be that 19 is a multiple of
gcd( a, b). Or, saying the same thing another way, gcd( a, b) must be a
positive divisor of 19. So, gcd( a, b) = 1 or 19.

23.4. Since the only values that can be written as a linear combination
o a and b are multiples of gcd( a, b), it must be that 18 is a multiple of
gcd( a, b). Or, saying the same thing another way, gcd( a, b) must be a
positive divisor of 18. So, gcd( a, b) = 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, or 18.

Chapter 24

24.1. A calculator would be handy for this problem. The plan is to

try divisions by 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, and so on, until we have the complete
factorization in to primes.

345678 = (2)(172839) = (2)(3)(57613) = (2)(3)(17)(3389)

 answers to exercises 399

Note that in testing for prime divisors of 3389, we needed only test
17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 53, 29. With a calculator, the whole process
took about two minutes.

24.2.

1016 = (2)(508) = (2)(2)(254) = (2)(2)(2)(127) = 23 127

24.3. The positive divisors of 1016 will look like 2a 127b where a =
0, 1, 2, 3 and b = 0, 1. Since there are four choices for a and two
choices for b, there will be a total of (4)(2) = 8 positive divisors of
1016. They are:

20 1270 = 1 21 1270 = 2

22 1270 = 4 23 1270 = 8

20 1271 = 127 21 1271 = 254

22 1271 = 508 23 1271 = 1016

24.4. The positive divisors of 345678 will look like 2a 3b 17c 3389d
where a, b, c, d can each be either 0,or 1. So, there will be a total of
(2)(2)(2)(2) = 16 positive divisors of 345678.

Chapter 25

25.1. Since gcd(21, 48) = 3 and 3 does not divide 8, there are no
integer solutions to this equation.

25.2. Since gcd(21, 48) = 3 and 3 does divides 9, there are in-
teger solutions to this equation. To find one solution, we could
use the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, but in this case the num-
bers are small enough that we can find a solution by inspection (in
other words, we can guess an answer). First, let’s reduce the equa-
tion by dividing each side by 3 = gcd(21, 48) to get the equation
7x + 16y = 3. We can quickly see a solution: x = 5, y = −2
since 7(5) + 16(−2) = 35 − 32 = 3. Multiplying both sides of
7(5) + 16(−2) = 3 by 3 gives 21(5) + 48(−2) = 9. Now that we have
one solution to 21x + 48y = 8 we can write down all solutions:
400 math208: discrete mathematics

48
x = 5+ k = 5 + 16k
gcd(21, 48)
21)
y = −2 − k = −2 − 7k
gcd(21, 48)

where k is any integer. Just to check our work, let’s test the solution
when k = 10 (so x = 165 and y = −72).

(21)(165) + (48)(−72) = 3465 − 3456 = 9

That looks good.

25.3. Since gcd(33, 12) = 3 and 3 does not divide 7, there are no
solutions.

25.4. We need one solution to get the ball rolling. We could use the
continued fraction algorithm to write 3 = gcd(33, 12) as a linear
combination of 33 and 12, and we would probably have to do that if
the numbers were larger. But with these small numbers we can do
the work in our head: 3 = (33)(−1) + (12)(3).
Multiply that equation by 2 on each side to get (33)(−2) + (12)(6) =
6.
So now we have one solution to the given equation: x = −2 and
y = 6.
Using the formulas that produce all solutions once one is known
we get all solutions are given by

12 33
x = −2 + k = −2 + 4k and y = 6− k = 6 − 11k
3 3

where k is any integer.

For example, when k = 5 we get the solution x = 18, y = −49.

25.5. First, let’s find all solutions to 59x + 37y = 4270 by applying the
Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
The table shows gcd(59, 37) = 1 = 59(−5) + 37(8). Multiplying
by 4270, we see one solution to 59x + 37y = 4270 is given by x =
−5(4270) and y = 8(4270). That means all solutions to that equations
 answers to exercises 401

59 37 22 15 7 1 0
1 1 1 2 7
0 1 -1 2 -3 8 -59
1 0 1 -1 2 -5 37

are given by

x = −5(4270) + 37k and y = 8(4270) − 59k where k is any integer.

We need to find values of k for which both x and y are 0 or more. In

other words, we want to solve

−5(4270) + 37k ≥ 0 and 8(4270) − 59k ≥ 0.

5(4270) 8(4270)
That reduces to ≤k≤ , or 577.02 . . . ≤ k ≤ 578.98 . . ..
37 59
The only integer option is k = 578. We conclude the number of vases
sold is x = −5(4270) + 37(578) = 36 and the number of ash trays is
y = 8(4270) − 59(578) = 58.

Chapter 26

26.1a. Taking 0 hours as midnight, the time 3122 hours after 16 hun-
dred hours is
16 + 3122 ≡ 3138 ≡ 18 ( mod 24) hundred hours (or 6pm).

26.1b. Taking Sunday as day 0 of a week, Monday will be 1. So, 3122

after a Monday is
1 + 3122 ≡ 3123 ≡ 1 ( mod 7). So, it is a Monday.

26.1c. Taking January as month 0, November with be month 10. So,

3122 months later it will be
10 + 3122 ≡ 3132 ≡ 0 ( mod12). So, it will be January.

26.2. The integers in [7]11 are given by adding any number of 11’s
to 7. In other words, 7, 18, 29, 40, 51, . . . and −4, −15, −25, . . .. More
compactly: 7 + 11k, for all integers k, −∞ < k < ∞.
402 math208: discrete mathematics

26.3.

1211 ≡ 1 ( mod 5)

218 ≡ 3 ( mod 5)

−100 ≡ 0 ( mod 5)
−3333 ≡ 2 ( mod 5)

The missing equivalence class is [4]5 . Any value in that equiva-

lence class will do for the fifth value. So the possible answer is any
number of the form 4 + 5k, for an integer k. In particular, 4 would
work (or −1, or 10004, or −6, and so on).

26.4. 2311 + 3912 ≡ 11 + 12 ≡ 23 ( mod 25)

26.5. (2311)(3912) ≡ (11)(12) ≡ 132 ≡ 7 ( mod 25)

26.6. Since 1111 ≡ 4 ( mod 9), the problem can be rewritten

as 42222 ≡ n ( mod 9).
Let’s check small powers of 4 modulo 9:

41 ≡ 4 ( mod 9)

42 ≡ 16 ≡ 7 ( mod 9)

43 ≡ (4)(42 ) ≡ (4)(7) ≡ 28 ≡ 1 ( mod 9)

Taking advantage of the fact that 43 ≡ 1 ( mod 9), it follows that

11112222 ≡ 42222 ≡ (43 )740 · 42 ≡ 1740 · 16 ≡ 16 ≡ 7 ( mod 9)

26.7. Since gcd(4, 7) = 1 and 1 divides 3. There will be exactly one

solution modulo 7 to 4x ≡ 3 ( mod 7). Let’s use trial-and-error to find
that solution. Testing x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, we find (4)(6)equiv24 ≡
3 ( mod 7), and so the solution is x ≡ 6 ( mod 7). Incidentally, it would
be incorrect to say the solution is x = 6 since we are working modulo
7 and so the solution has to be given modulo 7.

26.8. Using the the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, we get 57(−5) +

11(26) = 1 = gcd(57, 11), and since 1 divides 8, there will be exactly
 answers to exercises 403

one solution to 11x ≡ 8 ( mod 57). To find that solution, multiply both
sides of 57(−5) + 11(26) = 1 = gcd(57, 11) (cleverly) by 8 to get
57(−40) + 11(208) = 8. So one solution to 11x ≡ 8 ( mod 57) is x =
208. That means all solutions are given by x ≡ 208 ≡ 37 ( mod 57).
Note that giving the solution as x ≡ 208 ( mod 57) is correct, but
people expect to see solutions to x ≡ n ( mod m) written with the
value of n in the range 0 to m − 1.

26.9. gcd(14, 231) = 7 and 7 does not divide 3, so 14x ≡ 3 ( mod 231)
has no solutions.

