DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB

Programming Languages and

Computer Graphics Unit - 3
As per updated syllabus
DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB

2020

THE LEARN WITH EXPERTIES

 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Language Design

Language design techniques are the most important topic to design the
Programming Language and to solve various types of problems in the discipline of
Comp. Science and IT. The following are the major topics covered in Language
Design.
1. Programming Language Concepts
2. PL-Paradigms and Models
3. Programming Environments
4. Translation process
Programming Language Concepts

Computer programming language, any of various languages for expressing a set

of detailed instructions for a digital computer. Such instructions can be executed
directly when they are in the computer manufacturer-specific numerical form
known as machine language, after a simple substitution process when expressed
in a corresponding assembly language, or after translation from some “higher-
level” language. Although there are many computer languages, relatively few are
widely used.

Machine and assembly languages are “low-level,” requiring a programmer to

manage explicitly all of a computer’s idiosyncratic features of data storage and
operation. In contrast, high-level languages shield a programmer from worrying
about such considerations and provide a notation that is more easily written and
read by programmers.

Language Types
Machine and assembly languages
A machine language consists of the numeric codes for the operations that a
particular computer can execute directly. The codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or
binary digits (“bits”), which are frequently converted both from and to
hexadecimal (base 16) for human viewing and modification. Machine language
instructions typically use some bits to represent operations, such as addition, and
some to represent operands, or perhaps the location of the next instruction.
Machine language is difficult to read and write, since it does not resemble

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conventional mathematical notation or human language, and its codes vary from
computer to computer.

Assembly language is one level above machine language. It uses

short mnemonic codes for instructions and allows the programmer to introduce
names for blocks of memory that hold data. One might thus write “add pay, total”
instead of “0110101100101000” for an instruction that adds two numbers.

Assembly language is designed to be easily translated into machine language.

Although blocks of data may be referred to by name instead of by their machine
addresses, assembly language does not provide more sophisticated means of
organizing complex information. Like machine language, assembly language
requires detailed knowledge of internal computer architecture. It is useful when
such details are important, as in programming a computer to interact
with input/output devices (printers, scanners, storage devices, and so forth).

The built-in competence and defects of the various programming languages like
FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL, C, C++, and JAVA. List of Differences between higher
and lower/machine level languages.

Basic theories like abstract syntax, interpretation, stack, heap organization,

compilation techniques, different types of 'type checking' and 'error checking'
various for each Programming language.

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Algorithmic languages

Algorithmic languages are designed to express mathematical or symbolic

computations. They can express algebraic operations in notation similar to
mathematics and allow the use of subprograms that package commonly used
operations for reuse. They were the first high-level languages.

FORTRAN

The first important algorithmic language was FORTRAN (formula translation),

designed in 1957 by an IBM team led by John Backus. It was intended for scientific
computations with real numbers and collections of them organized as one- or
multidimensional arrays. Its control structures included conditional IF statements,
repetitive loops (so-called DO loops), and a GOTO statement that allowed
nonsequential execution of program code. FORTRAN made it convenient to have
subprograms for common mathematical operations, and built libraries of them.

FORTRAN was also designed to translate into efficient machine language. It was
immediately successful and continues to evolve.

ALGOL

ALGOL (algorithmic language) was designed by a committee of American and

European computer scientists during 1958–60 for publishing algorithms, as well as

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for doing computations. Like LISP (described in the next section), ALGOL had
recursive subprograms—procedures that could invoke themselves to solve a
problem by reducing it to a smaller problem of the same kind. ALGOL
introduced block structure, in which a program is composed of blocks that might
contain both data and instructions and have the same structure as an entire
program. Block structure became a powerful tool for building large programs out
of small components.

ALGOL contributed a notation for describing the structure of a programming

language, Backus–Naur Form, which in some variation became the standard tool
for stating the syntax (grammar) of programming languages. ALGOL was widely
used in Europe, and for many years it remained the language in which computer
algorithms were published. Many important languages, such as Pascal and Ada
(both described later), are its descendants.

LISP

LISP (list processing) was developed about 1960 by John McCarthy at

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and was founded on the
mathematical theory of recursive functions (in which a function appears in its own
definition). A LISP program is a function applied to data, rather than being a
sequence of procedural steps as in FORTRAN and ALGOL. LISP uses a very simple
notation in which operations and their operands are given in a parenthesized list.
For example, (+ a (* b c)) stands for a + b*c. Although this appears awkward, the
notation works well for computers. LISP also uses the list structure to represent
data, and, because programs and data use the same structure, it is easy for a LISP
program to operate on other programs as data.

LISP became a common language for artificial intelligence (AI) programming,

partly owing to the confluence of LISP and AI work at MIT and partly because AI
programs capable of “learning” could be written in LISP as self-modifying
programs. LISP has evolved through numerous dialects, such as Scheme and
Common LISP.

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The C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie and Brian
Kernighan at the AT&T Corporation for programming computer operating
systems. Its capacity to structure data and programs through the composition of
smaller units is comparable to that of ALGOL. It uses a compact notation and
provides the programmer with the ability to operate with the addresses of data as
well as with their values. This ability is important in systems programming, and C
shares with assembly language the power to exploit all the features of a
computer’s internal architecture. C, along with its descendant C++, remains one
of the most common languages.

Business-oriented languages

COBOL

COBOL (common business oriented language) has been heavily used by

businesses since its inception in 1959. A committee of computer manufacturers
and users and U.S. government organizations established CODASYL (Committee
on Data Systems and Languages) to develop and oversee the language standard in
order to ensure its portability across diverse systems.

COBOL uses an English-like notation—novel when introduced. Business

computations organize and manipulate large quantities of data, and COBOL
introduced the record data structure for such tasks. A record
clusters heterogeneous data such as a name, ID number, age, and address into a
single unit. This contrasts with scientific languages, in which homogeneous arrays
of numbers are common. Records are an important example of “chunking” data
into a single object, and they appear in nearly all modern languages.

SQL

SQL (structured query language) is a language for specifying the organization

of databases (collections of records). Databases organized with SQL are called
relational because SQL provides the ability to query a database for information
that falls in a given relation. For example, a query might be “find all records with
both last_name Smith and city New York.” Commercial database programs
commonly use a SQL-like language for their queries.

Education-oriented languages
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BASIC

BASIC (beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code) was designed

at Dartmouth College in the mid-1960s by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. It was
intended to be easy to learn by novices, particularly non-computer science
majors, and to run well on a time-sharing computer with many users. It had
simple data structures and notation and it was interpreted: a BASIC program was
translated line-by-line and executed as it was translated, which made it easy to
locate programming errors.

Its small size and simplicity also made BASIC a popular language for early personal
computers. Its recent forms have adopted many of the data and control
structures of other contemporary languages, which makes it more powerful but
less convenient for beginners.

Pascal

About 1970 Niklaus Wirth of Switzerland designed Pascal to teach structured

programming, which emphasized the orderly use of conditional and loop control
structures without GOTO statements. Although Pascal resembled ALGOL in
notation, it provided the ability to define data types with which to organize
complex information, a feature beyond the capabilities of ALGOL as well
as FORTRAN and COBOL. User-defined data types allowed the programmer to
introduce names for complex data, which the language translator could then
check for correct usage before running a program.

During the late 1970s and ’80s, Pascal was one of the most widely used languages
for programming instruction. It was available on nearly all computers, and,
because of its familiarity, clarity, and security, it was used for
production software as well as for education.

Logo

Logo originated in the late 1960s as a

simplified LISP dialect for education; Seymour Papert and others used it at MIT to
teach mathematical thinking to schoolchildren. It had a more
conventional syntax than LISP and featured “turtle graphics,” a simple method for
generating computer graphics. (The name came from an early project to program
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a turtlelike robot.) Turtle graphics used body-centred instructions, in which an

object was moved around a screen by commands, such as “left 90” and
“forward,” that specified actions relative to the current position and orientation
of the object rather than in terms of a fixed framework. Together with recursive
routines, this technique made it easy to program intricate and attractive patterns.

Hypertalk

Hypertalk was designed as “programming for the rest of us” by Bill Atkinson
for Apple’s Macintosh. Using a simple English-like syntax, Hypertalk enabled
anyone to combine text, graphics, and audio quickly into “linked stacks” that
could be navigated by clicking with a mouse on standard buttons supplied by the
program. Hypertalk was particularly popular among educators in the 1980s and
early ’90s for classroom multimedia presentations. Although Hypertalk had many
features of object-oriented languages (described in the next section), Apple did
not develop it for other computer platforms and let it languish; as Apple’s market
share declined in the 1990s, a new cross-platform way of displaying multimedia
left Hypertalk all but obsolete (see the section World Wide Web display
languages).

Object-oriented languages

Object-oriented languages help to manage complexity in large programs. Objects

package data and the operations on them so that only the operations are publicly
accessible and internal details of the data structures are hidden. This information
hiding made large-scale programming easier by allowing a programmer to think
about each part of the program in isolation. In addition, objects may be derived
from more general ones, “inheriting” their capabilities. Such an
object hierarchy made it possible to define specialized objects without repeating
all that is in the more general ones.

Object-oriented programming began with the Simula language (1967), which

added information hiding to ALGOL. Another influential object-oriented language
was Smalltalk (1980), in which a program was a set of objects that interacted by
sending messages to one another.

C++

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The C++ language, developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T in the mid-1980s,

extended C by adding objects to it while preserving the efficiency of C programs.
It has been one of the most important languages for both education and
industrial programming. Large parts of many operating systems, such as
the Microsoft Corporation’s Windows 98, were written in C++.

Ada

Ada was named for Augusta Ada King, countess of Lovelace, who was an assistant
to the 19th-century English inventor Charles Babbage, and is sometimes called
the first computer programmer. Ada, the language, was developed in the early
1980s for the U.S. Department of Defense for large-scale programming. It
combined Pascal-like notation with the ability to package operations and data
into independent modules. Its first form, Ada 83, was not fully object-oriented,
but the subsequent Ada 95 provided objects and the ability to
construct hierarchies of them. While no longer mandated for use in work for the
Department of Defense, Ada remains an effective language for engineering large
programs.

Java

In the early 1990s, Java was designed by Sun Microsystems, Inc., as a

programming language for the World Wide Web (WWW). Although it resembled
C++ in appearance, it was fully object-oriented. In particular, Java dispensed with
lower-level features, including the ability to manipulate data addresses, a
capability that is neither desirable nor useful in programs for distributed systems.
In order to be portable, Java programs are translated by a Java Virtual Machine
specific to each computer platform, which then executes the Java program. In
addition to adding interactive capabilities to the Internet through Web “applets,”
Java has been widely used for programming small and portable devices, such as
mobile telephones.

PL-Paradigms and Models

A programming paradigm is a various system design of ideas that have been used
to guide/implement the programming.

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Paradigm can also be termed as method to solve some problem or do some task.
Programming paradigm is an approach to solve problem using some programming
language or also we can say it is a method to solve a problem using tools and
techniques that are available to us following some approach. There are lots for
programming language that are known but all of them need to follow some
strategy when they are implemented and this methodology/strategy is
paradigms. Apart from varieties of programming language there are lots of
paradigms to fulfil each and every demand.

Following list of paradigms

Imperative: Explicit sequence [such as assignment statements] of statements that

change the state of the computer.

It is one of the oldest programming paradigm. It features close relation relation to

machine architecture. It is based on Von Neumann architecture. It works by
changing the program state through assignment statements. It performs step by
step task by changing state. The main focus is on how to achieve the goal. The
paradigm consist of several statements and after execution of all the result is
stored.

Advantage:

1. Very simple to implement

2. It contains loops, variables etc.

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Disadvantage:

1. Complex problem cannot be solved

2. Less efficient and less productive
3. Parallel programming is not possible

Examples of Imperative programming paradigm:

C : developed by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson

Fortan : developed by John Backus for IBM
Basic : developed by John G Kemeny and Thomas E Kurtz

// average of five number in C

int marks[5] = { 12, 32, 45, 13, 19 } int sum = 0;

float average = 0.0;

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

sum = sum + marks[i];

average = sum / 5;

Imperative programming is divided into three broad categories: Procedural, OOP

and parallel processing. These paradigms are as follows:

Procedural: Imperative programming with procedure calls something like the re-
use of code.

This paradigm emphasizes on procedure in terms of under lying machine model.

There is no difference in between procedural and imperative approach. It has the
ability to reuse the code and it was boon at that time when it was in use because
of its reusability.

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Examples of Procedural programming paradigm:

C : developed by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson

C++ : developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
Java : developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems
ColdFusion : developed by J J Allaire
Pascal : developed by Niklaus Wirth
Object-Oriented: By defining the objects that transfers messages to each objects
or program. Objects have their own internal state with public interface calls
[encapsulation].

The program is written as a collection of classes and object which are meant for
communication. The smallest and basic entity is object and all kind of
computation is performed on the objects only. More emphasis is on data rather
procedure. It can handle almost all kind of real life problems which are today in
scenario.

Advantages:

1. Data security
2. Inheritance
3. Code reusability
4. Flexible and abstraction is also present

Parallel processing: It is a type of processing that works like a divide and conquer
technique by dividing the task into multiple small processes and processing them
parallel to run a program in the least time.

