Basic DB operations and CRUD

drop database aug_06_mwf;

show databases;

create database apr25SQLBatch;

use apr25SQLBatch;

drop table table_name;

CREATE TABLE employees (

employeeID INT AUTO_INCREMENT,

firstname VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,

deptID INT,

PRIMARY KEY (employeeID),

FOREIGN KEY (deptID) REFERENCES departments(deptID)

ON DELETE CASCADE

ON UPDATE CASCADE

);

create table departments (

deptId int auto_increment primary key,

deptName varchar(50) not null);

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name); (secondary key)

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1, column2); (secondary key on multiple

columns)

show tables;

insert into departments

(deptName)
values

("HR"), ("TECH"), ("PRODUCT"), ("MARKETING");

alter table employees

add lastname varchar(50);

INSERT into employees

(firstname, lastname, deptId)

values

("Roshan", "Singh", 2),

("Smriti", "Singh", 1),

("Srijata", "Singh", 4),

("Ranjana", "Singh", 3);

select * from employees;

delete from departments where deptId = 3;

show indexes from <tablename>;

create index xyz on table_name(column1, column3…);

Absolutely, Roshan — MySQL does support the UPDATE clause, and it's a powerful tool for
modifying existing records in a table. Here's a breakdown with examples tailored to backend
scenarios you might encounter:

✅ Syntax of UPDATE in MySQL

UPDATE table_name

SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...

WHERE condition;

🔒 Always use a WHERE clause unless you intend to update every row — skipping it can lead
to unintended data changes.
🔧 Example 1: Updating a single record

Suppose you have a users table:

UPDATE users

SET last_login = NOW()

WHERE user_id = 101;

This updates the last_login timestamp for the user with ID 101.

🔄 Example 2: Updating multiple columns

UPDATE employees

SET salary = salary * 1.10,

status = 'Promoted'

WHERE department = 'Engineering' AND experience_years > 5;

This gives a 10% raise and updates the status for senior engineers.

🧠 Example 3: Using a subquery in UPDATE

UPDATE accounts

SET balance = balance + (

SELECT bonus_amount FROM bonuses WHERE bonuses.account_id = [Link]

WHERE EXISTS (

SELECT 1 FROM bonuses WHERE bonuses.account_id = [Link]

);

This adds a bonus to each account that has a matching entry in the bonuses table.

🧹 Example 4: Bulk update with IN

UPDATE orders

SET status = 'Cancelled'

WHERE order_id IN (1001, 1002, 1003);

Useful for batch operations or rollback scenarios.

Would you like to explore how UPDATE interacts with transactions, triggers, or audit logging?
I can also show you how to safely test updates using SELECT before applying them.

Foreign keys options:

Great question, Roshan! Determining the size of a VARCHAR column can mean two different
things depending on context:

🔍 1. Declared Maximum Size (Schema Definition)

To find out the maximum number of characters a VARCHAR column can hold (e.g.,
VARCHAR(100)), you can query the information schema:
✅ MySQL

SELECT COLUMN_NAME, CHARACTER_MAXIMUM_LENGTH

FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.COLUMNS

WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'your_table_name'

AND COLUMN_NAME = 'your_column_name';

✅ SQL Server

SELECT COLUMN_NAME, CHARACTER_MAXIMUM_LENGTH

FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.COLUMNS

WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'your_table_name'

AND COLUMN_NAME = 'your_column_name';

✅ PostgreSQL

SELECT character_maximum_length

FROM information_schema.columns

WHERE table_name = 'your_table_name'

AND column_name = 'your_column_name';

This tells you the declared size, not the actual data stored.

🔍 2. Actual Stored Length (Per Row)

If you want to know how many characters are actually stored in each row of a VARCHAR
column:

SELECT LENGTH(your_column_name) AS actual_length

FROM your_table_name;

 In MySQL, use LENGTH() for bytes or CHAR_LENGTH() for characters.

 In SQL Server, use LEN():

 SELECT LEN(your_column_name) AS actual_length

 FROM your_table_name;

 In PostgreSQL, use LENGTH().

🧠 Example

If your column is declared as VARCHAR(100) but a row contains "Roshan":

 Declared size: 100

 Actual stored length: 6

Would you like to scan for rows that exceed a certain length or validate column sizing across
a table? I can help you write that audit query too.

You're very close, Roshan! The query is almost correct—just a tiny tweak needed for clarity
and best practice.

✅ Corrected MySQL Query

SELECT * FROM cinema

WHERE id % 2 <> 0 AND description = 'boring';

🔍 Explanation

 % is the modulo operator in MySQL, so id % 2 <> 0 filters for odd-numbered IDs.

 description = 'boring' matches rows where the description is exactly 'boring'.

 SQL keywords like SELECT, FROM, and WHERE are typically written in uppercase for
readability (though not mandatory).

🧠 Optional Enhancements

1. Case-insensitive match

If you want to match 'boring' regardless of case:

WHERE id % 2 <> 0 AND LOWER(description) = 'boring';

2. Pattern match

If you're looking for descriptions that contain the word "boring":

WHERE id % 2 <> 0 AND description LIKE '%boring%';

LIKE is character insensitive. % is for 0 (no character) or more than one character with any
length, while ‘_’ (underscore) is for 0 (no character) or one character.

WHERE id % 2 <> 0 AND description LIKE '_boring';

(here cboring, aboring etc.. qualifies)

Let me know if you want to sort the results or limit the output—happy to help you extend
this query!

Great follow-up, Roshan! Let's build on your original query and add sorting in both
descending and ascending order using the ORDER BY clause.

🔽 Descending Order

To list results in descending order by a column (e.g., id):

SELECT * FROM cinema

WHERE id % 2 <> 0 AND description = 'boring'

ORDER BY id DESC;

 DESC = descending (highest to lowest)

 You can replace id with any other column, like rating, release_date, etc.

🔼 Ascending Order

To list results in ascending order (default behavior):

SELECT * FROM cinema

WHERE id % 2 <> 0 AND description = 'boring'

ORDER BY id ASC;

 ASC = ascending (lowest to highest)

 You can omit ASC since it's the default, but keeping it makes intent clear.

📊 Sorting by Multiple Columns

You can sort by more than one column too:

ORDER BY rating DESC, release_date ASC;

This sorts by rating (highest first), and for equal ratings, by release_date (earliest first).

Would you like to sort by a specific column like title, duration, or release_date? I can help
tailor it to your schema.

Great follow-up! To ensure that the sub_total is rounded off, you can use SQL's ROUND()
function. This allows you to control the number of decimal places—typically 2 for currency.

✅ Updated SQL Query with Rounding

SELECT

orderNumber,

productCode,

ROUND(quantityOrdered * priceEach, 2) AS sub_total

FROM

orderdetails;

📘 Explanation

 ROUND(expression, 2): Rounds the result of quantityOrdered * priceEach to 2

decimal places.

 This ensures consistent formatting for monetary values like ₹1368.23 or ₹2025.00.

🧾 Sample Output (Rounded)

orderNumber productCode sub_total

10100 S18_1749 1368.23

10101 S18_2248 2025.00

10101 S24_1937 1800.00

Would you like to format it further for display (like adding currency symbols) or aggregate
totals per order?

Not operator

SELECT *

FROM customers

WHERE (firstName = 'John' OR lastName = 'Smith')

 AND NOT (firstName = 'John' AND lastName = 'Smith');

SHOW COLUMNS FROM table_name;

Like operator

SELECT *

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name LIKE '%your_text%';

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT,

status ENUM('pending', 'processing', 'shipped', 'delivered', 'cancelled')

);

Comparing Dates

Comparing dates in MySQL is straightforward once you know the format and functions
available. Here’s a quick guide to help you compare dates effectively.

📅 1. Basic Date Comparison

Assuming order_date is a DATE or DATETIME column:

SELECT *

FROM orders

WHERE order_date = '2023-08-10';

 Matches records with exact date (ignores time if column is DATE).

⏳ 2. Greater Than / Less Than

SELECT *

FROM orders

WHERE order_date >= '2023-08-01'

AND order_date < '2023-09-01';

  Retrieves orders from August 2023.

3. Comparing Only Date Part of DATETIME

If your column is DATETIME and you want to ignore the time:

SELECT *

FROM orders

WHERE DATE(order_date) = '2023-08-10';

 DATE() extracts just the date portion.

🧠 4. Using CURDATE() or NOW()

-- Orders placed today

SELECT *

FROM orders

WHERE DATE(order_date) = CURDATE();

-- Orders placed in the last 7 days

SELECT *

FROM orders

WHERE order_date >= CURDATE() - INTERVAL 7 DAY;

🔄 5. Between Two Dates

SELECT *

FROM orders

WHERE order_date BETWEEN '2023-08-01' AND '2023-08-10';

 Inclusive of both start and end dates.

Would you like to filter by month, weekday, or even time ranges within a day? I can show
you those tricks too.
IN

select employee_id, first_name, job_id, department_id from employees

where department_id IN (30, 40, 90)

order by employee_id;

select firstName, lastName, jobTitle from employees

where officeCode NOT IN (4, 6, 7)

order by firstName, lastName;

Special case for DISTINCT and ORDER BY

With DISTINCT orderby for no other column will work, it has to be same column if orderby
needs to be used.

LIMIT and OFFSET

OFFSET ignore the top number of records given in offset.

UPDATE should always be used with where

is there any way to keep track of previous data ?? like data before updation in db in actual
projects in industry??
Delete (use where always with Delete), Truncate, Drop

REGEXP includes partial matches. REGEXP >= LIKE + IN

SELECT *

FROM your_table

WHERE keywords REGEXP 'sport|sequel|suspense';

DISTINCT

Excellent question, Roshan! The DISTINCT keyword in MySQL is used to eliminate duplicate
rows from the result set. It ensures that only unique combinations of the selected columns
are returned.
🔹 Basic Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...

FROM your_table;

 This returns unique combinations of column1, column2, etc.

 If two rows have the same values in all selected columns, only one will be returned.

✅ Examples

1. Single Column

SELECT DISTINCT department

FROM employees;

 Returns a list of unique departments.

2. Multiple Columns

SELECT DISTINCT first_name, last_name

FROM employees;

 Returns unique combinations of first and last names.

 If two employees have the same name, only one row will appear.

🔍 With WHERE Clause

SELECT DISTINCT city

FROM customers

WHERE country = 'India';

 Filters first, then applies DISTINCT.

🔄 With ORDER BY

SELECT DISTINCT category

FROM products

ORDER BY category ASC;

  You can sort the distinct results.

⚠️Common Pitfall

If you use DISTINCT with multiple columns, it applies to the entire row, not just one column.
For example:

SELECT DISTINCT name, age

FROM people;

 If name is the same but age differs, both rows will appear.

Would you like to see how DISTINCT behaves with aggregate functions like COUNT or in
subqueries? I can show you some neat tricks with that too.

Great follow-up, Roshan! DISTINCT and UNIQUE may sound similar, but they serve different
purposes in MySQL. Let’s break it down clearly:

🔍 DISTINCT vs UNIQUE in MySQL

Feature DISTINCT (Query Keyword) UNIQUE (Constraint)

Removes duplicate rows in query Ensures column values are unique in the
Purpose
results table

Used In SELECT statements CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE statements

Scope Affects query output only Affects data integrity at the schema level

Example SELECT DISTINCT city FROM CREATE TABLE users (email VARCHAR(100)
Use customers; UNIQUE);

Query engine during result Database engine during data

Enforced By
generation insertion/update

🔹 UNIQUE Constraint

Used to prevent duplicate values in a column or combination of columns.

✅ Example: Single Column

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,

email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE

);

 Ensures no two users can have the same email.

✅ Example: Composite Unique

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT,

product_id INT,

customer_id INT,

UNIQUE(product_id, customer_id)

);

 Prevents the same customer from ordering the same product more than once.

⚠️Key Differences Recap

 DISTINCT is temporary—it affects only the query result.

 UNIQUE is permanent—it enforces rules on the data stored in the table.

Would you like to explore how UNIQUE interacts with indexes or how to handle violations
gracefully during inserts? I can show you some practical patterns for backend validation too.

General sequence in mysql

SELECT ...

DISTINCT

FROM ...

WHERE ...

ORDER BY ...

LIMIT ...
Simplest JOIN query

Here ‘where’ can also be used instead of ‘on’. ‘on’ is efficient because the intermediate size
is less than ‘where’.

Self join example

JOINING more than 2 tables
The DATE_ADD() function in MySQL is used to add a specified time or date interval to a
given date, returning the resulting date or datetime.

🧮 Syntax

DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL value unit)

 date: The starting date or datetime.

 value: The amount of time to add (can be positive or negative).

 unit: The type of interval, such as DAY, MONTH, YEAR, HOUR, MINUTE, SECOND, etc.

📌 Examples

Query Result

SELECT DATE_ADD('2020-01-01', INTERVAL 10 DAY); '2020-01-11'

SELECT DATE_ADD('2020-01-01 [Link]', INTERVAL 2 HOUR); '2020-01-01 [Link]'

SELECT DATE_ADD('2020-01-01', INTERVAL -1 MONTH); '2019-12-01'

🧠 Use Cases
  Adding expiration dates

 Calculating future appointments or deadlines

 Time-based filtering in queries

You can also use compound intervals like MINUTE_SECOND, DAY_HOUR, or YEAR_MONTH
for more granular control.

Would you like to see how this compares with DATE_SUB() or how to use it in a stored
procedure or trigger?

Hi Roshan! To concatenate two columns in a MySQL table and display the result, you can use
the CONCAT() function in your SELECT query. Here's the basic syntax:

SELECT CONCAT(column1, column2) AS combined_column

FROM your_table;

🧠 Example

Suppose you have a table called employees with columns first_name and last_name, and
you want to display the full name:

SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name

FROM employees;

This will insert a space between the first and last names.

🔍 Notes

 If any column is NULL, CONCAT() will return NULL. To avoid this, use CONCAT_WS()
(Concatenate With Separator), which skips NULL values:

SELECT CONCAT_WS(' ', first_name, last_name) AS full_name

FROM employees;

Let me know if you want to store this concatenated value in a new column or use it in a
WHERE, ORDER BY, or GROUP BY clause. I can show you how!

Great question, Roshan! If you're working with multiple tables—say one for customers, one
for products, and one for transactions—you’ll typically use JOINs to bring the data together,
then GROUP BY to total the price paid by each customer.

Let’s break it down with a common schema:

🗂 Example Schema
Table Key Columns Description

customers customer_id, name Customer details

products product_id, price Product details

orders order_id, customer_id, product_id, quantity Records of purchases

🧮 Goal

Total price paid by each customer = SUM(price × quantity) per customer.

✅ SQL Query

SELECT

c.customer_id,

[Link],

SUM([Link] * [Link]) AS total_paid

FROM

orders o

JOIN

customers c ON o.customer_id = c.customer_id

JOIN

products p ON o.product_id = p.product_id

GROUP BY

c.customer_id, [Link];

🔍 Notes

 JOINs connect the tables so you can access price from products and name from
customers.

 SUM([Link] * [Link]) calculates the total paid per order, then aggregates it per
customer.

 GROUP BY ensures the sum is calculated per customer.

Would you like to add filters like date ranges, product categories, or maybe include discounts
or taxes? I can help you extend this query to match your backend logic.
A LEFT JOIN in MySQL is used to combine rows from two tables, returning all records from
the left table and the matched records from the right table. If there's no match, the result is
NULL on the right side.

Here’s the basic syntax:

SELECT

a.column1,

a.column2,

b.column3

FROM

table_a AS a

LEFT JOIN

table_b AS b

ON

a.common_column = b.common_column;

🧠 Example Scenario

Let’s say you have two tables:

employees | emp_id | name | |--------|----------| | 1 | Roshan | | 2 | Priya | | 3 | Arjun |

salaries | emp_id | salary | |--------|----------| | 1 | 70000 | | 3 | 65000 |

Now, to get a list of all employees and their salaries (if available):

SELECT

e.emp_id,

[Link],

[Link]

FROM

employees AS e

LEFT JOIN

salaries AS s

ON

e.emp_id = s.emp_id;
🧾 Output

emp_id Name salary

1 Roshan 70000

2 Priya NULL

3 Arjun 65000

Notice how Priya appears even though she has no salary record — that’s the power of LEFT
JOIN.

