Tensor Properties of Materials

—problems—
Bálint Koczor
2023

Note: All rotations are understood according

to the right-hand rule and rotation matrices
rotate column vectors via pre-multiplication
as ⃗v ′ = L⃗v . The axes ⃗x1 , ⃗x2 and ⃗x3 form
a right-handed 3D Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem and indexes take up values in the range
i, j, k, l, m, n ∈ {1, 2, 3}.

Problem 1 Tensors
Expand the below expressions as summations using the Einstein convention. Evaluate
the sum assuming that all tensors are constant tensors (every entry in the tensor is
the same number). What is the rank of the resulting tensor?

(i) vi wi , where vi = 1 and wi = 2 for all i. Hint: this is the scalar product between
the vectors ⃗v = (1, 1, 1)T and w
⃗ = (2, 2, 2)T .

(ii) Sij Tjk , where Sij = 2 and Tjk = 1 for all i, j and k. Hint: this is a matrix-matrix
product and every matrix entry in T is 1 while every matrix entry in S is 2.

(iii) Tij Tij , where Tij = 1 for all i and j.

(iv) Sijkl Tij , where Sijkl = 5 and Tij = 2 for all i, j, k and l

(v) write the following matrix operations as Einstein summations: AB, AT B,

Tr[A], Tr[AT B]. Here A and B are 3 × 3 real matrices, Tr[·] is the trace
operation (sum of diagonals) and (·)T is the transpose operation.

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Tensor Properties of Materials 2

Problem 2 Active and Passive Rotations

Suppose the homogeneous electric field √ between two large parallel charged plates is
⃗
described by the column vector E = ( 3/2, −1/2, 0)T . Suppose we want to find
the rotation matrix that simplifies this vector such that after the transformation
⃗ ′ = (1, 0, 0)T . The basic rotation matrix around the z axis is defined as
E
 
cos θ − sin θ 0
Rz (θ) =  sin θ cos θ 0 ,
0 0 1

and the transformation it performs can be interpreted either as an active or a passive

rotation.
(i) Active rotation: Imagine we physically rotate the two parallel plates and
⃗ ′ = Rz (θ)E.
thus the electric field rotates as E ⃗ Draw this transformation and
calculate the angle of rotation θ.

(ii) The rotation matrix can also be used to rotate the coordinate axes. Draw the
rotated coordinate axes but using the inverse rotation matrix as ⃗x′i = RTz (θ)⃗xi .

(iii) Passive rotation: Show that if we leave the charged plates unchanged and
calculate vector entries using the new axes ⃗x′i we obtain the desired vector
⃗ ′ = (1, 0, 0)T . Hint: the vector entries in the new coordinate system are
E
calculated using ⃗ · ⃗x′ , where we use the unchanged
as Ei′ = E
√ the scalar products i
⃗ = ( 3/2, −1/2, 0)T .
vector E

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Problem 3 Calculating rotation matrices

Compute the 3 × 3 matrices for the following rotations and draw how the coordinate
axes are rotated ⃗x′i = L⃗xi . Hint: the rotated vectors ⃗x′i form column vectors of L.
(i) −30◦ around the ⃗x3 axis. Hint: you can verify the result by comparing to the
definition of the basic rotation matrix in Problem 2.

(ii) 45◦ around the ⃗x2 axis

(iii) rotation (i) followed by rotation (ii)

(iv) rotation (ii) followed by rotation (i). Is it is the same as (iii)? Why?

(v) 120◦ about the [111] direction in a cubic crystal

(vi) from the crystal axes of a tetragonal crystal with a = b = 5 and c = 6 (with ⃗x3
parallel to the c-axis) rotating around ⃗x1 so that L⃗x3 becomes parallel with the
[011] direction

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Tensor Properties of Materials 3

(vii) 90◦ about the [110] direction in a cubic crystal

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Problem 4 Crystal symmetry

(i) Explain how anisotropy in a crystal can lead to electrical conductivity whereby
a current flows in a direction that is not parallel to the applied electric field.
Describe how the anisotropic conductivity can be visualised using the represen-
tation quadric.
(ii) The electrical conductivity of a uniaxial crystal when measured along its axis
of symmetry is twice that when measured perpendicular to the axis. In what
direction will the current flow through the crystal if an electric field is applied
at 45◦ to the axis of symmetry? (hint: we have a freedom in defining the electric
field vector, so it simplifies the argument if we choose a simple arrangement)
(iii) A uniaxial crystal has principal electrical conductivities

σ1P AS = σ2P AS = 5.6 × 104 Ω−1 m−2 , σ3P AS = 8.2 × 104 Ω−1 m−2 .

A rod of the crystal of cross sectional area 1 mm2 has its axis of symmetry 60◦
from the crystal axis (as defined by the rotation below). A current of 5 mA
passes down the rod such that
 
0
 0  = J⃗′ = σ ′ E
⃗ ′, with J3′ = 5 × 103 A m−1
J3′
As we translate between this coordinate system and the principal axis system,
the vector entries transform according to J⃗′ = LJ⃗ and E ⃗ ′ = LE⃗ where L =
Rx (60 ) is the basic rotation matrix around the ⃗x1 axis with an angle 60◦ . Find
◦

the electric field components (a) parallel to and (b) perpendicular to the axis
of the rod. Would it have made any difference if the rotation were performed
around ⃗x2 instead?