Parallel processing is the processing of program instructions by dividing them

among multiple processors. A parallel processing system posses many numbers of
processor with the objective of running a program in less time by dividing them.
This approach seems to be like divide and conquer. Examples are NESL (one of the
oldest one) and C/C++ also supports because of some library function.

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Declarative

Programming by mentioning/specifying the value/result that what we need and

mentioning how to get the result.

It is divided as Logic, Functional, Database. In computer science the declarative

programming is a style of building programs that expresses logic of computation
without talking about its control flow. It often considers programs as theories of
some logic.It may simplify writing parallel programs. The focus is on what needs
to be done rather how it should be done basically emphasize on what code code
is actually doing. It just declare the result we want rather how it has be produced.
This is the only difference between imperative (how to do) and declarative (what
to do) programming paradigms. Getting into deeper we would see logic,
functional and database.

Logic (as per defined rules): Specifying a set of rules/business logic in the
programming. It is used to solve logic problems.

It can be termed as abstract model of computation. It would solve logical

problems like puzzles, series etc. In logic programming we have a knowledge base
which we know before and along with the question and knowledge base which is
given to machine, it produces result. In normal programming languages, such
concept of knowledge base is not available but while using the concept of
artificial intelligence, machine learning we have some models like Perception
model which is using the same mechanism.
In logical programming the main emphasize is on knowledge base and the
problem.

sum of two number in prolog:

predicates
sumoftwonumber(integer, integer)
clauses
sum(0, 0).
sum(n, r):-

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n1=n-1,
sum(n1, r1),
r=r1+n
Functional (Application-oriented): Expressing the calculations as evaluation of
math-function, Function call programming with to avoid any global state change.

The functional programming paradigms has its roots in mathematics and it is

language independent. The key principal of this paradigms is the execution of
series of mathematical functions. The central model for the abstraction is the
function which are meant for some specific computation and not the data
structure. Data are loosely coupled to functions.The function hide their
implementation. Function can be replaced with their values without changing the
meaning of the program. Some of the languages like perl, javascript mostly uses
this paradigm.

Examples of Functional programming paradigm:

JavaScript : developed by Brendan Eich

Haskwell : developed by Lennart Augustsson, Dave Barton
Scala : developed by Martin Odersky
Erlang : developed by Joe Armstrong, Robert Virding
Lisp : developed by John Mccarthy
ML : developed by Robin Milner
Clojure : developed by Rich Hickey

Structured: Clean programming like goto-free, with proper nested control

structures.

This programming methodology is based on data and its movement. Program

statements are defined by data rather than hard-coding a series of steps. A
database program is the heart of a business information system and provides file
creation, data entry, update, query and reporting functions. There are several
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programming languages that are developed mostly for database application. For
example SQL. It is applied to streams of structured data, for filtering,
transforming, aggregating (such as computing statistics), or calling other
programs. So it has its own wide application.

CREATE DATABASE databaseAddress;

CREATE TABLE Addr (
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(200),
FirstName varchar(200),
Address varchar(200),
City varchar(200),
State varchar(200)
);
Programming Environments

Environment/Setup is not a part of any Programming Language; It is a base step

to be completed before start writing the program i.e. required
software/hardware prerequisite.

Translation process

Translation process: A computer processor only understands the machine code.

Programs are written in high-level languages such as Java cannot be run directly in
the processor.

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To execute a program written in any kind of language, it has to be translated to

machine level language first. The source code will be translated to Machine level
language / Object code by a translator.

There are three types of translators available

Assembles: Assemblers convert the assembly language mnemonics codes to the

machine code.

Compilers: Compiler converts the full source code program to machine level code.
Hence it will run in the machine without any further translation process. But, the
error correction process is tough in the compilers.

Interpreters: Interpreters converts each instruction line by line into the object
code [like Java].

Virtual Machine

A virtual machine (or "VM") is an emulated computer system created

using software. It uses physical system resources, such as the CPU, RAM, and disk

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storage, but is isolated from other software on the computer. It can easily be
created, modified, or destroyed without affecting the host computer.

Virtual machines provide similar functionality to physical machines, but they do

not run directly on the hardware. Instead, a software layer exists between the
hardware and the virtual machine. The software that manages one or more VMs
is called a "hypervisor" and the VMs are called "guests" or virtualized instances.
Each guest can interact with the hardware, but the hypervisor controls them. The
hypervisor can start up and shut down virtual machines and also allocate a
specific amount of system resources to each one.

virtual machine can be created using virtualization software. Examples include

Microsoft Hyper-V Manager, VMware Workstation Pro, and Parallels Desktop.
These applications allow us to run multiple VMs on a single computer. For
example, Parallels Desktop for Mac allows us to run Windows, Linux,
and macOS virtual machines on our Mac.

VMs are ideal for testing software since developers can install one or more
applications and revert to a saved state (or "snapshot") whenever needed. Testing
software on a regular operating system can cause unexpected crashes and may
leave some files lingering behind after the software is uninstalled. It is safer to
test software on a virtual machine that is isolated from the operating system and
can be fully reset as needed.

Binding Time

As we have just seen, operating systems use various kinds of names to refer to
objects. Sometimes the mapping between a name and an object is fixed, but
sometimes it is not. In the latter case, it may matter when the name is bound to
the object. In general, early binding is simple, but is not flexible, whereas late
binding is more complicated but often more flexible.

To clarify the concept of binding time, look at some real-world examples. An

example of early binding is the practice of some colleges to allow parents to enroll
a baby at birth and prepay the current tuition. When the student shows up 18
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years later, the tuition is fully paid up, no matter how high it may be at that
moment.

In manufacturing, ordering parts in advance and maintaining an inventory of them

is early binding. In contrast, just-in-time manufacturing requires suppliers to be
able to provide parts on the spot, with no advance notice required. This is late
binding.

Programming languages often support multiple binding times for variables. Global
variables are bound to a particular virtual address by the compiler. This
exemplifies early binding. Variables local to a procedure are assigned a virtual
address (on the stack) at the time the procedure is invoked. This is intermediate
binding. Variables stored on the heap (those allocated by malloc in C or new in
Java) are assigned virtual addresses only at the time they are actually used. Here
we have late binding.

Operating systems often use early binding for most data structures, but
occasionally use late binding for flexibility. Memory allocation is a case in point.
Early multiprogramming systems on machines lacking address relocation
hardware had to load a program at some memory address and relocate it to run
there. If it was ever swapped out, it had to be brought back at the same memory
address or it would fail. In contrast, paged virtual memory is a form of late
binding. The actual physical address corresponding to a given virtual address is
not known until the page is touched and actually brought into memory.

Another example of late binding is window placement in a GUI. In contrast to the

early graphical systems, in which the programmer had to specify the absolute
screen coordinates for all images on the screen, in modern GUIs, the software
uses coordinates relative to the window's origin, but that is not determined until
the window is put on the screen, and it may even be changed later.

Binding refers to the process of converting identifiers (such as variable and

performance names) into addresses. Binding is done for each variable and

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functions. For functions, it means that matching the call with the right function
definition by the compiler. It takes place either at compile time or at runtime.

Early Binding (compile-time time polymorphism) As the name indicates, compiler

(or linker) directly associate an address to the function call. It replaces the call
with a machine language instruction that tells the mainframe to leap to the
address of the function.

By default early binding happens in C++. Late binding is achieved with the help
of virtual keyword)

// CPP Program to illustrate early binding.

// Any normal function call (without virtual)

// is binded early. Here we have taken base

// and derived class example so that readers

// can easily compare and see difference in

// outputs.

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

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class Base

public:

void show() { cout<<" In Base \n"; }

};

class Derived: public Base

public:

void show() { cout<<"In Derived \n"; }

};

int main(void)

Base *bp = new Derived;

// The function call decided at

// compile time (compiler sees type

// of pointer and calls base class

// function.

bp->show();

return 0;

Output:

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In Base

Late Binding : (Run time polymorphism) In this, the compiler adds code that
identifies the kind of object at runtime then matches the call with the right
function definition. This can be achieved by declaring a virtual function.

// CPP Program to illustrate late binding

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

class Base

public:

virtual void show() { cout<<" In Base \n"; }

};

class Derived: public Base

public:

void show() { cout<<"In Derived \n"; }

};

int main(void)

Base *bp = new Derived;

bp->show(); // RUN-TIME POLYMORPHISM

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return 0;

Output:

In Derived

Syntax in Programming

Syntax is the set of rules that define what the various combinations of symbols
mean. This tells the computer how to read the code. Syntax refers to a concept in
writing code dealing with a very specific set of words and a very specific order to
those words when we give the computer instructions. This order and this strict
structure is what enables us to communicate effectively with a computer. Syntax
is to code, like grammar is to English or any other language. A big difference
though is that computers are really exacting in how we structure that grammar or
our syntax.

This syntax is why we call programming coding. Even amongst all the different
languages that are out there. Each programming language uses different words in
a different structure in how we give it information to get the computer to follow
our instructions.

Web developers primarily focus on HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. That is what we’re
going to focus on in this course as well. By focusing on these languages and
mastering them, We’ll be able to write websites that can be opened by any
browser in the world.

Syntax in computer programming means the rules that control the structure of
the symbols, punctuation, and words of a programming language.

Without syntax, the meaning or semantics of a language is nearly impossible to

understand.

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For example, a series of English words, such as — subject a need and does
sentence a verb — has little meaning without syntax.

Applying basic syntax results in the sentence — Does a sentence need a subject
and verb?

Programming languages function on the same principles.

If the syntax of a language is not followed, the code will not be understood by a
compiler or interpreter.

Compilers convert programming languages like Java or C++ into binary code that
computers can understand. If the syntax is incorrect, the code will not compile.

Interpreters execute programming languages such as JavaScript or Python at

runtime. The incorrect syntax will cause the code to fail.

That’s why it is crucial that a programmer pays close attention to a language’s

syntax. No programmer likes to get a syntax error.

Basic Syntax

Basic syntax represents the fundamental rules of a programming language.

Without these rules, it is impossible to write functioning code.

Every language has its own set of rules that make up its basic syntax. Naming
conventions are a primary component of basic syntax conventions and vary by
language.

1. Case Sensitive. Java, C++, and Python are examples of languages that are
case-sensitive. Identifiers such as world and World have different meanings
in these languages. Languages such as Basic and SQL are insensitive,
meaning world and World have the same meaning.

2. Class Names. Java requires the first letter of each word in class names be
upper case. For example, class FirstJavaClass. Languages such as C or C++

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use an underscore to separate words. In C, the class name would be

first_java_class.

3. Program Filenames. The name of a Java program file must match the class
name with the extension ‘*.java” added to the name. For
example, FirstJavaClass.java would be the name of the program file for the
class FirstJavaClass. C and C++ files require a “*.c” or “*.cpp” extension but
have no other stipulations.

Different languages may have rules for adding comments, using white space, or
declaring variables.

Object-oriented languages such as Java and C use methods that have different
syntax requirements.

The first step in learning any programming language is to understand the basics
such as phrase structure, proper syntax and correctly structured code.

Understanding Syntax

Human languages have syntax. These rules stipulate word order, punctuation and
sentence structure.

Without these rules, it would be impossible to communicate in a given language.

When learning a foreign language, one of the first steps is learning its syntax.

Writing code requires the same focus on syntax. Once the code is written, it is
read multiple times by different people.

Sometimes the code may be read years after it is written, making coding
standards necessary. Coding standards can make the code easy to understand.

C Syntax

look at a C program that prints the sentence — My first line of code. All C
instructions are written in lower case.

#include
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int main() {

printf( “My first line of code” );

For this example, ignore the include statement at the start of the program. All C
programs must begin with main() followed by a left curly bracket ( { ).

This convention indicates the start of the program. A right curly bracket ( } )
indicates the end.

The print function (printf) is called, followed by what is to print. The text to print
must be surrounded by quotation marks and enclosed in parentheses.

All statements must end with a semicolon ( ; ). For example, to print a second
sentence add the following statement before the right curly bracket:

printf( “just printed!” );

The executed program would display: My first line of code just printed!

Why Is Syntax Important in Programming?

Syntax improves code readability. It ensures that the four C’s of coding are
maintained:

1. Communication

2. Code integration

3. Consistency

4. Clarity

The concept behind conventions is to make the code explain itself. If the code is
self-explanatory, the focus can be on design and program improvements and not
on what does this mean?
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Using consistent standards means that code is predictable and discoverable when
read by other programmers.

When code does not follow conventions, it becomes disorganized and difficult to
read. It becomes what is known as spaghetti code.

The term has a negative connotation indicating that the programmer did not have
the skills or experience needed to write readable code.

The Translation Process.

A computer system can only understand machine code. A program written for
example in a high level language such as Java cannot be run directly. To execute a
computer program written in any programming language, it must first be
translated.

The source code which is written by the programmer needs to be translated.

When translated, the source code becomes object code which is understandable
by the computer system. This process can be seen in the following diagram;

There are three main types of translators; Assemblers,Compilers and Interpreters.

A description of each of these type of translators is given in the following table.

The three main types of translators

Type Description

Assembler Assemblers convert assembly language mnemonics

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

into machine code.

