INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Definitions

Instrumentation Control System Process Control

Variables

CONTROL LOOP DESCRIPTION, ELEMENTS, AND TYPES

 Open Loop
 Closed Loop
 Comparison between Closed and Open Loops
 Elements of a Control Loop

PRIMARY SENSORS

Instrument Characteristics

PRESSURE

 Definition
 Atmospheric Pressure
 Gauge, Absolute and Differential Pressure
 Other pressure units
 Pressure Sensors
 Pressure Instrument Calibration
 Pressure Instruments Figures

Definitions

Temperature Sensors

 Temperature Sensors – Length Based

 Electrical Based Temperature Sensors

LEVEL

 Level Sensors
 Level Sensor and Transducers Figures

FLOW

 Flow instruments
 Pressure tube location for DP measurements
 Other Methods for Measuring Flow Rate

MOTOR CONTROLS

 Introduction
 Motor Controllers
 Motor Control Elements
 Starters
 Modern Automatic Motor Controls
INTRODUCTION
This course will present the following areas of control and instrumentation:
1) Control Loop definition, elements, and types
2) Study of elements of the control Loop:
a) Set point, controllers, and amplifiers
b) Sensors and transducers
c) Instrument and measurements
d) Motors, valves, and actuators
e) Final Control Elements
i) Electrical such as heaters, generators, etc.
ii) Mechanical such as valves, levers, etc
3) Basic of motor controls
4) Control circuit diagrams
Instrumentation is the set of devices (sensors, transducers, signals, processors etc ) used to
measure, monitor and record physical/chemical variables such as temperature, pressure and
displacement.
Instrumentation and control is the nervous system of industrial complexes, power generation,
and basically all the processes that require some intelligence to accomplish the task of
producing a product or process.
Improving a process is most effectively and economically done by enhancing its control and
instrumentation systems, which directly impact quality, efficiency, and profitability. Control
systems also support environmental management, such as emission control. Advances in
computer technology have led to more precise and sophisticated control systems. The course
will cover key elements of control systems and commonly used industrial instrumentation.

Definitions
Instrumentation:
Use of technology and devices to detect and control physical and chemical characteristics of
materials; this includes motion, light, color, acidity, etc.

Control System
A system that takes the information from instruments of a process manipulating it using logic
(algorithms) then applying the results to a process or system to change its characteristics.
Process Control
A control system that is used in the process and chemical industries. A process control has the
characteristic of automatically regulating a process. Automatic in this context means that the
process is controlled without the need of human intervention.

Variables
Are defined as the characteristic of the process. Some variables are temperature, speed,
humidity, viscosity, density, etc. There are two basic types of variables: measured or controlled,
and manipulated.

Control Loop
Control loop is a control system architecture that will manage a process using elements that
sense, adjust, and act upon the process. We can define it as the configuration by which the
control system manipulates the control parameters.

CONTROL LOOP DESCRIPTION, ELEMENTS, AND TYPES

Open Loop
An open-loop control configuration operates without feedback; for example, when a valve is
commanded to open, the controller sends the signal, and the valve opens without further input
or correction. This type of system is called open-ended control.
Closed Loop
A closed-loop control system uses feedback to achieve the desired outcome. For example,
when a valve is commanded to open halfway, a position-sensing device monitors the valve's
movement and sends feedback to the controller, which adjusts the signal until the valve
reaches the correct position. This feedback creates a continuous control loop.

Comparison between Closed and Open Loops

Open Loop Closed Loop

A measurement is detected A measurement is detected
Monitoring is performed (usually manually) Measurement is compared to a set
value
No adjustment is made Adjustment is made to the process
Return to measurement Return to measurement, repeating
the adjustment until the set value and
measurement are equal.
EXAMPLES
A conveyor belt carrying material Tank level control
A measurement is made (scale) A level sensor feeds measurement to
a transducer
An alarm bell performs monitoring A comparison is made to set point at
the controller
Reporting: Activation of alarm is made if Action: If level is low a signal is sent to
weight is exceeded an inlet valve to open.
If level is high or equal to the set
point a signal is set to inlet valve to
close
Elements of a Control Loop

Process:
The controlled system is called the process. It could be defined as a conditioned situation that
produces results which must be kept under an expected value or range of values. As in Figure
above, the process deals directly with the product. Product in this case could be taken as a
material, fluid, or whatever is produced, manufactured, or treated.

Primary Sensor:
The primary sensor is normally an instrument that has properties to detect the physical
property desired to be measured. An example is a thermocouple which produces a change in
an electrical circuit proportional to the temperature; this signal is sent to a transducer to be
detected and interpreted.

Transducer:
The transducer is a device that translates the signal from the sensor into a processed electric
signal that can be amplified and used by the controller.