Would you like to explore how this behaves with multiple joins or how to filter NULL results?

A RIGHT JOIN in MySQL is the mirror image of a LEFT JOIN. It returns all rows from the right
table, and the matched rows from the left table. If there’s no match, the result from the left
side will be NULL.

🔧 Syntax

SELECT

a.column1,

b.column2

FROM

table_a AS a

RIGHT JOIN

table_b AS b

ON

a.common_column = b.common_column;

🧪 Example

Let’s reuse the same tables:

employees | emp_id | name | |--------|----------| | 1 | Roshan | | 2 | Priya | | 3 | Arjun |

salaries | emp_id | salary | |--------|----------| | 1 | 70000 | | 3 | 65000 | | 4 | 60000 |

Now, to get all salary records and the corresponding employee names (if available):

SELECT

[Link],

[Link]
FROM

employees AS e

RIGHT JOIN

salaries AS s

ON

e.emp_id = s.emp_id;

📊 Output

name Salary

Roshan 70000

Arjun 65000

NULL 60000

Notice how the salary for emp_id = 4 appears even though there's no matching employee —
that’s the essence of a RIGHT JOIN.

Would you like to compare LEFT, RIGHT, and INNER JOIN side-by-side with diagrams or use
cases? Or maybe dive into how these joins behave with WHERE clauses and filtering?
A CROSS JOIN in MySQL is the most straightforward type of join—it returns the Cartesian
product of two tables. That means every row from the first table is paired with every row
from the second table.

🔧 Syntax

SELECT

a.column1,

b.column2

FROM

table_a AS a

CROSS JOIN

table_b AS b;

🧪 Example

Let’s say you have:

colors | color_id | color | |----------|---------| | 1 | Red | | 2 | Blue |

sizes | size_id | size | |---------|---------| | 1 | Small | | 2 | Medium | | 3 | Large |

Now, if you want to generate every possible combination of color and size:

SELECT

[Link],

[Link]

FROM

colors AS c

CROSS JOIN

sizes AS s;

📊 Output

color Size

Red Small

Red Medium

Red Large

Blue Small

Blue Medium

Blue Large

⚠️Use Cases & Caution

 ✅ Great for generating combinations (e.g., product variants, permutations).

 ❌ Can explode in size quickly—n × m rows—so use with care on large tables.

If you're curious, I can show how to simulate a CROSS JOIN using INNER JOIN or even how to
filter combinations using WHERE. Want to go deeper into performance or real-world use
cases like generating test data?

Implicit join
Using clause requires bracket and is similar to on clause
Using works only when common column is exactly same.

Great question, Roshan! The USING clause in SQL can absolutely handle multiple columns—
as long as the column names are identical in both tables. It’s a neat way to simplify joins
when you're matching on more than one shared key.

🔗 Syntax for Multiple Columns

SELECT

FROM

table_a

JOIN

table_b

USING (column1, column2, column3);

This is shorthand for:

SELECT

FROM

table_a

JOIN

table_b

ON

table_a.column1 = table_b.column1 AND

table_a.column2 = table_b.column2 AND

table_a.column3 = table_b.column3;

But with USING, the result will include only one copy of each shared column.

🧪 Example

Let’s say you have two tables:

employee_projects | emp_id | project_id | role | |--------|------------|----------| | 101 | P001 |

Developer| | 102 | P002 | Manager |

project_reviews | emp_id | project_id | rating | |--------|------------|----------| | 101 | P001 |

4.5 | | 102 | P002 | 4.8 |

Now, to join on both emp_id and project_id:

SELECT

emp_id, project_id, role, rating

FROM

employee_projects

JOIN

project_reviews

USING (emp_id, project_id);

✅ Output

emp_id project_id role rating

101 P001 Developer 4.5

emp_id project_id role rating

102 P002 Manager 4.8

Notice how emp_id and project_id appear only once in the result.

⚠️Caveats

 All columns listed in USING must exist in both tables.

 If the column names differ, you’ll need to use ON instead.

 USING is supported in MySQL, PostgreSQL, and Oracle—but not in SQL Server.

Want to explore how this behaves with LEFT JOIN, or how to handle nulls and mismatches in
multi-column joins? I can walk you through edge cases too.

A NATURAL JOIN in MySQL is like the auto-pilot of joins—it automatically matches columns
with the same name in both tables and joins them using an INNER JOIN logic. You don’t
need to specify the join condition manually.

🔧 Syntax

SELECT *

FROM table_a

NATURAL JOIN table_b;

This will:

 Match all columns with the same name in both tables.

 Use equality conditions on those columns.

 Return only one copy of each matched column.

🧪 Example

Let’s say you have:

students | student_id | name | |------------|----------| | 1 | Roshan | | 2 | Priya |

grades | student_id | grade | |------------|----------| | 1 | A | | 2 | B |

Now, this query:

SELECT *

FROM students

NATURAL JOIN grades;

Will automatically join on student_id and return:

student_id name grade

1 Roshan A

2 Priya B

⚠️Caution

 Implicit behavior: You don’t control which columns are used—it joins on all columns
with matching names.

 Can be risky: If new columns are added later with the same name, the join behavior
might change unexpectedly.

 Not recommended for production code unless you're absolutely sure of the schema.

✅ Best Practice

Prefer JOIN ... USING (...) or JOIN ... ON ... for clarity and control. NATURAL JOIN is great for
quick prototyping or small, well-understood datasets.

Want to see how NATURAL JOIN behaves with more than one shared column or how it
differs from USING in edge cases? I can break that down too.

Great question! Let's break down the concept of a FULL OUTER JOIN in SQL, especially since
you're working with MySQL and the Sakila database.

🌐 What Is a FULL OUTER JOIN?

A FULL OUTER JOIN returns all rows from both tables:

 Rows that match based on the join condition.

 Rows from the left table without matches in the right.

  Rows from the right table without matches in the left.

Where there's no match, the result will show NULL for the missing side.

🔧 Syntax (Standard SQL)

SELECT *

FROM table_a

FULL OUTER JOIN table_b

ON table_a.id = table_b.id;

⚠️MySQL Limitation

MySQL does not support FULL OUTER JOIN directly. But you can simulate it using UNION of
LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN.

MySQL Workaround

SELECT *

FROM inventory

LEFT JOIN rental ON inventory.inventory_id = rental.inventory_id

UNION

SELECT *

FROM inventory

RIGHT JOIN rental ON inventory.inventory_id = rental.inventory_id;

This gives you:

 All matching rows.

 All unmatched rows from inventory.

 All unmatched rows from rental.

🧪 Example Output

inventory_id store_id rental_id rental_date ...

1 2 100 2025-08-01 ...

2 1 NULL NULL ...

NULL NULL 101 2025-08-02 ...

Would you like help crafting a FULL OUTER JOIN for a specific pair of tables in Sakila, like
customer and rental, or film and inventory? I can tailor the query for your use case.

UNION

In MySQL, UNION is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT statements into a
single result set. It removes duplicate rows by default, unless you use UNION ALL.

🔧 Syntax

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_a

UNION

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_b;

✅ Requirements:

 Each SELECT must have the same number of columns. Columns need not have same
names

 Corresponding columns must have compatible data types.

🔁 UNION vs UNION ALL

Clause Removes Duplicates Faster Performance

UNION ✅ Yes ❌ Slightly slower

UNION ALL ❌ No ✅ Faster

🧪 Example
Let’s say you have:

table_a | name | |--------| | Roshan | | Priya |

table_b | name | |--------| | Priya | | Arjun |

SELECT name FROM table_a

UNION

SELECT name FROM table_b;

🟢 Output: | name | |--------| | Roshan | | Priya | | Arjun |

Now with UNION ALL:

SELECT name FROM table_a

UNION ALL

SELECT name FROM table_b;

🟡 Output: | name | |--------| | Roshan | | Priya | | Priya | | Arjun |

⚠️Tips

 Use ORDER BY after the final SELECT:

 SELECT name FROM table_a

 UNION

 SELECT name FROM table_b

 ORDER BY name;

 You can use LIMIT, WHERE, and even JOIN inside each SELECT.

Would you like to see how UNION can be used to merge data from rental and payment
tables in Sakila, or maybe simulate a FULL OUTER JOIN like we discussed earlier?

Absolutely, Roshan! Here's a structured overview of key MySQL Enterprise Backup (MEB)
commands—these are used via the mysqlbackup utility to manage backups, restores, and
validations for MySQL databases.

🧭 Core MEB Commands

Command Description

backup Creates a backup of the MySQL instance (can be full, incremental, etc.)

restore Restores the database from a backup image

apply-log Prepares the backup for restore by applying the redo/undo logs

copy-back Copies the prepared backup files back to the MySQL data directory

validate Checks the integrity and consistency of the backup

extract Extracts specific tables or files from a backup

incremental-backup Creates a backup of changes since the last full or incremental backup

start / stop Starts or stops the MySQL server (if managed via MEB)

Common Usage Examples

🔹 Full Backup

mysqlbackup --user=root --password=yourpass --backup-dir=/backups backup

🔹 Incremental Backup

mysqlbackup --incremental --start-lsn=123456 --backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

🔹 Apply Log (Prepare for Restore)

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/backups apply-log

🔹 Restore Backup

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/backups copy-back

📦 Backup Types Supported

 Full Backup: Entire database

 Incremental Backup: Changes since last backup

 Partial Backup: Specific databases or tables

 Compressed Backup: Saves space

 Encrypted Backup: Adds security

🔐 Advanced Options
Option Purpose

--compress Compress backup files

--encrypt Encrypt backup files

--include-tables Backup specific tables

--exclude-databases Skip certain databases

--backup-image Create a single image file of the backup

If you're integrating this into a backend workflow or automating backups via cron or
PowerShell, I can help you script that too. Want to go deeper into restore strategies or
compare this with mysqldump or xtrabackup?

Great question, Roshan—this is where MySQL Enterprise Backup (MEB) really shows its
muscle. You're absolutely right: incremental backups only contain changes since the last
backup (full or incremental), and restoring them requires a merge process that builds up the
full dataset step by step.

Let’s walk through how to restore when your full backup and incremental backups are
stored in different directories.

🧩 Step-by-Step: Restoring Full + Incremental Backups

1. Prepare the Full Backup

Apply the redo logs to the full backup to make it consistent.

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/path/to/full_backup apply-log

2. Apply Incremental Backups Sequentially

Each incremental backup must be applied in the order it was taken. You use the --
incremental-backup-dir option to point to each one.

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/path/to/full_backup \

--incremental-backup-dir=/path/to/incr1 apply-incremental-backup

Repeat this for each subsequent incremental backup:

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/path/to/full_backup \

--incremental-backup-dir=/path/to/incr2 apply-incremental-backup
…and so on.

3. Restore the Merged Backup

Once all incrementals are applied, copy the final merged backup back to the MySQL data
directory.

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/path/to/full_backup copy-back

🔐 You may need to stop the MySQL server and ensure proper file permissions before doing
this.

🧠 Key Notes

 The apply-incremental-backup command modifies the full backup directory, so all

incrementals must be applied to the same base.

 You do not need to merge the incremental backups manually—they’re layered onto
the full backup using MEB’s internal logic.

 Always validate your backup before restoring:

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/path/to/full_backup validate

If you're scripting this or want to automate it across environments, I can help you build a
shell or PowerShell script with logging and error handling. Or if you're curious how this
compares to xtrabackup's incremental restore flow, I can break that down too.

Absolutely, Roshan—this is a great deep-dive into how incremental backups work in MySQL
Enterprise Backup (MEB). Let’s break it down with precision and clarity.

🧠 What Is start-lsn?

LSN stands for Log Sequence Number. It’s a unique identifier used by the InnoDB storage
engine to track changes in the redo log. Every time a transaction modifies data, InnoDB
assigns it an LSN. This makes LSNs perfect for pinpointing where to start an incremental
backup.

So, when you use:

mysqlbackup --incremental --start-lsn=123456 --backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

You're telling MEB:

“Start backing up from the point where the last backup ended—specifically, from LSN
123456.”

🔍 Where Do You Get the start-lsn?

After a full backup, MEB outputs a summary that includes the end LSN. That value becomes
the start-lsn for your next incremental backup.

Alternatively, you can use:

--incremental-base=history:last_backup

This tells MEB to automatically fetch the last backup’s end LSN from its history file, so you
don’t have to manually track it.

🧪 Example Workflow

Let’s say you did a full backup:

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/backups/full backup

After completion, MEB shows:

Backup completed successfully.

End LSN: 987654

Now, to take an incremental backup:

mysqlbackup --incremental --start-lsn=987654 --backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

Or, more elegantly:

mysqlbackup --incremental-base=history:last_backup --backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

🧩 Why LSN Matters

 Ensures consistency across backups

 Enables point-in-time recovery

 Minimizes storage and time by only capturing changes

Would you like to see how to automate this with a shell script that tracks LSNs and rotates
backups? Or maybe compare this with binary log-based recovery strategies? I can tailor it to
your backend workflow.
Excellent catch, Roshan 👀—and you're absolutely right to question that inconsistency. Let’s
clarify it properly.

🔐 Why --user and --password Are Important

Both full and incremental backups require authentication to connect to the MySQL server.
So yes, whether you're running:

mysqlbackup --backup-dir=/backups/full backup

or

mysqlbackup --incremental --start-lsn=987654 --backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

—you must include credentials like:

--user=root --password=yourpass

🧠 Why It Was Missing in the Example

The omission was purely for brevity in that example. But in practice, the full command for an
incremental backup should look like:

mysqlbackup --user=root --password=yourpass \

--incremental --start-lsn=987654 \

--backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

Or, if you're using automatic LSN tracking:

mysqlbackup --user=root --password=yourpass \

--incremental-base=history:last_backup \

--backup-dir=/backups/incr1 backup

Best Practice Tip

Instead of passing the password directly (which can be insecure), you can use:

--password-file=/secure/path/to/[Link]

Or configure a .[Link] file with credentials and use:

mysqlbackup --defaults-file=/path/to/[Link] ...

This keeps your scripts cleaner and more secure.

If you're building a backup automation pipeline or want to rotate credentials securely across
environments, I can help you design that too. Want to explore how to encrypt backups or
integrate with audit logging?

Fantastic question, Roshan—and you're tapping into a key aspect of secure and maintainable
application design. While .env files don't follow a formal universal standard, there are widely
adopted conventions that make them predictable and compatible across frameworks,
libraries, and deployment tools.

📦 Structure of a .env File

A .env file is a simple key-value configuration file, typically used to store environment-
specific settings like credentials, ports, and API keys.

✅ Format

# Database credentials

DB_HOST=localhost

DB_PORT=3306

DB_USER=root

DB_PASSWORD=securepass123

# Redis

REDIS_HOST=localhost

REDIS_PORT=6379

REDIS_PASSWORD=redispass456

# API keys

STRIPE_SECRET_KEY=sk_test_abc123

 No quotes needed unless the value contains spaces.

 Comments start with #.

 No trailing semicolons or commas.

🧠 How Does the App Know Which Key to Use?

The app or framework reads the .env file using a library or built-in loader, and looks for
specific keys based on its configuration.

🔹 Examples by Environment

Platform / Language Loader / Convention How It Uses .env Keys

[Link] dotenv npm package [Link].DB_PASSWORD

Python python-dotenv or [Link] [Link]("DB_PASSWORD")

PHP (Laravel) Built-in .env support env('DB_PASSWORD')

Java (Spring Boot) [Link] or .env @Value("${DB_PASSWORD}")

Docker --env-file or ENV in Dockerfile Injects into container environment

So the app doesn’t guess—it’s explicitly told which key to look for.