Interpreters Interpreters convert each instruction of the source

code into the object code as the program is being
run. This gives a better interactive environment but
is slower.

Compilers A compiler converts the entire source code into

machine code so that it can be run on the machine
without further translation. However, error
correction is tedious.

Stages in Translating a Program

Lexical analysis (Scanner): Breaking a program into primitive components, called

tokens (identifiers, numbers, keywords, …)

Syntactic analysis (Parsing): Creating a syntax tree of the program.

Symbol table: Storing information about declared objects (identifiers, procedure

names, …)

Semantic analysis: Understanding the relationship among the tokens in the

program.

Optimization: Rewriting the syntax tree to create a more efficient program.

Code generation: Converting the parsed program into an executable form.

Elementary Data Types

Variables and Constants

Variables: A variable is it Quadruple which is composed of a name,a set of

attributes, a reference and a value.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

A simple variable is an elementary data object with a name and binding of data
object to value may change during its lifetime. This data objects are basically
defined and named by programmer explicitly.

Attribute of a variable:

example of variable in "ALGOL Language"

y:=9;

We can say that it has four attributes

• 1) the name of the box:y

• 2) The name of description of a current contents.

i.e 9 we can also say that square of 3.

• 3) the box or storage location(s) which holds(s) the value.

• 4) the content of the box or 9.

The name of the box and its storage location are fixed, but the contents and it
name may vary over time.

another example in C language:

int N;- It declares a simple data object N of type integer.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

N=27; beta value 27 is assigned to variable N.

 1) declare the variable name N of type integer.

 2) lifetime of N is execution end.
 3) data object bound to N during end of execution time.
 4) value 27 is assigned and may be changed during life of N.
 5) hidden from the programmer are other binding made by virtual
computer like creating Activation Record, Storage for this activation
record in Run-TimeStack etc.

Data Object:

Definition: A Data object represents a container for data values, a place where
data values may be stored and later retrieved.

Definition: A runtime grouping of one or more pieces of data in a virtual

computer.

Definition: A Location in memory with an assignment name in the actual

computer.

Data objects can be:

• 1) at program execution- Programmer-defined -(example variables, constant,

arrays, files etc)

• 2) not directly accessible to programmer- system defined- run time storage,

stacks, file buffers, free space lists.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Data values can be:

• Single number

• Pointer to other objects and characters.

Data object is usually represented as storage in Computer memory and a data

value is represented by a pattern of bits. So we can represent the relation
between Data Object and Data value.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

A Data Object is elementary if it contains a data value that is always manipulated

as a unit.

A Data Object is an Data Structure if it is an aggregate of the data object

Binding and Attributes of Data Object:

Binding is an association of data values and entity.

1) Type: This associates the data object with the set of data values that the object
may take.

2) location: This associate the binding of a storage location in memory where the
data object is represented. Only storage management routines can only change
add data object in the virtual computer.

3) Value: This binding is usually the result of an assignment operation.

4) Name: The binding to one or more names by which the object maybe
referenced during program execution is usually set up by declaration and
modified by subprogram calls the returns.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

5) Component: The binding of a data object to one or more data object of which
it is a component is often represented by a pointer value. And may be modified by
a change in pointer.

Elementary Data Type: Variables And Constants:

Constant:

A data object with a name that is bound to a value (or values) permanently during
its lifetime. The constant value can only be a number, string or identifier which
denotes constant.

A constant definition in Pascal introduces an identifier as a synonym for the

constant value.

Pascal uses the reserved word const to begin a constant declaration.

const PI=3.1415;

In ALGOL68 we can define constant by

real root2=1.4142135;

That was much acceptable that time.

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In Ada, provides a uniform notation for setting constants to initial values and for
initializing variables.

X: Constant INTEGER:=17;

In C language: const is used to initialise the constant value

const int MAX=80;

The constant MAX is a programmer defined constant because the programmer

explicitly defines the name for the value 30.

In C, there is micro definition which is used for control the execution of program
and can be used for declaring constant.

Example #define MAX30

It is a compile-time operation that causes all references to MAX in program to be

changed to the constant 30.

In this 30 has two names, the programmer defined MAX and literal name 30. Both
of which may be used to refer to a data object containing the value 30.

# define MAX 30 is a command, which the translator used to equate "MAX" with
the value "30", where as the const attribute in C is a translator directive starting
that MAX will always contain the value 30.

Specification of Elementary Data Types

An elementary data object contains a single data values and class of such data
objects over which various operations are defined is termed as elementary data
type.

Some elementary data types: Integer, real, character, Boolean, enumeration and
pointer and specification may differ significantly between two languages.

Attributes: Basic attributes of any data object, such as data type and name are
usually invariant during its lifetime.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Some attributes may be stored in a descriptor as a part of the data object daily
program execution. Others may be used only to determine the storage
representation of the data object.

The value of an attribute of a data object is different from the value that the data
object contains.

Values: The type of a data object determines the set of possible values that it may
contain.

For Example: C defines the following four classes of integer types

int, short, long and char

because most hardware implements multiple Precision integer arithmetic(

example 16 bit and 32 bit integers or 32 bit and 64 integers) We can use' short'
for shortest value of the integer word length.

long uses the longest value implemented by the hardware.

int uses the most efficient value that the hardware implements.

In C, Characters are stored as 8 bit integers in the type char, which is subtype of
integer.

Operations:- The set of operations Defined by language is basically refers that

how data object of that data type may be manipulated.

If the operations are primitive operation, means specified as part of language.

Programmer defined operations, in the form of subprograms or method

declarations as part of class definitions.

Example

Integer* integer-> integer

a) integer addition is an operation that take to integer data objects as an

arguments and produces an integer data object as a result.
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b) SQRT: real-> real

A Square-root operation, SQRT,on real number data object is specified.

(Port of operation)

An algorithm that specifies how to compute the results for any given set of
arguments is a common method for specifying the action of an operation.

In C, we have concept a function prototype which signature of an operation, the

number, order and data types of the arguments in the domain of an operation are
given as well as the order and the data type of the resulting range.

Binary operation: Two arguments with single result

Monolic operation: Single argument with single result.

Implementation of Elementary Data Types:"

Implementation of Elementary data type consists of

 Storage representation for data objects

 Values of that type
 Set of algorithms or procedures that define the operations of the
type in terms of manipulations of the storage representation.

Storage representation of Elementary data type:

1) Hardware Influence: Computer hardware influence the storage of elementary

data type.

In this case computer hardware executes the program. If the hardware storage
representation are used, then the basic operations on data of that data type not
implemented using hardware provided operations.

2) Software influenced: If we do not use hardware storage representation, then

the operation must be software simulated and some operation will execute much
less efficient.

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Two methods to treat Attributes:

It has to be determined by the compiler and not stored in discriptors during

execution or not stored in runtime storage representation. It is usually a method
in C language.

It is stored in a descriptor as part of the data object at runtime in LISP, Prolog

language .

The storage representation is usually described in terms of

 Size of the block of memory required(the number of memory words

bytes, ot bits needed)
 Layout of attributes and data values within the block.

Implementation of operations:

Each operation defined for data objects of a given type may be implemented in
one of three main ways:-

1) Directly as a hardware operation: If simple data types are stored using the
hardware representation, when the primitive operations are implemented using
the arithmetic operations built in to hardware.

2) As a Subprogram or procedure: A square root for an example, this operation is

not provided directly as a hardware operation. So it is software simulated
implemented as a procedure or function.

3) as an inline code sequence: It is software implementation of the code and its

operation. Instead of using a subprogram, operation in the subprogram are
copied into the program at the point where the subprogram would otherwise
have been invoked.

For Example:

The absolute value of function on numbers

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

abs(x)= if x<0 then -x else x

is usually implemented as an inline code sequence.

a) fetch value of x from memory

b) if x >0, skip the next instruction

c) set x=-x

d) store new value of x in memory

Here each line is implemented by a single hardware operation.

Scalar Data Types

Scalar data types represent

a single object, i.e. only one value can be derived.

In general, scalar objects follow the hardware architecture of a computer.

Numeric Data Types

Integers

Sub -ranges

Floating-point real numbers

Fixed-point real numbers

Other Data Types -

Complex numbers

Rational numbers

Enumerations Booleans

Booleans

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Characters

Integers Specification

Maximal and minimal values

Operations:

Arithmetic Relational Assignment Bit operations

Implementation - hardware defined

Sub-ranges Specification:

subtype of integer

a sequence of integer values within some restricted range Example:

Pascal declaration A: 1..10 means that the variable A may be assigned integer
values from 1 through 10.

Implementation

smaller storage requirements, better type checking

Floating-point real numbers Specification:

Minimum and maximal value

Round-off issues - the check for equality may fail due to round -off

Implementation

Mantissa - exponent model. Example: 10.5 = 0.105 x 102,

Mantissa: 105, Exponent: 2

Fixed-point real numbers Specification:

real numbers with predefined decimal places

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Implementation :

Directly supported by hardware or simulated by software

Other scalar data types

Complex numbers: software simulated with two storage locations one the real
portion and one for the imaginary portion.

Rational numbers: the quotient of two integers. Enumerations: Ordered list of

different values Booleans

Characters

Scalar Data Type Enumeration

An Enumerated data type is a data type whose domain values are given in a list or
ordered list and who's only operations are equality and assignment.
or
An Enumeration is an ordered list of distinct values.
or
An Enumeration is a complete ordered listing of all items in a collection.

Pascal was first language which introduced enumeration. To make enumeration

facility useful, a programming language must provide a mechanism for declaring
and defining the new data type and for declaring variables whose value will come
from the element of type.

It is assumed that this literals are distinct and does equality can be directly
defined.

"Before an era of enumeration what we had ?"

For example: A variable student class might have only 4 possible values
representing fresher, sophomore, junior and senior. Similarly, a variable
StudentSex might have only two values representing Male and Female.
Before the contact of enumeration the language like

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Fortran or Cobol such variables is declared as integer type and distinct values are
assigned. like
fresher=1 , sophomore=2, and so on
and male=0, female =1
Then translator manipulate values as integers.
That creates big problem like
Sophomore =1 and female=1
As both have some values can we apply integer based operation on it. As a point
of view of programmer it should not be but according to translator it can apply as
they are of integer types.
Then languages such as C, article Pascal and Ada includes an Enumeration data
type that allows the programmer to define and manipulate such variables
directly.

Specification of Enumeration

The programmers defined both the literal name to be used for the values and
their ordering using a declaration such as in pascal.
Type months=(jan,feb, mar, apr, june, jul, aug, sep, oct,nov,dec);

In C
enum studentclass{ fresh, soph, junior, senior};
enum studentsex {male, female};

In Pascal, C example can be written as

type class =(fresh, soph, junior, senior};

Followed by declaration for variables such as
Studentclass: Class;
Studentsex class: Class;

Here type definition introduces the type name class, which may be used wherever
the primitive type name such as integer might be used time.
It also introduces the literals of fresh, soph, junior, senior which may be used

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wherever a language- defined literal such as "27" might be used. Thus we can
write.
if studentclass= junior then.....
Instead of the less understandable
if studentclass= 3 then ...........
Which would be required if integer variables were used. Static compiler can find
error such as
if student class= Male then
As Male is part of student class. Operations which we can perform-
• Relational operations(equal, less-than, greater-than,etc)
• Assignment
• Successor and Predecessor

Implementation of Enumeration

• Each value in the enumeration sequence is represented at run-time by one of

the integers 0,1,2,..... as only a small set of values is involved and the values are
never negative.
• In this integer representation is often shortened to omit the sign bit and use
only enough bits for the range of values required, as with the sub-range values.
• Only and maximum 2 bits are required to represent the senior=3 in memory
because 3=11(binary)/ 2 bits only

In C, the programmer main override default and set any values desired for
enumeration values for example.
Enum class{ fresh=74, soph=89, junio=7, senior=28}

With this storage representation for enumeration types. Relational operations

such as =,>, and < may be implemented.

Scalar Data Types: Booleans

The Boolean data type is a data type, having two values(usually denoted true or
false), intended to represent the truth values of logic and Boolean algebra.

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Specification: In Pascal and Ada, the Boolean data type is considered simply a
language - defined enumeration, viz;

type Boolean=(false, true);

Which both defines the names true and false for the values of the types and
define ordering false<true

Common Operations in boolean are

and : Boolean*Boolean->Boolean(conjunction)

or : Boolean*Boolean->Boolean(inclusive disjunction )

not : Boolean ->Boolean(negative or complement)

Implementation of boolean data type:

Single bit of storage is provided, no descriptor designated the data type is

needed. Because single bit may not be separately addressable in memory which
often takes a byte or word to represent it if extended. Then the value true and
false might be represented in two ways within the storage unit:

 a particular bit is used for the value(often the sign bit of the number
representation), with '0= false', '1=true', and the rest of the byte or word
ignored, or
 A zero value in the entire storage unit represent False, and any other non
zero value represents true

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Scalar Data Types: Characters

Specification of Characters

A character data type provides data objects that have a single character as their
value. Set of values in character data type depends upon "Hardware and
Operating System" like ASCII character set. and ordering of the characters in this
character set is called Collecting Sequence And ordering given by the 'Relational
Operations'.