Set Point:
This is a fixed value that is contained in the controller, set by the operator or by an intelligent
algorithm or device. This value is compared to the measured value from the transducer. The
difference of this comparison is called the Error.

Controller:
The controller is normally an electrical or electronic device that has the following functions:

• Compares the sensing signal from the transducer to the Set point (at the summation
point)
• Produces an Error signal from the comparison

• Processes the error signal:

o To convert it into an actuation signal
o To manipulate it to condition it by an algorithm, this algorithm will make it:
 proportional to the error
 as a function signal that anticipate changes
 as a function signal that uses history of changes to apply the correction
 as a function signal with a combination of the above features.
The manipulation of the error signal is processed by a mathematical operator called a control
algorithm. An example of an algorithm is the PID or Proportional, Integral, Derivative
algorithm. This Algorithm uses:

• the mathematical constant K or proportional multiplier actuating the final control

element in a linear way proportional to the value of the error

• the integral operator to produce an actuator signal based on the history of the previous
errors

• the derivative operator to produce an actuator signal anticipating the next change
based on the slope of the error function

Other algorithms are available easily today in the controllers; an example could be the rate-lag
operator which uses a combination of PID elements.

Amplifier:
The amplifier increases the intensity of the signal until it is large enough to be able to be used
by the actuator.

Actuator:
It is an electromechanical device that takes the actuation signal and converts it into motion
following the actuation signal. This motion could be a position as in the case of a solenoid valve,
on or off, or a motion, as in the positioning of a modulating or control valve.

Final Control Element:

It is the element upon which the actuator operates. This device is in contact with the process
itself.
An example would be a valve which closes or opens as operated by the actuator and controls in
such a way the flow of a process, liquid, or gas.

PRIMARY SENSORS
Primary sensors detect the variable to be measured. The following sensing instruments will be
presented in this portion of the course:

• Pressure

• Temperature
• Level
 • Flow

Instrument Characteristics
The following table presents the most important general characteristics of instruments and
their commonly accepted definitions

Characteristics
Static Dynamic
Applicable to variables that are not changing Apply when variables are changing
Accuracy: Fidelity is the ability of an instrument or
Accuracy refers to an instrument's or control controller to accurately follow or represent
system's ability to reflect the true value of the changes in a measured or input variable. In
measured variable. In control systems, it control systems, it means the controller
indicates how well the system maintains the produces the correct output in response to
actual value during operation. input changes.
Static error is the difference between the true
Dynamic error is the difference between the
value and the measured or indicated value,
actual and correct output during changing
representing the system's deviation from the
desired control point. (transient) conditions.

Reproductivity Responsiveness
• The ability of an instrument to produce • is characteristic of the instrument to
the same output for the same input under follow variable changes
identical conditions, repeatedly. Measuring lag
• A displacement from the same • is the measured inability of the
previous value is called drift instrument to follow a variable
change?
• the measured duration of this lag is
called dead time
 Characteristics

Static Dynamic

Sensitivity
is the magnitude of the smallest value that
an instrument can measure?
Dead Zone
For instrumentation, it is the range where
the instrument cannot measure
For control systems, it is the area of control
where the system cannot respond

Table 2

PRESSURE

Definition
Pressure is a physical function of force and surface. The mathematical definition of pressure is
F/A where F is force and A is area.
Mathematically:
P = F/A
Force is an action that causes distortion or movement.
Surface is a section of the two-dimensional presentation of space.

Other expressions of pressure:

Hydraulic pressure in a press or tank: It can be expressed in water column height, mercury
column height, psi, etc. This pressure is due to the weight of the mass of water plus the weight
of the mass of air on the water surface. It has been found that the pressure of a liquid can be
expressed as a function of the height of the column of liquid.

These expressions of pressure are based on experimental observations as well as calculations

and deductions using physical laws. The equivalence of these measurements can be also be
performed using dimensional analysis.

To demonstrate the above concepts, we will use the case of the column of water pressure
measurement.

See Figure 3 for reference to the following calculations.

One of the characteristics of matter is density. It is defined by the ratio between mass and
volume that it occupies. Water density has been given the value of 1. The relation that
expresses density is:

Mass = 1 for water ρ=

Volume
For specific density, we can replace mass by weight and the equation becomes:

sd = Weight = 1 for water Volume

weight = sd(Volume)

P = F = Weight = sd(Volume)
A A A
But Volume = Area times height or

P = sd(Ah) = (sd) h, since for water sd = 1

A
P = h for water.

The pressure exerted by the water column represented in Figure 3 is the height of the water
column (A to B). For another fluid, its P is AB times the fluid specific density.