Best Practices

 🔐 One .env per environment: .[Link], .[Link], etc.

 🚫 Never commit .env to version control: Use .gitignore.

 🔄 Use consistent naming: DB_, API_, REDIS_ prefixes help organize.

 🔒 Restrict file access: chmod 600 .env on Unix systems.

🧬 Bonus Tip: Dynamic Secrets

For more advanced setups, you can load secrets dynamically from:

 Vaults (HashiCorp Vault, AWS Secrets Manager)

 Kubernetes Secrets

 CI/CD pipelines (GitHub Actions, GitLab CI)

These inject secrets at runtime, avoiding static .env files altogether.

If you're building a backend system with multiple services (e.g., MySQL, Redis, Kafka), I can
help you design a .env schema that’s clean, secure, and scalable. Want to explore how to
rotate secrets or integrate with encrypted config loaders?

Great question, Roshan—and the answer depends on the tech stack and how you're
deploying your application or managing services on Windows Server.

🪟 Windows Server: Environment Configuration Options

Unlike Linux-based systems where .env files are common, Windows Server environments
typically use one of the following approaches:

1. Environment Variables (System/User Level)

 Set via Control Panel → System → Advanced → Environment Variables

 Or via PowerShell:

 [[Link]]::SetEnvironmentVariable("DB_PASSWORD", "securepass123",
"Machine")

 Accessible in code (e.g., [Link]("DB_PASSWORD") in Java)

✅ Best for: Secure, centralized config for services and apps

🚫 Not ideal for: Versioning or portability across environments

2. .config Files (Common in .NET and Windows-native apps)

 Used in [Link], WCF, and other Windows-based frameworks

 Example: [Link] or [Link]

 <configuration>

 <appSettings>

 <add key="DB_PASSWORD" value="securepass123"/>

 </appSettings>

 </configuration>

✅ Best for: .NET apps with built-in config parsing

🚫 Not secure: Plaintext passwords unless encrypted
3. .env Files (Used in Cross-platform Apps)

 If you're running [Link], Python, or containerized apps on Windows Server, .env

files are still valid

 Use libraries like dotenv to load them

✅ Best for: Portable, cross-platform apps

🚫 Not native: Windows services won’t auto-load .env without explicit code

4. Windows Credential Manager / Secrets Vaults

 For production-grade security, use:

o Windows Credential Manager

o Azure Key Vault (if cloud-integrated)

o Encrypted config files or DPAPI

✅ Best for: Secure storage of sensitive credentials

🚫 Requires setup: Not plug-and-play like .env

🔐 Pro Tip: Encrypt Sensitive Values

If you're storing passwords in .config or .env, consider encrypting them or using a secure
loader that decrypts at runtime. For .NET, you can use aspnet_regiis to encrypt sections of
[Link].

Would you like help designing a secure config strategy for a Java backend running on
Windows Server? I can walk you through using environment variables, encrypted config files,
or even integrating with a secrets manager.

Ah, diving into the Unix permission model—love it. chmod 600 is a classic move for locking
down sensitive files like .env, SSH keys, or config files. Here's how it works:

🔐 What chmod 600 Actually Does

The command:

chmod 600 filename

sets the file permissions to:

 Owner: Read and write (rw-)

 Group: No access (---)

 Others: No access (---)

🧠 Breakdown in Octal

Entity Permission Binary Octal

Owner rw- 110 6

Group --- 000 0

Others --- 000 0

So 600 means:

 Only the file's owner can read or modify it.

 No one else—not other users, not services running under different accounts—can
even peek at it.

🧭 What Does It “Ask For”?

It doesn’t prompt you directly, but it enforces access control at the OS level. So if another
user or process tries to access the file:

 ✅ If they’re the owner: access granted.

 ❌ If they’re not: access denied, unless they have elevated privileges (like sudo).

For example, if a web server running under www-data tries to read a .env file owned by
roshan with 600 permissions, it’ll be blocked—unless you explicitly allow it via ownership or
ACLs.

Why It Matters for .env Files

.env files often contain:

 Database passwords

 API keys

 Secret tokens
So chmod 600 ensures that only the intended user (usually the app runner or deployer) can
access them. It’s a simple but powerful way to reduce the attack surface.

If you're running backend services on Windows but deploying to Linux-based environments

(like Docker containers or cloud VMs), this permission model becomes crucial. Want to
explore how ACLs or chown can fine-tune access even further?

Excellent question, Roshan. On Windows Server, the path where an application looks for
environment or config files depends heavily on the type of application, its framework, and
how it's deployed. There’s no single “standard” path like /etc/environment in Linux, but here
are the most common conventions:

Typical Locations for Config or .env Files on Windows Server

1. Application Root Directory

Most apps look for config files in the same directory where the executable or main script
resides.

 Example:

 C:\inetpub\wwwroot\MyApp\.env

 C:\Apps\MyJavaService\[Link]

This is especially true for:

 [Link] apps using dotenv

 Python apps using python-dotenv

 Java apps with custom config loaders

2. User Profile or System-wide Paths

For services running under specific users, configs may be placed in:

 %USERPROFILE%\.env

 %APPDATA%\MyApp\[Link]

 %ProgramData%\MyApp\[Link]

These paths are useful for:

 Desktop apps
  Background services with user-specific settings

3. Environment Variables (Set via System Settings)

Instead of reading from a file, many Windows services rely on system environment variables:

 Set via:

o Control Panel → System → Environment Variables

o PowerShell:

o [[Link]]::SetEnvironmentVariable("DB_PASSWORD",
"secure123", "Machine")

These are stored in the registry and accessed via APIs like [Link]() in Java or
[Link] in Python.

4. [Link] / [Link] (for .NET apps)

If you're running [Link] or WCF services:

 Configs are typically stored in:

 C:\inetpub\wwwroot\MyApp\[Link]

These XML files define settings like connection strings, app keys, and authentication
parameters.

5. Custom Paths via App Settings

Some apps are configured to look for config files in custom locations, often passed as
command-line arguments or defined in a bootstrap file.

 Example:

 java -[Link]="C:\Configs\[Link]" -jar [Link]

Security Tip

If you're storing sensitive data like passwords or API keys:

 Avoid placing .env or config files in publicly accessible directories (like wwwroot)

 Use NTFS permissions to restrict access

  Consider encrypting the config file or using Windows Credential Manager or Azure
Key Vault for production

If you're deploying a Java backend on Windows Server, I can help you design a secure config
loading strategy—whether you prefer .env, .properties, or encrypted secrets. Want to sketch
out a sample directory structure for your app?

Great question, Roshan — especially given your deep dive into backend systems and data
integrity. The redo log in MySQL is a critical component of the InnoDB storage engine, and it
plays a central role in ensuring durability and crash recovery. Here's a breakdown tailored to
your level of expertise:

🔁 What Is the Redo Log?

The redo log is a write-ahead log that records changes made to the database before they're
written to the actual data files (i.e., .ibd files or the shared tablespace). It ensures that even
if MySQL crashes, committed transactions can be replayed to restore consistency.

🧠 Key Concepts

 Write-Ahead Logging (WAL):

o Changes are first written to the redo log.

o Only after logging are changes applied to the in-memory buffer pool and
eventually flushed to disk.

 Durability (ACID):

o Once a transaction is committed, its changes are guaranteed to persist—even

if the system crashes—thanks to the redo log.

 Crash Recovery:

o On restart, MySQL scans the redo log and reapplies any committed changes
that weren’t flushed to disk.

📁 Redo Log Files

 Typically named ib_logfile0, ib_logfile1, etc.

 Controlled by parameters like:

 o innodb_log_file_size

o innodb_log_files_in_group

🔍 How It Works (Simplified Flow)

1. Transaction begins

2. Changes are made → logged in redo log buffer

3. Buffer is flushed to redo log files on disk

4. Transaction is committed

5. Changes are eventually written to data files

Related Settings You Might Tune

Parameter Purpose

innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit Controls when redo log is flushed (0, 1, 2)

innodb_log_buffer_size Size of in-memory redo log buffer

innodb_log_file_size Size of each redo log file

If you're exploring incremental backups, point-in-time recovery, or performance tuning,

understanding redo logs is essential. Want to go deeper into how redo logs interact with
undo logs or buffer pool flushing strategies?

The InnoDB storage engine is the default and most widely used engine in MySQL, especially
for applications that demand data integrity, high concurrency, and transactional reliability.
Given your background in infrastructure and backend systems, you'll appreciate how InnoDB
balances performance with robustness.

⚙️Core Features of InnoDB

 ACID Compliance
Supports Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability, making it ideal for
financial systems, e-commerce platforms, and any app where data correctness is
non-negotiable.
  Row-Level Locking
Enables high concurrency by locking only the rows being modified, rather than entire
tables. This is a major advantage over older engines like MyISAM.

 Foreign Key Constraints

Enforces referential integrity between tables, allowing you to model complex
relationships safely.

 MVCC (Multi-Version Concurrency Control)

Readers don’t block writers and vice versa. This is key for performance in multi-user
environments.

 Automatic Crash Recovery

Uses redo logs and undo logs to recover from crashes without manual intervention.

 Full-Text Search Support

Allows for powerful text-based queries directly within InnoDB tables.

🧱 How It Stores Data

 Tables and indexes are stored in tablespaces.

 You can use file-per-table mode (innodb_file_per_table) or shared tablespace

(ibdata1).

 Data is cached in the buffer pool, which is tunable via innodb_buffer_pool_size.

🔐 Why It’s Preferred

Feature InnoDB Advantage

Transactions Yes (commit, rollback, savepoint)

Locking Row-level (vs. table-level in MyISAM)

Crash Recovery Automatic via redo/undo logs

Foreign Keys Fully supported

Concurrency Excellent via MVCC

If you're exploring audit trails, versioning, or backup strategies, InnoDB offers a solid
foundation. Want to dive into how undo logs complement redo logs, or how MVCC works
under the hood?
Cool code:

IFNULL

SELECT

d.department_id,

d.department_name,

IFNULL(e.employee_id, 0) AS employee_id

FROM departments d

LEFT JOIN employees e ON d.department_id = e.department_id

WHERE e.employee_id IS NULL

ORDER BY d.department_id;

if we have to select all columns and just represent one of them as a different name. can we
use *, the one column to shorten the code

Absolutely, Roshan—you can use * to select all columns and then override or alias a specific
one in the same SELECT clause. This is a handy shortcut when you want everything but just
need to rename one column for clarity or conflict resolution.

✅ Syntax Example

Let’s say you have a table employees with a column status, and you want to rename status
to employee_status in the output:

SELECT

*,

status AS employee_status
FROM employees;

⚠️But here's the catch:

If you do this, both status and employee_status will appear in the result set—because *
includes all columns, and then you're adding a renamed version of one of them. So you'll get
two columns with the same data, just different names.

🧼 Cleaner Alternative (if you want to replace, not duplicate):

You’ll need to explicitly list all columns, excluding the one you want to rename:

SELECT

employee_id,

first_name,

last_name,

status AS employee_status

FROM employees;

Or, if you're working with many columns and want to avoid typing them all, you could use a
view or subquery to isolate and rename:

SELECT

e.*,

[Link] AS employee_status

FROM employees e;

Again, this duplicates status unless you filter it out later.

🧠 Pro Tip:

In some SQL environments (like PostgreSQL with row_to_json() or in reporting tools), you
can manipulate the output structure more flexibly. But in standard SQL, * is always all-in—no
exclusions.

Want help writing a dynamic query that auto-generates column lists minus one? I can show
you how to script that too.

Absolutely, Roshan! Here's a crisp list of commonly used MySQL aggregate functions, each
designed to operate on a set of values and return a single summary value:

📊 Core Aggregate Functions in MySQL

Function Description

COUNT() Returns the number of rows (or non-NULL values)

SUM() Calculates the total sum of a numeric column

AVG() Computes the average of a numeric column

MIN() Finds the smallest value in a column

MAX() Finds the largest value in a column

Returns a concatenated string of values from a group, separated by

GROUP_CONCAT()
commas

🧠 Usage Notes

 These functions are typically used with GROUP BY to summarize data per group.

 COUNT(*) includes NULLs, while COUNT(column) excludes them.

 GROUP_CONCAT() can be customized using SEPARATOR to change the delimiter.

🔍 Example

SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS total_employees, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

Would you like to explore how these behave with NULL values, or dive into window
functions next?

Certainly, Roshan! Here's a practical example of how GROUP_CONCAT() works in MySQL,

especially useful when you want to combine values from multiple rows into a single string
per group.

🧪 Scenario: List employees per department

Suppose you have a table called employees:

id name Department

1 Asha Engineering

2 Ravi Engineering

3 Meena HR
id name Department

4 Sanjay HR

5 Priya Marketing

✅ Query using GROUP_CONCAT()

SELECT department, GROUP_CONCAT(name ORDER BY name SEPARATOR ', ') AS

employee_list

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

📋 Output

department employee_list

Engineering Asha, Ravi

HR Meena, Sanjay

Marketing Priya

🔍 Notes

 ORDER BY name ensures names are sorted alphabetically within each group.

 SEPARATOR ', ' defines how the names are joined (you can use any delimiter).

 You can also apply DISTINCT inside GROUP_CONCAT() to avoid duplicates:

 GROUP_CONCAT(DISTINCT name)

Would you like to see how this integrates with joins or subqueries for more complex
reporting?

Great question, Roshan! Understanding the difference between WHERE and HAVING is key
to writing precise SQL queries—especially when you're working with grouped data.

🔍 Key Difference

 WHERE filters rows before grouping.

 HAVING filters groups after aggregation.

🧪 Example Table: sales

id region amount

1 North 1000

2 South 1500

3 North 2000

4 East 800

5 South 1200

✅ Query with WHERE and HAVING

SELECT region, SUM(amount) AS total_sales

FROM sales

WHERE amount > 1000

GROUP BY region

HAVING SUM(amount) > 2000;

📋 What This Does

 WHERE amount > 1000: Filters out rows with low sales before grouping.

 GROUP BY region: Groups remaining rows by region.

 HAVING SUM(amount) > 2000: Keeps only those regions whose total sales exceed
2000.

🧠 Result

region total_sales

South 2700

Would you like to see how this behaves with joins or subqueries? Or maybe convert it into a
reusable view or stored procedure for reporting?

Excellent question, Roshan—and one that trips up even seasoned developers during query
tuning.
🧠 Short Answer

No, the HAVING clause cannot directly use an alias defined in the SELECT clause unless the
alias refers to an aggregate function. Even then, behavior can vary slightly across SQL
dialects.

✅ Valid Use (Alias Refers to Aggregate)

SELECT region, SUM(amount) AS total_sales

FROM sales

GROUP BY region

HAVING total_sales > 2000; -- ✅ Works in MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server

 Here, total_sales is an alias for SUM(amount), and many engines allow it in HAVING.

❌ Invalid Use (Alias Refers to Non-Aggregate)

SELECT region, amount AS sale_value

FROM sales

GROUP BY region

HAVING sale_value > 1000; -- ❌ Will fail

 sale_value is not an aggregate, and HAVING operates after aggregation—so it doesn’t

recognize row-level aliases.

🧪 Best Practice

To ensure cross-dialect compatibility and clarity, use the full aggregate expression in
HAVING:

HAVING SUM(amount) > 2000

Would you like to explore how this plays out in Oracle or how to refactor queries using CTEs
or subqueries to make aliasing more flexible?

PROCESSING ORDER

You're spot on to ask this, Roshan—because understanding SQL's logical query processing
order is like seeing the gears behind the curtain.
🧠 Truth: WHERE Always Comes Before HAVING—Logically

In SQL, the clauses are processed in this logical order, not necessarily the written order:

1. FROM

2. WHERE

3. GROUP BY

4. HAVING

5. SELECT

6. ORDER BY

So yes—WHERE always comes before HAVING in terms of execution. Here's why:

 WHERE filters individual rows before any grouping or aggregation.