26.10. To solve 8x ≡ 16 ( mod 28), we look for solutions to 8x +

28y = 16, We can simplify that equation by dividing through by
4 = gcd(8, 28) to get 2x + 7y = 4. Solving that equation is the same
as solving 2x ≡ 4 ( mod 7). (Short cut: when solving ax ≡ b ( mod
m) where gcd( a, m) = d divides b, we can simplify the original
equation by dividing a, b, m each by d to get da x ≡ b
d ( mod m
d ).). The
equation 2x ≡ 4 ( mod 7) with have exactly one solution modulo
7 (but remember that gcd(8, 28) = 4, so the original equation will
have four solutions modulo 28). A little trial-and-error (or plain old
common sense) shows 2x ≡ 4 ( mod 7) has solution x ≡ 2 ( mod 7). It
is acceptable to leave the answer in this form, but since the problem
was given modulo 28, it is good manners to provide the solutions
modulo 28. Since x has to be 2 modulo 7, the solutions modulo 28
will be the four values from 0 to 27 that are equal to 2 modulo 7.
Final answer then: x ≡ 2, 9, 16, 23 ( mod 28).

26.11. Since gcd(91, 231) = 7, and 7|189, we see the congruence will
have
seven solutions modulo 231. As in problem 10, to simplify the
work a bit we could cancel
7’s in the given congruence, and rewrite the problem as 13x ≡
27 ( mod33).
Solving that (using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm for exam-
ple),
we get x ≡ 30 ( mod33) for the solution. Since the problem was
given modulo 231, we should express the solutions modulo 231 as
404 math208: discrete mathematics

well.
Solutions: x ≡ 30, 63, 96, 129, 162, 195, 228 ( mod231).

26.12a. Let d = gcd( a, m) and suppose s is a solution to ax ≡ b ( mod

m) so that as ≡ b ( mod m). If x represents a solution to ax ≡ b ( mod
m), then ax ≡ as ( mod m). Rearrange that as ax − as ≡ 0 ( mod m), or
a( x − s) ≡ 0 ( mod m). That means m divides a( x − s), and so there
is an integer k with mk = a( x − s). Now d also divides a and m since
d = gcd( a, m). So, we can divide both sides in that equation by d to
get
m a
( k ) = ( x − s ).
d d
m
So d divides da ( x − s). But m
d is relatively prime to da , and so m
d must
divide x − s. In other words, there is an integer r such that x − s =
r ( md ). Rearrange that as x = s + r ( md ).

26.12b. Suppose 0 ≤ r1 < r2 < d, and that d is a positive divisor m.

We want to show the numbers x1 = s + r1 ( md ) and x2 = s + r2 ( md )
and not equivalent modulo m. In other words, we want to show that
m does not divide

m m m
x2 − x2 = ( s + r2 ( )) − (s + r1 ( )) = (r2 − r1 ).
d d d
m
Well, suppose m does divide d (r2 − r1 ). That means there is an
m
integer k such that mk = d (r2 − r1 ). Cancel the common factor
m, and multiply both sides by d to get dk = r2 − r1 . That equation
tells us r2 − r1 is a multiple of d. Since 0 ≤ r1 < r2 < d, we know
0 < r2 − r1 < d, and none of the integers in that range is a multiple
of d. We have reached a contradiction, and so we can conclude the
x1 and x2 are different modulo m. (Notice that this means that the
m
numbers s, s + d ,s + 2 md , s + 3 md , . . . , s + (d − 1) md are d different
values modulo m.)

Chapter 27

27.1. 213 = 7
3214 = 57
43215 = 586
 answers to exercises 405

FED16 = 4077

27.2. 11714 = 101101110000102

11714 = 1301226
11714 = 2DC216

27.3.
× 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 2 4 6 11 13 15

3 3 6 12 15 21 24

4 4 11 15 22 16 33

5 5 13 21 16 34 42

6 6 15 24 33 42 51

+ 1 2 3 4 5 × 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 10 1 1 2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5 10 11 2 2 4 10 12 14
27.4.

3 4 5 10 11 12 3 3 10 13 20 23

4 5 10 11 12 13 4 4 12 20 24 32

5 10 11 12 13 14 5 5 14 23 32 41

27.5. Luckily we have a base 7 multiplication table above to make

the work a little less onerous. For neatness, the subscript 7 will be
omitted.
406 math208: discrete mathematics

5122 = (3)(1312) + 553

1312 = (1)(553) + 426

553 = (1)(426) + 124

426 = (3)(124) + 21

124 = (4)(21) + 10

21 = (2)(10) + 1

10 = (10)(1) + 0

gcd(51227 , 13127 ) = 17 .

Chapter 28

28.1. Number of options for one course = 5 + 4 + 6 = 15.

28.2. Number of options for a program of three courses, one from

each area = 5 · 4 · 6 = 120.

28.3. 262 · 102 + 263 · 10 + 264

28.4. 266

28.5. 26 · 25 · 24 · 23 · 22 · 21

28.6a. 225 (2 choices for each question, T or F.)

28.6b. 325 (3 choices for each question, T or F or skip.)

210 −1
28.7. 1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 29 = 2−1 = 1023.
If you don’t want to include the empty string (of length 0) then the
answer is 1022.

28.8. The total number of words of length 8 is 268 . The number with
no A’s is 258 . So the number with at least one A is 268 − 258 .

28.9. The number of seven letter words with no A’s is 257 . The num-
ber of seven letter words with exactly one A is 7 · 256 . The 7 accounts
 answers to exercises 407

for the number of options for placing the A, and the 256 accounts
for the number of ways of filling in the remaining six spots. So, the
number of seven letter words with at most one A is 257 + 7 · 256 .

28.10. The number of nine letter words with at least two A’s is the
total number of nine letter words (269 ) minus the number with at
most one A (259 + 9 · 258 ). So, using the good = total minus bad rule the
number of nine letter words with at least two A’s is 269 − (259 + 9 ·
258 )

Chapter 29

29.1. 26!

29.2. Part 1: (vowels together, assume the vowels are a,e,i,o,u) (Task
1) arrange the five vowels in some order: 5! ways to do that. (Task 2)
arrange the 21 non-vowels in some order: 21! ways to do that. (Task
3): pick a spot in the row of 21 non-vowels to place the row of five
vowels: 22 choices for that spot. Since we need to do all three tasks,
the number of possible arrangements is 5! · 21! · 22.
Part 2: (no adjacent vowels) (Task 1) arrange the 21 non-vowels in
some order: 21! ways to do that. (Task 2) There are 22 gaps between
those volumes, and we need to select five of them for the vowels: we
can do that in (22
5 ) ways. (Task 3): arrange the five vowels in some
order to place in the five open spots: 5! ways to do that. Since we
need to do all three tasks, the number of possible arrangements is
21! · (22
5 ) · 5!.

29.3. There are 13! to arrange the books for each shelf. Since we need
to arrange shelf 1 and shelf 2, there will be (13!)(13!) = (13!)2 way to
arrange the bookcase.

29.4. People are normally considered distinguishable. (Task 1) ar-

range the seven men in some order: 7! ways to do that. (Task 2)
arrange the four women in some order: 4! ways to do that. (Task
3): pick a spot in the row of four women to place the row of seven
men: 5 choices for that spot. Since we need to do all three tasks, the
number of possible arrangements is 7! · 4! · 5.
408 math208: discrete mathematics

29.5. We need to select 10 of the 20 to form one of the teams (the

remaining 10 will form the other team). That can be done in (20
10)
ways. Since that counts each division into two teams twice, the total
(20
10)
number of ways to divide the group into two teams is 2 .

2 9.6. The order of the numbers on the lottery ticket do not matter,
so there are (99
5 ) lottery tickets possible. In order to have at least a
one-in-a-million chance of winning the lottery by matching all five
n 1
numbers we need to have n tickets, where ≥ 1,000,000 . In other
(99
5)
(99
5) 71,523,144
words, we need n ≥ 1,000,000 = 1,000,000 = 71.52 . . .. That means we
need to buy 72 tickets.

29.7a. We need to select six of the 22 people available. That can be

done in (22
6 ) ways.

29.7b. (Task 1) Select two clowns: (92) ways.