Figure 3– Pressure vessel

Atmospheric Pressure

The column of atmospheric air has weight. Air applies pressure everywhere on earth that is
exposed to the atmosphere. Because pressure depends on the height of column of fluid,
atmospheric pressure is smaller at higher altitudes. This property is the basis of earlier altitude
instruments. Also, water will boil using less heat at a higher altitude. Water will boil at a lower
temperature in Mexico City than in New York City. To measure atmospheric pressure:

• Fill the bottom sealed tube with mercury

• Seal the other end of the tube with your finger
• Turn the tube upside down
• Submerge the end sealed with the finger inside a tank containing mercury
• Let go of the finger as soon as the tube is vertical position
• Measure the height of the mercury column in inches, it is the atmospheric pressure
given in inches pf mercury

Gauge, Absolute and Differential Pressure

Pressure can be expressed as gauge, differential and absolute pressure. Gauge pressure is the
pressure that results of subtracting the atmospheric pressure from the pressure true value or
Absolute Pressure. Absolute pressure is the true pressure measuring it in reference to zero
pressure or vacuum. Differential pressure is the pressure of a system compared to the pressure
of another system.

Other pressure units

Pascal:
Pascal – SI Unit of Pressure

 Pascal (Pa) is the SI unit of pressure.

 The term SI comes from the French: Le Système International d'Unités.
 Pressure is defined as:

P=F/A

Force is given in newton and the area in square meter or a pascal is equal to 1 newton force per
square meter area.
When the height of the column of mercury is measured, the value is 29.9 in. at sea level.
This pressure is indicated as 29.9 in of mercury.
These units are equivalent to 14.7 psi or pounds per square inch = 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3
kPa (kilopascals) = 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch) = 760 torr.

Pressure Sensors

Instrument Description Application

Manometer • It is a U tube that contains a • Measurement of
liquid. Levels at both sides are pressure in liquid and
equal. gases
• One end of the tube is then • Blood pressure
closed; the other end is left measurements.
open. • See Figure 4
• The pressure to be measured is
applied to the open end.
• The level will rise on the closed
end and it will sink in the open
end.
• The pressure is given by the
difference in the levels.
Bourdon-tube • It is a mechanical instrument • Many industrial
that senses pressure and applications for fluid
converts it to displacement and gas pressures
• The pressure indication is • Hydraulic systems
mechanically amplified using a (hydraulic gauges)
pointer or indicator needle • Low-pressure
• The Bourdon-tube displacement Bourdon tubes
is a function of the pressure (pressures up to 2000
applied psi) are often made of
• A set of two bourdon tubes bronze.
mounted in one case is called a • High-pressure
duplex gauge Bourdon tubes
(pressures above 2000
psi) are made of
stainless steel or other
high-strength
materials

Bellows Elastic • A bellows elastic element is a • Used mostly for

Elements - Helical convoluted unit hydraulic fluid
• It expands and contracts axially measurements. See Figure 5
with changes in pressure. The - Bourdon Tube
pressure to be measured can be Manometer and Figure 6 -
applied to either the outside or Helical Bourdon Pressure
the inside of the bellows Instrument for its components
 Instrument Description Application
Simple Bellows • Bellows elastic elements are The principle used in this
Element made of brass, bronze, stainless instrument can be used also to
steel, beryllium-copper, or measure differential pressure.
other metal In this case, there are two
• Motion of the element (bellows) bellows chambers with
is transmitted by suitable mechanisms that subtract the
linkage and gears to a dial
two pressure produced
pointer.
movements.
• Most bellows gauges are
springloaded with a spring that
opposes the bellows force and
prevents full expansion of the
bellows.
Pressure Switches To determine specific pressures, such as Single pole single throw
a high or low pressure, pressure switches are frequently used
switches are used to activate a signal for these applications.
that is sent to the monitoring and alarm Electronic switches are also
used in newer devices. See
systems.
Figure 8.
Table 3

Pressure Instrument Calibration

The calibration of a pressure instrument has been traditionally done using a method called the
dead weight calibration.
A typical test set-up is shown in Figure 9.
The setup works ion the following manner:

Step Procedure
1 Load the measuring piston with calibrated weights
2 Add or retrieve load until the loaded measuring piston rises and appears to float
on the fluid
3 F
Calculate the pressure using the formula P =
A
4 Use the weights as the force and the area of the piston as the A
Table 4
Pressure Instruments Figures
Figure 4

– U-Tube Manometer

Figure 5 - Bourdon Tube Manometer

Figure 6 - Helical Bourdon Pressure Instrument

Figure 7 – Simple Bellows Gauge
Temperature

This section will present the basic concepts of temperature, its measurements, and techniques.
Definitions and a small section of the physics of temperature will begin the section; later a
presentation of the most commonly used temperature sensors and transducers will be outlined
including reference material for practical engineering use.