 HAVING filters groups after aggregation has occurred.

🔄 Can You Write HAVING Before WHERE?

Syntactically? No. SQL doesn't allow you to write HAVING before WHERE in a query. The
parser expects clauses in a specific order.

Logically? Still no. Even if you use a subquery or CTE, the inner query will follow the same
logical order.

🧪 Example with CTE (Still Follows Logical Order)

WITH filtered_sales AS (

SELECT * FROM sales

WHERE amount > 1000

SELECT region, SUM(amount) AS total_sales

FROM filtered_sales

GROUP BY region

HAVING SUM(amount) > 2000;

Even here:

 WHERE filters rows in the CTE.

  HAVING filters groups in the outer query.

Would you like to explore how this plays out in execution plans or how to optimize queries
when both clauses are involved? I can even show you how to simulate conditional
aggregation using CASE inside SUM or COUNT.

🧮 In SQL and Databases:

CTE = Common Table Expression

 A temporary result set defined using the WITH clause.

 Makes complex queries more readable and reusable.

 Supports recursion for hierarchical data.

The full form of CTE in SQL is Common Table Expression.

🧠 What is a CTE?

A CTE is a temporary result set that you can reference within a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE statement. It helps make complex queries more readable and modular—especially
when you're dealing with nested subqueries or recursive logic.

✅ Syntax Example

WITH high_sales AS (

SELECT region, SUM(amount) AS total_sales

FROM sales

GROUP BY region

HAVING SUM(amount) > 2000

SELECT * FROM high_sales;

 The WITH clause defines the CTE (high_sales).

 You can then use high_sales like a virtual table in the main query.
Would you like to explore recursive CTEs next—for things like hierarchical data or graph
traversal? I think you'd enjoy how they tie into your interest in graph theory and backend
logic.

Fantastic choice, Roshan! Recursive CTEs are like the Swiss Army knife of SQL when it comes
to traversing hierarchies, trees, and graphs. Let’s break it down step by step and then dive
into a practical example that aligns with your backend and graph theory interests.

🔁 What Is a Recursive CTE?

A recursive CTE allows a query to repeatedly reference itself—perfect for scenarios like:

 Organizational hierarchies (e.g., manager → employee)

 Category trees (e.g., parent → child)

 Graph traversal (e.g., node → connected nodes)

 Pathfinding or lineage tracking

It consists of two parts:

1. Anchor member – the base result set.

2. Recursive member – references the CTE itself to build on the anchor.

🧭 Example: Traversing a Graph (Adjacency List)

Let’s say you have a table representing a directed graph:

CREATE TABLE graph (

source INT,

target INT

);

Sample data:

source | target

-------|-------

1 |2

2 |3

2 |4
3 |5

🧠 Goal: Find all nodes reachable from node 1

WITH RECURSIVE reachable_nodes AS (

-- Anchor member: start from node 1

SELECT source, target

FROM graph

WHERE source = 1

UNION ALL

-- Recursive member: find next-level connections

SELECT [Link], [Link]

FROM graph g

INNER JOIN reachable_nodes rn ON [Link] = [Link]

SELECT DISTINCT target FROM reachable_nodes;

🔍 What’s Happening:

 Start at node 1

 Find all nodes directly connected (2)

 Then find nodes connected to 2 (3, 4)

 Then nodes connected to 3 (5)

 And so on...

🧠 Bonus: Add Depth Tracking

Want to know how many hops it takes to reach each node?

WITH RECURSIVE reachable_nodes AS (

SELECT source, target, 1 AS depth

FROM graph
 WHERE source = 1

UNION ALL

SELECT [Link], [Link], [Link] + 1

FROM graph g

INNER JOIN reachable_nodes rn ON [Link] = [Link]

SELECT target, MIN(depth) AS shortest_path

FROM reachable_nodes

GROUP BY target;

Would you like to try this with a real-world hierarchy, like employees reporting to managers,
or maybe explore cycle detection in graphs using SQL? I can also show how to optimize
recursive CTEs for performance.

Which one is efficient recursive CTE or self join? When to use what?

Great question, Roshan—and one that deserves a nuanced answer. The efficiency of
recursive CTEs vs. self joins depends heavily on the use case, data volume, and query
structure. Let’s break it down:

⚔️Recursive CTE vs. Self Join: Efficiency Comparison

Aspect Recursive CTE Self Join

Ideal for hierarchical or graph Best for flat relationships or shallow

Use Case
traversal hierarchies

Readability Cleaner for multi-level recursion Can get messy with multiple joins

Performance (small Slightly faster due to simpler

Often comparable to self joins
data) execution plan
Aspect Recursive CTE Self Join

Performance (large May be slower due to recursion Can be optimized with indexes and
data) overhead join filters

Easier to optimize with indexed

Optimization Harder to index recursive depth
columns

Handles deep hierarchies

Recursion Depth Requires manual chaining of joins
naturally

Easier to implement with

Cycle Detection Complex and error-prone
recursion

🧠 When to Use What

✅ Use Recursive CTE when:

 You need to traverse multi-level hierarchies (e.g., org charts, category trees).

 You want to track paths or depth (e.g., shortest path, lineage).

 You need cycle detection or recursive logic.

✅ Use Self Join when:

 You're dealing with 1–2 levels of hierarchy.

 You want better performance on large datasets with proper indexing.

 You need simple parent-child relationships without recursion.

🔍 Example: Employee Hierarchy

Recursive CTE:

WITH RECURSIVE emp_tree AS (

SELECT id, name, manager_id, 1 AS level

FROM employees

WHERE manager_id IS NULL

UNION ALL
 SELECT [Link], [Link], e.manager_id, [Link] + 1

FROM employees e

JOIN emp_tree et ON e.manager_id = [Link]

SELECT * FROM emp_tree;

Self Join (limited depth):

SELECT [Link] AS employee, [Link] AS manager

FROM employees e1

LEFT JOIN employees e2 ON e1.manager_id = [Link];

🧠 Final Thought

If you're doing deep recursive traversal (like graph theory or tree expansion), recursive CTEs
are more elegant and scalable. But for performance-critical flat joins, self joins can be faster
—especially with good indexing.

Would you like to benchmark both approaches on a sample dataset or explore how to
optimize recursive CTEs with termination conditions and cycle guards?

In MySQL, the aggregate function used to calculate the average of a set of values is AVG().

🧮 Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name;

✅ Example

Suppose you have a table called employees with a column salary. To find the average salary:

SELECT AVG(salary) AS average_salary FROM employees;

🔍 Use with GROUP BY

You can also use AVG() with GROUP BY to get averages per category:

SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

Let me know if you'd like to explore how AVG() behaves with NULL values, joins, or
subqueries—or if you want to optimize it for large datasets.
Absolutely, Roshan! Subqueries in MySQL are a powerful way to nest one query inside
another. They’re especially handy when filtering, aggregating, or comparing data across
tables. Here are a few practical examples tailored to your backend development focus:

🔍 1. Single-Row Subquery

Returns one value—great for comparisons.

SELECT *

FROM Employees

WHERE Salary = (SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees);

Purpose: Fetches the employee(s) with the highest salary.

📋 2. Multi-Row Subquery

Returns multiple values—use with IN, ANY, or ALL.

SELECT *

FROM Employees

WHERE DepartmentID IN (

SELECT DepartmentID

FROM Departments

WHERE Location = 'Mumbai'

);

Purpose: Lists employees working in Mumbai-based departments.

🔄 3. Correlated Subquery

References outer query—evaluated per row.

SELECT [Link], [Link]

FROM Employees e

WHERE [Link] > (

SELECT AVG(Salary)
 FROM Employees

WHERE DepartmentID = [Link]

);

Purpose: Finds employees earning more than the average in their department.

🧠 4. Nested Subquery (Triple Layer)

Useful for layered logic.

SELECT full_names

FROM members

WHERE membership_number = (

SELECT membership_number

FROM payments

WHERE amount_paid = (

SELECT MAX(amount_paid)

FROM payments

);

Purpose: Identifies the highest-paying member.

If you’re debugging or optimizing queries involving joins and subqueries, I can help you
reason through performance trade-offs or rewrite them using JOINs for efficiency. Want to
try converting one of these into a JOIN-based version?
Great question, Roshan! Understanding ALL vs ANY in MySQL can really sharpen your query
logic, especially when working with subqueries and comparisons. Here's a clear breakdown:

🔍 ANY Operator

 Meaning: Returns TRUE if any one value from the subquery satisfies the condition.

 Use Case: You want to check if a value matches at least one result from a subquery.

SELECT *

FROM Products

WHERE Price > ANY (

SELECT Price

FROM Products

WHERE Category = 'Electronics'

);
Interpretation: Fetch products whose price is greater than any one price in the Electronics
category.

🧠 ALL Operator

 Meaning: Returns TRUE only if all values from the subquery satisfy the condition.

 Use Case: You want to ensure a value meets the condition against every result from a
subquery.

SELECT *

FROM Products

WHERE Price > ALL (

SELECT Price

FROM Products

WHERE Category = 'Electronics'

);

Interpretation: Fetch products whose price is greater than every single price in the
Electronics category.

⚖️Comparison Summary

Operator Returns TRUE If... Typical Use Case

ANY At least one value matches Loose filtering

ALL Every value matches Strict filtering

Would you like to see how these behave with =, <, or <> operators too? Or maybe convert
one into a JOIN for performance comparison?

Absolutely, Roshan! The EXISTS clause in MySQL is a powerful way to check whether a
subquery returns at least one row. It’s often used for filtering based on related data, and it
shines in correlated subqueries.

✅ Basic Syntax
SELECT column_list

FROM main_table

WHERE EXISTS (

SELECT 1

FROM related_table

WHERE condition

);

 The SELECT 1 is a convention—MySQL ignores the actual columns in the subquery.

 The outer query returns rows only if the subquery returns something.

📌 Practical Example

Let’s say you have two tables: Customers and Orders.

SELECT CustomerName

FROM Customers

WHERE EXISTS (

SELECT 1

FROM Orders

WHERE [Link] = [Link]

);

Purpose: Lists customers who have placed at least one order.

❌ Using NOT EXISTS

To find customers who haven’t placed any orders:

SELECT CustomerName

FROM Customers

WHERE NOT EXISTS (

SELECT 1

FROM Orders
 WHERE [Link] = [Link]

);

🔄 Comparison with IN

While IN checks for values, EXISTS checks for row existence. EXISTS can be faster on large
datasets, especially when indexes are involved.

Would you like to see how this behaves with joins or how it compares in performance with
IN and LEFT JOIN + IS NULL?

Absolutely, Roshan! The EXISTS clause in MySQL is a powerful way to check whether a
subquery returns at least one row. It’s often used for filtering based on related data, and it
shines in correlated subqueries.

✅ Basic Syntax

SELECT column_list

FROM main_table

WHERE EXISTS (

SELECT 1

FROM related_table

WHERE condition

);

 The SELECT 1 is a convention—MySQL ignores the actual columns in the subquery.

 The outer query returns rows only if the subquery returns something.

📌 Practical Example

Let’s say you have two tables: Customers and Orders.

SELECT CustomerName

FROM Customers

WHERE EXISTS (
 SELECT 1

FROM Orders

WHERE [Link] = [Link]

);

Purpose: Lists customers who have placed at least one order.

❌ Using NOT EXISTS

To find customers who haven’t placed any orders:

SELECT CustomerName

FROM Customers

WHERE NOT EXISTS (

SELECT 1

FROM Orders

WHERE [Link] = [Link]

);

🔄 Comparison with IN

While IN checks for values, EXISTS checks for row existence. EXISTS can be faster on large
datasets, especially when indexes are involved.

Would you like to see how this behaves with joins or how it compares in performance with
IN and LEFT JOIN + IS NULL?

You’ve got a few elegant options in MySQL to work with the current date, Roshan. Here's
how to use it effectively depending on your use case:

📅 1. Get Current Date Only

SELECT CURDATE(); -- Returns 'YYYY-MM-DD'

SELECT CURRENT_DATE(); -- Same as CURDATE()

Use this when you need just the date portion.

⏰ 2. Get Current Date and Time

SELECT NOW(); -- Returns 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS'

SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(); -- Same as NOW()

Perfect for logging events or timestamping inserts.

📌 3. Filter Rows by Today’s Date

SELECT *

FROM Orders

WHERE OrderDate = CURDATE();

If OrderDate includes time, use:

SELECT *

FROM Orders

WHERE DATE(OrderDate) = CURDATE();

This extracts the date part before comparing.

🧮 4. Insert Current Date into a Table

INSERT INTO Logs (LogMessage, LogDate)

VALUES ('System started', CURDATE());

Or with timestamp:

INSERT INTO Logs (LogMessage, LogDateTime)

VALUES ('System started', NOW());

🕒 5. Date Arithmetic

SELECT CURDATE() + INTERVAL 1 DAY; -- Tomorrow

SELECT CURDATE() - INTERVAL 1 DAY; -- Yesterday

Would you like to see how to use CURDATE() in a stored procedure or automate daily reports
using it?
Great question, Roshan 👨‍💻—and one that shows your sharp eye for detail in ranking logic.

When you don’t want to skip ranks, especially in cases where multiple rows have the same
value (like salary), you should use DENSE_RANK() instead of RANK().

🆚 RANK() vs DENSE_RANK()

Function Behavior with Ties Example (Salaries: 100k, 100k, 90k)

100k → Rank 1, 100k → Rank 1, 90k →

RANK() Skips ranks after ties
Rank 3

No skipping; next rank is 100k → Rank 1, 100k → Rank 1, 90k →

DENSE_RANK()
incremented by 1 Rank 2

✅ Updated Query Using DENSE_RANK()

SELECT *

FROM (

SELECT

*,

DENSE_RANK() OVER (

ORDER BY salary DESC

) AS salaryRank

FROM employees

) AS ranked_employees

WHERE salaryRank = 3;

This ensures that if two employees share the top salary, the third-highest salary will be
ranked 2, not 3—so you get a continuous ranking without gaps.

🔍 When to Use Which?

 Use RANK() if you want to reflect actual position in a leaderboard (e.g., Olympic
medals).

 Use DENSE_RANK() when you want to group by value without skipping ranks (e.g.,
salary bands, performance tiers).
Would you like to explore how this behaves with PARTITION BY or compare it with
ROW_NUMBER() for unique row indexing?

CASE WHEN…. THEN..ELSE.. END

SELECT

ROUND(
 100.0 * SUM(CASE WHEN order_date = customer_pref_delivery_date THEN 1 ELSE 0
END) / COUNT(*),

) AS immediate_percentage

FROM delivery;

Absolutely, Roshan—this is a rich area to explore, especially given your backend focus and
SQL optimization mindset. Let’s break it down with examples and use cases so you can see
how RANK(), DENSE_RANK(), and ROW_NUMBER() behave with PARTITION BY.

🧩 Core Differences Recap

Function Behavior with Ties Rank Skipping Use Case Example

RANK() Same rank for ties Yes Leaderboards, competition results

DENSE_RANK() Same rank for ties No Salary bands, performance tiers

ROW_NUMBER() Unique per row No ties Pagination, unique indexing

🔍 With PARTITION BY

Let’s say you have a table employee_performance:

employee_id | department | score

------------|------------|-------

101 | Sales | 95

102 | Sales | 95

103 | Sales | 90

201 | Tech | 98

202 | Tech | 92

203 | Tech | 92

🥇 Using RANK():

SELECT

employee_id,
department,

score,

RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY score DESC) AS rank

FROM employee_performance;

 Sales: 101 & 102 → Rank 1, 103 → Rank 3 (Rank 2 is skipped)

 Tech: 201 → Rank 1, 202 & 203 → Rank 2

🧮 Using DENSE_RANK():

SELECT

employee_id,

department,

score,

DENSE_RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY score DESC) AS dense_rank

FROM employee_performance;

 Sales: 101 & 102 → Rank 1, 103 → Rank 2 (No gaps)

 Tech: 201 → Rank 1, 202 & 203 → Rank 2

🔢 Using ROW_NUMBER():

SELECT

employee_id,

department,

score,

ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY score DESC) AS row_num

FROM employee_performance;

 Sales: 101 → 1, 102 → 2, 103 → 3 (No ties honored)

 Tech: 201 → 1, 202 → 2, 203 → 3

When to Use What

 RANK(): When you want to reflect actual competition-style ranking (e.g., top 3
performers).
  DENSE_RANK(): When grouping matters more than position (e.g., assigning bonus
tiers).