Character set includes

• Spaces
• Digits
• Special character @,#,$,& etc.

Operations on character data include only

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

• Relational operations
• Assignment and
• To test character for- Letter, Digit, Special Character.

Implementation of Character Data Type

Character data values are almost directly supported by the underlying hardware
and operating system because their use in input-output.
In C Character is declared

ASCII value of character data type in C are

0 to 9 is 48 to 57/ ASCII value

A to z is 65 to 90
a to z is 97 to 122
And all remaining for special characters.

char a ; //declaration

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a='A'; // initializing character data object with A

Where= A=65=1000001

Composite Data Types

Characterized by a complex data structure organization, processed by the

compiler.

 Character Strings
 Pointers and Programmer- Constructed Objects
 Files

Character Strings Specification:

Fixed declared length : storage allocation at translation time. Strings longer than
the declared length are truncated.

Variable length to a declared bound: storage allocation at translation time. An

upper bound for length is set and any string over that length is truncated

Unbounded length: storage allocation at run time. String can be any length

Character Strings - operations

Concatenation – appending two strings

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 Relational operations – equal, less than, greater than

o Substring selection using positioning subscripts
o Substring selection using pattern matching
o Input / output formatting
o Dynamic strings - the string is evaluated at run time.

implementation

 Fixed declared length: A packed vector of characters

 Variable length to a declared bound: a
descriptor that contains the maximum length and the current
length
 Unbounded length: Either a linked storage of fixed-length data objects or a
contiguous array of characters with dynamic run-time storage allocation

Pointers and Programmer- Constructed Objects

Objects

Specification:

Reference data objects only of a single type – C, Pascal, Ada.

Reference data objects of any type – Smalltalk

C, C++: pointers are data objects and can be manipulated by the program

Java: pointers are hidden data structures, managed by the language

implementation

Pointers - implementation

Absolute addresses stored in the pointer. Allows for storing the new object
anywhere in the memory

Relative addresses: offset with respect to some base address.

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Advantages: the entire block can be moved to another location without

invalidating the addresses in the pointers, since they are relative, not absolute.

Pointers – implementation problems

 Management of a general heap storage area: to create objects of different

size
 Garbage - the contents of pointer is destroyed, and the object still exists
 Dangling references: the object is destroyed however the pointer still
contains the address of the used location, and can be wrongly used by the
program.

Characteristics:

 Usually reside on secondary storage devices

as disks, tapes.
 Lifetime is greater than the lifetime of the program that has
created the files.

Implementation – as part of the operating system

Types of Files

Sequential file: a data structure composed of a linear sequence of

components of the same type.

Interactive Input-Output: sequential files used in interactive mode.

Direct Access Files: Any single component can be accessed at random just as in an
array.

Key: the subscript to access a component.

Implementation: a key table is kept in main memory

Indexed Sequential Files: Similar to direct access files using a key combined with
being able to sequentially process the file. The file must be ordered by the key

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C programming

C programming is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer

programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis M. Ritchie at the Bell
Telephone Laboratories to develop the UNIX operating system. C is the most
widely used computer language. It keeps fluctuating at number one scale of
popularity along with Java programming language, which is also equally popular
and most widely used among modern software programmers.

Why to Learn C Programming?

C programming language is a MUST for students and working professionals to

become a great Software Engineer specially when they are working in Software
Development Domain. I will list down some of the key advantages of learning C
Programming:

1. Easy to learn
2. Structured language
3. It produces efficient programs
4. It can handle low-level activities
5. It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms

Facts about C

1. C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.

2. C is a successor of B language which was introduced around the early
1970s.
3. The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National
Standard Institute (ANSI).
4. The UNIX OS was totally written in C.
5. Today C is the most widely used and popular System Programming
Language.
6. Most of the state-of-the-art software have been implemented using
C.

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7. Today's most popular Linux OS and RDBMS MySQL have been written
in C.

Hello World using C Programming.

#include <stdio.h

int main() {

/* my first program in C */

printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;

Applications of C Programming

C was initially used for system development work, particularly the programs that
make-up the operating system. C was adopted as a system development language
because it produces code that runs nearly as fast as the code written in assembly
language. Some examples of the use of C are -

1. Operating Systems
2. Language Compilers
3. Assemblers
4. Text Editors
5. Print Spoolers
6. Network Drivers
7. Modern Programs
8. Databases
9. Language Interpreters
10. Utilities

Tokens

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Tokens are the smallest elements of a program, which are meaningful to the
compiler.

The following are the types of tokens: Keywords, Identifiers, Constant, Strings,
Operators, etc.

begin with Keywords.

Keywords

Keywords are predefined, reserved words in C and each of which is associated

with specific features. These words help us to use the functionality of C language.
They have special meaning to the compilers.

There are total 32 keywords in C.

auto double int struct

break else long switch

case enum register typedef

char extern return union

continue for signed void

do if static while

default goto sizeof volatile

const float short unsigned

Identifiers

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Each program element in C programming is known as an identifier. They are used

for naming of variables, functions, array etc. These are user-defined names which
consist of alphabets, number, underscore ‘_’. Identifier’s name should not be
same or same as keywords. Keywords are not used as identifiers.

Rules for naming C identifiers −

 It must begin with alphabets or underscore.

 Only alphabets, numbers, underscore can be used, no other special
characters, punctuations are allowed.
 It must not contain white-space.
 It should not be a keyword.
 It should be up to 31 characters long.

Rules for constructing C identifiers

 The first character of an identifier should be either an alphabet or an

underscore, and then it can be followed by any of the character, digit, or
underscore.
 It should not begin with any numerical digit.
 In identifiers, both uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct. Therefore,
we can say that identifiers are case sensitive.
 Commas or blank spaces cannot be specified within an identifier.
 Keywords cannot be represented as an identifier.
 The length of the identifiers should not be more than 31 characters.
 Identifiers should be written in such a way that it is meaningful, short, and
easy to read.

Example of valid identifiers

o total, sum, average, _m _, sum_1, etc.

Example of invalid identifiers

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o 2sum (starts with a numerical digit)

o int (reserved word)

o char (reserved word)

o m+n (special character, i.e., '+')

Types of identifiers

 Internal identifier
 External identifier
Internal Identifier

If the identifier is not used in the external linkage, then it is known as an internal
identifier. The internal identifiers can be local variables.

External Identifier

If the identifier is used in the external linkage, then it is known as an external

identifier. The external identifiers can be function names, global variables.

Differences between Keyword and Identifier

Keyword Identifier

Keyword is a pre-defined word. The identifier is a user-defined word

It must be written in a lowercase It can be written in both lowercase and

letter. uppercase letters.

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Its meaning is pre-defined in the c Its meaning is not defined in the c compiler.
compiler.

It is a combination of alphabetical It is a combination of alphanumeric

characters. characters.

It does not contain the underscore It can contain the underscore character.
character.

an example.

int main()

int a=10;

int A=20;

printf("Value of a is : %d",a);

printf("\nValue of A is :%d",A);

return 0;

Output

Value of a is : 10

Value of A is :20

The above output shows that the values of both the variables, 'a' and 'A' are
different. Therefore, we conclude that the identifiers are case sensitive.

Strings
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A string is an array of characters ended with a null character(\0). This null

character indicates that string has ended. Strings are always enclosed with double
quotes(“ “).

how to declare String in C language −

1) char string[20] = {‘s’,’t’,’u’,’d’,’y’, ‘\0’};

2) char string[20] = “demo”;

3) char string [] = “demo”;

Here is an example of tokens in C language,

Example

#include >stdio.h>

int main() {

// using keyword char

char a1 = 'H';

int b = 8;

float d = 5.6;

// declaration of string

char string[200] = "demodotcom";

if(b<10)

printf("Character Value : %c\n",a1);

else

printf("Float value : %f\n",d);

printf("String Value : %s\n", string);

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return 0;

Output

Character Value : H

String Value : demodotcom

Data Types in C

A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer,
floating, character, etc.

There are the following data types in C language.

Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

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Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

Basic Data Types

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language
supports both signed and unsigned literals.

The memory size of the basic data types may change according to 32 or 64-bit
operating system.

the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32-bit architecture.

Data Types Memory Size Range

char 1 byte −128 to 127

signed char 1 byte −128 to 127

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 65,535

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int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

signed long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long int 4 byte 0 to 4,294,967,295

float 4 byte

double 8 byte

long double 10 byte

Subprogram

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

A Subprogram is a program inside any larger program that can be reused any
number of times.

Control at the subprogram level is concerned with subprogram invocation and the
relationship between the calling module and the called module. What follows is a
list of possible ways the caller and the callee are related.

Characteristics of a Subprogram:

(1) A Subprogram is implemented using the Call & Return instructions in

Assembly Language.

(2) The Call Instruction is present in the Main Program and the Return(Ret)
Instruction is present in the subprogram itself.

(3) It is important to note that the Main Program is suspended during the
execution of any subprogram. Moreover, after the completion of the subprogram
the main program executes from the next sequential address present in the
Program Counter .

(4) For the implementation of any subprogram, a “Stack” is used to store

the “Return Address” to the Main Program . Here, Return Address means the
immediately next instruction address after the Call Instruction in the Main
program. This Return Address is present inside the Program Counter . Thus during
the execution of the Call Instruction, the Program Counter value is first pushed to
the Stack as the Return Address and then the Program Counter value is updated
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

to the given address in the Call Instruction . Similarly, during the execution of
Return(Ret) Instruction, the value present in the stack is popped and the Program
Counter value is restored for further execution of the Main Program .

(5) The Main advantage of Subprogram is that it avoids repetition of Code and
allows us to reuse the same code again and again.

ARRAY

Introduction

► Arrays are also known as subscript variable.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

► Array is a collection of similar elements

► Whatever may the size of array, it always consumed memory in a contiguous

manner

Need of array

Till now we have been designing solution to small problems that require less
number of variables to handle program data. Think about a scenario where We
need to handle hundreds of variables or even more than that.

In such scenario, We might be thinking about what variable names should be

used, how to reduce redundant code, etc.

Assume We have to store marks of 100 students and then think about the
following:

 What could be our variable naming convention?

 How We efficiently write input instruction to store 100
data.
 How could We easily manipulate data like adding all of
them in a less complex style?

The answer to all these questions is subscript notation also known as arrays.

Array Declaration

When We want to create large number of variables We need not to think about
100s of names. Assume that We want to create 100 variables to store marks of
100 students.

Here is the way:

int marks[100];

 Notice square brackets after array name marks. This pair of square brackets
is used to depict array usage.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

 Number mention in the square bracket is size of array. In our example we

wrote 100, so size of the array is 100. Thus we have declared 100 variables
in one go.
 These 100 variables are all of type int. Since array is a collection of similar
elements, data type for all 100 variables is int.
 Name of the first variable is marks[0], second variable is marks[1], and so
on. Therefore the last variable is marks[99]. Here it is important to note
that in C language array indexing starts with 0 and not from 1.

Example: Program to calculate average of 10 marks

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

int i, marks[10], sum=0;

float avg;

clrscr();

printf(“Enter 10 numbers”);

for(i=0;i<=9;i++)

scanf(“%d”,&marks[i]);

for(i=0;i<=9;i++)

sum=sum+marks[i];

avg=sum/10.0;

printf(“Average is %f”,avg);

getch();
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Explanation:

i. Total numbers of variables in this program are 13. Their names

are i, sum, avg, marks[0], marks[1],…marks[9].
ii. Notice the input statement, scanf() is repeated 10 times, this is
possible as we can access array index with the help of variable.
Observe &marks[i] in scanf(), here i is used for indexing. As the
loop proceed value of i changes from 0 to 9. In this way wee need
not to write scanf() 10 times.
iii. Data manipulation becomes also easy, we added all 10 values
stored in an array putting statement sum=sum+marks[i] in the
loop.
iv. Since we have an array of size 10 and each of these blocks are of
type int, to tal memory consumed for this array is 20 bytes (2
bytes for each).

One dimension array

To use an array variable in a program, it must be declared. When defining an

array in a program, three things need to be specified.

► What kind of data it can hold, i.e., int, char, double, string, etc.

► How many values it can hold, i.e., the maximum number it can hold

► A name

In the previous example the array declared known as one dimensional array.

Note: According to our previous example marks is not a variable name but
marks[0] is a variable. Thus we can not assign anything to marks like marks=5;

Two dimension array

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

C language supports multidimensional arrays also. The simplest form of a

multidimensional array is the two-dimensional array. Both the row's and column's
index begins from 0.

Two dimensional arrays is actually array of arrays. So here we are creating an

array of several identical arrays.

Consider the following declaration style

int a[2][3];

this declaration means, we have an array of 2 arrays containing 3 int blocks each.

 Total numbers of blocks are 6, they are all of type int.

Memory allocation done is always sequential but we can
assume it as two arrays each of size 3.
 Logically we can see it as a row column structure. First
row is our 0th array and second row is 1st array.
 Two dimensional arrays are used to handle data which is
logically two dimensional like matrix.

Example: Program to add two matrix of order 3 x 3.