Definitions

Temperature is defined as the degree of heat or cold that an element exhibits. This
concept comes from practical evaluation of the thermal behavior of substances, most
commonly water.
A more sophisticated definition would be: the measurement of temperature is the
measurement of the average thermal energy per molecule contained in a material. The unit
used to describe the thermal energy per molecule of a certain material is the degree of
temperature. These units are arranged in a scale called the temperature scales. An important
place to calibrate a temperature scale is a point of equilibrium thermal equilibrium in the
substance. This point is seen as a temperature in which the substance remains at an
equilibrium, (ie. ice and water mixture or water an steam). In water, there are several points
of thermal equilibrium at a given pressure. The most notable point for water is the point in
which solid, liquid, and gas are at equilibrium (triple point). This point exits at normal
atmospheric pressure of one atmosphere and it is the zero-degree point for the Celsius
thermal scale.
Another point of the scale calibration could be found at the point where liquid and gas water
are at equilibrium at one atmosphere. This point was arbitrarily given the value of 100 on the
Celsius scale. Then the scale was built dividing it into 100 equal divisions. Other scales use other
equilibrium points; the Fahrenheit scale uses a zero point as the point where a mixture of salt
(NaCl) and water allows the existence of liquid and solid water to remain at equilibrium.
The relations shown below can help to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to Celsius

C= (F-32)

F= C +32
Temperature Sensors

Temperature is measured using the fact that when exposed to temperature changes, some
materials change. Some changes are changes in physical properties and physical dimensions.
There many types of change that are related to thermal variations such as:

• Length
• Electrical properties
• Energy

Length
Some metals change in length of as well as expand and contract when subjected to temperature
changes. These changes are used to design temperature sensors.

Electrical

Generation
When temperature changes are applied to two different materials in physical contact, there is a
migration of electrons from one of the materials to the other due to the difference of each
material’s electrochemical properties. This effect is used in thermocouples.

Resistance
Because resistance is a thermal property of materials (discovered by Joule), it would be
expected that a change in temperature would produce a change in resistance; this is used by
RTDs.

Energy

Infrared
Infrared temperature measurement is used to measure temperature in radiating bodies and at a
distance. Such measurement could be the temperature of an oven or the temperature of a
remote hot object. The explanation of this method of temperature measurement uses quantum
mechanics starting with Plank’s radiation law.

Temperature Sensors – Length Based

The most commonly used sensor based on length changes is the bimetallic sensor. Its
importance is due to its practical use and price. Bimetallic sensors are used in many electrical
applications, including motor overload trip devices and temperature measuring indicators.

A metal exposed to heat will expand or contract with heat. The length that a metal will expand
at given temperature is different for each metal.

When two strips of different metals are joined together at both ends they will bend as the
temperature is increased. One metal will expand more than the other, forcing the pair to bend.
The distortion depends on the amount of temperature surrounding the metals. This property
can be used to create a thermometer as shown in Figure 10.
The instrument shown in Figure 10 is made with a spiral wound bimetallic wire. As the wire gets
hot the wire size increases and bends due to the constraint of one metal by the other.
Electrical Based Temperature Sensors

Thermocouples

Generation of electricity is a phenomenon that occurs when two dissimilar metals are joined
together. Each metal has a different level of energy due to its electronic level. This is referred
sometimes as the energy well of the metal.
When two different metals are joined together with a small separation between them, there is a
thermos-ionic migration from the metal that has the smallest energy level. This effect is called
the tunnel effect and occurs for very small distances, small enough to allow the electronic
energy level of each metal superimpose each other.
A distance of 10-7 centimeters would allow this effect to happen. A detailed explanation of this
effect is beyond the intent of this course.
The previously described effect is called thermocouple effect. The increase in temperature will
increase the amount of energy in the junction and more current will flow from one metal to the
other.

Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTD

Resistance is always part of a conductor. Heat generated by a conductor by the flow of electrical
current is intimately related to resistance. The temperature of a conductor will alter the value of
the resistance of the conductor. An RTD is a device that detects temperature based on this
property.
Normally a RTD is made with of a fine coil of metal wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. To
protect this delicate arrangement, it is placed inside a sturdy probe.
The resistance of the metal used in the RTD is well documented at various temperatures, via
testing of the RTD response to various temperatures. Many selected materials have well
established and documented change in resistance as the temperature changes. To measure the
temperature using an RTD, use RTD reference tables which are based on specific values of the
RTD resistance versus temperature.

RTDs are used when the following important factors are required:

• Accuracy
• Stability
• Repeatability
• Immunity to electrical noise

Additionally, the time response of RTDs is better than other similar thermal instruments used in
the same applications, such as thermocouples.