(Task 2) Select four lion tamers: (13
4 ) ways.
We need to do task 1 and task 2, so there are (92)(13
4 ) such commit-
tees.

29.7c. The options are (1) six lion tamers, (2)five lion tamers and one
clown, or (3) four lion tamers and two clowns. So the total number of
acceptable committees is
       
13 13 9 13 9
+ + .
6 5 1 4 2

Chapter 30

30.1. Adding one more row to the triangle as given in the text using
Pascal’s Identity, we get
 answers to exercises 409

Row 0: 1
Row 1: 1 1
Row 2: 1 2 1
Row 3: 1 3 3 1
Row 4: 1 4 6 4 1
Row 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1
Row 6: 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
 
10
30.2. (3)3 (−2)7
3
30.3.

(2n)(2n − 1)(2n − 2)! (2n)(2n − 1)

 
2n 2n!
= = = = n(2n − 1) = 2n2 − n.
2 2!(2n − 2)! 2!(2n − 2)! 2

and

n(n − 1)(n − 2)!

     
n n!
2 + n2 =2 + n2 = 2
2 2!(n − 2)! 2!(n − 2)!
n ( n − 1)
 
=2 + n2 = n(n − 1) + n2 = 2n2 − n.
2

So the two expressions are equal; both equal 2n2 − n.

30.4.   
r s r! s! r!
= =
s t s!(r − s)! t!(s − t)! (r − s)!t!(s − t)!
and

r−t (r − t ) ! (r − t ) !
  
r r! r! r!
= = = .
t s−t t!(r − t)! (s − t)!((r − t) − (s − t))! t!(r − t)! (s − t)!(r − s)! (r − s)!t!(s − t)!

So the two expressions are equal.

30.5. Scenario: We want to pick a committee of s people from a com-

pany with r employees, and a subcommittee of t of those s to act as
the committee’s board. In how many ways can that be done?
Method 1: Select the s people from the total of all r ((rs) ways to do
that), and then select t of those s to be the board ((st) ways to do that.
So, according the the product rule, there are (rs)(st) ways to form the
committee and its board.
410 math208: discrete mathematics

Method 2: First select the t people to serve on the board from the
r people available ((rt) ways to do that). To fill out the committee, we
need to pick s − t more people from the remaining r − t people ((rs− t
−t)
ways to do that). So, according the the product rule, there are (rt)(rs− t
−t)
ways to form the committee and its board.
Since the two counting methods must give the same answer, we
get (rs)(st) = (rt)(rs− t
− t ).

30.4.

30.5.

30.6. ( x + y + z)15 = ( x + y + z)( x + y + z)( x + y + z) · · · ( x + y +

z)( x + y + z) where there are 15 of the trinomials x + y + z. When
this is expanded, we will get a term of the form x4 y5 z6 by selecting 4
of the 15 trinomials to take the x from, and then 5 of the remaining
11 trinomials to take the y from (and, by default, taking z from the
remaining six trinomials). So the number of terms of the form x4 y5 z6
(before terms are combined) will be
   
15 11 6 15! 11! 6! 15!
= = .
4 5 6 4!11! 5!6! 6!0! 4!5!6!

30.7. Suppose p is a prime and k is an integer with 1 < k < p.

Let ( kp) = n (note that n is an integer). Expanding the binomial
p!
coefficient, we get k!( p−k )!
= n Rewrite that equation as p! = n · k! ·
( p − k)!. We want to show p divides n. Since the prime p divides
the left side of that equation, it must divide the right side, and one
of the properties of primes we proved is that if a prime divides a
product of integers, it must divide one of those integers. So we can
conclude p divides n or k!, or ( p − k)!. Since k! = (1)(2) · · · (k) and
k < p, there is no factor of p in k!. So p does not divide k!. Likewise,
( p − k)! = (1)(2) · · · ( p − k) and p − k < p, so p does not divide
( p − k)!. We conclude p must divide b as we wanted to prove. ♣

Chapter 31

31.1. Let M be the set of students with a math major, C: chemistry

majors, B: biology majors, G: geology majors, P: physics majors, and
 answers to exercises 411

A: anthropology majors.
The total number of students is (taking advantage of the fact each
student has at most two majors, and some double majors have no
students)

| M ∪ C ∪ B ∪ G ∪ P ∪ A| = | M | + |C | + B| + | P| + | A|
−| M ∩ P| − | M ∩ C | − | M ∩ B| − | B ∩ C | − | B ∩ A|
= 70 + 160 + 230 + 56 + 24 + 35 − 12 − 10 − 4 − 53 − 5 = 491.

31.2. Let A be the length 15 bit strings that start with 1111 (they look
like 1111...........). Let B be the set of length 15 bit strings that end with
1000 (they look like ...........1000), and let C be the set of length 15 bit
strings with bits 4 through 7 equal to 1010 (they look like ...1010.........
We need to compute | A ∪ B ∪ C |.

| A ∪ B ∪ C | = | A| + | B| + |C | − | A ∩ B| − | A ∩ C | − | B ∩ C | + | A ∩ B ∩ C |
= 211 + 211 + 211 − 27 − 28 − 27 + 24 = 5648.

31.3. Let A be the set of integers between 1000 and 9999 (inclusive)
that are multiples of 4. To count the number of integers, n, in A, we
want to solve 1000 ≤ 4n ≤ 9999. In other words, solve 250 ≤ n ≤
2499.75. The number of integers in the range [250, 2499] is 2499 −
250 + 1 = 2250. So | A| = 2250. Likewise, letting B be the set of
multiples of 10 in the range 1000 to 9999, we get | B| = 900, and
with C being the set of multiples of 25 in that range, we get |C | =
360. Now things get a little trickier: For A ∩ B we want to count the
integers that are both multiples of 4 and 10. But that is the same as
the multiples of 20, so | A ∩ B| = 450. Likewise A ∩ C (multiples of
100) has | A ∩ C | = 90, and B ∩ C (multiples of 50) has | B ∩ C | = 180.
Finally, A ∩ B ∩ C (also multiples of 100) has | A ∩ B ∩ C | = 90. So

| A ∪ B ∪ C | = | A| + | B| + |C | − | A ∩ B| − | A ∩ C | − | B ∩ C | + | A ∩ B ∩ C |
= 2250 + 900 + 360 − 450 − 100 − 180 + 100 = 2880.

31.4. Letting A1 be the set of permutations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with 1 in spot

412 math208: discrete mathematics

1, A2 be the set of permutations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with 2 in spot 2, and so

on, until A5 is the set of permutations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with 5 in spot 5,
we want to count in the number of elements in A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 ∪
A5 .
All five of the counts | A1 |, | A2 |, . . . , | A5 | will be be 4! (place one
number in its spot, and arrange the other four in any way at all).
Likewise, all ten counts like | A1 ∩ A2 | will be 3! (place two numbers
in the correct spots, and arrange the remaining three in any way at
all. Continuing, counts for A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 type will be 2!, and for the
A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ A4 type will be 1!. Finally, A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ A4 ∩ A5 | = 1
(every number is its correct spot). So,

| A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 ∪ A5 |
= 5(4!) − 10(3!) + 10(2!) − 5(1!) + 1 = 120 − 60 + 20 − 5 + 1 = 76.

31.5. Using the good = total - bad method, the number of permutations
of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with no digit in its correct spot will be the total number
of permutations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 minus the number of those permuta-
tions with at least one numbers in its correct spot. From the problem
above, that is 5! − 76 = 120 − 76 = 44.

Chapter 32

32.1. If we distribute eight objects (people) into seven piles (days of

the week), there will be at least one pile (day) with d 87 e = 2 objects
(people).

32.2. If we distribute 100 objects (people) into seven piles (days of the
week), there will be at least one pile (day) with d 100
7 e = 15 objects
(people).

32.3. Since there are four suits (piles), we need the least value of n so
that d n4 e = 6. That will 5 · 4 + 1 = 21.

32.4. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be n integers. They are each equivalent to one

of 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 2 modulo n − 1. Since there are n values, but only
n − 1 options modulo n − 1, some two of those numbers must be the
 answers to exercises 413

same modulo n − 1. Say ak ≡ a j ( mod n − 1). That means ak − a j ≡

0 ( mod n − 1), and that means n − 1 divides ak − a j .