#include<conio.h>

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a[3][3],b[3][3],c[3][3];

int i,j;

clrscr();

printf("Enter 9 numbers for first matrix\n");

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

for(j=0;j<3;j++)

scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);

printf("Enter 9 numbers for second matrix\n");

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

for(j=0;j<3;j++)

scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

for(j=0;j<3;j++)

c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];

printf("\nSum of matrix is: \n");

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

for(j=0;j<3;j++)

printf("%d ",c[i][j]);

printf("\n");

getch();

Explanation:

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

1) Notice the declaration of arrays. We have declared three two dimensional

arrays.

2) Observe the style of input. scanf() is repeated with nested loop.

3) Lastly sum of corresponding elements of two matrices are added and stored
in third array.

4) Finally sum is displayed on the screen

Initialization of array at the time of declaration

Initializing one dimension array

int a[5]={ 23,45,11,67,55};

int a[ ]= { 23,45,11,67,55};

int a[5]= {22,45};

int a[5]= {12,23,76,85,43,33};

In the first style we declared an array with size 5 and assign 5 values to them, First
value is stored in a[0] and last in a[4].

Second style is also valid. When We initialize array at the time of declaration it is
not necessary to mention size of array, otherwise it is compulsory. Compiler
assumes the size of array by counting number of values assigned to it.

Third notation style is also valid as two variables a[0] and a[1] initializes with 22
and 45, remaining variables are initialized to 0.

Fourth style leads to compilation error. an array can not be intialized with data
more than the size of array.

Initialization of two dimension array

int b[2] [3] = {12,65,78,45,33,21};

int b[ ] [3] = {12,65,78,45,33,21};

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

int b[2] [ ] = {12,65,78,45,33,21};

int b[ ] [ ] = {12,65,78,45,33,21};

Last two styles are invalid and lead to compile time error.

C Structures

Structure is a user-defined datatype in C language which allows us to combine

data of different types together. Structure helps to construct a complex data type
which is more meaningful. It is somewhat similar to an Array, but an array holds
data of similar type only. But structure on the other hand, can store data of any
type, which is practical more useful.

For example: If I have to write a program to store Student information, which will
have Student's name, age, branch, permanent address, father's name etc, which
included string values, integer values etc, how can I use arrays for this problem, I
will require something which can hold data of different types together.

In structure, data is stored in form of records.

Defining a structure

struct keyword is used to define a structure. struct defines a new data type which
is a collection of primary and derived datatypes.

Syntax:

struct [structure_tag]

//member variable 1

//member variable 2

//member variable 3

...

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

}[structure_variables];

As We can see in the syntax above, we start with the struct keyword, then it's
optional to provide our structure a name, we suggest to give it a name, then
inside the curly braces, we have to mention all the member variables, which are
nothing but normal C language variables of different types like int, float, array etc.

After the closing curly brace, we can specify one or more structure variables,
again this is optional.

Note: The closing curly brace in the structure type declaration must be followed
by a semicolon(;).

Example of Structure

struct Student

char name[25];

int age;

char branch[10];

// F for female and M for male

char gender;

};

Here struct Student declares a structure to hold the details of a student which
consists of 4 data fields, namely name, age, branch and gender. These fields are
called structure elements or members.

Each member can have different datatype, like in this case, name is an array
of char type and age is of int type etc. Student is the name of the structure and is
called as the structure tag.

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Declaring Structure Variables

It is possible to declare variables of a structure, either along with structure

definition or after the structure is defined. Structure variable declaration is similar
to the declaration of any normal variable of any other datatype. Structure
variables can be declared in following two ways:

1) Declaring Structure variables separately

struct Student

char name[25];

int age;

char branch[10];

//F for female and M for male

char gender;

};

struct Student S1, S2; //declaring variables of struct Student

2) Declaring Structure variables with structure definition

struct Student

char name[25];

int age;

char branch[10];

//F for female and M for male

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

char gender;

}S1, S2;

Here S1 and S2 are variables of structure Student. However this approach is not
much recommended.

Accessing Structure Members

Structure members can be accessed and assigned values in a number of ways.

Structure members have no meaning individually without the structure. In order
to assign a value to any structure member, the member name must be linked with
the structure variable using a dot . operator also called period or member
access operator.

For example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

struct Student

char name[25];

int age;

char branch[10];

//F for female and M for male

char gender;

};

int main()

{
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

struct Student s1;

/*

s1 is a variable of Student type and

age is a member of Student

*/

s1.age = 18;

/*

using string function to add name

*/

strcpy(s1.name, "Viraaj");

/*

displaying the stored values

*/

printf("Name of Student 1: %s\n", s1.name);

printf("Age of Student 1: %d\n", s1.age);

return 0;

Output

Name of Student 1: Viraaj

Age of Student 1: 18

We can also use scanf() to give values to structure members through terminal.

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scanf(" %s ", s1.name);

scanf(" %d ", &s1.age);

Structure Initialization

Like a variable of any other datatype, structure variable can also be initialized at
compile time.

struct Patient

float height;

int weight;

int age;

};

struct Patient p1 = { 180.75 , 73, 23 }; //initialization

or,

struct Patient p1;

p1.height = 180.75; //initialization of each member separately

p1.weight = 73;

p1.age = 23;

C Array of Structures

Why use an array of structures?

Consider a case, where we need to store the data of 5 students. We can store it
by using the structure as given below.
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

#include<stdio.h>

struct student

char name[20];

int id;

float marks;

};

void main()

struct student s1,s2,s3;

int dummy;

printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 1 ");

scanf("%s %d %f",s1.name,&s1.id,&s1.marks);

scanf("%c",&dummy);

printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 2 ");

scanf("%s %d %f",s2.name,&s2.id,&s2.marks);

scanf("%c",&dummy);

printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 3 ");

scanf("%s %d %f",s3.name,&s3.id,&s3.marks);

scanf("%c",&dummy);

printf("Printing the details....\n");

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printf("%s %d %f\n",s1.name,s1.id,s1.marks);

printf("%s %d %f\n",s2.name,s2.id,s2.marks);

printf("%s %d %f\n",s3.name,s3.id,s3.marks);

Output

Enter the name, id, and marks of student 1 James 90 90

Enter the name, id, and marks of student 2 Adoms 90 90

Enter the name, id, and marks of student 3 Nick 90 90

Printing the details....

James 90 90.000000

Adoms 90 90.000000

Nick 90 90.000000

In the above program, we have stored data of 3 students in the structure.

However, the complexity of the program will be increased if there are 20
students. In that case, we will have to declare 20 different structure variables and
store them one by one. This will always be tough since we will have to declare a
variable every time we add a student. Remembering the name of all the variables
is also a very tricky task. However, c enables us to declare an array of structures
by using which, we can avoid declaring the different structure variables; instead
we can make a collection containing all the structures that store the information
of different entities.

Array of Structures in C

An array of structres in C can be defined as the collection of multiple structures

variables where each variable contains information about different entities. The

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array of structures in C are used to store information about multiple entities of

different data types. The array of structures is also known as the collection of
structures.

an example of an array of structures that stores information of 5 students and

prints it.

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student{

int rollno;

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

char name[10];

};

int main(){

int i;

struct student st[5];

printf("Enter Records of 5 students");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nEnter Rollno:");

scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);

printf("\nEnter Name:");

scanf("%s",&st[i].name);

printf("\nStudent Information List:");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);

return 0;

Output:

Enter Records of 5 students

Enter Rollno:1

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Enter Name:Sonoo

Enter Rollno:2

Enter Name:Ratan

Enter Rollno:3

Enter Name:Vimal

Enter Rollno:4

Enter Name:James

Enter Rollno:5

Enter Name:Sarfraz

Student Information List:

Rollno:1, Name:Sonoo

Rollno:2, Name:Ratan

Rollno:3, Name:Vimal

Rollno:4, Name:James

Rollno:5, Name:Sarfraz

Nested Structure in C

Nesting of structures, is also permitted in C language. Nested structures means,

that one structure has another stucture as member variable.

C provides us the feature of nesting one structure within another structure by

using which, complex data types are created. For example, we may need to store
the address of an entity employee in a structure. The attribute address may also

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have the subparts as street number, city, state, and pin code. Hence, to store the
address of the employee, we need to store the address of the employee into a
separate structure and nest the structure address into the structure employee.
Consider the following program.

#include<stdio.h>

struct address

char city[20];

int pin;

char phone[14];

};

struct employee

char name[20];

struct address add;

};

void main ()

struct employee emp;

printf("Enter employee information?\n");

scanf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city, &emp.add.pin, emp.add.pho

ne);

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

printf("Printing the employee information....\n");

printf("name: %s\nCity: %s\nPincode: %d\nPhone: %s",emp.name,emp.add.

city,emp.add.pin,emp.add.phone);

Output

Enter employee information?

Arun

Delhi

110001

1234567890

Printing the employee information....

name: Arun

City: Delhi

Pincode: 110001

Phone: 1234567890

The structure can be nested in the following ways.

o By separate structure

o By Embedded structure

1) Separate structure

Here, we create two structures, but the dependent structure should be used
inside the main structure as a member. Consider the following example.
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

};

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date doj;

}emp1;

As We can see, doj (date of joining) is the variable of type Date. Here doj is used
as a member in Employee structure. In this way, we can use Date structure in
many structures.

2) Embedded structure

The embedded structure enables us to declare the structure inside the structure.
Hence, it requires less line of codes but it can not be used in multiple data
structures. Consider the following example.

 struct Employee

 {

 int id;

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

 char name[20];

 struct Date

 {

 int dd;

 int mm;

 int yyyy;

 }doj;

 }emp1;

Accessing Nested Structure

We can access the member of the nested structure by

Outer_Structure.Nested_Structure.member as given below:

e1.doj.dd

e1.doj.mm

e1.doj.yyyy

C Nested Structure example

a simple example of the nested structure in C language.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct Employee

int id;

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

char name[20];

struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

}doj;

}e1;

int main( )

//storing employee information

e1.id=101;

strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array

e1.doj.dd=10;

e1.doj.mm=11;

e1.doj.yyyy=2014;

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee id : %d\n", e1.id);

printf( "employee name : %s\n", e1.name);

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

printf( "employee date of joining (dd/mm/yyyy) : %d/%d/%d\n", e1.doj.dd,e

1.doj.mm,e1.doj.yyyy);

return 0;

Output:

employee id : 101

employee name : Sonoo Jaiswal

employee date of joining (dd/mm/yyyy) : 10/11/2014

Passing structure to function

Just like other variables, a structure can also be passed to a function. We may
pass the structure members into the function or pass the structure variable at
once. Consider the following example to pass the structure variable employee to
a function display() which is used to display the details of an employee.

#include<stdio.h>

struct address

char city[20];

int pin;

char phone[14];

};

struct employee

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

char name[20];

struct address add;

};

void display(struct employee);

void main ()

struct employee emp;

printf("Enter employee information?\n");

scanf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city, &emp.add.pin, emp.add.pho

ne);

display(emp);

void display(struct employee emp)

printf("Printing the details....\n");

printf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city,emp.add.pin,emp.add.phone);

Structure as Function Arguments

We can pass a structure as a function argument just like we pass any other
variable or an array as a function argument.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

struct Student

char name[10];

int roll;

};

void show(struct Student st);

void main()

struct Student std;

printf("\nEnter Student record:\n");

printf("\nStudent name:\t");

scanf("%s", std.name);

printf("\nEnter Student rollno.:\t");

scanf("%d", &std.roll);

show(std);

void show(struct Student st)

printf("\nstudent name is %s", st.name);

printf("\nroll is %d", st.roll);

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C Unions

Unions are conceptually similar to structures. The syntax to declare/define a

union is also similar to that of a structure. The only differences is in terms of
storage. In structure each member has its own storage location, whereas all
members of union uses a single shared memory location which is equal to the size
of its largest data member.

This implies that although a union may contain many members of different
types, it cannot handle all the members at the same time. A union is declared
using the union keyword.

union item

int m;

float x;

char c;

}It1;

This declares a variable It1 of type union item. This union contains three members
each with a different data type. However only one of them can be used at a time.
This is due to the fact that only one location is allocated for all

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

the union variables, irrespective of their size. The compiler allocates the storage
that is large enough to hold the largest variable type in the union.

In the union declared above the member x requires 4 bytes which is largest
amongst the members for a 16-bit machine. Other members of union will share
the same memory address.

Accessing a Union Member in C

Syntax for accessing any union member is similar to accessing structure members,

union test

int a;

float b;

char c;

}t;

t.a; //to access members of union t

t.b;

t.c;

Time for an Example

#include <stdio.h>

union item

int a;

float b;

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

char ch;

};

int main( )

union item it;

it.a = 12;

it.b = 20.2;

it.ch = 'z'

printf("%d\n", it.a);

printf("%f\n", it.b);

printf("%c\n", it.ch);

return 0;

Output

-26426

20.1999

As we can see here, the values of a and b get corrupted and only variable c prints
the expected result. This is because in union, the memory is shared among
different data types. Hence, the only member whose value is currently stored will
have the memory.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

In the above example, value of the variable c was stored at last, hence the value
of other variables is lost.

Advantage of union over structure

It occupies less memory because it occupies the size of the largest member only.

Disadvantage of union over structure

Only the last entered data can be stored in the union. It overwrites the data
previously stored in the union.