Both thermocouples and RTDs are placed in thermowells when the temperature is to be sensed
inside a tank or a pipe. See Figure 11 –Thermowell.

Figure 11 –Thermowell

Energy Based Sensors

Infrared detection is produced detecting light in the infrared frequency emitted by materials.
The detectors use materials that will react to the energy content of infrared waves and their
reaction can be quantified and translated into temperatures. In quantum theory, using the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law, we can say that the total radiation energy (emitted by the material) is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. The early twentieth century
scientist Wien indicated in his “Displacement Law” that the product of the peak wavelength
and the temperature is a numerical constant. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for
the year 1911. This relationship can be used to measure temperatures.

The sensor in an IR (Infra-Red) thermometer collects a small amount of energy (usually 0.0001
watt) radiated from the target, then it generates an electrical signal that is amplified by a
sensitive amplifier and converted into voltage output.
An analog to digital chip (such as a 16 bit Analog-to-Digital Converter) digitizes the signal
sending the signal to an Arithmetic Unit which solves a temperature equation based on Planck’s
Radiation Law; it uses an algorithm to compensate for the ambient temperature and emissivity.
The result of these manipulations produces a temperature reading.

LEVEL

Level Sensors
Level measurements are an essential part of modern industry. Tanks containing fluids and solids
have their levels continuously monitored to determine the amount of material, to prevent spills
or overflow, and to determine the need to add more material.
One way to classify level sensors is by how the measurement is made, either directly or
indirectly, depending on the material that is being monitored.
Direct methods are used to measure liquid levels, granular material such as grains, and powder,
or flour and salts.
Indirect methods use other physical properties to indirectly determine the level of materials.
Among these physical properties are: pressure which could vary with the increase or decrease
of material in a container, or weight inside the container.

Another way to classify these instruments is how the sensor senses the material. In this case,
the detection could be either continuous detection or a single point detection. The continuous
detection sensors detect the level as it changes. This detection method senses the level at a
certain specific point. One example would be a low-level point; another point would be a high-
level point. This type of sensor is normally a switch or switches located to be activated as the
corresponding level is reached. The following table will present the most common level
sensors.

Level sensors
Sensor Type/Description
Floats This type of sensor is a direct measurement and point detection
sensor. Traditionally it has been a floating ball connected to the
controller by means of a rod or link, the movement of the ball
positions a linked lever that actuates the corresponding switch.
More modern units use a floating cylinder containing a ferromagnetic
 material. See Figure 12. This cylinder slides on a shaft that contains a
magnetic link or rod. The link or rod moves as the level varies, the
position of a cam on the other end of the link or rod actuates switches
mounted in the switching housing.
Pneumatic This type of sensor is a direct measurement as well as point detection
sensor.
Pneumatic level sensors are used in hazardous areas, such as those
classified as IE by the NEC, or where there is no electric power, and in
applications involving material such as sludge.
The mechanism of these devices is as follows:
When the level of the material changes, it compresses a column of air
which is in contact with a diaphragm. This diaphragm actuates a
switch, which is in turn is used for determining the level.
Conductivity probes This type of sensor is a direct measurement and point detection
sensor.
See Figure 14.
Conductive probes use low voltages and currents. The current and
voltage in this unit is very small; due to this feature these sensors
could be classified according to the NEC as “Intrinsically Safe” since
they
cannot sustain ignition.
Conductive sensors are made of solid-state materials.
Some disadvantages are inherent of the units when used to measure
materials that can coat the sensor, insulating it, and thus decreasing
its conductive sensing capability.
Also, since the signals are very small, a good ground must be present
in the probe circuit to isolate noise and other parasitic signals.
The sensor has two electrodes fed by a low voltage, low current signal
that establishes a conductivity value. This value is matched to the
liquid conductivity. This conductivity in turn is a function of the level.
See Figure 14.
Vibrating Level These sensors use a vibrating device which vibrates at its resonant
frequency. When the material contacts the probe, it stops vibrating
and the level switch is activated.
There are two common types. The piezoelectric probes and the tuning
fork type probe.
This system is used for detection of very fine powders and granular
solids. The position of the probes is important to prevent false level
detections.
Capacitive The system uses a capacitive sensing system between the probe and
the material of which the level is sought. The circuit uses radio
frequency signals. The sensors are designed to sense the dielectric
property of the material, dielectric constants as low as 1.1 (ash) and as
high as 88 (water) are within the detection range of these systems.
Another use of this system is the detection of the interface between
two non-mixing liquids each having a substantially different dielectric
 constant from the other. The detection of this interface uses a
twoprobe system.
The capacitance system is sensitive to electrostatic discharges, for this
reason as in the conductivity system a good grounding system is
required.
See Figure 13.