32.5. Let ti denote the total number of hours studied from day 1 to
day i.
We are told

0 < t1 < t2 < · · · < t75 ≤ 125.

Adding 24 to each of those numbers gives

24 < t1 + 24 < t2 + 24 < · · · < t75 + 24 ≤ 149.

So we have 150 numbers (namely t1 , t2 , · · · , t75 and t1 + 24, t2 +

24, · · · , t75 + 24)
all between 1 and 149. By the Pigeonhole Principle some two of
those must be equal. Since
the numbers in the first list are all different, and the numbers int
he second list are also all
different, it must be that ti = t j + 24 for some i and j. That means
ti − t j = 24.
That tells us that on days j + 1, j + 2, · · · , i, Al studied exactly a
total of 24 hours.

S. ince there are only 216 different values modulo 216, the pigeon-
hole principle says some two of the 217 numbers, say m and n, must
have the same value modulo 216. So m ≡ n (mod 216). That means
216 | m − n. So m and n have a difference that is a multiple of 216.

Chapter 33

33.1. There are four choices for each of the n positions in the string.
So there are 4n such strings.

33.2. Including the string of length 0, there are 1 + 4 + 42 + · · · 47 =

48 − 1 48 −1
4−1 = 3 such strings.

33.3. (a donut shop problem) Ask for 3 x1 ’s, 4 x2 ’s, 5 x3 ’s, and 6
each of x4 ’s, x5 ’s, x6 ’s, and x7 ’s. That gives us 36 donuts so far.
414 math208: discrete mathematics

The remaining 18 can be selected in any way at all. So there are

(18+187−1) = (25
18) acceptable solutions to the equation.

33.4. For ternary strings, each position is a 0, 1, or 2. If the ternary

string begins 0101 and ends 212 (and must be of length 7 or more!).
There will be n − 7 positions left to fill, and there are three choices for
each position, so there are 3n−7 such strings.

33.5. When you build your order, tell the clerk to start with four
jalapeno, six cherry, and eight are strawberry. That accounts for 18
donuts, and so you need 18 more, and any combination is okay for
−1
those last 18. So there are (8+18 25
18 ) = (18) to form the donut order.

33.6a. 2610 (There are 26 choices for each of the middle ten spots.)

33.6b. Pick a spot for the x (12 options). Fill in the 11 empty spots
(25 choices for each spot since we can’t use the x again): Answer:
(12)(2511 ).

33.6c. Pick a spot for the x (12 choices), then pick a spot for the y (11
choices), then fill in the remaining 10 spots (24 choices for each spot):
Answer: (12)(11)(2510 ).

33.6d. (good = total - bad method) There are 13 letters in the second
half of the alphabet, and so 1312 twelve letter words made up of only
letters from the second half of the alphabet. These are all bad for
this problem. There are 2612 words of length twelve. So, there are
2612 − 1312 twelve letters words with at least one letter from the first
half of the alphabet.

33.7. Let A be the length 19 bit strings of the form 0101................

Let B be the length 19 bit strings of the form ...101..............
Let C be the length 19 bit strings of the form ...............1010.
(inclusion/exclusion)

| A ∪ B ∪ C | = | A| + | B| + |C |
−(| A ∩ B| + | A ∩ C | + | B ∩ C |)
+| A ∩ B ∩ C |
= 215 + 216 + 215 − (213 + 211 + 212 ) + 29 .
 answers to exercises 415

33.8. (Task 1) Pick three of the fifteen spots for 0’s: (15
3 ) ways to do
that.
(Task 2) Prick four of the remaining twelve spots for 1’s: (12
4 ) ways.
(Task 3) Pick three of the remaining eight spots for 2’s: (83) ways.
(Task 4) Pick four of the remaining five spots for 3’s: (54) ways.
(Task 5) Pick one of the remaining one spot for the 4: (11) = 1 way.
Number of good strings is
    
15 12 8 5 15! 12! 8! 5! 15!
= = .
3 4 3 4 3!12! 4!8! 3!5! 4!1! 3!4!3!4!1!

33.9a. Select the two spots for the 0’s ((92) choices) and fill the remain-
ing seven spots with 1’s and 2’s in any way (27 ways). Answer: (92)27 .

33.9b. Select the three spots for the 1’s ((93) choices) and fill the re-
maining seven spots with 0’s and 2’s in any way (26 ways). Answer:
(93)26 .

33.9c. Select the two spots for the 0’s ((92) choices), then select three
of the remaining seven spots for the 1’s ((73) choices), then fill in the
remaining spots with 0’s (one way). Answer: (92)(73).

33.10a. As usual, we assume people are distinguishable. We can pair

7, 6, 5 or 4 lecturers with 0, 1, 2 or 3 professors respectively.
(77) + (76)(14 7 14 7 14
1 ) + (5)( 2 ) + (4)( 3 ).

33.10b. We can pair 7, 6, or 5 professors with 0, 1 or 2 lecturers re-

spectively.
(14 14 7 14 7
7 ) + ( 6 )(1) + ( 5 )(2).

33.10c. The final size of the committee isn’t specified so we will as-
sume any size (five or more) is ok We will pick 5, 6, or 7 lecturers,
and pair each selection with any subset of the professors.
(75)214 + (76)214 + (77)214 .

33.11. (good = total - bad method) There are 20! ways to form a line
of the 20 people. If we tie Hans and Brunhilda together, there are 19
items, and so there are 19! ways to line those 19 items up. Of course
Hans and Brunhilda could be in either order, so there are 2(19!) bad
lines. The number of good lines is 20! − 2(19!).
416 math208: discrete mathematics

33.12. Here is a proof by induction:

(basis) For a set of one element, { a}, the two subsets are {} and
{ a}. The first has an even number of elements, and the second has an
odd number of elements, so we are okay in this case.
(inductive step) Suppose that for some n ≥ 1, an n element set has
the same number of subsets of even cardinality as odd odd cardinal-
ity. Now consider a set with n + 1 elements. Say the set, A, consists
of n elements along with one additional element e (for extra). List
all the subsets of A. By the inductive hypothesis, there will be some
number t with even cardinality, and the same number t with odd
cardinality. Adding the element e to the subsets of A with even car-
dinality will produce t subsets of A ∪ {e} with odd cardinality, and
adding the e to the subsets of A with odd cardinality will produce t
subsets of A ∪ {e} with even cardinality. Conclusion: A ∪ {e} has the
same number (2t in fact) of subsets with even and odd cardinality. ♣

Chapter 34

There are usually many different recursive formulas that will be correct an-
swers to the problems below. If your answer does not agree with the answer
provided, you should use both formulas to generate a numbers of terms, say
six or eight or so. If the numbers do not agree, your work is wrong. If they
do agree, then likely your work is okay. You could make sure of that by using
induction, for example, to show the two recursive formulas are equivalent.

34.1. Let pn be the number of pennies in the bank on day n. The

initial value is p0 = 0. The recursive relation is pn = pn−1 + n, for
n ≥ 1.

34.2. For n ≥ 0, let cn be the number of different ways Sal can climb n
steps.
The initial conditions are c0 = 1, and c1 = 1.
For the recursive formula: When climbing n ≥ 2 steps, Sal can
start with one step and finish the climb in cn−1 ways, or start with
two steps and finish the climb in cn−2 ways.
So, for n ≥ 2, cn = cn−1 + cn−2 .
 answers to exercises 417

34.3. Let an be the number of bit strings of length n with an even

number of 0’s. For an initial condition, we have a1 = 1 since the only
good length 1 bit string is 1. If the empty bit string doesn’t bother
you, we could use initial condition a0 = 1. Now we think recursively:
If we have a good bit string of length n − 1, we can add a 1 to the
end to get a good bit string of length n. That accounts for all the
good length n bit strings that end with 1. We get the good bit strings
of length n that end with 0by adding 0 to the end of a bad length
n − 1 bit string. Using good = total- bad (well, actually bad = total -
good in this case), we see there are 2n−1 − an−1 bad bit strings. So, the
solution is an = an−1 + (2n−1 − an−1 ) = 2n−1 , for n ≥ 1, with a0 = 1

34.4. We can be sneaky about this and use the example in the text: A
recursive relation for the number of bit strings with no adjacent 0’s is
given by a0 = 1, a1 = 2, and an = an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 2. Let bn be
the number of bit strings that do contain the pattern 00, the ones we
are really interested in. Now, using good = total - bad, an = 2n − bn . So
b0 = 0 and b1 = 0, and for n ≥ 2 we get

2 n − bn = ( 2 n − 1 − bn − 1 ) + ( 2 n − 2 − bn − 2 )

which can be rearranged as

bn = bn − 1 + bn − 2 + 2 n − 2 n − 1 − 2 n − 2 = bn − 1 + bn − 2 + 2 n − 2 .