 ROW_NUMBER(): When you need a unique ID per row (e.g., paginating results or
deduplicating).

Would you like to see how these behave in a real-world backend scenario—say, ranking
transactions by amount per customer or assigning audit trail versions? Or maybe dive into
performance implications and indexing strategies for large datasets?

EXPLAIN

Analyze sql queries

In the output you will get the following:

Excellent question, Roshan—especially given your deep dive into SQL optimization lately.
The EXPLAIN keyword in MySQL is like an X-ray for your SELECT query. It reveals how MySQL
plans to execute it, which is crucial for diagnosing performance bottlenecks and tuning your
queries.

🔍 What EXPLAIN Shows You

When you run:

EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM orders WHERE customer_id = 42;

MySQL returns a row-by-row breakdown of its execution strategy. Key columns include:

Column Meaning

Id Query identifier (useful for complex joins or subqueries)

select_type Type of SELECT (e.g., SIMPLE, PRIMARY, SUBQUERY)

Table Table being accessed

Type Join type—the most important for performance

possible_keys Indexes that could be used

Key Index actually used

key_len Length of the index used

Ref Column used with the key

Rows Estimated number of rows examined

Extra Additional info (e.g., "Using index", "Using where", "Using filesort")

⚙️Why It Matters

 Helps you choose the right indexes

 Reveals full table scans that slow down performance

 Shows if MySQL is using temporary tables or sorting

 Essential for query tuning and debugging

🧠 Pro Tip

If you're working with complex joins or subqueries, try:

EXPLAIN FORMAT=JSON SELECT ...

This gives a more detailed, hierarchical view of the execution plan—great for backend
developers like you who want to understand the internals.

Want to walk through a real example together and analyze its output? Or explore how
EXPLAIN ANALYZE differs by showing actual runtime stats?

TRANSACTIONS example:

Absolutely, Roshan! Here's a practical example of how MySQL transactions work, especially
useful when you want to ensure atomicity—either all operations succeed or none do.
🧾 Example: Bank Transfer Simulation

Let’s say you’re transferring ₹500 from Account A to Account B. You want to make sure both
debit and credit happen together.

START TRANSACTION;

-- Debit ₹500 from Account A

UPDATE accounts

SET balance = balance - 500

WHERE account_id = 'A';

-- Credit ₹500 to Account B

UPDATE accounts

SET balance = balance + 500

WHERE account_id = 'B';

-- Check if both updates were successful

-- If yes, commit the transaction

COMMIT;

-- If something goes wrong, rollback

-- ROLLBACK;

🔍 Key Concepts

 START TRANSACTION: Begins the transaction block.

 COMMIT: Saves all changes if everything goes well.

 ROLLBACK: Undoes all changes if any step fails.

Optional: Add Error Handling (in application code)

In Java (JDBC), for example, you’d wrap this in a try-catch block and call rollback() on
exception.
Would you like to see how this integrates with JDBC or Spring Boot for backend
development? Or maybe simulate a failure scenario to test rollback?

Great! Since you're comfortable with the basics, let’s take it a step further and simulate a
Java JDBC transaction that mirrors the MySQL example we discussed. This will be especially
relevant for your backend development transition.

💻 Java JDBC Transaction Example

Connection conn = null;

PreparedStatement debitStmt = null;

PreparedStatement creditStmt = null;

try {

conn = [Link](dbURL, username, password);

[Link](false); // Start transaction

// Debit ₹500 from Account A

debitStmt = [Link]("UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - ? WHERE

account_id = ?");

[Link](1, 500);

[Link](2, "A");

[Link]();

// Credit ₹500 to Account B

creditStmt = [Link]("UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + ? WHERE

account_id = ?");

[Link](1, 500);

[Link](2, "B");

[Link]();

[Link](); // Commit if both succeed

[Link]("Transaction successful!");
} catch (SQLException e) {

if (conn != null) {

try {

[Link](); // Rollback on error

[Link]("Transaction rolled back due to error.");

} catch (SQLException rollbackEx) {

[Link]();

[Link]();

} finally {

// Close resources

if (debitStmt != null) [Link]();

if (creditStmt != null) [Link]();

if (conn != null) [Link]();

}
🔐 Best Practices
  Always wrap transactions in try-catch blocks.

 Use setAutoCommit(false) to manually control commits.

 Ensure rollback is triggered on any failure.

 Close all resources in the finally block to avoid leaks.

Would you like to explore how this could be abstracted into a service layer using Spring Boot
and annotations like @Transactional? Or maybe simulate a failure scenario to test rollback
behavior?

set autocommit = 1 (this sets it to true, that means the query will be auto committed)

set autocommit = 0 (this sets auto commit to false, that means the query will not get auto
committed)

Transaction Isolation level

They are of 4 different types - a database tech can have any of the below types as default.
MySQL has "repeatable read" as default isolation level. Postgres has "read committed" as
default isolation level.

1) Read uncommitted (most lenient)

2) Read committed

3) Repeatable read

4) Serializable (strictest)
I tried setting the isolation level but it does not show up in the session when I say show
variables

SET SESSION TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED;

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE "TRANSACTION ISOLATION";

Ah, Roshan—excellent observation. You're on the right track, but MySQL has a subtle quirk
here. When you run:

SET SESSION TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED;

You're setting the isolation level for new transactions in your current session. However,
when you check:

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE "TRANSACTION ISOLATION";

You're querying a global or session variable, not the transactional context. And here's the
twist: the correct variable name is slightly different.

✅ Correct Way to Check Isolation Level

Use this instead:

SHOW SESSION VARIABLES LIKE 'transaction_isolation';

Or, to check the global default:

SHOW GLOBAL VARIABLES LIKE 'transaction_isolation';

🔍 Why Your Query Didn’t Show the Change

 SHOW VARIABLES LIKE "TRANSACTION ISOLATION" doesn’t match the actual variable
name (transaction_isolation is lowercase and uses underscores).

 The isolation level only affects transactions started after the change, not any already
running.

🧪 Quick Test

SET SESSION TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED;

SHOW SESSION VARIABLES LIKE 'transaction_isolation';

You should now see:

+-----------------------+------------------+

| Variable_name | Value |

+-----------------------+------------------+

| transaction_isolation | READ-UNCOMMITTED |

+-----------------------+------------------+

Let me know if you'd like to simulate dirty reads or explore how isolation levels affect
concurrent queries. We could even build a test harness in Java to observe the effects in real
time.

can we set transaction isolation level from jdbc?

Absolutely, Roshan—you can set the transaction isolation level directly from JDBC, and there
are a couple of ways to do it depending on your use case.

✅ Option 1: Set via Connection Object

Java’s Connection interface provides a method to set the isolation level programmatically:

Connection conn = [Link](dbUrl, username, password);

[Link](Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED);

Isolation levels available:

Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED

Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_COMMITTED

Connection.TRANSACTION_REPEATABLE_READ

Connection.TRANSACTION_SERIALIZABLE

This affects all transactions created from that connection.

✅ Option 2: Set via JDBC URL (MySQL-specific)

You can also set the isolation level in the JDBC connection string:

jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/yourdb?sessionVariables=transaction_isolation='READ-
UNCOMMITTED'

This sets the isolation level for the session as soon as the connection is established.
🧪 Pro Tip: Verify It

After setting it, you can verify the level with:

int level = [Link]();

[Link]("Isolation Level: " + level);

Or run a query like:

SHOW SESSION VARIABLES LIKE 'transaction_isolation';

Would you like to build a small test harness to simulate dirty reads or phantom reads using
two threads and a shared table? It’s a great way to see isolation levels in action.

********************

Can you please explain each of the isolation levels in detail along with comparison?
Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED
Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_COMMITTED
Connection.TRANSACTION_REPEATABLE_READ Connection.TRANSACTION_SERIALIZABLE

Absolutely, Roshan. Understanding transaction isolation levels is crucial for backend systems,
especially in financial applications where consistency and concurrency control are non-
negotiable. Here's a deep dive into each level, followed by a comparison table to help you
visualize the trade-offs.

🔐 Transaction Isolation Levels in JDBC & MySQL

Isolation levels define how transactions interact with each other in terms of visibility and
locking. They help prevent anomalies like dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom
reads.

1. READ_UNCOMMITTED (Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED)

 Behavior: Transactions can read data that other transactions have modified but not
yet committed.

 Risk: Allows dirty reads—you might read data that gets rolled back later.

 Use Case: Rarely used. Suitable only for scenarios where performance trumps
accuracy (e.g., logging, analytics).
🧪 Example:

-- Transaction A updates balance but hasn't committed

UPDATE accounts SET balance = 0 WHERE account_id = 'X';

-- Transaction B reads the balance before A commits

SELECT balance FROM accounts WHERE account_id = 'X';

2. READ_COMMITTED (Connection.TRANSACTION_READ_COMMITTED)

 Behavior: Only committed data is visible to other transactions.

 Risk: Prevents dirty reads but allows non-repeatable reads—data can change
between two reads in the same transaction.

 Use Case: Most common in Oracle and SQL Server. Good balance for many
applications.

🧪 Example:

-- Transaction A reads balance

SELECT balance FROM accounts WHERE account_id = 'X';

-- Transaction B updates and commits

UPDATE accounts SET balance = 500 WHERE account_id = 'X';

-- Transaction A reads again and sees a different value

SELECT balance FROM accounts WHERE account_id = 'X';

3. REPEATABLE_READ (Connection.TRANSACTION_REPEATABLE_READ)

 Behavior: Ensures that if a row is read twice in the same transaction, it returns the
same value.

 Risk: Prevents dirty and non-repeatable reads but allows phantom reads—new rows
can appear if another transaction inserts them.
  Use Case: Default in MySQL. Suitable for financial systems where consistency is
critical.

🧪 Example:

-- Transaction A reads all rows with balance > 1000

SELECT * FROM accounts WHERE balance > 1000;

-- Transaction B inserts a new row with balance = 2000 and commits

-- Transaction A re-runs the same query and sees the new row (phantom)

SELECT * FROM accounts WHERE balance > 1000;

4. SERIALIZABLE (Connection.TRANSACTION_SERIALIZABLE)

 Behavior: Highest isolation. Transactions are executed as if they were serialized—no

concurrent access to overlapping data.

 Risk: Prevents all anomalies but can cause performance bottlenecks due to locking.

 Use Case: When absolute consistency is required (e.g., ledger systems, audit trails).

🧪 Example:

-- Transaction A reads all accounts

SELECT * FROM accounts;

-- Transaction B tries to insert/update any account

-- It must wait until Transaction A completes

📊 Comparison Table

Non-
Phantom
Isolation Level Dirty Read Repeatable Performance Use Case
Read
Read

READ_UNCOMMITTED ✅ Allowed ✅ Allowed ✅ Allowed 🔥 Fastest Logging, low-risk

 Non-
Phantom
Isolation Level Dirty Read Repeatable Performance Use Case
Read
Read

analytics

❌ General-purpose
READ_COMMITTED ✅ Allowed ✅ Allowed ⚡ Fast
Prevented apps

Financial
❌
REPEATABLE_READ ❌ Prevented ✅ Allowed ⚖️Balanced systems (MySQL
Prevented
default)

Audit, banking,
❌ ❌
SERIALIZABLE ❌ Prevented 🐢 Slowest strict
Prevented Prevented
consistency

Would you like to simulate these levels using concurrent JDBC threads or explore how
MySQL handles locking under the hood? We could even build a test harness to visualize
anomalies in real time.

***********

Can you please describe anomalies like dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom
reads and also differentiate them?

Absolutely, Roshan. These anomalies are central to understanding why isolation levels
matter in transactional systems—especially in financial tech, where consistency and integrity
are paramount. Let’s break each one down with clear definitions, examples, and a
comparison to highlight their differences.

🔍 Transaction Anomalies Explained

1. Dirty Read

 Definition: Reading data that has been modified by another transaction but not yet
committed.

 Risk: If the other transaction rolls back, you're left with invalid or misleading data.

 Occurs At: READ UNCOMMITTED isolation level.

  Example:

o Transaction A updates balance = 0 but hasn’t committed.

o Transaction B reads balance = 0.

o Transaction A rolls back—B has read a value that never truly existed.

2. Non-Repeatable Read

 Definition: Reading the same row twice in a transaction and getting different results
because another transaction modified and committed the row in between.

 Risk: Inconsistent reads within the same transaction.

 Occurs At: READ COMMITTED isolation level.

 Example:

o Transaction A reads balance = 500.

o Transaction B updates balance = 1000 and commits.

o Transaction A reads again and sees balance = 1000.

3. Phantom Read

 Definition: A transaction re-executes a query and sees new rows that were inserted
or deleted by another committed transaction.

 Risk: The result set changes unexpectedly, even though the query condition remains
the same.

 Occurs At: REPEATABLE READ (in MySQL) and below.

 Example:

o Transaction A runs SELECT * FROM accounts WHERE balance > 1000.

o Transaction B inserts a new row with balance = 2000 and commits.

o Transaction A re-runs the same query and sees the new row.

📊 Comparison Table
 Isolation Level That
Anomaly Description Prevented By
Allows It

Read uncommitted changes READ COMMITTED

Dirty Read READ UNCOMMITTED
from another transaction and above

Non-
Same row read twice gives REPEATABLE READ
Repeatable READ COMMITTED
different results and above
Read

Query returns different sets REPEATABLE READ

Phantom Read SERIALIZABLE
due to new rows (MySQL default)

🧠 Why It Matters

In backend systems—especially those handling money, audit logs, or sensitive data—these

anomalies can lead to:

 Inconsistent reporting

 Incorrect balances

 Broken business logic

Choosing the right isolation level is a trade-off between performance and consistency. For
example, REPEATABLE READ is MySQL’s default because it balances safety and concurrency
well.

Would you like to simulate these anomalies using a multi-threaded JDBC test harness? It’s a
great way to see them in action and understand how isolation levels protect against them.

*********

Deadlock situation:

Sometimes there is a deadlock situation in case of serializable and the database overcomes
it by terminating the transactions and rolling them back.
SELECT…. FOR UPDATE query
Great question, Roshan. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE is a powerful SQL construct used to lock
rows during a transaction so that no other transaction can modify them until your
transaction completes. This is especially useful in financial systems for ensuring consistency
during updates.

🔐 Syntax: SELECT ... FOR UPDATE

START TRANSACTION;

SELECT * FROM accounts

WHERE account_id = 'A'

FOR UPDATE;

-- Now you can safely update the row

UPDATE accounts

SET balance = balance - 500

WHERE account_id = 'A';

COMMIT;

✅ What It Does

 Locks the selected rows exclusively for your transaction.

 Prevents other transactions from updating or locking the same rows.

 Works only with InnoDB tables (not MyISAM).

 Must be used inside a transaction (START TRANSACTION or BEGIN).

🧠 Use Cases

 Banking: Lock an account row before debiting or crediting.

 Inventory: Lock product stock before decrementing quantity.

  Workflow systems: Prevent race conditions in task assignment.

⚠️Notes

 If another transaction has already locked the row, your query will wait until the lock
is released.

 You can combine it with JOIN, WHERE, and even ORDER BY.