Ultrasonic Ultrasonic probes are used to measure level at a distance. These

instruments are of the non-contact type.
The sensor does not need to be in contact with the substance being
measured, but it needs a clear view of the surface.
Some of the most common applications of these devices are
measuring level for corrosive substances, for liquids such as slurries
and grease, and waste applications. Also, you will find them
measuring levels in grain silos and cement containers.
The sensors work by emitting and receiving an ultrasonic frequency
signal that is reflected from the surface of the material. The duration
of the travel from the sensor and back is calibrated to reflect a
distance. This distance is then computed using the dimensions of the
system and then expressed as a level.
The receiving sensor is usually part of the same housing with the
emitter. Some problems are accuracy and repeatability of
measurements when humidity changes around the signal. This is
because the speed of sound depends on the density of the medium
where it is transmitted. The temperature variations also affect the
measurement. For these reasons temperature and humidity
compensation is sometimes an essential part of this level measuring
system.
Radar Level Sensor Radar transmitters are the logical extension of ultrasonic sensors in
applications requiring non-contact measurement of liquid levels. They
are the correct application for areas where vapor, dust, or a foaming
surface makes ultrasonic measurement inaccurate. Radar sensor uses
a microwave pulse to target liquids from the tip of the sensor to the
bottom of a tank. This signal is a reliable pulse minimally affected by
environmental conditions. See Figure 15.
Table 5
Level Sensor and Transducers Figures
Figure 15 – Radar Instrumentation
FLOW
Flow is the movement of a fluid in a contained path. Flow measurements are normally classified
using two features of flow: Flow rate and Total flow.
Flow rate is the amount of flow that moves past a certain point per unit time. Total Flow
is the amount of flow that passes a given point during a period.

Flow instruments

Flow instruments are designed to measure either flow rate or total flow. An instrument that can
measure a combination is also available.

The following table presents the most common flow instruments:

Flow Rate Instruments

Instrument Type and description
Flow Rate

Differential Pressure The principle of operation of differential pressure flow meters is

based on the property that the pressure drop across the meter is
proportional to the square of the flow rate. The mathematical
operation to obtain the flow rate is done by measuring the
pressure differential and extracting the square root. A DP flow
meter is made of two elements:
• Primary element – creates the differential pressure
(causing a change in the kinetic energy of the fluid)
• Secondary element - Measures the DP. The element
contains the sensor and transducer that provides the
signal
or read-out converted to the actual flow value
Design considerations:

The unit must be properly matched to:

• the pipe size
• flow conditions
• the liquid's properties
Differential pressure The orifice plate is a flat piece of metal that has an orifice or hole
Primary elements: drilled or cut in it. The orifice is usually circular or concentric to
the pipe but other shapes are also used. Installation is made
Orifice Plates locating the plate between two flanges.
The orifice plate, by constraining the surface, reduces the flow,
and increases the velocity of the fluid, creating a different
pressure at the exit of the fluid than at the inlet. Thus, there is a
differential pressure across the plate.
A pressure measurement on both sides of the plate is made and
the differential pressure used to calculate the flow rate as
indicated above.
One disadvantage of the orifice plate is that it adds losses to the
flow because it restricts the flow which in turn, due to friction,
adds
resistance
to the fluid
flow.

Figure 16 – Orifice Plate

Differential pressure A Venturi tube uses the same principle of the orifice plate. The
Primary elements: fluid is constricted while passing through a reduced diameter flow
way.
Ventury Tube The difference is that the device instead of being a plate with a
hole is a section of pipe with a tapered entrance and a straight
throat. See Figure 17.
These sensors do not have moving parts and they are more
accurate, although considerably more expensive.
 Figure 17 – Venturi Tube
Table 6
Differential pressure The flow nozzle is an intermediate step between the orifice plate and
Primary elements: the Venturi Tube. It looks very like the Venturi Tube and resembles
half of a Venturi Tube.
Flow Nozzle The cost is less than a Venturi Tube but its accuracy is almost as
much as the Venturi Tube

Figure 18 – Flow Nozzle

Location of the pressure Pressure taps to measure differential pressure are located at a
taps distance from each other to be able to detect the pressure at the
normal flow and the pressure after the constriction.
Figure 19 – Pressure tube location for DP measurements
Other Methods for Measuring Flow Rate
There are other methods to measure flow that are also used for conditions that do not require
the same accuracy as that obtained by the differential pressure methods.
• Rotameter – The pipe area is varied using an inside float. The pipe at this point is vertical
and the float moves along a scale calibrated in flow rate units. It is used for measuring
the flow in gases and liquids
• Open channel methods: Weir, flumes, open nozzles

Total Flow Instruments

Instrument Type and description

Total Flow

Positive displacement This method uses a counting technique to measure the flow. The
system consists of:
• Chambers (three in the figure) in which the fluid enters.
• Rotating elements (also three in the figure) and shaft
 As one chamber charges and discharges with the flow, this event
is counted as one count. The calculations must consider the
volume of the chamber. Each time a chamber is filled determines
a volume of fluid that has moved along the pipe. The number of
times the chamber is filled multiplied by the volume is divided by

unit time to determine the total flow.