String

String is nothing but a collection of characters in a linear sequence. 'C' always

treats a string a single data even though it contains whitespaces. A single
character is defined using single quote representation. A string is represented
using double quote marks.

Example, "Welcome to the world of programming!"

'C' provides standard library <string.h> that contains many functions which can be
used to perform complicated string operations easily.

Declare and initialize a String

A string is a simple array with char as a data type. 'C' language does not directly
support string as a data type. Hence, to display a string in 'C', We need to make
use of a character array.

The general syntax for declaring a variable as a string is as follows,

char string_variable_name [array_size];

The classic string declaration can be done as follow:

char string_name[string_length] = "string";

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

The size of an array must be defined while declaring a string variable because it
used to calculate how many characters are going to be stored inside the string
variable. Some valid examples of string declaration are as follows,

char first_name[15]; //declaration of a string variable

char last_name[15];

The above example represents string variables with an array size of 15. This
means that the given character array is capable of holding 15 characters at most.
The indexing of array begins from 0 hence it will store characters from a 0-14
position. The C compiler automatically adds a NULL character '\0' to the
character array created.

The initialization of a string variable. Following example demonstrates the

initialization of a string variable,

char first_name[15] = "ANTHONY";

char first_name[15] = {'A','N','T','H','O','N','Y','\0'}; // NULL character '\0' is

required at end in this declaration

char string1 [6] = "hello";/* string size = 'h'+'e'+'l'+'l'+'o'+"NULL" = 6 */

char string2 [ ] = "world"; /* string size = 'w'+'o'+'r'+'l'+'d'+"NULL" = 6 */

char string3[6] = {'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'} ; /*Declaration as set of characters ,Size
6*/

In string3, the NULL character must be added explicitly, and the characters are
enclosed in single quotation marks.

'C' also allows us to initialize a string variable without defining the size of the
character array. It can be done in the following way,

char first_name[ ] = "NATHAN";

The name of a string acts as a pointer because it is basically an array.

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String Input: Read a String

When writing interactive programs which ask the user for input, C provides the
scanf(), gets(), and fgets() functions to find a line of text entered from the user.

When we use scanf() to read, we use the "%s" format specifier without using the
"&" to access the variable address because an array name acts as a pointer. For
example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

char name[10];

int age;

printf("Enter your first name and age: \n");

scanf("%s %d", name, &age);

printf("You entered: %s %d",name,age);

Output:

Enter your first name and age:

John_Smith 48

The problem with the scanf function is that it never reads an entire string. It will
halt the reading process as soon as whitespace, form feed, vertical tab, newline or
a carriage return occurs. Suppose we give input as "Guru99 Tutorials" then the
scanf function will never read an entire string as a whitespace character occurs
between the two names. The scanf function will only read Guru99.

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In order to read a string contains spaces, we use the gets() function. Gets ignores
the whitespaces. It stops reading when a newline is reached (the Enter key is
pressed).For example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

char full_name[25];

printf("Enter your full name: ");

gets(full_name);

printf("My full name is %s ",full_name);

return 0;

Output:

Enter your full name: Dennis Ritchie

My full name is Dennis Ritchie

Another safer alternative to gets() is fgets() function which reads a specified

number of characters. For example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

char name[10];

printf("Enter your name plz: ");

fgets(name, 10, stdin);

printf("My name is %s ",name);

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return 0;}

Output:

Enter your name plz: Carlos

My name is Carlos

The fgets() arguments are :

• the string name,

• the number of characters to read,

• stdin means to read from the standard input which is the keyboard.

String Output: Print/Display a String

The standard printf function is used for printing or displaying a string on an output
device. The format specifier used is %s

Example,

printf("%s", name);

String output is done with the fputs() and printf() functions.

fputs() function

The fputs() needs the name of the string and a pointer to where We want to
display the text. We use stdout which refers to the standard output in order to
print to the screen.For example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{char town[40];

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printf("Enter your town: ");

gets(town);

fputs(town, stdout);

return 0;}

Output:

Enter your town: New York

New York

puts function

The puts function prints the string on an output device and moves the cursor back
to the first position. A puts function can be used in the following way,

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

char name[15];

gets(name); //reads a string

puts(name); //displays a string

return 0;}

The syntax of this function is comparatively simple than other functions.

The string library

The standard 'C' library provides various functions to manipulate the strings
within a program. These functions are also called as string handlers. All these
handlers are present inside <string.h> header file.

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Function Purpose

strlen() This function is used for finding a

length of a string. It returns how many
characters are present in a string
excluding the NULL character.

strcat(str1, str2) This function is used for combining two

strings together to form a single string.
It Appends or concatenates str2 to the
end of str1 and returns a pointer to
str1.

strcmp(str1, str2) This function is used to compare two

strings with each other. It returns 0 if
str1 is equal to str2, less than 0 if str1 <
str2, and greater than 0 if str1 > str2.

The program below which demonstrates string library functions:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main () {

//string initialization

char string1[15]="Hello";

char string2[15]=" World!";

char string3[15];

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int val;

//string comparison

val= strcmp(string1,string2);

if(val==0){

printf("Strings are equal\n");

else{

printf("Strings are not equal\n");

//string concatenation

printf("Concatenated string:%s",strcat(string1,string2)); //string1 contains hello

world!

//string length

printf("\nLength of first string:%d",strlen(string1));

printf("\nLength of second string:%d",strlen(string2));

//string copy

printf("\nCopied string is:%s\n",strcpy(string3,string1)); //string1 is copied into

string3

return 0;

Output:

Strings are not equal

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Concatenated string:Hello World!

Length of first string:12

Length of second string:7

Copied string is:Hello World!

Other important library functions are:

 strncmp(str1, str2, n) :it returns 0 if the first n characters of str1 is equal to

the first n characters of str2, less than 0 if str1 < str2, and greater than 0 if
str1 > str2.
 strncpy(str1, str2, n) This function is used to copy a string from another
string. Copies the first n characters of str2 to str1
 strchr(str1, c): it returns a pointer to the first occurrence of char c in str1, or
NULL if character not found.
 strrchr(str1, c): it searches str1 in reverse and returns a pointer to the
position of char c in str1, or NULL if character not found.
 strstr(str1, str2): it returns a pointer to the first occurrence of str2 in str1, or
NULL if str2 not found.
 strncat(str1, str2, n) Appends (concatenates) first n characters of str2 to the
end of str1 and returns a pointer to str1.
 strlwr() :to convert string to lower case
 strupr() :to convert string to upper case
 strrev() : to reverse string

Converting a String to a Number

In C programming, we can convert a string of numeric characters to a numeric

value to prevent a run-time error. The stdio.h library contains the following
functions for converting a string to a number:

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 int atoi(str) Stands for ASCII to integer; it converts str to the equivalent int
value. 0 is returned if the first character is not a number or no numbers are
encountered.
 double atof(str) Stands for ASCII to float, it converts str to the equivalent
double value. 0.0 is returned if the first character is not a number or no
numbers are encountered.
 long int atol(str) Stands for ASCII to long int, Converts str to the equivalent
long integer value. 0 is returned if the first character is not a number or no
numbers are encountered.

The following program demonstrates atoi() function:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{char *string_id[10];

int ID;

printf("Enter a number: ");

gets(string_id);

ID = atoi(string_id);

printf("you enter %d ",ID);

return 0;}

Output:

Enter a number: 221348

you enter 221348

 A string pointer declaration such as char *string = "language" is a constant

and cannot be modified.

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Summary

 A string is a sequence of characters stored in a character array.

 A string is a text enclosed in double quotation marks.
 A character such as 'd' is not a string and it is indicated by single quotation marks.
 'C' provides standard library functions to manipulate strings in a program. String
manipulators are stored in <string.h> header file.
 A string must be declared or initialized before using into a program.
 There are different input and output string functions, each one among them has its
features.
 Don't forget to include the string library to work with its functions
 We can convert string to number through the atoi(), atof() and atol() which are very
useful for coding and decoding processes.
 We can manipulate different strings by defining a string array.

Pointer?

POINTER is a variable that stores address of another variable. A pointer can also
be used to refer to another pointer function. A pointer can be
incremented/decremented, i.e., to point to the next/ previous memory location.
The purpose of pointer is to save memory space and achieve faster execution
time.

How does Pointer Work?

If we declare a variable v of type int, v will actually store a value.

v is equal to zero now.

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However, each variable, apart from value, also has its address (or, simply put,
where it is located in the memory). The address can be retrieved by putting an
ampersand (&) before the variable name.

If We print the address of a variable on the screen, it will look like a totally
random number (moreover, it can be different from run to run).

The output of this program is -480613588.

Now, what is a pointer? Instead of storing a value, a pointer will y store the
address of a variable.

Int *y = &v;

VARIABLE POINTER

A value stored in A variable that points to the

a named storage/memory address storage/memory address
of another variable

Declaring a pointer
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Like variables, pointers have to be declared before they can be used in our
program. Pointers can be named anything We want as long as they obey C's
naming rules. A pointer declaration has the following form.

data_type * pointer_variable_name;

Here,

 data_type is the pointer's base type of C's variable types and indicates the
type of the variable that the pointer points to.
 The asterisk (*: the same asterisk used for multiplication) which is
indirection operator, declares a pointer.

Some valid pointer declarations

int *ptr_thing; /* pointer to an integer */

int *ptr1,thing;/* ptr1 is a pointer to type integer and thing is an integer variable
*/

double *ptr2; /* pointer to a double */

float *ptr3; /* pointer to a float */

char *ch1 ; /* pointer to a character */

float *ptr, variable;/*ptr is a pointer to type float and variable is an ordinary float
variable */

Initialize a pointer

After declaring a pointer, we initialize it like standard variables with a variable

address. If pointers are not uninitialized and used in the program, the results are
unpredictable and potentially disastrous.

To get the address of a variable, we use the ampersand (&)operator, placed

before the name of a variable whose address we need. Pointer initialization is
done with the following syntax.

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pointer = &variable;

A simple program for pointer illustration is given below:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a=10; //variable declaration

int *p; //pointer variable declaration

p=&a; //store address of variable a in pointer p

printf("Address stored in a variable p is:%x\n",p); //accessing the address

printf("Value stored in a variable p is:%d\n",*p); //accessing the value

return 0;

Output:

Address stored in a variable p is:60ff08

Value stored in a variable p is:10

Operator Meaning

* Serves 2 purpose

 Declaration of a pointer

 Returns the value of the

referenced variable

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& Serves only 1 purpose

 Returns the address of a

variable

Types of a pointer

Null pointer

We can create a null pointer by assigning null value during the pointer
declaration. This method is useful when We do not have any address assigned to
the pointer. A null pointer always contains value 0.

Following program illustrates the use of a null pointer:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int *p = NULL; //null pointer

printf(“The value inside variable p is:\n%x”,p);

return 0;

Output:

The value inside variable p is:

Void Pointer

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In C programming, a void pointer is also called as a generic pointer. It does not

have any standard data type. A void pointer is created by using the keyword void.
It can be used to store an address of any variable.

Following program illustrates the use of a void pointer:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

void *p = NULL; //void pointer

printf("The size of pointer is:%d\n",sizeof(p));

return 0;

Output:

The size of pointer is:4

Wild pointer

A pointer is said to be a wild pointer if it is not being initialized to anything. These

types of pointers are not efficient because they may point to some unknown
memory location which may cause problems in our program and it may lead to
crashing of the program. One should always be careful while working with wild
pointers.

Following program illustrates the use of wild pointer:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

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int *p; //wild pointer

printf("\n%d",*p);

return 0;

Output

timeout: the monitored command dumped core

sh: line 1: 95298 Segmentation fault timeout 10s main

Other types of pointers in 'c' are as follows:

 Dangling pointer

 Complex pointer

 Near pointer

 Far pointer

 Huge pointer

Direct and Indirect Access Pointers

In C, there are two equivalent ways to access and manipulate a variable content

 Direct access: we use directly the variable name

 Indirect access: we use a pointer to the variable

understand this with the help of program below

#include <stdio.h>

/* Declare and initialize an int variable */

int var = 1;

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/* Declare a pointer to int */

int *ptr;

int main( void )

/* Initialize ptr to point to var */

ptr = &var;

/* Access var directly and indirectly */

printf("\nDirect access, var = %d", var);

printf("\nIndirect access, var = %d", *ptr);

/* Display the address of var two ways */

printf("\n\nThe address of var = %d", &var);

printf("\nThe address of var = %d\n", ptr);

/*change the content of var through the pointer*/

*ptr=48;

printf("\nIndirect access, var = %d", *ptr);

return 0;}

After compiling the program without any errors, the result is:

Direct access, var = 1

Indirect access, var = 1

The address of var = 4202496

The address of var = 4202496

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Indirect access, var = 48

Pointers Arithmetic

The pointer operations are summarized in the following figure

Pointer Operations

Priority operation (precedence)

When working with pointers, we must observe the following priority rules:

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 The operators * and & have the same priority as the unary operators
(the negation!, the incrementation++, decrement--).
 In the same expression, the unary operators *, &,!, ++, - are evaluated
from right to left.

If a P pointer points to an X variable, then * P can be used wherever X can be

written.