The sequence, for n ≥ 0, begins: 0, 0, 1, 3, 8, 19, 43, which agrees

with a few brute force computations.
But that was sort of an unsportsmanlike solution since we didn’t
really reason recursively. So, let’s try it again. After getting b0 =
0 and b1 = 0, let’s think about how to build length n ≥ 2 good
bit strings. We could add 00 to the right end of any of the 2n−2 bit
strings of length n − 2. Or, we could add 10 to any of the bn−2 good
bit strings of length n − 2. Or we could add 1 to any of the bn−1 good
bit strings of length n − 1. These three options account for all the
good length n bit strings, the first two count the length n bit string
that end with 0, and the last counts the good bit strings that end with
418 math208: discrete mathematics

1. So, the recursive part of the solution is, for n ≥ 2,

bn = bn − 1 + bn − 2 + 2 n − 2

as before.

34.5. Again, there is an easy way to do this counting using the good =
total - bad method. The only bad bit strings have to look like a number
of 1’s followed on the right by a number of 0’s. Examples: (length
n) 000 · · · 0, 100 · · · 0,110 · · · 0,111 · · · 0, and so on, until we get to
111 · · · 1. That is a total of n + 1 bad strings. So the number of good
length n bit strings must be 2n − (n + 1).
The first few terms of the sequence, starting at n = 0, are :
0, 0, 1, 4, 11, 26, 57.
But, again, that wasn’t recursive counting. So let’s try that again.
Letting gn be the number of good strings of length n, we get g0 = 0,
g1 = 0, and g2 = 1. That’s enough for a start. Now let’s think
recursively. For good strings of length n ≥ 1, we can make good
strings of length n + 1 by adding a 0 to the right end, and that will
account for all the good length n + 1 strings ending with 0. Next, let’s
count the number of good length n + 1 strings ending with 1. Here
there are several choices depending on the number of 1’s that end the
bit string (any will mean any bit string of appropriate length):

• (any)01 (2n−2 of these)

• (any)011 (2n−3 of these)

• (any) 0111 (2n−4 of these)

• and so on until we reach 01111 · · · 1 (1 of these)

So, we get

2n −1 − 1
g n = g n −1 + 2n −2 + 2n −3 + · · · + 2 + 1 = g n −1 + = gn−1 + 2n−1 − 1.
2−1

This doesn’t look exactly like our first solution, so let’s do a bit of
testing. Checking this recursive formula against the terms computed
above, using initial value g0 = 0, we get
 answers to exercises 419

0, 0, 1, 4, 11, 26, 57

So things look pretty good.

34.6. Let gn be the number of ternary strings of length n that contain

00. A little trial-and-error gives the values g0 = 0, g1 = 0, g2 = 1, and
g3 = 5. For larger values of n it is already too much trouble writing
down the good strings without some sort of organized plan.
Let’s break the problem of finding longer strings into a number of
cases:

• Length n strings ending with 1. (gn−1 of these)

• Length n strings ending with 2. (gn−1 of these)

• Length n strings ending with 0.

ending with 00. (3n−2 of these)

ending with 10. (gn−2 of these)

ending with 20. (gn−2 of these)

That accounts for all the good strings of length n, so the recursive
formula is

g0 = 0 g1 = 0

gn = 2gn−1 + 2gn−2 + 3n−2 .

The first few values are 0, 0, 1, 5, 21, 79, 281, 963, 3217.
An alternative recursive answer (as given in sequence A186244 in
the The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences) (Google it!) is,

gn = 3gn−1 + 2(3n−3 − gn−3 ) for n ≥ 3

with g0 = 0 g1 = 0 g2 = 1

Reasoning: The recursive formula is based on adding any of 0, 1, 2

to strings of length n − 1 which already have 00 in them, or 100, 200
to strings of length n − 3 which do not.

34.7. Let An = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. A subset B of An is good if B does not

420 math208: discrete mathematics

contain any two consecutive integers. Let gn be the number of good

subsets of An . Split the good subsets of An into two groups:
(1) good subsets of An that contain n
and
(2) good subsets of An that do not contain n.

Good subsets in group (1) cannot contain n − 1, and so those good

subsets of An are produced by adding n to a good subset of An−2
(at least if n ≥ 2). That accounts for all the good subsets of An that
contain n. That shows there are gn−2 good subsets of An that contain
n.
Next, let’s count the number of good subsets of An that do not
contain n. But that is easy: these are just the good subsets of An−1 ,
and so there are gn−1 of these.
Conclusion: for n ≥ 2, gn = gn−1 + gn−2 (the Fibonacci recur-
rence!). We need initial terms: g0 = 1 and g1 = 2.
The first few values are 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34. This is the Fibonacci
sequence with the first two terms discarded.

34.8. Maybe a bit surprisingly, this is a very difficult problem. A con-

jectured answer was given in 1941, and evidently the conjecture was
proved correct in 2014. No one has been able to solve the problem
for more than four pegs, though there are suspicions that remain
unproven.

Chapter 35

35.1. Using the given recursive formula we see the sequence be-
gins 2, 4, 10, 28, 82, 244, and those values look a lot like powers of 3:
1, 3, 8, 27, 81, 243, so it looks like a reasonable guess is an = 3n + 1.
The basis for the induction is the case n = 0. We are given a0 = 2
while 30 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2, and a1 = 4 while 31 + 1 = 4. So an = 3n + 1
is correct for n = 1, 2 works out okay. For the inductive step, suppose
ak = 3k + 1 for all values of k ≤ n for some n ≥ 1. Then

an+1 = 4an − 3an−1 = 4(3n + 1) − 3(3n−1 + 1)

= 4 · 3n − 3n + 4 − 3 = 3 · 3n + 1 = 3n+1 + 1.
 answers to exercises 421

35.2.

an = 5an−1 = 5(5an−2 ) = 52 an−2 = 52 (5an−3 ) = 53 an−3 .

As we continue to unfold, eventually we will reach a0 . Notice that

the exponent on the 5 and the subscript on the a always add up to
n. That makes sense since at each step the exponent goes up 1 and
the subscript goes down 1, and so the exponent and the subscript
always add up to the n they started at in the first step. That means
we eventually reach an = 5n a0 . Since a0 = 2, we conclude an = 2 · 5n .

35.3.

an = 3 + 5an−1 = 3 + 5(3 + 5an−2 ) = (3 + 3 · 5) + 52 an−2

= (3 + 3 · 5) + 52 an−2 = (3 + 3 · 5) + 52 (3 + an−3 )
= (3 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 52 ) + 53 an−3 .

As we continue to unfold, the first group in parentheses will continue

gaining one term at each step and the last term will have the expo-
nent of the 5 going up one at a times while the subscript on the a will
decease by one at a time. Eventually we will reach the expression

an = (3 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 52 + · · · + 3 · 5n−1 ) + 5n a0

= 3(1 + 5 + 52 · · · + 5n−1 ) + 5n · 2
5n − 1
=3 + 2 · 5n
5−1
11 · 5n − 3
= .
4

As a check of our work, we can use the recursive formula and

the closed form formula to generate six or so terms to see if they
produce the same values (or, if we are really ambitious, we can use
induction to verify the closed form formula is correct). In any case,
the recursive formula and the closed form formula both give
422 math208: discrete mathematics

2, 13, 68, 343, 1718, 8593

for the first six terms, and so we can be reasonably confident our
work is okay.