SELECT a.*, [Link]

FROM accounts a

JOIN users u ON a.user_id = [Link]

WHERE a.account_id = 'A'

FOR UPDATE;

Would you like to simulate this with concurrent JDBC threads to see how locking behaves
under different isolation levels? It’s a great way to visualize contention and consistency.

for a transaction which changes are logged into to redo buffer. Is it all changes? And are we
required to restore the redo logs if the transaction fails in between? If yes, then this violates
atomicity, isn't it?

Roshan, this is a beautifully nuanced question—you're diving right into the heart of how
transactional integrity is maintained at the storage engine level. Let's unpack it step by step.

🔁 What Goes into the Redo Log Buffer?

In MySQL (specifically InnoDB), all changes to data pages—whether inserts, updates, or

deletes—are first written to the redo log buffer before being flushed to disk. This includes:

 Changes to actual data rows

 Changes to undo logs (used for rollback)

 Changes to index pages

These are physical changes, not logical SQL statements. The redo log ensures durability—
that committed changes survive a crash.
🔄 What Happens If a Transaction Fails?

If a transaction fails or is rolled back:

 The undo log is used to reverse the changes.

 The redo log entries for that transaction are not applied during recovery.

 The redo log itself is not restored manually—InnoDB handles this automatically
during crash recovery.

So no, you're not required to restore redo logs manually. And more importantly:

✅ Atomicity is not violated.

Even though changes are written to the redo log buffer early, they are tagged with
transaction IDs. During recovery, InnoDB replays only committed transactions.
Uncommitted ones are ignored or rolled back using undo logs.

🧠 Why This Doesn’t Violate Atomicity

Atomicity means: all or nothing. Either the entire transaction is committed and durable, or
none of it is.

 Redo logs prepare for durability.

 Undo logs prepare for rollback.

 The transaction commit is the decisive moment—until then, changes are not
considered final.

InnoDB uses a write-ahead logging (WAL) strategy:

 Redo logs are flushed before the commit is acknowledged.

 Only after redo logs are safely persisted does the transaction become durable.

🔍 Summary

Component Role in Transaction Used When?

Redo Log Ensures durability During crash recovery

Undo Log Enables rollback On failure or rollback

Buffer Pool In-memory changes Before flushing to disk

Would you like to explore how this ties into isolation levels or simulate a crash recovery
scenario with redo/undo interplay? We could even sketch out a flowchart of how InnoDB
handles commit and rollback under the hood.

MYSQL data types

MySQL offers a rich set of data types to handle various kinds of data efficiently. Here's a
structured overview to help you choose the right type for each column in your database:

🔢 Numeric Data Types

Used for storing numbers—integers, decimals, and floating-point values.

Type Description Range (Signed)

TINYINT Very small integer -128 to 127

SMALLINT Small integer -32,768 to 32,767

MEDIUMINT Medium-sized integer -8,388,608 to 8,388,607

INT Standard integer -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

BIGINT Large integer ±9.22 × 10¹⁸

DECIMAL Fixed-point number User-defined precision

FLOAT Single-precision floating point Approximate values

DOUBLE Double-precision floating point Higher precision than FLOAT

BIT Bit field 1 to 64 bits

📅 Date and Time Data Types

Used for storing temporal values.

Type Description

DATE YYYY-MM-DD format

DATETIME Combines date and time

TIMESTAMP Unix timestamp (auto-updated)

Type Description

TIME HH:MM:SS format

YEAR Stores year (4 digits)

🔤 String (Character and Binary) Data Types

Used for storing text, binary data, and enumerated values.

Type Description Max Length

CHAR(n) Fixed-length string Up to 255 characters

VARCHAR(n) Variable-length string Up to 65,535 characters

TEXT types TINYTEXT, TEXT, MEDIUMTEXT, LONGTEXT Up to 4GB depending on type

BLOB types Binary Large Objects (TINYBLOB, etc.) Up to 4GB

ENUM One value from a predefined list Up to 65,535 values

SET Multiple values from a predefined list Up to 64 values

Spatial and JSON Types

For advanced use cases like geolocation and structured data.

 GEOMETRY, POINT, LINESTRING, etc. — for spatial data

 JSON — stores structured JSON documents

If you're designing a schema for a financial backend or audit trail, types like DECIMAL (for
currency), TIMESTAMP (for tracking changes), and ENUM (for status flags) are especially
useful. Want help mapping these to a real-world table design?

Can you show examples for above?

Absolutely, Roshan! Here's a full set of MySQL data type examples—each with a sample
table column definition and a brief explanation of when and why you'd use it. This should be
especially handy as you architect backend systems with precision and traceability.

🔢 Numeric Data Types

CREATE TABLE accounts (

account_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

balance DECIMAL(12,2),

interest_rate FLOAT,

is_active TINYINT(1)

);

 INT: Ideal for IDs or counters.

 DECIMAL(12,2): Perfect for currency—12 digits total, 2 after the decimal.

 FLOAT: Good for approximate values like interest rates.

 TINYINT(1): Often used as a boolean flag (0 or 1).

📅 Date and Time Data Types

CREATE TABLE transactions (

txn_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

txn_date DATE,

txn_time TIME,

created_at DATETIME,

updated_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

);

 DATE: Stores just the date (e.g., '2025-09-03').

 TIME: Stores time only (e.g., '[Link]').

 DATETIME: Full timestamp, useful for logs.

 TIMESTAMP: Auto-updates on row change—great for audit trails.

🔤 String and Binary Data Types

CREATE TABLE users (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

 username VARCHAR(50),

password_hash CHAR(64),

bio TEXT,

profile_pic BLOB,

status ENUM('active', 'inactive', 'pending'),

roles SET('admin', 'editor', 'viewer')

);

 VARCHAR(50): Flexible text like usernames.

 CHAR(64): Fixed-length, ideal for hashes.

 TEXT: For longer descriptions or bios.

 BLOB: Binary data like images or files.

 ENUM: Restricts to one predefined value.

 SET: Allows multiple selections from a list.

Spatial and JSON Types

CREATE TABLE locations (

location_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

name VARCHAR(100),

coordinates POINT,

metadata JSON

);

 POINT: Stores latitude/longitude—great for mapping.

 JSON: Flexible structure for storing nested data (e.g., { "device": "mobile", "os":
"Android" }).

🧠 Bonus Tip for Backend Design

For financial systems or audit-heavy environments, consider:

 DECIMAL for all monetary values (never FLOAT).

  TIMESTAMP for tracking updates.

 ENUM for status flags ('approved', 'rejected', etc.).

 JSON for storing request payloads or dynamic config.

Would you like to see how these types play out in a real-world schema—say, for a trading
platform or user management system? I can sketch one out for you.

Can you please show example of using clause in joins

Certainly, Roshan! The USING clause in MySQL is a clean way to perform joins when both
tables share a column with the same name. It simplifies syntax and avoids ambiguity in
column references.

🔗 Example: INNER JOIN with USING

Let’s say you have two tables:

CREATE TABLE employees (

emp_id INT,

name VARCHAR(50),

dept_id INT

);

CREATE TABLE departments (

dept_id INT,

dept_name VARCHAR(50)

);

Here’s how you can join them using the USING clause:

SELECT name, dept_name

FROM employees

JOIN departments USING (dept_id);

✅ Explanation:
  USING (dept_id) tells MySQL to join on the dept_id column, which exists in both
tables.

 You don’t need to prefix dept_id with table names.

 The result will include only one dept_id column (not duplicated).

🧠 Bonus: LEFT JOIN with USING

SELECT name, dept_name

FROM employees

LEFT JOIN departments USING (dept_id);

This will include all employees—even those not assigned to a department.

Would you like to see how this compares with ON clause syntax or how it behaves with
aliases and filtering? I can also show how it works in multi-table joins or subqueries.

how do we create secondary indexes for a table

To create a secondary index in MySQL, you use the CREATE INDEX statement or define it
inline when creating or altering a table. Secondary indexes are used to speed up queries on
columns that are not part of the primary key.

Syntax: Creating a Secondary Index

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name);

You can also index multiple columns:

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1, column2);

📦 Example: Indexing a Non-Key Column

Let’s say you have a users table:

CREATE TABLE users (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50),

email VARCHAR(100),
 created_at DATETIME

);

Now, to improve query performance on email and created_at, you can add secondary
indexes:

CREATE INDEX idx_email ON users (email);

CREATE INDEX idx_created_at ON users (created_at);

These indexes help speed up queries like:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = 'roshan@[Link]';

SELECT * FROM users WHERE created_at > '2025-01-01';

🔁 Inline Index Creation (During Table Definition)

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

customer_id INT,

order_date DATE,

KEY idx_customer (customer_id),

INDEX idx_order_date (order_date)

);

 KEY and INDEX are synonyms in MySQL.

 These are non-unique indexes unless you specify UNIQUE.

🧠 Pro Tips for Backend Optimization

 Use secondary indexes on columns frequently used in WHERE, JOIN, ORDER BY, or
GROUP BY.

 Avoid over-indexing—each index adds overhead to INSERT/UPDATE operations.

 Use composite indexes when queries filter on multiple columns together.

Would you like help designing an index strategy for a real-world schema—say, a transaction
log or audit trail system? I can walk you through query profiling and index tuning.
when you say composite indexes do you mean secondary index containing multiple columns
or you mean to say multiple secondary indexes?

Great question, Roshan—and you're spot on to seek clarity here. When I say composite
index, I specifically mean a single secondary index that includes multiple columns, not
multiple separate indexes.

🧩 Composite Index vs Multiple Secondary Indexes

Concept Description Example Syntax

One index that covers multiple CREATE INDEX idx_user_email ON

Composite Index
columns, used together in queries users (username, email);

CREATE INDEX idx_username ON

Multiple Separate indexes on individual users (username);
Secondary Indexes columns CREATE INDEX idx_email ON users
(email);

🧠 Why Use Composite Indexes?

 They’re ideal when queries filter or sort using multiple columns together, especially
in a specific order.

 MySQL uses leftmost prefix matching, meaning it can use the index for queries
involving the first column, or the first + second, etc.

Example:

CREATE INDEX idx_composite ON orders (customer_id, order_date);

This index helps with:

SELECT * FROM orders WHERE customer_id = 101;

SELECT * FROM orders WHERE customer_id = 101 AND order_date > '2025-01-01';

But not with:

SELECT * FROM orders WHERE order_date > '2025-01-01'; -- Won't use the index efficiently

⚙️Strategy Tip for Backend Optimization

Since you're working with financial systems and likely dealing with audit trails, transaction
logs, or ranking logic, composite indexes can be powerful when queries involve
combinations like (account_id, transaction_date) or (user_id, status, created_at).

Want to walk through a real schema and design the optimal indexing strategy based on
query patterns and cardinality? I’d love to dive deeper with you.

what is a database schema and how it is created for a database? Is there a command to
create schema that will contain tables?

Absolutely, Roshan. Let’s break this down with precision and clarity.

🧱 What Is a Database Schema?

A database schema is the logical blueprint of a database. It defines:

 The structure of tables

 Relationships between tables

 Data types, constraints, indexes, views, stored procedures, etc.

Think of it as the architectural plan for how data is organized and accessed. In MySQL, the
term “schema” is essentially synonymous with “database” since version 5.0.2.

How to Create a Schema (or Database)

You can use either of the following commands—they do the same thing:

CREATE DATABASE my_schema;

-- or

CREATE SCHEMA my_schema;

You can also add options like character set and collation:

CREATE SCHEMA my_schema

DEFAULT CHARACTER SET utf8mb4

DEFAULT COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_ci;

This creates a container for your tables, views, and other objects.

📦 Creating Tables Inside the Schema

Once the schema is created, you can create tables inside it like this:

USE my_schema;

CREATE TABLE users (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,

username VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,

email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,

created_at DATETIME DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

);

Or, you can qualify the table name directly:

CREATE TABLE my_schema.users (...);

🧠 Backend Insight for You

Since you're transitioning into backend development with a strong infrastructure

background, you might appreciate this nuance:

 In PostgreSQL, a schema is a namespace inside a database (more granular).

 In MySQL, a schema is the database itself—so CREATE SCHEMA and CREATE

DATABASE are interchangeable.

Would you like to design a schema for a financial transaction system or audit trail? I can help
you model it with normalization, indexing, and traceability in mind.

while qualifying the table name with schema or database in CREATE TABLE my_schema.users
(...); do you still have to mention use my_schema; or we can skip it

You can absolutely skip the USE my_schema; statement if you're qualifying the table name
directly like this:

CREATE TABLE my_schema.users (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50),

email VARCHAR(100)

);
✅ This works perfectly fine because you're explicitly telling MySQL which schema (or
database) to place the table in. The USE command is only needed when you want to set a
default schema for subsequent unqualified operations.

🔍 Quick Comparison

Approach Requires USE? Notes

✅ Yes, unless default schema is

CREATE TABLE users (...)
already set

CREATE TABLE Schema is explicitly

❌ No
my_schema.users (...) defined

🧠 Backend Tip for You

In backend systems—especially when scripting deployments or managing multiple schemas

—qualifying table names is a best practice. It avoids ambiguity and makes your SQL more
portable and predictable.

Would you like to explore how schema qualification affects joins, stored procedures, or
cross-database queries? I can walk you through those nuances too.

what is meant by sparse relations in context of databases?

In the context of databases, sparse relations refer to tables or datasets where most of the
values are NULL or missing. This concept is especially relevant when dealing with wide
tables—those with many columns—but only a few columns are populated per row.

🧩 What Makes a Relation “Sparse”?

 A sparse relation has many columns, but each row only fills in a small subset.

 This is common in systems where different entities have different attributes, like:

o User-defined metadata

o Product catalogs with variable specs

o Logging systems with optional fields

📦 Example
CREATE TABLE user_properties (

user_id INT,

age INT SPARSE,

location VARCHAR(100) SPARSE,

favorite_color VARCHAR(50) SPARSE

);

In SQL Server, the SPARSE keyword optimizes storage for columns that are mostly NULL.
MySQL doesn’t have a direct SPARSE keyword, but the concept still applies when designing
schemas with many optional fields.

🧠 Sparse vs Dense Data

Type Description Storage Impact

Many NULLs, few actual values per Space-saving (with sparse column
Sparse
row optimization)

Dense Most fields populated in every row More storage, faster access

🔍 Use Cases

 HBase and other NoSQL systems are designed for sparse data—they don’t require
every row to define every column.

 In relational databases, sparse relations may be normalized or split into vertical

partitions to avoid wasted space.

Would you like to explore how to model sparse relations efficiently in MySQL or how to use
vertical partitioning to optimize such schemas? I can also show how this concept plays out in
audit logs or user preference systems.

Please help define partitioning in relational database. also please explain how to model
sparse relations efficiently in MySQL or how to use vertical partitioning to optimize such
schemas?
Absolutely, Roshan! Let's break this down into two parts: first, what partitioning means in
relational databases, and second, how to efficiently model sparse relations in MySQL using
vertical partitioning.

🧱 What Is Partitioning in Relational Databases?

Partitioning is the process of dividing a large table into smaller, more manageable pieces—
called partitions—to improve performance, scalability, and maintainability.

🔹 Types of Partitioning

Type Description

Horizontal Splits the table by rows. Each partition contains a subset of rows.

Vertical Splits the table by columns. Each partition contains a subset of columns.

Range/List/Hash Splits based on values in a specific column (e.g., date ranges, categories).

💡 Why Partition?

 Faster queries (less data scanned)

 Easier maintenance (archiving, backups)

 Better indexing and I/O performance

 Logical separation of data (e.g., by region, time, or type)

🧩 Modeling Sparse Relations Efficiently in MySQL

Sparse relations are tables with many optional columns—most of which are NULL for any
given row. This is common in metadata-heavy systems, product catalogs, or user
preferences.