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Problem 5 Orthogonal matrices

The axes of two Cartesian coordinate systems ⃗x1 , ⃗x2 , ⃗x3 and ⃗x′1 = L⃗x1 , ⃗x′2 = L⃗x2 ,
⃗x′3 = L⃗x3 have the following angular relationships

∡(⃗x1 O⃗x′1 ) = 60◦ , ∡(⃗x1 O⃗x′2 ) = 90◦ ,

∡(⃗x2 O⃗x′1 ) > 90◦ , ∡(⃗x2 O⃗x′2 ) < 90◦ ,
∡(⃗x3 O⃗x′1 ) = 45◦ .

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Tensor Properties of Materials 4

Here ∡(AOB) denotes the angle specified by three points A, O and B where O =
(0, 0, 0) is the origin.
(i) Calculate all entries of the rotation matrix using the direction cosines Lij =
cos θij where θij is the angle between ⃗xi and ⃗x′j . Exploit the condition that
column (and row) vectors of L are mutually orthogonal and normalised as
(
X 1 if j = k
Lij Lik = ,
i
0 j ̸= k
and the fact that both coordinate systems are right-handed.
(ii) Verify that the orthonormality relationships above are valid for all possible
indices, and that the determinant |L| is equal to +1.

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Problem 6 Thermal conductivity

In a certain crystal the principal thermal conductivities are
K11 = 3 W m−1 K−1 , K22 = 4 W m−1 K−1 , K33 = 1 W m−1 K−1 .
The original axes ⃗x1 , ⃗x2 and ⃗x3 are the principal axes and we transform our coordinate
system using the inverse rotation as ⃗x′1 = LT ⃗x1 , ⃗x′2 = LT ⃗x2 , ⃗x′3 = LT ⃗x3 . Here L is
the basic rotation matrix around the ⃗x2 axis with an angle π/4.
(i) A vector ⃗v has vector entries
v1 = 3, v2 = 4, v3 = 1,
in the old coordinate system. Calculate the vector entries vi′ in the new coordi-
nate system. Hint: recall that an inverse rotation of the coordinate system has
the same effect on the vector entries as an active rotation of the vector.
(ii) Calculate the nine components Kij′ of the thermal conductivity tensor in the
new coordinate system.
(iii) What is the volume enclosed by the representation quadric ⃗xT K⃗x = 1?
(iv) Calculate the sum of the diagonal components (trace of the matrix K) (a) before
the transformation and (b) after the transformation, and show that they are
equal. Are they always identical?
(v) Calculate the sum of squares of all matrix entries as Kij Kij (a) before the
transformation and (b) after the transformation, and show that they are equal.
Could this quantity be used as a measure of the “magnitude” of a tensor vari-
able? Hint: expressing the sum of squares Kij Kij as the trace of a product of
two matrices from Problem 1 helps because the trace is the same in all coordi-
nate systems.

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Tensor Properties of Materials 5

(vi) A thin plate of this crystal is cut perpendicular to the new coordinate axis
⃗x′3 , and a temperature gradient of 1000 K m−1 is maintained between its faces.
Calculate the rate of flow of heat (a) perpendicular to its faces, and (b) parallel
to its faces. Note: The heat flow equation is Q ⃗ = −K− →
∇T where Q ⃗ is the heat
−→
flow vector, and ∇T is the temperature gradient vector as
−→ ∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = x⃗1 + x⃗2 + x⃗3 .
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

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Problem 7 Stress tensor

Given the rank-2 stress tensor as the following matrix
 
4 0 −3
σ= 0 2 0 
−3 0 −1

(i) Compute explicitly the cubic polynomial whose roots λi are the three principal
values of the tensor.

(ii) By plotting the value of the cubic expression for several different values of λ,
estimate the three principal values of the tensor.

(iii) Diagonalize σ and compare the principal values to those estimated in part (ii).

(iv) Recall that the stress tensor expresses the linear relation between a unit vector
and a corresponding traction vector T⃗ (force vector per unit area). What is the
direction of the unit vector ⃗n for which we obtain the largest possible traction
vector |T |? Is it always this direction?

(v) The stresses acting on a body have the following components σij in the coordi-
nate system spanned by ⃗x1 , ⃗x2 and ⃗x3 as
 
σ 0 0
σ =  0 −σ 0 .
0 0 0

We transform our coordinate system to ⃗x′1 , ⃗x′2 , and ⃗x′3 by a rotation of 45◦ about
⃗x3 such that ⃗x′1 bisects the angle between ⃗x1 and −⃗x2 . Calculate the rotation
matrix L that transforms vector entries as V⃗ ′ = LV⃗ . Calculate the entries σij′
of the stress tensor in the new coordinate system. Comment on your results.

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Tensor Properties of Materials 6

Problem 8 Thermal expansion

A 1 cm cube of material with principal thermal expansion coefficients

α11 = α22 = 5.1 × 10−5 K−1 , α33 = 1.3 × 10−5 K−1 ,

is placed on a flat surface. The axis of crystal symmetry is parallel to the diagonal
of one of the vertical faces of the cube. At what angle to the vertical are each of the
edges of the cube after it is heated by 1000 ◦ C? What is its new volume? (hint: don’t
forget to include any rotation of the cube as it stays resting on the flat surface)

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Problem 9 Refractive index

A monoclinic crystal has an electrical susceptibility given by the tensor
 
3 0 2
χ = 0 5 0 .
2 0 8

Find the principal values of the refractive index for the material.

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