Chapter 36

36.1a. a0 = 3 and for n ≥ 1, an = an−1 + 2.

36.1b. a1 = 6 and for n ≥ 2, an = 2an−1 .

36.1c. a1 = 1 and for n ≥ 1, an = an−1 + 2n + 1.

36.1d. a0 = 1 and for n ≥ 1, an = an−1 + 2(−1)n + 1.

36.2. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − x − 6 = ( x + 2)( x − 3) = 0.

The characteristic roots are x = −2, 3.

The general solution is an = α(−2)n + β3n .
The initial values (n = 0, 1) produce the linear system

 α+β = 3
−2α + 3β = 6

3 12
with solution α = 5 and β = 5 .
So the closed form formula is

3 12
an = (−2)n + (3n )
5 5

for n ≥ 0.

36.3. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − 5x + 6 = ( x − 2)( x − 3) = 0.

The characteristic roots are x = 2, 3.

The general solution is an = α2n + β3n .
The initial values (n = 0, 1) produce the linear system
 answers to exercises 423


 α+β = 4
2α + 3β = 7

with solution α = 5 and β = −1.

So the closed form formula is

a n = 5 · 2n − 3n

for n ≥ 0.

36.4. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − 7x + 10 = ( x − 2)( x − 5) = 0.

The characteristic roots are x = 2, 5.

The general solution is an = α2n + β5n .
The initial values (be careful! n = 2, 3) produce the linear system

 4α + 25β = 5
8α + 125β = 13

1
with solution α = 1 and β = 25 .
So the closed form formula is

5n
a n = 2n + = 2n + 5n −2
25

for n ≥ 2.

36.5. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − 4x + 4 = ( x − 2)2 = 0.

The characteristic roots are x = 2, 2.

The general solution is an = α2n + βn2n .
The initial values (be careful! n = 1, 2) produce the linear system

2α + 2β = 3
4α + 8β = 5

7
with solution α = 4 and β = − 14 .
424 math208: discrete mathematics

So the closed form formula is

7 · 2n n (2n ) 2n (7 − n )
an = − = = 2n −2 (7 − n )
4 4 4

for n ≥ 1.

36.6. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − 6x + 9 = ( x − 3)2 = 0.

The characteristic roots are x = 3, 3.

The general solution is an = α3n + βn3n .
The initial values (n = 0, 1) produce the linear system

 α=1
3α + 3β = 6

with solution α = 1 and β = 1.

So the closed form formula is

an = 3n + n3n = 3n (n + 1)

for n ≥ 0.

36.7. This one is easily solved by inspection (that is, it is easy to guess
the solution), but let’s use the characteristic equation method for the
practice.
The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − 1 = ( x + 1)( x − 1) = 0.

The characteristic roots are x = −1, 1.

The general solution is an = α(−1)n + β.
The initial values (n = 1, 2) produce the linear system

−α + β = 2
 α+β = 8

with solution α = 3 and β = 5.

 answers to exercises 425

So the closed form formula is

an = 3(−1)n + 5

for n ≥ 1.

36.8. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) = 0.

(You might need to review the topic (finding rational roots of poly-
nomials in a college algebra text or via an internet search ) to refresh
your memory about finding that factorization.)
The characteristic roots are x = 1, 2, 3.
The general solution is an = α1n + β2n + γ3n .
The initial values (n = 0, 1, 2) produce the linear system




 α+β+γ = 2

α + 2β + 3γ = 5



α + 4β + 9γ = 15


with solution α = 1, β = −1, and γ = 2 .

So the closed form formula is

a n = 1 − 2n + 2 · 3n

for n ≥ 0.

36.9. The characteristic equation is

χ( x ) = x2 − x + 1 = 0.
√
1± 5
The characteristic roots (use the quadratic formula) are x = 2 .
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
To save a bit or writing, let’s set r1 = 2 and r2 = 2
The general solution is an = αr1n + βr2n .
The initial values (n = 0, 1) produce the linear system

 α+β = 0
αr + βr = 1
1 2
426 math208: discrete mathematics

1 √1
with solution α = r1 −r2 = and β = − √1 .
5 5
So the closed form formula is
√ !n √ !n
1 1 1 1+ 5 1 1− 5
an = √ r1n − √ r2n = √ −√
5 5 5 2 5 2

for n ≥ 0. This closed form formula for the Fibonacci numbers is

called Binet’s Formula.

Chapter 37

37.1. For problem 36.2, we know the general solution to the related
homogeneous recursion is

(h)
an = α(−2)n + β3n .

That general solution of the related homogeneous recursion needs

to be paired up with a particular solution of the original recursive
formula

an = an−1 + 6an−2 + 1.

Since the nonhomogeneous part of the original recursion is the con-

stant 1, our first guess should be that there will be a particular so-
lution of the form an = A, a constant. Putting that guess in the
recursive formula, we get

1
A = A + 6A + 1 with solution A = − .
6
So that general solution to the nonhomogeneous recursion is

1
an = α(−2)n + β3n − .
6
Using the initial conditions produces the system

1


 α+β−
=3
6
−2α + 3β − 1 = 6

6
2 5
with solution α = 3 and β = 2. So the solution to the original
 answers to exercises 427

recursive formula is

2 5 1
an = (−2)n + (3n ) − .
3 2 6

37.2. For problem 36.4, we know the general solution to the related
homogeneous recursion is

(h)
an = α2n + β5n .

That general solution of the related homogeneous recursion needs

to be paired up with a particular solution of the original recursive
formula

an = 7an−1 − 10an−2 + n.

Since the nonhomogeneous part of the original recursion is n, our

first guess should be that there will be a particular solution of the
form an = An + B, a general first degree expression. Putting that
guess in the recursive formula, we get

An + B = 7( A(n − 1) + B) − 10( A(n − 2) + B) + n.

Gathering all the term on the left side of the equation gives

(4A − 1)n + (−13A + 4B) = 0.

1 13
That tells us 4A − 1 = 0 and −13A + 5B = 0. So, A = 4 and B = 16 .
We finally have the general solution to the original problem:

n 13
an = α2n + β5n + + .
4 16

The last step is using the initial conditions to determine α and β.

Remember that the given initial conditions were for n = 2, 3: a2 = 5
and a3 = 13. The system to solve is

1 13

 4α + 25β + (2) +
 =5
4 16
8α + 125β + 1 (3) +
 13
= 13
4 16
7 13
with solution α = 12 and β = 240 . Assembling the pieces, the solution
428 math208: discrete mathematics

is

7 n 13 n n 13
an = (2 ) + (5 ) + + .
12 240 4 16
37.3. For problem 36.5, we know the general solution to the related
homogeneous recursion is

(h)
an = α2n + βn2n .

That general solution of the related homogeneous recursion needs

to be paired up with a particular solution of the original recursive
formula

an = 4an−1 − 4an−2 + 2n .

Since the nonhomogeneous part of the original recursion is 2n , our

first guess should be that there will be a particular solution of the
form an = A2n a multiple of that exponential expression. Putting that
guess in the recursive formula, we get

A2n = 4( A2n−1 ) − 4( A2n−2 ) + 2n .

Moving all the terms involving A to the left side of the equation
gives

A() = 2n

which can be rewritten as

A(0) = 2n , which isn’t possible.

Now, hold on: that makes some sense because our general solution
to the homogeneous equation already has a term of the form A2n ,
so we won’t need any more of those. Likewise, we are already ac-
counting for terms like An2n . So let’s take our guess for a particular
solution up two notches to an = An2 2n . Putting that guess in the
recursive formula, we get

An2 2n = 4( A(n − 1)2 2n−1 ) − 4( A(n − 2)2 2n−2 ) + 2n .

 answers to exercises 429

Moving all the terms involving A to the left side of the equation
and combining terms gives

1
A2n+1 = 2n and so A = .
2
( p)
So, a particular solution is an = 12 (2n )n2 = 2n−1 n2 .
The general solution to the original problem is

an = α2n + βn2n + 2n−1 n2 .

The last step is using the initial conditions to determine α and β.

