1.

Data and Number System

 A number system is a way to represent and express numbers using a specific set of symbols
or digits.
 Data and number systems form the basis of digital logic. The understanding of number
systems helps in the representation and processing of data in digital systems.
 Each number system is defined by its base (radix), which indicates the total number of
unique digits, including zero.

1.1 Number System

 Binary Number System
 Radix / Base :- 2
 Digits :- 0 and 1
 Example :- (1011)₂
 It is fundamental to digital electronics and logic systems.

 Octal Number System

 Radix / Base :- 8
 Digits :- 0 to 7
 Example :- (12)₈
 Often used to simplify binary representation.

 Decimal Number System

 Radix / Base :- 10
 Digits :- 0 to 9
 Example :- (13)₁₀
 The standard system for human calculations.

 Hexadecimal Number System

 Radix / Base :- 16
 Digits :- 0 to 9 and A to F (A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15)
 Example :- (1A)₁₆
 Used in programming and memory addressing.

1.2 Conversions Between Number System

I. Decimal to Binary

 Divide the decimal number by 2.

 Write the remainder.
 Continue until the quotient is 0.
 Write the remainders in reverse order.

Example :- Convert (25)₁₀ to Binary.

 25 ÷ 2 = 12R1 → 12 ÷ 2 = 6R0 → 6 ÷ 2 = 3R0 → 3 ÷ 2 = 1R1 → 1 ÷ 2 = 0R1

 Binary :- (11001)₂
II. Decimal to Octal

 Divide the decimal number by 8.

 Write the remainder.
 Continue until the quotient is 0.
 Write the remainders in reverse order.

Example :- Convert (345)₁₀ to Octal.

 345 ÷ 8 = 43R1 → 43 ÷ 8 = 5R3 → 5 ÷ 8 = 0R5

 Octal :- (531)₈

III. Decimal to Hexadecimal

 Divide the decimal number by 16.

 Write the remainder.
 Map remainders greater than 9 to letters (A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14 ,F=15).
 Write the remainders in reverse order.

Example :- Convert (450)₁₀ to Hexadecimal.

 450 ÷ 16 = 28R2 → 28 ÷ 16 = 1R12 (C) → 1 ÷ 16 = 0R1

 Hexadecimal :- (1C2)₁₆

IV. Binary to Decimal

 Multiply each binary digit by 2ⁿ (where n is the position form the right, starting at 0).

Example :- Convert (1011)₂ to Decimal.

 (1×2³) + (0×2²) + (1×2¹) + (1×2⁰) = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = (11)₁₀

 Decimal :- (11)₁₀

V. Binary to Octal

 Group binary digits in sets of three from the right.

 Convert each group to its octal equivalent.

Example :- Convert (110111)₂ to Octal.

 110 (6 in Octal), 111( 7 in Octal) → (67)₈

 Octal :- (67)₈

VI. Banary to Hexadecimal

 Group binary digits in sets of four from the right.

 Convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Example :- Convert (10110111)₂ to hexadecimal.

 1011(B in Hexadecimal), 0111(7 in Hexadecimal) → B7₁₆

  Hexadecimal :- (B7)₁₆

VII. Octal to Decimal

 Multiply each octal digit by 8ⁿ (where n is the position from the right , starting at 0).

Example :- Convert (157)₈ to Decimal.

 (1×8²) + (5×8¹) + (7×8⁰) = 64 + 40 + 7 =(111)₁₀

 Decimal :- (111)₁₀

VIII. Octal to Binary

 Convert each octal digit to its 3-bits binary equivalent.

Example :- Convert (37)₈ to Binary.

 3 (011 in Binary) , 7 (111 in Binary) → (011111)₂

 Binary :- (11111)₂

IX. Octal to Hexadecimal

 Convert the octal number to binary (3 bits per digit).

 Group binary digits in sets of four to convert to hexadecimal.

Example :- Convert (54)₈ to Hexadecimal.

 (54)₈ = (101100)₂ = (01011000)₂ = (58)₁₆

 Hexadecimal :- (58)₁₆

X. Hexadecimal to Decimal

 Multiply each hexadecimal digit by 16ⁿ (where n is the position from the right, starting at 0).