Figure 20 – Positive displacement flow meter

Instrument Type and description

Total Flow
Ultrasonic Measurement This method uses modern technology and its accuracy is high.
The set up involves two probes located in the path of the flow.
The figure below shows one type of installation.

Figure 21 – Ultrasonic Flow Generic Probe Locations

In the figure below, the flow is measured by sending an ultrasonic
wave at point A and receiving it at point B. The duration of the
wave from A to B determines the flow. The unit is calibrated at
zero flow to establish speed and duration of wave at rest.
 Figure 22 – Location of Ultrasonic Probes
This installation measures the flow comparing the travel time of
the sound wave towards and against the flow and comparing the
difference in speed.
Table 7
MOTOR CONTROLS

Introduction
Motor Control is an area of control systems that pertains to the control of the most used motion
actuator in industry: the electric motor. The electrical circuit connecting motors includes a
power source and protection, and a manual starter with the overheat protection; the latter is
part of the motor control.
Today, due to the advances of motor control technology, the motor is controlled automatically.
The motor control includes a sophisticated algorithm that can make changes of speed and
direction to the motor using ramping speeds and accelerations. Motors also have changed; the
improvement in windings and copper alloys has made possible a smaller motor which can
produce the same power output as the old larger one. These new motors are (if designed so)
capable of sustaining harmonics and other nonsinusoidal feed signals.

Motor Controllers
A motor controller consists of a group of devices that govern, regulate, and energize or de-
energize a motor.
The functions of a motor controller include:

• Starting
• Stopping
• Accelerating
• Reversing
• Protecting

There are two major types of motor controllers:

 • Manual
• Automatic

A manual controller is as the name indicates: one in which the motor is being controlled by
hand. Many systems still have manual controllers even if the motor is controlled automatically.
The reason behind keeping a manual control is first for safety and second for maintenance of
the motor or machine.

Most automatic controls performed today use two basically different methods:

• Relay logic
• Programmable equipment:
o Programmable Logic Devices (PLC) o DCS
equipment (computer system)

A typical manual controller diagram is shown in Figure 23 – Motor Manual Control below:

Figure 23 – Motor Manual Control

The National Electrical Code regulates the design of the circuit that controls a motor. The rules
in this code are designed to protect the public and equipment. It will protect primarily against
fires but also against other electrical hazards. Additionally, to prevent a motor from extreme
overheating, a means of protecting it from overcurrent (overload, short circuit, or ground fault)
must be provided.

In Figure 24 – Motor Electrical Control Connection. The power and control connections are
shown in a schematic manner. The elements of this diagram show that power is connected to
the motor via a controller. The controller will energize the motor and supply the power
waveform if the controller has the capability to change the feeding power wave. Devices such as
AC drives are designed to manipulate the incoming power wave and convert it in a power
waveform of different frequency. This new power supplied to the motor will be able to rotate
the motor at a different speed.

Figure 24 – Motor Electrical Control Connection

Motor Control Elements

The following table lists and describes the basic elements of motor control:

Motor Control Function

Starter Starter is the part of the control system that initiates the motor
function. It contains the electromechanical components that permit
electric current to reach the motor windings.
Overload Relays Overload relays are protection elements against an over temperature
in the motor that can cause motor failures due to overheating.

Control Stations Operate the motor starter remotely. They also function as safety
stopping stations (E Stops).
Relays and Contactors Elements that interlock permissive conditions to the motor running or
stopping. Contactors are the large control components that allow
motor current to be supplied to the motor. Relay contacts normally
activate contactor coils.
Remote Actuators Permissive contacts that are included in the control logic that provide
the desired conditions to the motor to run or to stop. Such components
could be limit switches, level switches or other switch or contacts.
Table 8

Starters

There also are two main types of starters:

• Manual
• Automatic

Manual Starters

These starters supply the simplest way to start a motor. They are usually toggle switches with
an overload element connected in series with the contacts.
The motor wires are connected directly to the starter. Schematic of this connection is shown
below:

Figure 25 – Motor Manual Control Schematic

Application of manual motor starters is usually applied to small motor controls. Motors called
fractional motors are in this type of application. The term fractional refers to motor with
horsepower ratings smaller than unity. However, fractional motors also include motors. Wound
field designs include motors through 3 HP and permanent magnet designs through 5 HP.