Remember that the given initial conditions were for n = 1, 2: a1 = 3
and a2 = 5. The system to solve is

2α + 2β + 1 = 3
4α + 8β + 8 = 5

11
with solution α = 4 and β = − 47 . Assembling the pieces, the
solution is

11 n 7
an = (2 ) − (n2n ) + 2n−1 n2 .
4 4

37.4. For problem 36.6, we know the general solution to the related
homogeneous recursion is

(h)
an = α3n + βn3n .

That general solution of the related homogeneous recursion needs

to be paired up with a particular solution of the original recursive
formula

an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 + n.

Since the nonhomogeneous part of the original recursion is n, our

first guess should be that there will be a particular solution of the
form an = An + B, the general first degree polynomial in n. Putting
that guess in the recursive formula, we get

An + B = 6( A(n − 1) + B) − 9( A(n − 2) + B) + n.
430 math208: discrete mathematics

Moving all the terms to the left side of the equation and combin-
ing terms gives

1 3
(4A − 1)n + (4B − 12A) = 0 which implies A = and B = .
4 4
( p)
So, a particular solution is an = 41 n + 34 .
The general solution to the original problem is

1 3
an = α3n + βn3n + n + .
4 4
The last step is using the initial conditions to determine α and β.
The given initial conditions are a0 = 1 and a1 = 6. The system to
solve is

3

 α+ =1
4
3α + 3β + 1 = 6


1 17
with solution α = 4 and β = 12 . Assembling the pieces, the
solution is

1 n 17 1 3
an = (3 ) + (n3n ) + n + .
4 12 4 4

37.5. For problem 36.8, we know the general solution to the related
homogeneous recursion is

(h)
an = α + β2n + γ3n .

That general solution of the related homogeneous recursion needs

to be paired up with a particular solution of the original recursive
formula

an = 6an−1 − 11an−2 + 6an−3 + 2n + 1.

Since the nonhomogeneous part of the original recursion is the linear

polynomial 2n + 1, our first guess should be that there will be a
particular solution of the form an = An + B, the general linear
polynomial. Putting that guess in the recursive formula, we get
 answers to exercises 431

An + B = 6( A(n − 1) + B) − 11( A(n − 2) + B) + 6( A(n − 3) + B) + 2n + 1.

Moving all the terms to the left side of the equation and combin-
ing terms gives
−2n + (2A − 1) = 0.

Well, that’s not possible, so we will need to lift the guess up a bit by
multiplying by n: our new guess for a particular solution is An2 +
Bn. Putting that guess in the recursive formula, we get

An2 + Bn = 6( A(n − 1)2 + B(n − 1)) − 11( A(n − 2)2 + B(n − 2)) + 6( A(n − 3)2 + B(n − 3)) + 2n + 1.

Moving all the terms to the left side of the equation and combin-
ing terms gives

1 9
(4a − 2)n + (2B − 16A − 1) = 0 which means A = and B = .
2 2
( p)
So, we have a particular solution an = 12 n2 + 29 n. Add ing that to
the general solution of the related homogeneous recursion, we see the
general solution to the original problem is

1 9
an = α + β2n + γ3n + n2 + n.
2 2
The last step is using the initial conditions to determine α, β, and
γ. The given initial conditions are a0 = 2, a1 = 5, and a2 = 15. The
system to solve is




 α+β+γ = 2

α + 2β + 3γ + 5 = 5



α + 4β + 9γ + 10 = 15


with solution α = 8, β = −10, and γ = 4. Assembling the pieces,

the solution is
432 math208: discrete mathematics

1 9
an = 8 − 10 · 2n + 4 · 3n + n2 + n.
2 2
Whew: I’m relieved there were only five of these annoying, tedious, tire-
some, monotonous problems.

Chapter 38

38.1. There are many possible isomorphism. One is

a→s b→t c→u d→v

e→z f →y g→x h→w

The adjacency matrix for G using vertex ordering a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h

is
 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
 
 
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
 
 
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
AG = 
 

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
 
 
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
 
 
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
 
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

The adjacency matrix of H, using the order s, t, u, v, z, y, x, w is

identical to AG .

38.2. Let G ∗ be the complete graph K8 , with the edges in G erased.

Likewise, H ∗ will be K8 with the edges of H erased. It is easy to see
that if G and H are isomorphic, then so are G ∗ and H ∗. But G ∗ is
just an 8-cycle, while H ∗ is two disjoint 4-cycles, and so they are not
isomorphic. So G and H are not isomorphic.

38.3. There are several possible solution. One is (G)

 answers to exercises 433

1 7 3 5

2 8 6 4

38.4. A hamiltonian circuit is a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, i, j, a.

The graph G has four vertices of odd degree, so it is not eulerian.

38.5. An euler circuit is a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, a, d, g, b, e, h, c, f , a.

38.6. In a hamiltonian circuit, exactly two edges must be used at

each vertex. Therefore a hamiltonian circuit would include the
edges { a, b}, { a, j}, {b, c}, {c, d}, {d, g}, and { g, h}. But then the edges
{b, i }, {b, e}, and {e, d} would be forbidden. This leave only the single
edge {e, f } to include e in the circuit. Conclusion: the graph G is not
hamiltonian.
 B
Problems From Old Exams

(1) Let M ( x, y) be the propositional function x has met y. The domains

for x and y are all people. Express the proposition Everyone who
has met Al has also met Bill in symbolic form.

(2) Give a counterexample to the proposition The square of an even

integer cannot end with the digit 6.

(3) Write out a direct proof of the proposition: If m is an even integer

and n is an odd integer, then m + n is an odd integer.

(4) Let C ( x ) be the propositional function x owns a cat, and let S( x ) be

the propositional function x has scratches . The domain for x is all
people.

(1) Express ∀ x (C ( x ) → S( x )) in a smooth English sentence.

(2) Express the negation of the proposition in part (a) as a smooth

English sentence.

(5) True False: ∀ x ∃yP( x, y) ≡ ∀y∃ xP(y, x )

(6) Let A = { a, b } and B = { a, c }. List the elements in A × B.

(7)(1) Draw the graph of the relation D ( x, y) : x divides y, where the

domain and codomain for D are both the set {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

(2) For the relation D, state whether or not D has the following
properties: reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and transitivity.
 436 math208: discrete mathematics

(8) R is the relation on the integers given by R(n, m): n and m are
within 2 units of each other. For example, R(12, 13) is true since
12 and 13 are only 1 unit apart. But 55 and 60 are 5 units apart,
so R(55, 60). Circle all the properties the relation R has in the list
below.

(a) Reflexive

(b) Symmetric

(c) Antisymmetric

(d) Transitive

(e) Self Referential

(9) Let K ( x, y) be the propositional function x knows y, where the uni-

verse of discourse is all people. Express the proposition Everyone except Joe knows Ralph
in symbolic form.

(10) Let E be an equivalence relation of a set A. For elements u, v, w ∈

A prove that if u ∈ [v] and wEu, then w ∈ [v]. (Recall that [v] is the
equivalence class of v.)

(11) Use a truth table to decide if p → (¬ p ∧ q) is logically equivalent

to p → ¬q.

(12) A set S of strings is defined recursively over the alphabet Σ =

{ a, b, c } by the rules (1) λ ∈ S, and (2) if x ∈ S, then abxc ∈ S.
There aren’t very many elements of S of length 9 or less. List them
all.

(13) Describe in words the strings in the set S of the problem above.

(14) A sequence is defined recursively by (1) w0 = 2 and w1 = 1, and,

(2) for n ≥ 2, wn = wn−1 + wn−2 . What is the value of w5 ?

50  k
1
(15) Compute ∑ 3 .
k =0
 problems from old exams 437

(16) Use induction to prove: For every integer n ≥ 1,

1 1 1 1 n
+ + +···+ = .
1·2 2·3 3·4 n ( n + 1) n+1

(17) True or False: If a and b both divide c, then ab divides c.

(18) Use the Euclidean algorithm to determine the greatest common

divisor of 715 and 297.

(19) Write the greatest common divisor of 715 and 297 as a linear com-
bination of those two numbers.

(20) True False: If p is a prime, and p | ab, where a and b are integers,
then either p | a or p | b.