Example :- Convert (1A3)₁₆ to Decimal.

 (1×16²) + (10×16¹) + (3×16⁰) = 256 + 160 + 3 = (419)₁₀

 Decimal :- (419)₁₀

XI. Hexadecimal to Binary

 Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.

Example :- Convert (F3)₁₆ to Binary.

 F ( 1111 in Binary ) , 3 ( 0011 in Binary ) → (11110011)₂

 Binary :- (11110011)₂

XII. Hexadecimal to Octal

  Convert the hexadecimal number to binary (4 bits per digit).
 Group binary digits in sets of three to convert to octal.

Example :- Convert (2F)₁₆ to Octal.

 (2F)₁₆ = 00101111₂ = 000101111₂ = (257)₈

 Octal :- (257)₈

1.3 Significance of Number Systems in Digital Logic

 Data Representation
 Binary and hexadecimal formats are used to represent data, instructions, and addresses in
digital systems.

 Logical Operations
 Binary numbers support Boolean algebra for designing and analyzing logic circuits.

 Efficient Processing
 Hexadecimal and octal simplify binary data representation, making it easier to read and
debug.

 Memory Addressing
 Hexadecimal numbers make memory locations compact and clear.

1.4 Applications of Number Systems

 Binary
 Used in digital circuits, processors, and communication protocols.

 Octal
 Found in older systems and specific programming applications.

 Decimal
 The standard number system for daily calculations and human-readable data representation.

 Hexadecimal
 Commonly used in assembly language, memory addressing, and debugging.

1.5 Summary Table

Number System Base Digits Used Example Applications
Binary 2 0 &1 (1010)₂ Digital circuits, processors
Octal 8 0 to 7 (12)₈ Unix permissions, older computing
Decimal 10 0 to 9 (10)₁₀ Human-readable data, calculators
Hexadecimal 16 0 to 9, A to F (A3)₁₆ Memory addressing, debugging, colors
2. Codes In Digital Logic
2.1 BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal)
 Introduction
 BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) is a representation of decimal numbers where each digit of the
decimal number is encoded as a separate 4-bit binary value.
 Format
 Each decimal digit (0-9) is represented by a 4-bit binary equivalent.
 Purpose
 It allows numerical data to be easily represented, stored, and processed in digital systems,
especially in applications like calculators, digital clocks, and financial systems.
 Key Feature
 Unlike binary, BCD uses 4 bits for each decimal digit, making it easier to convert to and from
human-readable decimal numbers.

2.1.1 Representation of BCD

 BCD Representation
 Each decimal digit is encoded in 4 binary bits.

BCD Representation 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001
Decimal Digit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

Note :- BCD is distinct from pure binary representation because values above 1001 are invalid in BCD.

2.1.2 Usage of BCD

 BCD is primarily used in systems where precision and human readability are important, such
as
 Financial systems
 To avoid rounding errors when handling decimal values.
 Digital clocks
 To store and display time in decimal format.
 Calculators
 To perform operations directly on decimal numbers.
 POS systems (Point of Sale)
 For processing prices and quantities in human-readable decimal format.

2.1.3 Conversion Examples

I. Decimal to BCD

 Write each decimal digit as a 4-bit binary number.

 Concatenate the binary representations.

Examples :- Convert (259)₁₀ to BCD.

 2 : 0010
 5 : 0101
 9 : 1001
Answer : (259)₁₀ → (0010 0101 1001)ᴃᴄᴅ
II. BCD to Decimal

 Split the BCD number into groups of 4 bits.

 Convert each 4-bit group to its decimal equivalent.

Examples :- Convert (0011 0111 1001)ᴃᴄᴅ to Decimal

 0011 : 3
 0111 : 7
 1001 : 9
Answer : (0011 0111 1001)ᴃᴄᴅ → (379)₁₀

III. BCD Addition (Example)

 When adding BCD numbers, ensure the result for each digit is valid (0-9). If a result exceeds
9, adjust it by adding (6)ᴃᴄᴅ (0110).

Example :- Add (9)ᴃᴄᴅ (1001) and (7)ᴃᴄᴅ (0111).