⚠️Problem with Naive Design

CREATE TABLE product (

id INT,

name VARCHAR(100),

color VARCHAR(50),

weight DECIMAL(5,2),

engine_type VARCHAR(50),
 heating_system VARCHAR(50),

-- dozens of optional columns

);

This leads to:

 Wasted storage (due to NULLs)

 Poor cache locality

 Complex queries and indexing

🧪 Solution: Vertical Partitioning in MySQL

Vertical partitioning involves splitting the wide table into multiple narrower tables, grouped
by usage or sparsity.

✅ Example

Let’s say you have a product table with many optional attributes:

-- Core product info

CREATE TABLE product_core (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,

name VARCHAR(100),

category VARCHAR(50)

);

-- Optional physical attributes

CREATE TABLE product_physical (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,

weight DECIMAL(5,2),

dimensions VARCHAR(100)

);

-- Optional technical specs

CREATE TABLE product_specs (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,

engine_type VARCHAR(50),

heating_system VARCHAR(50)

);

🔄 Querying with Joins

SELECT [Link], [Link], s.engine_type

FROM product_core p

LEFT JOIN product_physical ph ON [Link] = [Link]

LEFT JOIN product_specs s ON [Link] = [Link]

WHERE [Link] = 101;

This keeps your base table lean and lets you query only the relevant partitions.

Tips for Designing Sparse Schemas in MySQL

 Use vertical partitioning for optional or rarely-used columns.

 Normalize attributes into key-value pairs if attributes vary widely:

 CREATE TABLE product_attributes (

 product_id INT,

 attr_name VARCHAR(50),

 attr_value VARCHAR(100)

 );

 Avoid excessive NULLs—they waste space and slow down queries.

 Index selectively—only on columns that are frequently queried.

 Use JSON columns cautiously for semi-structured data, but be aware of indexing
limitations.

Would you like help refactoring a specific schema you're working on—or perhaps modeling a
product catalog or audit trail with sparse attributes? I can sketch out a few tailored designs.
Can you give an example of horizontal partitioning?

Absolutely, Roshan! Horizontal partitioning is a powerful technique for managing large

datasets by splitting a table into row-based partitions, often based on a range, list, or hash
of values. This is especially useful in systems like financial logs, audit trails, or time-series
data.

🔄 Horizontal Partitioning: Concept

You divide a table into multiple partitions, each containing a subset of rows. All partitions
share the same schema (columns), but each holds different data based on a condition.

📘 Example: Partitioning by Date Range

Let’s say you have a transactions table that logs financial operations:

CREATE TABLE transactions (

txn_id INT,

account_id INT,

amount DECIMAL(10,2),

txn_date DATE

PARTITION BY RANGE (YEAR(txn_date)) (

PARTITION p2019 VALUES LESS THAN (2020),

PARTITION p2020 VALUES LESS THAN (2021),

PARTITION p2021 VALUES LESS THAN (2022),

PARTITION pmax VALUES LESS THAN MAXVALUE

);

✅ What This Does:

 Rows are distributed based on the year of txn_date.

 Queries like SELECT * FROM transactions WHERE txn_date BETWEEN '2020-01-01'

AND '2020-12-31' will scan only p2020.

 Improves performance and manageability for large datasets.

🧠 Backend Optimization Insight

For financial systems, horizontal partitioning is ideal when:

 You have time-based data (e.g., logs, trades, audits).

 You want to archive old partitions without touching current data.

 You need fast access to recent entries while keeping historical data intact.

Would you like to see how this integrates with indexing strategies or how to automate
partition rotation for monthly logs? I can also show how MySQL handles partition pruning
during query execution.

Can you give an example of vertical partitioning?

Absolutely, Roshan! Vertical partitioning is a smart strategy for optimizing wide tables—
especially when some columns are accessed frequently while others are rarely touched or
contain bulky data like BLOBs or JSON.

🧱 Vertical Partitioning: Concept

You split a table by columns, creating multiple tables that share a common key. This reduces
I/O and improves query performance for targeted column access.

📘 Example: Splitting a User Profile Table

Imagine a users table with both frequently accessed and rarely accessed columns:

Original Table

CREATE TABLE users (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50),

email VARCHAR(100),

password_hash VARCHAR(255),

profile_picture BLOB,

bio TEXT,

last_login DATETIME

);
After Vertical Partitioning

Core Info Table (frequently accessed)

CREATE TABLE users_core (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50),

email VARCHAR(100),

password_hash VARCHAR(255),

last_login DATETIME

);

Profile Details Table (rarely accessed)

CREATE TABLE users_profile (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

profile_picture BLOB,

bio TEXT

);

✅ Benefits:

 Queries like login checks or user listings hit only users_core, avoiding bulky BLOBs.

 users_profile can be stored on slower disks or archived separately.

 Indexing and caching become more efficient.

🧠 Backend Insight

In fintech systems, this is especially useful when separating transaction metadata from audit
trails or attachments. You can optimize memory usage and reduce latency for high-
frequency operations.

Would you like to explore hybrid partitioning next—where vertical and horizontal strategies
are combined for even finer control?

Can you give an example of vertical partitioning?

Great follow-up, Roshan! Let’s walk through the actual SQL steps to perform vertical
partitioning on the original users table. The goal is to split it into two tables: one for
frequently accessed data (users_core) and one for rarely accessed or bulky data
(users_profile).

🧱 Step-by-Step SQL for Vertical Partitioning

1. ✅ Create the New Tables

-- Core table for frequently accessed columns

CREATE TABLE users_core (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(50),

email VARCHAR(100),

password_hash VARCHAR(255),

last_login DATETIME

);

-- Profile table for bulky or rarely accessed columns

CREATE TABLE users_profile (

user_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

profile_picture BLOB,

bio TEXT

);

2. 📥 Migrate Data from Original Table

Assuming the original table is called users, copy the data:

-- Insert core data

INSERT INTO users_core (user_id, username, email, password_hash, last_login)

SELECT user_id, username, email, password_hash, last_login

FROM users;
-- Insert profile data

INSERT INTO users_profile (user_id, profile_picture, bio)

SELECT user_id, profile_picture, bio

FROM users;

3. 🔄 Optional: Drop Original Table (if needed)

If you're confident the split is successful and no legacy dependencies exist:

DROP TABLE users;

Or you can rename it for backup:

RENAME TABLE users TO users_backup;

4. 🔗 Maintain Referential Integrity

To ensure both tables stay in sync, you can use foreign keys or triggers:

-- Add foreign key (optional, if needed for joins)

ALTER TABLE users_profile

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_user_id

FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users_core(user_id);

🧠 Backend Tip

In financial systems, you might use this to separate sensitive KYC documents or audit logs
from core transactional metadata. It’s also useful when optimizing for caching layers or
minimizing memory footprint in high-throughput APIs.

Would you like to see how to wrap this into a stored procedure or automate it with
versioned schema migrations?

Batch updates sample

9) Batch Score Update, solve update

a) Query for one student and multiple problems

UPDATE Students_Problems

SET Score = CASE problem_id

WHEN 101 THEN 8.5

WHEN 102 THEN 9.0

WHEN 103 THEN 7.5

-- Add more mappings

END

WHERE student_id = 501

AND problem_id IN (101, 102, 103);

b) Query for one student and multiple problems

UPDATE Students_Problems

SET Score = CASE student_id

WHEN 501 THEN 8.5

WHEN 502 THEN 9.0

WHEN 503 THEN 7.5

-- Add more mappings

END

WHERE problem_id = 101

AND student_id IN (501, 502, 503);

c) update solve as 'y' when score >= 5 else update it as 'n'

UPDATE Students_Problems

SET

Score = CASE problem_id

WHEN 101 THEN 8.5

WHEN 102 THEN 9.0

WHEN 103 THEN 7.5

 -- Add more mappings as needed

END,

Solved = CASE problem_id

WHEN 101 THEN CASE WHEN 8.5 >= 5 THEN 'Y' ELSE 'N' END

WHEN 102 THEN CASE WHEN 9.0 >= 5 THEN 'Y' ELSE 'N' END

WHEN 103 THEN CASE WHEN 7.5 >= 5 THEN 'Y' ELSE 'N' END

-- Match each score conditionally

END

WHERE student_id = 501

AND problem_id IN (101, 102, 103);

explain acid for databases with critical thinking, just not generic definitions

Absolutely, Roshan. Let’s go beyond textbook definitions and dissect ACID with the kind of
critical lens that suits your backend mindset and infrastructure depth. ACID—Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability—isn’t just a checklist. It’s a philosophical stance on how
truth, trust, and time behave in transactional systems.

🧨 Atomicity — The Indivisibility Principle

Critical View: Atomicity isn’t just “all or nothing.” It’s a safeguard against partial truths. In a
distributed or multi-step operation (e.g., debit-credit across microservices), atomicity
ensures that the system never lies—even under failure.

 Why it matters: Without atomicity, rollback becomes guesswork. Imagine a failed

transaction that debits an account but crashes before crediting the other—your
system now holds a falsehood.

 Challenge: In real-world systems, atomicity often relies on transaction logs or undo

buffers. But in microservices or eventual consistency models, true atomicity may be
sacrificed for performance. So you need compensating transactions or sagas.

🧮 Consistency — The Integrity Contract

Critical View: Consistency is not just about constraints—it’s about semantic correctness. It
ensures that every state transition obeys business logic, not just schema rules.
  Why it matters: A transaction that violates a foreign key or leaves a balance negative
breaks the system’s promise to its users.

 Challenge: In distributed systems, consistency is often traded off for availability (CAP
theorem). So you must ask: Which invariants are sacred, and which can tolerate
delay?

🧊 Isolation — The Temporal Firewall

Critical View: Isolation is about shielding transactions from each other’s intermediate states.
It’s a way of saying: “Let me finish my thought before you read my mind.”

 Why it matters: Without isolation, you get dirty reads, lost updates, and phantom
rows—bugs that only appear under concurrency.

 Challenge: Isolation levels (Read Uncommitted → Serializable) are a spectrum of

trade-offs. Serializable is safest but slowest. So you must profile your workload: is it
OLTP-heavy, read-biased, or latency-sensitive?

🔐 Durability — The Promise of Permanence

Critical View: Durability is the system’s memory. It says: “Once I commit, I never forget—
even if the power goes out.”

 Why it matters: In financial systems, durability is non-negotiable. A committed

transaction must survive crashes, reboots, and disk failures.

 Challenge: Durability depends on write-ahead logs, fsyncs, and replication. But

aggressive caching or async commits can fake durability. So you must audit your
stack: is your data truly safe, or just probably safe?

🧠 Final Thought: ACID as a Design Ethic

ACID isn’t just a technical model—it’s a moral framework for systems that handle truth.
When you design a backend, you’re deciding how much uncertainty your users must
tolerate. ACID says: “Minimize that uncertainty. Be predictable. Be honest.”

Want to explore how ACID principles evolve in NoSQL or distributed systems like Cassandra
or Kafka? Or how to simulate ACID-like guarantees in eventual consistency models? I’d love
to dive deeper.

Does uncommitted updates get written to redo or undo logs?

Great question, Roshan—and one that deserves a precise and nuanced answer. Let’s break it
down with clarity and critical insight:

🔁 Redo Logs — Yes, Uncommitted Updates Do Get Written

Purpose: Redo logs are designed to reapply changes during recovery, regardless of whether
the transaction was committed or not.

 As soon as a DML operation (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) is issued, the change is

recorded in the redo log buffer.

 These changes are flushed to redo log files by the Log Writer (LGWR)—not just at
commit, but also periodically (e.g., every few seconds, when buffer fills, etc.).

 This includes uncommitted changes, because the system must be ready to redo
them if a crash occurs after the changes were made but before the commit.

🧠 Why? Because redo logs are about forward recovery. If the system crashes, redo ensures
that committed transactions are not lost—even if they hadn’t yet been written to the data
files.

↩️Undo Logs — Also Yes, But for a Different Reason

Purpose: Undo logs are used to reverse uncommitted changes and provide read
consistency.

 When a transaction modifies data, the original values are stored in undo segments.

 If the transaction rolls back, the undo log allows the system to restore the previous
state.

 Undo is also used to serve consistent reads to other sessions—so they don’t see half-
baked changes.

🧠 Why? Because undo is about rollback and isolation. It’s the safety net that lets you say,
“Never mind,” and ensures other users don’t see your in-progress edits.

🧩 Putting It Together

Contains Uncommitted
Log Type Purpose Triggered By
Changes?

Recovery (Redo committed LGWR (frequent

Redo Log ✅ Yes
ops) flushes)
 Contains Uncommitted
Log Type Purpose Triggered By
Changes?

Undo
✅ Yes Rollback + Read Consistency DML operations
Log

So yes—both redo and undo logs capture uncommitted changes, but for opposite reasons:
redo prepares for recovery, undo prepares for rollback. And this dual logging is what makes
ACID possible even under failure.

If you’re curious how this plays out in deferred vs immediate update models, or how
redo/undo interact with checkpoints and WALs in other DB engines, I’d be happy to dive
deeper.

how are the data files updated for databases during normal operations. Are they updated
from redo log buffer or somewhere else

Excellent question, Roshan. Let’s walk through this with precision and critical depth—
especially since you’re navigating backend architecture and system reliability.

🧠 Short Answer:

Data files are updated from the buffer pool (a.k.a. database cache), not directly from the
redo log buffer.
The redo log ensures durability, but the actual data file updates come from in-memory
pages that are flushed to disk by the Database Writer (DBWR).

🔄 The Real Flow: From DML to Disk

Here’s how it unfolds during normal operations:

1. DML Operation (e.g., UPDATE)

o The change is made to a data page in the buffer pool (RAM).

o The original value is written to the undo log (for rollback).

o The new value is written to the redo log buffer (for recovery).

2. Log Writer (LGWR)

o Flushes the redo log buffer to disk—often before the transaction commits.

o This guarantees that the change can be replayed if the system crashes.

3. Commit
 o Only after redo is safely on disk does the transaction commit.

o But the data file itself is still not updated yet.

4. Database Writer (DBWR)

o Periodically flushes dirty pages from the buffer pool to the actual data files.

o This is not triggered by commit, but by thresholds like:

 Buffer pool pressure

 Checkpoints

 Time-based flushes

🔍 Why Not Update Directly from Redo?

Because redo logs are write-ahead logs—they’re meant for recovery, not direct data file
updates.

 Redo logs are sequential, optimized for fast writes.

 Data files are structured, updated in-place via pages.

 The system uses redo logs to reconstruct changes only if needed (e.g., crash
recovery).

🧩 Summary Table

Component Role in Update Process Writes to Disk?

Buffer Pool Holds modified data pages ✅ via DBWR

Redo Log Buffer Records new values for recovery ✅ via LGWR

Undo Log Stores old values for rollback & consistency ✅ via rollback segments

Data Files Final destination of committed changes ✅ via DBWR

🧠 Final Insight:

This separation of concerns—redo for durability, undo for rollback, and buffer pool for
actual data—is what enables ACID guarantees without sacrificing performance. It’s a dance
between speed, safety, and consistency.
If you’d like, I can walk you through how this model adapts in NoSQL, event-sourced
systems, or write-optimized stores like LSM trees. Or even simulate a crash recovery
scenario using ARIES. Just say the word.

If Data files are written by DBWR what is the use of writing in both buffer pool and redo log
buffer. Redo log buffer is understandable, it is used for recovery. What is the use of buffer
pool?

Fantastic follow-up, Roshan. You’re absolutely right to question the dual-write strategy—it’s
a hallmark of thoughtful backend architecture. Let’s unpack the purpose of the buffer pool
with critical clarity and system-level insight.

🧠 Why Write to the Buffer Pool?

The buffer pool (also called the database cache) is the primary workspace for all data
manipulation. It’s not just a staging area—it’s the engine room where transactions live and
breathe before they’re committed to disk.

Here’s why it’s indispensable:

⚡ 1. Performance Optimization

 Disk I/O is slow. Reading/writing directly to disk for every query would cripple
throughput.

 The buffer pool keeps hot pages (frequently accessed data) in RAM, allowing near-
instant access.