The following expressions are equivalent:

int X =10

int *P = &Y;

For the above code, below expressions are true

Expression Equivalent Expression

Y=*P+1 Y=X+1

*P=*P+10 X=X+10

*P+=2 X+=2

++*P ++X

(*P)++ X++

In the latter case, parentheses are needed: as the unary operators * and ++ are
evaluated from right to left, without the parentheses the pointer P would be
incremented, not the object on which P points.

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Below table shows the arithmetic and basic operation that can be used when
dealing with pointers

Operation Explanation

Assignment int *P1,*P2 P1=P2; P1 and P2 point to

the same integer variable

Incrementation and decrementation Int *P1; P1++;P1-- ;

Adding an offset (Constant) This allows the pointer to move N

elements in a table. The pointer will be
increased or decreased by N times the
number of byte (s) of the type of the
variable. P1+5;

Pointers and Arrays

Traditionally, we access the array elements using its index, but this method can be
eliminated by using pointers. Pointers make it easy to access each array element.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a[5]={1,2,3,4,5}; //array initialization

int *p; //pointer declaration

/*the ptr points to the first element of the array*/

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p=a; /*We can also type simply ptr==&a[0] */

printf("Printing the array elements using pointer\n");

for(int i=0;i<5;i++) //loop for traversing array elements

printf("\n%x",*p); //printing array elements

p++; //incrementing to the next element, you can also write p=p+1

return 0;

Output

Adding a particular number to a pointer will move the pointer location to the
value obtained by an addition operation. Suppose p is a pointer that currently
points to the memory location 0 if we perform following addition operation, p+1
then it will execute in this manner:

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Pointer Addition/Increment

Since p currently points to the location 0 after adding 1, the value will become 1,
and hence the pointer will point to the memory location 1.

Pointers and Strings

A string is an array of char objects, ending with a null character '\ 0'. We can
manipulate strings using pointers. Here is an example that explains this section

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main()

char str[]="Hello Manish99";

char *p;

p=str;

printf("First character is:%c\n",*p);

p =p+1;

printf("Next character is:%c\n",*p);

printf("Printing all the characters in a string\n");

p=str; //reset the pointer

for(int i=0;i<strlen(str);i++)

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printf("%c\n",*p);

p++;

return 0;

Output

First character is:H

Next character is:e

Printing all the characters in a string

H
e
l
l
o

M
a
n
i
s
h
9
9
Another way to deal strings is with an array of pointers like in the following
program:

#include <stdio.h>

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int main(){

char *materials[ ] = { "iron", "copper", "gold"};

printf("Please remember these materials :\n");

int i ;

for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

printf("%s\n", materials[ i ]);}

return 0;}

Output:

Please remember these materials:

iron

copper

gold

Advantages of Pointers

 Pointers are useful for accessing memory locations.

 Pointers provide an efficient way for accessing the elements of an array
structure.
 Pointers are used for dynamic memory allocation as well as
deallocation.
 Pointers are used to form complex data structures such as linked list,
graph, tree, etc.

Disadvantages of Pointers

1. Pointers are a little complex to understand.

2. Pointers can lead to various errors such as segmentation faults or can
access a memory location which is not required at all.
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3. If an incorrect value is provided to a pointer, it may cause memory

corruption.
4. Pointers are also responsible for memory leakage.
5. Pointers are comparatively slower than that of the variables.
6. Programmers find it very difficult to work with the pointers; therefore it is
programmer's responsibility to manipulate a pointer carefully.

Summary

o A pointer is nothing but a memory location where data is stored.

o A pointer is used to access the memory location.
o There are various types of pointers such as a null pointer, wild pointer, void
pointer and other types of pointers.
o Pointers can be used with array and string to access elements more
efficiently.
o We can create function pointers to invoke a function dynamically.
o Arithmetic operations can be done on a pointer which is known as pointer
arithmetic.
o Pointers can also point to function which make it easy to call different
functions in the case of defining an array of pointers.
o When We want to deal different variable data type, We can use a typecast
void pointer.

Functions in C

A function is a block of code that performs a particular task.

There are many situations where we might need to write same line of code for
more than once in a program. This may lead to unnecessary repetition of code,
bugs and even becomes boring for the programmer. So, C language provides an
approach in which We can declare and define a group of statements once in the
form of a function and it can be called and used whenever required.

These functions defined by the user are also know as User-defined Functions

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C functions can be classified into two categories,

 Library functions

 User-defined functions

Library functions are those functions which are already defined in C library,
example printf(), scanf(), strcat() etc. We just need to include appropriate header
files to use these functions. These are already declared and defined in C libraries.

A User-defined functions on the other hand, are those functions which are
defined by the user at the time of writing program. These functions are made for
code reusability and for saving time and space.

Benefits of Using Functions

1. It provides modularity to Wer program's structure.

2. It makes our code reusable. We just have to call the function by its name to
use it, wherever required.

3. In case of large programs with thousands of code lines, debugging and

editing becomes easier if We use functions.

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4. It makes the program more readable and easy to understand.

Function Declaration

General syntax for function declaration is,

returntype functionName(type1 parameter1, type2 parameter2,...);

Like any variable or an array, a function must also be declared before its used.
Function declaration informs the compiler about the function name, parameters
is accept, and its return type. The actual body of the function can be defined
separately. It's also called as Function Prototyping. Function declaration consists
of 4 parts.

1. returntype
2. function name
3. parameter list
4. terminating semicolon

returntype

When a function is declared to perform some sort of calculation or any operation

and is expected to provide with some result at the end, in such cases,
a return statement is added at the end of function body. Return type specifies the
type of value(int, float, char, double) that function is expected to return to the
program which called the function.

Note: In case our function doesn't return any value, the return type would
be void.

functionName

Function name is an identifier and it specifies the name of the function. The
function name is any valid C identifier and therefore must follow the same
naming rules like other variables in C language.

parameter list

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The parameter list declares the type and number of arguments that the function
expects when it is called. Also, the parameters in the parameter list receives the
argument values when the function is called. They are often referred as formal
parameters.

An Example

a simple program with a main() function, and a user defined function to multiply
two numbers, which will be called from the main() function.

#include<stdio.h>

int multiply(int a, int b); // function declaration

int main()

int i, j, result;

printf("Please enter 2 numbers you want to multiply...");

scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);

result = multiply(i, j); // function call

printf("The result of muliplication is: %d", result);

return 0;

int multiply(int a, int b)

return (a*b); // function defintion, this can be done in one line

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Function definition Syntax

Just like in the example above, the general syntax of function definition is,

returntype functionName(type1 parameter1, type2 parameter2,...)

// function body goes here

The first line returntype functionName(type1 parameter1, type2

parameter2,...) is known as function header and the statement(s) within curly
braces is called function body.

Note: While defining a function, there is no semicolon(;) after the parenthesis in

the function header, unlike while declaring the function or calling the function.

functionbody

The function body contains the declarations and the statements(algorithm)

necessary for performing the required task. The body is enclosed within curly
braces { ... } and consists of three parts.

a) local variable declaration(if required).

b) function statements to perform the task inside the function.

c) a return statement to return the result evaluated by the function(if return

type is void, then no return statement is required).

Calling a function

When a function is called, control of the program gets transferred to the function.

functionName(argument1, argument2,...);

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In the example above, the statement multiply(i, j); inside the main() function is
function call.

Passing Arguments to a function

Arguments are the values specified during the function call, for which the formal
parameters are declared while defining the function.

It is possible to have a function with parameters but no return type. It is not

necessary, that if a function accepts parameter(s), it must return a result too.

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While declaring the function, we have declared two parameters a and b of

type int. Therefore, while calling that function, we need to pass two arguments,
else we will get compilation error. And the two arguments passed should be
received in the function definition, which means that the function header in the
function definition should have the two parameters to hold the argument values.
These received arguments are also known as formal parameters. The name of the
variables while declaring, calling and defining a function can be different.

Returning a value from function

A function may or may not return a result. But if it does, we must use
the return statement to output the result. return statement also ends the
function execution, hence it must be the last statement of any function. If We
write any statement after the return statement, it won't be executed.

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The datatype of the value returned using the return statement should be same as
the return type mentioned at function declaration and definition. If any of it
mismatches, We will get compilation error.

In the next tutorial, we will learn about the different types of user defined
functions in C language and the concept of Nesting of functions which is used in
recursion.

Type of User-defined Functions in C

There can be 4 different types of user-defined functions, they are:

a) Function with no arguments and no return value

b) Function with no arguments and a return value

c) Function with arguments and no return value

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d) Function with arguments and a return value

Below, about all these types, along with program examples.

Function with no arguments and no return value

Such functions can either be used to display information or they are completely
dependent on user inputs.

Below is an example of a function, which takes 2 numbers as input from user, and
display which is the greater number.

#include<stdio.h>

void greatNum(); // function declaration

int main()

greatNum(); // function call

return 0;

void greatNum() // function definition

int i, j;

printf("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...");

scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);

if(i > j) {

printf("The greater number is: %d", i);

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else {

printf("The greater number is: %d", j);

Function with no arguments and a return value

We have modified the above example to make the function greatNum() return
the number which is greater amongst the 2 input numbers.

#include<stdio.h>

int greatNum(); // function declaration

int main()

int result;

result = greatNum(); // function call

printf("The greater number is: %d", result);

return 0;

int greatNum() // function definition

int i, j, greaterNum;

printf("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...");

scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);

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if(i > j) {

greaterNum = i;

else {

greaterNum = j;

// returning the result

return greaterNum;

Function with arguments and no return value

We are using the same function as example again and again, to demonstrate that
to solve a problem there can be many different ways.

This time, we have modified the above example to make the

function greatNum() take two int values as arguments, but it will not be returning
anything.

#include<stdio.h>

void greatNum(int a, int b); // function declaration

int main()

int i, j;

printf("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...");

scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);

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greatNum(i, j); // function call

return 0;

void greatNum(int x, int y) // function definition

if(x > y) {

printf("The greater number is: %d", x);

else {

printf("The greater number is: %d", y);

Function with arguments and a return value

This is the best type, as this makes the function completely independent of inputs
and outputs, and only the logic is defined inside the function body.

#include<stdio.h>

int greatNum(int a, int b); // function declaration

int main()

int i, j, result;

printf("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...");

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scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);

result = greatNum(i, j); // function call

printf("The greater number is: %d", result);

return 0;

int greatNum(int x, int y) // function definition

if(x > y) {

return x;

else {

return y;

Nesting of Functions

C language also allows nesting of functions i.e to use/call one function inside
another function's body. We must be careful while using nested functions,
because it may lead to infinite nesting.

function1()

// function1 body here

function2();
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// function1 body here

If function2() also has a call for function1() inside it, then in that case, it will lead
to an infinite nesting. They will keep calling each other and the program will never
terminate.

consider that inside the main() function, function1() is called and its execution
starts, then inside function1(), we have a call for function2(), so the control of
program will go to the function2(). But as function2() also has a call to function1()
in its body, it will call function1(), which will again call function2(), and this will go
on for infinite times, until We forcefully exit from program execution.

Recursion

Recursion is a special way of nesting functions, where a function calls itself inside
it. We must have certain conditions in the function to break out of the recursion,
otherwise recursion will occur infinite times.

function1()

// function1 body

function1();

// function1 body

Example: Factorial of a number using Recursion

#include<stdio.h>

int factorial(int x); //declaring the function

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void main()

int a, b;

printf("Enter a number...");

scanf("%d", &a);

b = factorial(a); //calling the function named factorial

printf("%d", b);

int factorial(int x) //defining the function

int r = 1;

if(x == 1)

return 1;

else

r = x*factorial(x-1); //recursion, since the function calls itself

return r;

Similarly, there are many more applications of recursion in C language. Go to the

programs section, to find out more programs using recursion.

File Handling in C

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In programming, we may require some specific input data to be generated several

numbers of times. Sometimes, it is not enough to only display the data on the
console. The data to be displayed may be very large, and only a limited amount of
data can be displayed on the console, and since the memory is volatile, it is
impossible to recover the programmatically generated data again and again.
However, if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is
volatile and can be accessed every time. Here, comes the need of file handling in
C.

File handling in C enables us to create, update, read, and delete the files stored on
the local file system through our C program. The following operations can be
performed on a file.

i. Creation of the new file

ii. Opening an existing file
iii. Reading from the file
iv. Writing to the file
v. Deleting the file

Functions for file handling

There are many functions in the C library to open, read, write, search and close
the file. A list of file functions are given below:

No. Function Description

1 fopen() opens new or existing file

2 fprintf() write data into the file

3 fscanf() reads data from the file

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4 fputc() writes a character into the file

5 fgetc() reads a character from file

6 fclose() closes the file

7 fseek() sets the file pointer to given position

8 fputw() writes an integer to file

9 fgetw() reads an integer from file

10 ftell() returns current position

11 rewind() sets the file pointer to the beginning of the file

Opening File: fopen()

We must open a file before it can be read, write, or update. The fopen() function
is used to open a file. The syntax of the fopen() is given below.

o FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );

The fopen() function accepts two parameters:

 The file name (string). If the file is stored at some specific location, then
we must mention the path at which the file is stored. For example, a file
name can be like "c://some_folder/some_file.ext".

 The mode in which the file is to be opened. It is a string.