 Add : 1001 + 0111 = 11000 (invalid BCD).

 Correct : 11000 – 1010 + 0110 = 0001 0110 (16ᴃᴄᴅ).

 Advantages of BCD
 Simplifies conversion between human-readable decimal and binary.
 Avoids rounding errors common in floating-point arithmetic.
 Ideal for devices requiring precise decimal representation.

 Disadvantages of BCD
 Inefficient storage: Uses more bits compared to pure binary.
 Slower arithmetic operations due to additional encoding and correction steps.

2.2 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

2.2.1 Introduction and Usage of ASCII

 Definition
 ASCII is a character encoding standard used to represent text in computers, communication
equipment, and other devices. Each character is assigned a unique numerical code.
 Key Features
 Character Set : Contains 128 characters (7-bit binary representation).
 Printable Characters : Letters (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9), punctuation marks, and symbols.
 Control Characters : Non-printable characters used for controlling devices (e.g., newline,
tab, backspace).
 Extension : Extended ASCII uses 8 bits (256 characters) for additional symbols and language
support.
 Usage of ASCII
 Text Representation : Used for encoding text in computer files, emails, and web pages.
  Data Communication : Commonly used in protocols (e.g., HTTP, FTP) to ensure text data is
correctly transmitted.
 Programming : Used to manipulate characters and strings in programming languages.
 Input/Output : Enables devices like keyboards and displays to interpret character codes.

2.2.2 Representation and Conversion Examples

 ASCII Table (Partial View)

Character Decimal Hexadecimal Binary

A 65 41 01000001
B 66 42 01000010
a 97 61 01100001
b 98 62 01100010
0 48 30 00110000
1 49 31 00110001
Space 32 20 00100000
Enter (CR) 13 0D 00001101

Representation in Binary, Decimal, and Hexadecimal

I. ASCII to Binary

Process : Convert the ASCII decimal value of a character into binary.

 Find the ASCII decimal equivalent.

 Convert the decimal to binary (8 bits).

Example : Convert character 'A' to binary.

 ASCII Decimal Value of 'A' = 65.
 Binary Conversion → 01000001.
Answer : 'A' → 01000001

II. Binary to ASCII

Process : Convert an 8-bit binary value to its corresponding ASCII character.

 Convert the ASCII decimal value of a character into binary.

 Find the corresponding ASCII character.

Example : Convert 01100001 to its ASCII character.

 Binary 01100001 → Decimal 97. '

 ASCII Decimal 97 → ' a '.

Answer : 01100001 → ' a '.

III. ASCII to Hexadecimal

Process : Convert the ASCII decimal value of a character into hexadecimal.

 Find the ASCII decimal equivalent.

 Convert the decimal to hexadecimal.

Example : Convert character 'B' to hexadecimal.

 ASCII Decimal Value of 'B' = 66.

 Hexadecimal Conversion → 42.

Answer : 'B' → 42

IV. Hexadecimal to ASCII

Process : Convert a hexadecimal value to its corresponding ASCII character.

 Convert the hexadecimal value to decimal.

 Find the corresponding ASCII character.

Example: Convert 61 to its ASCII character.

 Hexadecimal 61 → Decimal 97.

 ASCII Decimal 97 → 'a'.

Answer : 61 → 'a'.

V. ASCII to Decimal

Process : Convert a character directly to its ASCII decimal value.

Example : Convert 'C' to its ASCII decimal value.

 ASCII Value of 'C' = 67.

Answer : 'C' → 67.

VI. Decimal to ASCII

Process : Convert a decimal number to its corresponding ASCII character.

Example : Convert 72 to its ASCII character.

 Decimal 72 → ASCII Character 'H'.

Answer : 72 → 'H'.

VII. Text to ASCII Codes

 Map each character to its corresponding ASCII decimal value.

Example : Convert "Hi!" to ASCII codes.

  'H' → 72
 'i' → 105
 '!' → 33

Answer : 72, 105, 33.

VIII. ASCII Codes to Text

 Map each decimal value to its character.

Example : Convert 72, 105, 33 to text.
 72 → 'H'
 105 → 'i'
 33 → '!'

Answer : "Hi!".