Automatic starters

The most common mode of controlling motors in industrial environments is the automatic
system.
Earlier automatic systems relied on relay logic to control the starting and stopping of motors.
More modern methods include Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) and DCS systems that
consist of computer systems and a software program to execute the logic. An intermediate
system was available for a short time in which the logic was programmed using hardware
programming and OP Amp (Operational Amplifiers) to program the logic in the system. This
system is not very common.

Relay Logic

Relay logic is used to control the motor using relays and their contact arranged in a structure
called ladder programming.
A simple control using relay logic includes the starting motor coil (contactor or starter coil) a
light to indicate the motor running, motor protection (thermal element) and the contacts from
the contactor. This motor can be started either automatically by moving the selector switch to
Automatic and starting by the action of the limit switch; or by moving the switch to selector
switch to Manual. The “C” contacts in a motor control schematic (also sometimes shown as “M”
contacts) are contacts from the main contactor of the motor circuit. These contacts allow the
voltage to be applied to the motor control circuits and to the motor.
Figure 26 – Auto-Manual Motor Control
Relay logic, three-phase motor starting circuit is presented below in Table 9 – Motor control
components. Also see Figure 27 – Basic Automatic Motor Starting and Control Circuit.
Component Function
Stop push button Opens the circuit branch that feeds the motor operating control coil
(M), disconnecting the motor from the supply voltage
Start Push button Closes the branch that energizes the motor operating control coil
allowing the contacts to close and thus allows voltage to be applied
across the motor
Starting coil Is the motor operating control coil and acts as the primary auxiliary
control device
Auxiliary starting coil Contacts from the starting coil. One of them is the seal in contact. This
contacts contact maintains the coil energized after starting.
Three Phase circuit Power conductors that energize the motor and the control circuit
feeder
Control Transformer Transforms supply power voltage to control power voltage
Circuit protection There are two protection sets: one that is connected immediately
after the main switch and the other before the control transformer
feed

Table 9 – Motor control components

The relay coils and contacts are arranged in rungs. Similar to the rungs of a ladder. This type of
arrangement is called ladder programming. In the case shown in the schematics below, the
ladder programming is made using relays; therefore, the motor control using this technology is
called relay logic.
When the programming uses an electronic device such as a computer based unit (PLC), the
ladder is made in a virtual manner. This means that the relays and contacts are logic conditions
that are established using computer logic. The final conditions to be produced or received as
permissives in the logic are interfaced with the motor or real world device using input or output
cards. The signals or conditions going or coming from the program to the real world are called
inputs and outputs. The interface with the computer is made using hardware such as cards that
contains micro relays and logic chips that can talk to both the computer hardware and to the
relays or instrumentation in the field. All these software operations are performed using a PLC
usually installed inside a cabinet of a unit in the MCC or Motor Control Center.
The organization of these MCCs is further discussed below.

Figure 27 – Basic Automatic Motor Starting and Control

Circuit

Modern Automatic Motor Controls

Modern Automatic Motor controls are normally placed inside a cabinet. This cabinet is a
modular unit that contains a series of starters. The starters are mounted inside a sliding drawer
called a bucket. Buckets are placed in sections. These sections are assembled in a group that
 Item Description
Mains Bucket Includes the main switch or breaker that feeds the entire MCC
The protection is designed to protect the bus system.
AC Drive Bucket This space houses an AC drive which can control the start stop and
speed ranges of an AC motor. Other items are a control transformer
and accessories to the AC drive.
Starter Bucket This bucket can contain the starter for a motor. The bucket contains
auxiliary relays, control transformer, push buttons, connection boards,
and lights that are shown in the starter schematics.
PLC Bucket The PLC is housed in a space that has enough capacity to house the
connection boards and PLC with all the accessories, such as power
Figure 28 – Motor Control Center
supply, I/O cards, communication, and control cards, etc.
Wireway These channels are used to route the control wires from bucket to
bucket such as from the PLC to the starters.
Section Numbers The numbers for each section are attached in this area using a plate.
Each manufacturer chooses different layouts according with their
design philosophy. The MCC layout shown is a typical Allen Bradley™
design.
makes the Motor Control Center. One of the sections contains the mains. Another section
contains the controller or programming device, most common PLC. The programming is made
using, among other software tools, a software based ladder. The bucket also houses lights, push
buttons, and manual controls. Each individual starter is connected to a common bus (set of
copper or copper clad aluminum bars that are connected to a main protection fused switch or
breaker). The bus is located on the back of the cabinet. Wiring is normally placed and routed
inside specific protected areas in each section. An MCC section is shown below.

Table 10 –Motor Control Center Components