Dipole in an electric field:
Electric dipoles are a specific combination of a positive charge held at a fixed
distance, Q1, from an equal and opposite charge, Q2, as illustrated in Figure
Dipoles can be represented by their “electric dipole vector” (or “electric dipole
moment”), P, defined to point in the direction from the negative charge to the
positive charge, with magnitude:
P=QL
When a dipole is immersed in a uniform electric field, as illustrated in Figure, the
net force on the dipole is zero because the force on the positive charge will always
be equal and in the opposite direction from the force on the negative charge.
Although the net force on the dipole is zero, there is still a net torque about its center
that will cause the dipole to rotate (unless the dipole vector is already parallel to the
electric field vector). If the dipole vector makes an angle,𝜃 , with the electric field
vector (as in Figure), the magnitude of the net torque on the dipole about an axis
perpendicular to the page and through the center of the dipole is given by:
the torque vector is into the page (the forces will make it rotate clockwise), which is
the same direction as the cross product, P× 𝐸 . Note that the magnitude of the torque
is also equal to the magnitude of the cross product. Thus, in general, the torque vector
on a dipole, P, from an electric field, E, is given by:
In particular, note that the torque is zero when the dipole and electric field vectors
are parallel. Thus, a dipole will always experience a torque that tends to align it with
the electric field vector. The dipole is thus in a stable equilibrium when it is parallel
to the electric field.
If a dipole is rotated away from its equilibrium orientation and then released, it will
gain (rotational) kinetic energy as it tries to return to equilibrium, and will oscillate
about the equilibrium position. When the dipole is held out of equilibrium, we can
think of it has having potential energy. To determine the functional form of that
potential energy function, we consider the work done in rotating the dipole from an
angle 𝜃1 to an 𝜃2 angle (where the angle is between the dipole and the electric field
vectors):
Thus, we define the potential energy of an electric dipole, p, in an electric field, E,
as:
The flux of vector field:
The flux of a vector field through a surface represents the amount of the field
passing through that surface.
if you have a vector field
𝐹⃗ = 𝑃𝑖̂ + 𝑄𝑗̂ + 𝑅𝑘̂
and a surface 𝑆with a unit normal vector 𝑛̂, then the flux (Φ) through the surface is:
Φ = ∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆
𝑆
Here:
• 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂= component of 𝐹⃗ normal to the surface
• 𝑑𝑆= small surface element (magnitude of area element)
• 𝑛̂= unit normal vector to the surface
F⋅n=∣F∣∣n∣cosθ=Fcosθ
where 𝜃is the angle between the field direction and the surface normal.
• If 𝜃 = 0°: field is perpendicular → maximum flux
• If 𝜃 = 90°: field is parallel → zero flux
• If 𝜃 = 180°: field enters the surface → negative flux
The flux of electric field:
Electric flux measures how much electric field passes through a surface.
electric flux tells us how many electric field lines cross a surface.
It gives a quantitative idea of the strength of the electric field through that surface.
f an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ passes through a surface 𝑆, then the electric flux (denoted by
Φ𝐸 ) is:
Φ𝐸 = ∬𝐸 ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆
𝑆
Where:
• 𝐸⃗⃗ = Electric field vector
• 𝑛̂= Unit normal vector to the surface
• 𝑑𝑆= Small surface area element
• 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ = 𝐸cos 𝜃= Component of 𝐸⃗⃗ perpendicular to the surface
So:
ΦE=∬𝑆 𝐸 cosθ dS
The flux represents the number of electric field lines passing through the surface:
• Positive flux → Field lines leaving the surface
• Negative flux → Field lines entering the surface
• Zero flux → Equal number of lines enter and leave, or field is parallel to the
surface