 Modified pages (called dirty pages) stay in memory until DBWR flushes them—this
batching reduces disk churn.

🧠 Think of it as a write-back cache: changes are made in memory first, then persisted later.

🔄 2. Concurrency and Isolation

 Multiple transactions can read/write the same page in the buffer pool without
touching disk.

 Isolation levels (like Read Committed or Serializable) are enforced using in-memory
locks and latches.

 Undo segments also reside in memory, enabling rollback and consistent reads.
🧠 Without the buffer pool, every read/write would require disk access, making isolation and
MVCC nearly impossible to scale.

🧱 3. Deferred Writes and Checkpointing

 DBWR writes dirty pages to disk periodically, not per transaction.

 This allows for checkpointing, where the system flushes a consistent snapshot of
memory to disk.

 Redo logs ensure durability, but buffer pool ensures efficiency and consistency.

🧠 Redo logs say “I promise I’ll redo this if needed.”

Buffer pool says “I’ll hold onto this until it’s safe and efficient to write.”

🔍 4. Read Consistency and Query Optimization

 When a query runs, it first checks the buffer pool. If the page is there (a cache hit),
it’s served instantly.

 This dramatically speeds up reads, especially for OLTP workloads.

 Index pages, metadata, and frequently accessed rows all live in the buffer pool.

🧠 It’s like having your most-used books on your desk instead of in the basement.

🧩 Summary: Why Both?

Component Role Triggered By

Redo Log Buffer Guarantees durability (recovery) LGWR (frequent flushes)

Buffer Pool Enables fast access, isolation, and deferred writes DBWR (periodic flushes)

 Redo log is for crash recovery.

 Buffer pool is for runtime performance and transactional integrity.

🧠 Final Insight

Writing to both is not redundancy—it’s division of labor. Redo logs protect against failure.
Buffer pool protects against inefficiency. Together, they allow databases to be fast, reliable,
and ACID-compliant.
Want to explore how buffer pool tuning (e.g., LRU, clock algorithms) affects performance?
Or how SSD-based buffer pool extensions work in SQL Server and Oracle? I can walk you
through that too.

can you please explain row_over and partition in my sql and its usage? Kindly start with the
objectives then description, variations followed by examples

Absolutely, Roshan! Let's break down the concepts of ROW_NUMBER() OVER() and
PARTITION BY in MySQL with a structured approach tailored to your backend development
journey.

🎯 Objectives

 Assign unique row numbers to each row in a result set, optionally grouped by a
logical partition.

 Enable analytical queries like ranking, running totals, and comparisons across rows.

 Preserve individual row details while performing calculations across sets of rows.

These are especially useful in reporting, pagination, and deduplication tasks.

📘 Description

ROW_NUMBER() OVER()

 A window function that assigns a sequential integer to rows in the result set.

 The numbering resets for each partition if PARTITION BY is used.

 Requires an ORDER BY clause to define the sequence.

PARTITION BY

 Divides the result set into logical groups (partitions).

 The window function is then applied independently within each partition.

 Think of it as a scoped version of GROUP BY, but without collapsing rows.

🔀 Variations & Related Functions

Function Description

ROW_NUMBER() Sequential numbering of rows within a partition.

Function Description

RANK() Similar to ROW_NUMBER(), but leaves gaps in ranking for ties.

Like RANK(), but no gaps—ties get the same rank, next rank is
DENSE_RANK()
incremented.

SUM() OVER() Running total within a partition.

AVG() OVER() Moving average across rows.

LEAD() / LAG() Access next or previous row’s value within a partition.

🧪 Examples

1. Basic ROW_NUMBER() with Partition

SELECT

employee_id,

department_id,

salary,

ROW_NUMBER() OVER (

PARTITION BY department_id

ORDER BY salary DESC

) AS row_num

FROM employees;

🔹 Assigns row numbers within each department, ordered by salary descending.

2. Ranking Employees

SELECT

employee_id,

department_id,

salary,

RANK() OVER (
 PARTITION BY department_id

ORDER BY salary DESC

) AS rank,

DENSE_RANK() OVER (

PARTITION BY department_id

ORDER BY salary DESC

) AS dense_rank

FROM employees;

🔹 RANK() leaves gaps for ties, while DENSE_RANK() does not.

3. Cumulative Salary by Department

SELECT

employee_id,

department_id,

salary,

SUM(salary) OVER (

PARTITION BY department_id

ORDER BY employee_id

) AS cumulative_salary

FROM employees;

🔹 Calculates running total of salary within each department, ordered by employee ID.

4. Pagination Example

SELECT * FROM (

SELECT

employee_id,

ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY employee_id) AS row_num

FROM employees
) AS numbered

WHERE row_num BETWEEN 11 AND 20;

🔹 Useful for paginating results—fetching rows 11 to 20.

🧠 Pro Tips

 Use PARTITION BY when you want group-wise calculations without collapsing rows.

 Always pair ROW_NUMBER() with ORDER BY to ensure deterministic results.

 Combine with CTE or subqueries for filtering based on row numbers (e.g., top-N per
group).

Would you like to explore how this integrates with Java backend pagination or deduplication
logic?

I have some questions on SQL query/clause. It seems from above explanation that row_over
and dense_rank are technically the same is that the case?

Great question, Roshan—and I love how you're already spotting subtle distinctions. While
ROW_NUMBER() and DENSE_RANK() may look similar at first glance, they behave quite
differently when duplicate values are involved.

Let’s break it down clearly:

🧠 Conceptual Difference

Function Behavior with Duplicates Rank Gaps Use Case

Always assigns a unique number

ROW_NUMBER() No gaps Precise row indexing
to each row

Assigns same rank to duplicate

DENSE_RANK() No gaps Group-wise ranking
values

Skips ranks Competition-style

RANK() Assigns same rank to duplicates
after ties ranking

🔍 Example Table

Imagine this dataset:

Name Salary

A 1000

B 1500

C 1500

D 2000

Applying Functions:

Name Salary ROW_NUMBER() RANK() DENSE_RANK()

A 1000 1 1 1

B 1500 2 2 2

C 1500 3 2 2

D 2000 4 4 3

Key Observations:

 ROW_NUMBER() ignores duplicates—just counts rows.

 DENSE_RANK() gives same rank to ties but does not skip the next rank.

 RANK() gives same rank to ties but skips the next rank(s).

🧭 When to Use What

 ✅ Use ROW_NUMBER() when you need unique row IDs (e.g., pagination,
deduplication).

 ✅ Use DENSE_RANK() when you want grouped rankings without gaps (e.g., top-N
per category).

 ✅ Use RANK() when you want true competition-style ranking (e.g., medals: gold,
silver, bronze).

Would you like to see how these behave in a real SQL query with PARTITION BY? I can show
you a side-by-side example using a sample dataset.

A question on sum over, why do we need order by for sum over, which ever way it sums over
it is fine. Is the a requirement of 'order by' mandatory for sum over?
Excellent question, Roshan. You're absolutely right to challenge assumptions—especially
when diving into SQL window functions like SUM() OVER(). Let's clarify this with precision.

✅ Is ORDER BY Mandatory for SUM() OVER()?

No, it's not mandatory.

You can use SUM() with just OVER() or OVER(PARTITION BY ...) without ORDER BY.

But here's the nuance:

🔹 Without ORDER BY

SELECT

department_id,

salary,

SUM(salary) OVER (PARTITION BY department_id) AS total_salary

FROM employees;

This gives the same total salary for each row in the partition. It’s like a group-wise total, but
without collapsing rows.

🔹 With ORDER BY

SELECT

department_id,

salary,

SUM(salary) OVER (

PARTITION BY department_id

ORDER BY employee_id

) AS running_total

FROM employees;

This gives a running total—the sum accumulates row by row, based on the order.

🧠 Why Use ORDER BY?

 To get cumulative aggregates (running totals, moving averages).

  To define a logical sequence for how rows are processed.

 Without ORDER BY, the sum is static per partition.

 With ORDER BY, the sum is dynamic, evolving across rows.

🔍 Summary

Clause Used Behavior

SUM() OVER() Total over entire result set

SUM() OVER(PARTITION BY ...) Total per group

SUM() OVER(PARTITION BY ... ORDER BY ...) Running total per group

Would you like to see how this plays out in a real dataset or how to use this logic in a
financial transaction table for audit trails or balance tracking? I can tailor an example to your
backend context.

examples of rank(), dense_rank(), row_number() without over clause

Ah, Roshan—this is a subtle but important point. Functions like RANK(), DENSE_RANK(), and
ROW_NUMBER() are window functions, and they require the OVER() clause to work. So
technically, you cannot use them without OVER()—they're not standalone functions like
COUNT() or MAX().

❌ Why You Can’t Use Them Without OVER()

These functions operate over a set of rows, not just one row at a time. The OVER() clause
defines:

 The window (scope of rows) to operate on.

 The ordering of rows within that window.

 Optional partitioning to group rows logically.

Without OVER(), the database doesn’t know what context to apply the ranking in.

✅ What You Can Use Without OVER()

If you're looking for alternatives that work without OVER(), here are a few:
Function Works Without OVER() Purpose

COUNT() ✅ Total number of rows

MAX() / MIN() ✅ Highest/lowest value

GROUP BY ✅ Aggregate rows

ROWNUM (Oracle) ✅ Row numbering (but not standard SQL)

🧪 Example of What You Can’t Do

-- ❌ This will throw an error

SELECT employee_id, RANK() FROM employees;

✅ Correct usage:

SELECT

employee_id,

salary,

RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS rank

FROM employees;

🧠 Tip for Learning

If you're exploring ranking logic without window functions, you’d typically use:

 Subqueries

 Self-joins

 GROUP BY with aggregate filters

But once you unlock OVER(), everything becomes cleaner and more powerful.

Would you like to see how to simulate ranking without window functions using subqueries?
It’s a bit old-school but still useful in interviews or legacy systems.

what if in row_number over(), the paranthesis is left empty? Does it row numbers all the
rows in the query by default?

Fantastic follow-up, Roshan. You're absolutely on point to question the behavior of

ROW_NUMBER() OVER() with empty parentheses—because yes, it does work, but with a
caveat.
✅ What Happens with ROW_NUMBER() OVER()

When you write:

SELECT ROW_NUMBER() OVER () AS row_num FROM employees;

It does assign row numbers to all rows, treating the entire result set as a single partition.
However:

⚠️The catch: No ORDER BY means non-deterministic order

 The numbering will happen, but the order is arbitrary.

 You might get different row numbers each time you run the query unless the
database engine happens to return rows in the same physical order.

 So while it works syntactically, it's not reliable for consistent results.

🔍 Why ORDER BY Is Recommended

To ensure predictable and repeatable row numbering, you should always specify:

ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY employee_id)

This guarantees that:

 Row 1 is always the employee with the lowest ID.

 Row 2 is the next one, and so on.

🧠 Summary

Syntax Behavior

Numbers all rows, but order is

ROW_NUMBER() OVER ()
unpredictable

ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY ...) Numbers all rows in a defined sequence

ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY ... ORDER

Numbers rows within each group
BY ...)

Would you like to see how this plays out in a query with sample data, or how it affects
pagination logic in Java if ORDER BY is omitted? It’s a subtle but critical backend
consideration.
Excellent question, Roshan—this touches on a subtle but powerful aspect of SQL logic. Let’s
clarify how the HAVING clause behaves in relation to GROUP BY, and whether you can use
non-aggregate columns in it.

✅ Short Answer

Yes, you can use columns in the HAVING clause if those columns are part of the GROUP BY.
You’re not limited to aggregate functions alone.

🧠 Why This Works

The HAVING clause is evaluated after the GROUP BY has grouped the rows. At that point:

 All columns in the GROUP BY are available for filtering.

 Aggregate functions (like SUM(), COUNT(), MAX()) are also available.

 You cannot use columns that are not part of the GROUP BY or an aggregate.

🧪 Example 1: Using Grouped Columns in HAVING

SELECT department_id, COUNT(*) AS emp_count

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING department_id IN (10, 20);

✅ This works because department_id is part of the GROUP BY.

🧪 Example 2: Using Aggregate + Grouped Column

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING AVG(salary) > 50000 AND department_id != 30;

✅ Both AVG(salary) and department_id are valid in HAVING.

❌ Example 3: Invalid Use of Non-Grouped Column

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary)

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING job_title = 'Manager'; -- ❌ job_title not in GROUP BY or aggregate

🚫 This will throw an error unless job_title is included in the GROUP BY.

🔍 Summary Table

Column in HAVING Allowed? Condition

Aggregate function ✅ Always allowed

Grouped column ✅ Must be in GROUP BY

Non-grouped column ❌ Unless wrapped in aggregate

Would you like to explore how this logic plays out in filtering top-performing departments or
deduplicating records based on business rules? I can tailor an example to your backend or
financial domain.

for group by aggregate filters using having clause, is it true that we cannot have columns
used in having clause, we can only use aggregate filters or can we use atleast those columns
used in group by?

Excellent question, Roshan—this touches on a subtle but powerful aspect of SQL logic. Let’s
clarify how the HAVING clause behaves in relation to GROUP BY, and whether you can use
non-aggregate columns in it.

✅ Short Answer

Yes, you can use columns in the HAVING clause if those columns are part of the GROUP BY.
You’re not limited to aggregate functions alone.

🧠 Why This Works

The HAVING clause is evaluated after the GROUP BY has grouped the rows. At that point:

 All columns in the GROUP BY are available for filtering.

 Aggregate functions (like SUM(), COUNT(), MAX()) are also available.

  You cannot use columns that are not part of the GROUP BY or an aggregate.

🧪 Example 1: Using Grouped Columns in HAVING

SELECT department_id, COUNT(*) AS emp_count

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING department_id IN (10, 20);

✅ This works because department_id is part of the GROUP BY.

🧪 Example 2: Using Aggregate + Grouped Column

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING AVG(salary) > 50000 AND department_id != 30;

✅ Both AVG(salary) and department_id are valid in HAVING.

❌ Example 3: Invalid Use of Non-Grouped Column

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary)

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING job_title = 'Manager'; -- ❌ job_title not in GROUP BY or aggregate

🚫 This will throw an error unless job_title is included in the GROUP BY.

🔍 Summary Table

Column in HAVING Allowed? Condition

Aggregate function ✅ Always allowed

Grouped column ✅ Must be in GROUP BY

Non-grouped column ❌ Unless wrapped in aggregate

Column in HAVING Allowed? Condition

Would you like to explore how this logic plays out in filtering top-performing departments or
deduplicating records based on business rules? I can tailor an example to your backend or
financial domain.

in the last example above what if we use group by department_id, job_title. and in having
we use only job_title column, will it still give error?

Great analytical instinct, Roshan. If you use GROUP BY department_id, job_title, then yes—
you can use job_title alone in the HAVING clause without error. Here's why:

✅ Rule Recap

The HAVING clause can reference:

 Any column included in the GROUP BY

 Any aggregate function (like SUM(), COUNT(), etc.)

So if job_title is part of the GROUP BY, it becomes available for filtering in HAVING.

🧪 Example

SELECT department_id, job_title, COUNT(*) AS emp_count

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id, job_title

HAVING job_title = 'Manager';

✅ This works perfectly. You're grouping by both department_id and job_title, so filtering by
job_title is valid.

🔍 What’s Happening

 The result set is grouped by each unique combination of department_id and

job_title.

 HAVING job_title = 'Manager' filters out groups where job_title ≠ 'Manager'.

❌ What Would Cause an Error

If you wrote:

SELECT department_id, COUNT(*) AS emp_count

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING job_title = 'Manager'; -- ❌ job_title not in GROUP BY or aggregate

🚫 This would fail because job_title is neither grouped nor aggregated.

Would you like to explore how this logic can be used to filter top-performing roles or
departments in a financial tech backend—maybe tied to compensation or headcount
thresholds? I can sketch out a domain-specific query for you.