(21) The number of positive integers that divide 320 is

(1) 7

(2) 14

(3) 32

(4) 160

(5) 320

(22) True False: −123 ≡ 11 (mod 31).

(23) Find all solutions to the congruence equation 12x ≡ 2 (mod 5).

(24) Determine the number of full house poker hands (5 cards, order not
important, selected from a 52 card deck, with 3 cards of one rank,
and 2 cards of a second rank.)

(25) When (2x − 3y)25 is expanded, what is the coefficient of the term
x10 y15 ?

(26) How many string of length six of the 26 letters either begin with
xx or end with ooo?
 438 math208: discrete mathematics

(27) True False: For any finite sets A and B, | A ∪ B| = | A| + | B|.

(28) Find a closed form formula for a0 = 1, a1 = 1, and for n ≥ 2,

an = 3an−1 + 10an−2 .

(29) True False: When solving a nonhomogeneous recursion with

recursive relation an = 2an−1 + n2 + 1, a good choice for the form
( p)
of a particular solution is an = An2 + 1.

(30) True False: Every graph with a Eulerian path will have an Eule-
rian circuit.

(31) True False: Every tree with 10 vertices must have 9 edges.

(32) True False: The wheel, W10 , has a Hamiltonian circuit.

 problems from old exams 439

Hints and Solutions to Sample Question

(1) ∀ x ( M( x, Al ) −→ M ( x, Bill ))

(2) 4 is a counterexample: 4 is even and 42 = 16 ends with a 6.

(3) Suppose m is even and n is odd. By the definitions of even and

odd, there are integers j, k so that m = 2j and n = 2k + 1. Then
m + n = 2j+(2k+1) = 2(j+k)+1. Since m + n is 1 more than two times
an integer, m + n is odd by the definition of odd.

(4)(1) Every cat owner has scratches.

(2) There is a cat owner without scratches.

(5) True. This may be clearer if you read the propositions as: For
every choice of the first variable, there is a choice of the second
variable that makes P a true proposition.

(6) The ordered pairs in A × B are ( a, a), ( a, c), (b, a), and (b, c).

(7)(1) The directed graph would have arrows from 2 to 4, from 2 to 6,

from 3 to 6, and in addition, there is a loop at every vertex.

(2) There is a loop at every vertex, so D is reflexive. Since there is

an arrow from 2 to 4, but not one from 4 to 2, the relation is not
symmetric. The relation is antisymmetric since there are no two
way arrows. Finally, D transitive by default since there are no
cases where we have and arrow from a to b and an arrow from
b to c, so we never have to check for an arrow from a to c. (Well,
except for cases where a = b or b = c, but in these cases, the a to
c arrow is one of the two already listed, so the arrow from a to c
is in the digraph for sure.)

(8) Let’s assume that by within 2 units of each other means 2 or less units
apart. So R(10, 12) is true. R is reflexive is every integer is within 2
units of itself. It is symmetric since if m is within 2 unit of n, then
n is within 2 unit of m, It is not antisymmetric since, for example,
 440 math208: discrete mathematics

R(10, 11) and R(11, 10) are both true, but 10 6= 11. Finally, R is not
transitive since, for example, R(12, 14) and R(14, 16) are both true,
but R(12, 16) is false.

(9) ∀ x (( x 6= Joe) −→ K ( x, Ral ph))

(10) Let’s give a direct proof. So suppose E is an equivalence relation

of a set A, and that u ∈ [v] and wEu. Since u ∈ [v], we know uEv
is true. We are told wEu is true as well. Since E is transitive, from
wEu and uEv, we can conclude wEv. That tells us w ∈ [v], as we
needed to show.

(11) Example ¬( p ∧ q) ≡ (¬ p ∨ ¬q).

p q ¬p ∧ q p −→ (¬ p ∧ q) ¬q p −→ ¬q
T T F F F F
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F F F T T T

Since the 4th and 6th columns do not match, the propositions are
not logically equivalent.

(12) The strings are λ, abc, ababcc, and abababccc.

(13) The strings consist of zero or more repetitions of the pattern ab

followed on the right by an equal number of c’s.

(14) The sequence begins w0 = 2, w1 = 1, w2 = 1 + 2 = 3, w3 = 3 + 1 =

4, w4 = 4 + 3 = 7, w5 = 7 + 4 = 11.

 51
1
1− 3
(15) Using the geometric sum formula the total is 1
.
1− 3
That answer can be simplified if you want (but it’s not necessary)
351 − 1
to .
2(350 )
 problems from old exams 441

1 1
(16) For the basis step, n = 1, we check to see if = , and it does.
1·2 2
For the inductive step, assume

1 1 1 1 n
+ + +···+ =
1·2 2·3 3·4 n ( n + 1) n+1

for some n ≥ 1. Now we try to prove

1 1 1 1 1 n+1
+ + +···+ + = .
1·2 2·3 3·4 n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) n+2

Beginning with the left side of that equation, and using the as-
sumption we get

1 1 1 1 1
+ + +···+ +
1·2 2·3 3·4 n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)
n 1
= +
n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)
n ( n + 2) 1
= +
(n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2)
n2 + 2n + 1
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
(n + 1)(n + 1)
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
n+1
= as we needed to show.♣
n+2

(17) The proposition is false. A counterexample is 6|90 and 10|90, but

60 does not divide 90.

(18) The table is:

715 297 121 55 11 0
2 2 2 5
0 1 2 5 12
1 0 1 2 5
 442 math208: discrete mathematics

gcd(715, 297) = 11

(19) From the table above: 715(5) + 297(−12) = 11.

(20) True. This is one of the basic properties we proved for primes.

(21) Since 320 = 32 · 10 = 64 · 5 = 26 · 5, we know positive divi-

sors will look like 2a · 5b where a can be any of the seven values
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 while b has two options: 0, 1. That gives a grand
total of 7 · 2 = 14 positive integers that divide 320.

(22) False since 11 − (−123) = 134 is not divisible by 31.

(23) Since 12 ≡ 2 (mod 5), the stated problem is the same as 2x ≡

2 (mod 5), and since obviously x ≡ 1 (mod 5) is the only solution to
that equivalence equation.

    
13 4 12 4
(24) Answer: . Reasoning: we first pick one of the
1 3 1 2
thirteen ranks for the three of a kind, then pick three of the four
cards of that rank, then pick one of the twelve remaining ranks for
the pair, then two of the four cards of that rank. Since we need to
do all four tasks, we use the product rule.

 
25
(25) The term involving x10 y15 is (2x )10 (−3y)15 , and so the co-
  10
25 10 15
efficient is − 2 3 . We’ll leave the answer in this form of
10
course!

(26) Let’s use inclusion-exclusion to do the counting. Let X be the set

of strings that begin xx, and O the set of strings that end ooo. We
need to count X ∪ O.

| X ∪ O| = | X | + |O| − | X ∩ O| = 264 + 263 − 26

(27) False. The stated relation is correct only if A and B are disjoint.
 problems from old exams 443

(28) The characteristic equation is r2 − 3r − 10 = 0. The left side factors

as (r + 2)(r − 5), so the characteristic roots are r = −2, 5. That
means the general solution is an = A(−2)n + B(5n ).

The initial conditions require 1 = A + B and 1 = −2A + 5B.

Multiplying the first equation by 2 and adding it to the second
3 4
shows 3 = 7B so B = . Since A + B = 1, we must have A = . So
7
    7
4 n 3 n
the solution is an = (−2) + 5 .
7 7

(29) False. The correct form of the guess is the most general form of the
nonhomogeneous part, and that would be An2 + Bn + C.

(30) False. Example: The 3-link, L3 has a Eulerian path, but does not
have a Eulerian circuit.

(31) True. The number of edges in a tree is always one less than the
number of vertices.

(32) True. Start at the axle vertex, go out to the rim, to a vertex a, go
around the rim (say clockwise, just to be specific) until you reach
the vertex just one before a, and then return to the axle vertex.
C
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 450 math208: discrete mathematics

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 gnu free documentation license 453

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454 math208: discrete mathematics

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ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your

documents
456 math208: discrete mathematics

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