We can use one of the following modes in the fopen() function.

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Mode Description

r opens a text file in read mode

w opens a text file in write mode

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in read and write mode

w+ opens a text file in read and write mode

a+ opens a text file in read and write mode

rb opens a binary file in read mode

wb opens a binary file in write mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

wb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

ab+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

The fopen function works in the following way.

i. Firstly, It searches the file to be opened.

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ii. Then, it loads the file from the disk and place it into the buffer. The buffer is
used to provide efficiency for the read operations.

iii. It sets up a character pointer which points to the first character of the file.

Consider the following example which opens a file in write mode.

#include<stdio.h>

void main( )

FILE *fp ;

char ch ;

fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r") ;

while ( 1 )

ch = fgetc ( fp ) ;

if ( ch == EOF )

break ;

printf("%c",ch) ;

fclose (fp ) ;

Output

The content of the file will be printed.

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#include;

void main( )

FILE *fp; // file pointer

char ch;

fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r");

while ( 1 )

ch = fgetc ( fp ); //Each character of the file is read and stored in the character file.

if ( ch == EOF )

break;

printf("%c",ch);

fclose (fp );

Closing File: fclose()

The fclose() function is used to close a file. The file must be closed after
performing all the operations on it. The syntax of fclose() function is given below:

1. int fclose( FILE *fp );

C fprintf() and fscanf()

C fprintf() and fscanf() example

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C fputc() and fgetc()

C fputc() and fgetc() example

C fputs() and fgets()

C fputs() and fgets() example

C fseek()

C fseek() example

C fprintf() and fscanf()

Writing File : fprintf() function

The fprintf() function is used to write set of characters into file. It sends formatted
output to a stream.

Syntax:

int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format [, argument, ...])

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

main(){

FILE *fp;

fp = fopen("file.txt", "w");//opening file

fprintf(fp, "Hello file by fprintf...\n");//writing data into file

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fclose(fp);//closing file

Reading File : fscanf() function

The fscanf() function is used to read set of characters from file. It reads a word
from the file and returns EOF at the end of file.

Syntax:

int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format [, argument, ...])

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

main(){

FILE *fp;

char buff[255];//creating char array to store data of file

fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");

while(fscanf(fp, "%s", buff)!=EOF){

printf("%s ", buff );

fclose(fp);

Output:

Hello file by fprintf...

C File Example: Storing employee information

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A file handling example to store employee information as entered by user from

console. We are going to store id, name and salary of the employee.

#include <stdio.h>

void main()

FILE *fptr;

int id;

char name[30];

float salary;

fptr = fopen("emp.txt", "w+");/* open for writing */

if (fptr == NULL)

printf("File does not exists \n");

return;

printf("Enter the id\n");

scanf("%d", &id);

fprintf(fptr, "Id= %d\n", id);

printf("Enter the name \n");

scanf("%s", name);

fprintf(fptr, "Name= %s\n", name);

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printf("Enter the salary\n");

scanf("%f", &salary);

fprintf(fptr, "Salary= %.2f\n", salary);

fclose(fptr);

Output:

Enter the id

Enter the name

sonoo

Enter the salary

120000

Now open file from current directory. For windows operating system, go to TC\bin
directory, We will see emp.txt file. It will have following information.

emp.txt

Id= 1

Name= sonoo

Salary= 120000

Command Line Arguments in C

The arguments passed from command line are called command line arguments.
These arguments are handled by main() function.

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To support command line argument, We need to change the structure of main()

function as given below.

int main(int argc, char *argv[] )

Here, argc counts the number of arguments. It counts the file name as the first
argument.

The argv[] contains the total number of arguments. The first argument is the file
name always.

Example

the example of command line arguments where we are passing one argument
with file name.

#include <stdio.h>

void main(int argc, char *argv[] ) {

printf("Program name is: %s\n", argv[0]);

if(argc < 2){

printf("No argument passed through command line.\n");

else{

printf("First argument is: %s\n", argv[1]);

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Run this program as follows in Linux:

./program hello

Run this program as follows in Windows from command line:

program.exe hello

Output:

Program name is: program

First argument is: hello

If we pass many arguments, it will print only one.

./program hello c how r u

Output:

Program name is: program

First argument is: hello

But if we pass many arguments within double quote, all arguments will be treated
as a single argument only.

./program "hello c how r u"

Output:

Program name is: program

First argument is: hello c how r u

We can write our program to print all the arguments. In this program, we are
printing only argv[1], that is why it is printing only one argument.

C - Preprocessors

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The C Preprocessor is not a part of the compiler, but is a separate step in the
compilation process. In simple terms, a C Preprocessor is just a text substitution
tool and it instructs the compiler to do required pre-processing before the actual
compilation. We'll refer to the C Preprocessor as CPP.
All preprocessor commands begin with a hash symbol (#). It must be the first
nonblank character, and for readability, a preprocessor directive should begin in
the first column. The following section lists down all the important preprocessor
directives −

Sr.No. Directive & Description

1 #define
Substitutes a preprocessor macro.

2 #include
Inserts a particular header from another file.

3 #undef
Undefines a preprocessor macro.

4 #ifdef
Returns true if this macro is defined.

5 #ifndef
Returns true if this macro is not defined.

6 #if
Tests if a compile time condition is true.

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7 #else
The alternative for #if.

8 #elif
#else and #if in one statement.

9 #endif
Ends preprocessor conditional.

10 #error
Prints error message on stderr.

11 #pragma
Issues special commands to the compiler, using a standardized method.

Preprocessors Examples
Analyze the following examples to understand various directives.
#define MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH 20
This directive tells the CPP to replace instances of MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH with 20.
Use #define for constants to increase readability.
#include <stdio.h>
#include "myheader.h"
These directives tell the CPP to get stdio.h from System Libraries and add the
text to the current source file. The next line tells CPP to get myheader.h from the
local directory and add the content to the current source file.
#undef FILE_SIZE
#define FILE_SIZE 42
It tells the CPP to undefine existing FILE_SIZE and define it as 42.
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#ifndef MESSAGE
#define MESSAGE "You wish!"
#endif
It tells the CPP to define MESSAGE only if MESSAGE isn't already defined.
#ifdef DEBUG
/* Your debugging statements here */
#endif
It tells the CPP to process the statements enclosed if DEBUG is defined. This is
useful if We pass the -DDEBUG flag to the gcc compiler at the time of
compilation. This will define DEBUG, so We can turn debugging on and off on the
fly during compilation.
Predefined Macros
ANSI C defines a number of macros. Although each one is available for use in
programming, the predefined macros should not be directly modified.

Sr.No. Macro & Description

1 __DATE__
The current date as a character literal in "MMM DD YYYY" format.

2 __TIME__
The current time as a character literal in "HH:MM:SS" format.

3 __FILE__
This contains the current filename as a string literal.

4 __LINE__
This contains the current line number as a decimal constant.

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5 __STDC__
Defined as 1 when the compiler complies with the ANSI standard.

try the following example −

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__ );

printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__ );
printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__ );
printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__ );
printf("ANSI :%d\n", __STDC__ );

}
When the above code in a file test.c is compiled and executed, it produces the
following result −
File :test.c
Date :Jun 2 2012
Time :03:36:24
Line :8
ANSI :1
Preprocessor Operators
The C preprocessor offers the following operators to help create macros −

The Macro Continuation (\) Operator

A macro is normally confined to a single line. The macro continuation operator

(\) is used to continue a macro that is too long for a single line. For example −
#define message_for(a, b) \
printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")

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The Stringize (#) Operator

The stringize or number-sign operator ( '#' ), when used within a macro

definition, converts a macro parameter into a string constant. This operator may
be used only in a macro having a specified argument or parameter list. For
example −
#include <stdio.h>

#define message_for(a, b) \
printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")

int main(void) {
message_for(Carole, Debra);
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
−
Carole and Debra: We love you!

The Token Pasting (##) Operator

The token-pasting operator (##) within a macro definition combines two

arguments. It permits two separate tokens in the macro definition to be joined
into a single token. For example −
#include <stdio.h>

#define tokenpaster(n) printf ("token" #n " = %d", token##n)

int main(void) {
int token34 = 40;
tokenpaster(34);
return 0;
}

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When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
−
token34 = 40
It happened so because this example results in the following actual output from
the preprocessor −
printf ("token34 = %d", token34);
This example shows the concatenation of token##n into token34 and here we
have used both stringize and token-pasting.

The Defined() Operator

The preprocessor defined operator is used in constant expressions to determine

if an identifier is defined using #define. If the specified identifier is defined, the
value is true (non-zero). If the symbol is not defined, the value is false (zero). The
defined operator is specified as follows −
#include <stdio.h>

#if !defined (MESSAGE)

#define MESSAGE "You wish!"
#endif

int main(void) {
printf("Here is the message: %s\n", MESSAGE);
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
−
Here is the message: You wish!
Parameterized Macros
One of the powerful functions of the CPP is the ability to simulate functions using
parameterized macros. For example, we might have some code to square a
number as follows −

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int square(int x) {
return x * x;
}
We can rewrite above the code using a macro as follows −
#define square(x) ((x) * (x))
Macros with arguments must be defined using the #define directive before they
can be used. The argument list is enclosed in parentheses and must immediately
follow the macro name. Spaces are not allowed between the macro name and
open parenthesis. For example −
#include <stdio.h>

#define MAX(x,y) ((x) > (y) ? (x) : (y))

int main(void) {
printf("Max between 20 and 10 is %d\n", MAX(10, 20));
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
−
Max between 20 and 10 is 20

Object-oriented programming (OOP)

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a computer programming model that

organizes software design around data, or objects, rather than functions and
logic. An object can be defined as a data field that has unique attributes and
behavior.

OOP focuses on the objects that developers want to manipulate rather than the
logic required to manipulate them. This approach to programming is well-suited
for programs that are large, complex and actively updated or maintained.

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The organization of an object-oriented program also makes the method beneficial

to collaborative development, where projects are divided into groups.

Additional benefits of OOP include code reusability, scalability and efficiency.

Even when using microservices, developers should continue to apply the
principles of OOP.

The first step in OOP is to collect all of the objects a programmer wants to
manipulate and identify how they relate to each other -- an exercise often known
as data modeling.

Examples of an object can range from physical entities, such as a human being
who is described by properties like name and address, down to small computer
programs, such as widgets.

Once an object is known, it is labeled with a class of objects that defines the kind
of data it contains and any logic sequences that can manipulate it. Each distinct
logic sequence is known as a method. Objects can communicate with well-
defined interfaces called messages.

Principles of OOP

Object-oriented programming is based on the following principles:

Encapsulation. The implementation and state of each object are privately held
inside a defined boundary, or class. Other objects do not have access to this
class or the authority to make changes but are only able to call a list of public
functions, or methods. This characteristic of data hiding provides greater
program security and avoids unintended data corruption.

Hiding the implementation details of the class from the user through an
object’s methods is known as data encapsulation. In object oriented
programming, it binds the code and the data together and keeps them safe
from outside interference.

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Abstraction. Objects only reveal internal mechanisms that are relevant for the
use of other objects, hiding any unnecessary implementation code. This
concept helps developers more easily make changes and additions over time.

Inheritance. Relationships and subclasses between objects can be assigned,

allowing developers to reuse a common logic while still maintaining a unique
hierarchy. This property of OOP forces a more thorough data analysis, reduces
development time and ensures a higher level of accuracy.

Inheritance as in general terms is the process of acquiring properties. In OOP

one object inherit the properties of another object.

Polymorphism. Objects can take on more than one form depending on the
context. The program will determine which meaning or usage is necessary for
each execution of that object, cutting down the need to duplicate code.

Polymorphism is the process of using same method name by multiple classes

and redefines methods for the derived classes.

Object-oriented programming languages

While Simula is credited as the first object-oriented programming language, the

most popular OOP languages are:

 Java
 JavaScript
 Python
 C++
 Visual Basic .NET
 Ruby
 Scala
 PHP

OOPSLA is the annual conference for Object-Oriented Programming Systems,

Languages and Applications.

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Criticism of OOP

The object-oriented programming model has been criticized by developers for

multiple reasons. The largest concern is that OOP overemphasizes the data
component of software development and does not focus enough on computation
or algorithms. Additionally, OOP code may be more complicated to write and take
longer to compile.

Alternative methods to OOP include:

 functional programming
 structured programming
 imperative programming

Most advanced programming languages give developers the option to combine

these models.

Object Oriented Programming Paradigm (OOPP)

The Object Oriented programming paradigm plays an important role in human

computer interface. It has different components that takes real world objects and
performs actions on them, making live interactions between man and the
machine. Following are the components of OOPP −

 This paradigm describes a real-life system where interactions are among

real objects.

 It models applications as a group of related objects that interact with each

other.

 The programming entity is modeled as a class that signifies the collection of

related real world objects.

 Programming starts with the concept of real world objects and classes.

 Application is divided into numerous packages.

 A package is a collection of classes.

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 A class is an encapsulated group of similar real world objects.

Objects

Real-world objects share two characteristics − They all have state and behavior.
see the following pictorial example to understand Objects.

In the above diagram, the object ‘Dog’ has both state and behavior.

An object stores its information in attributes and discloses its behavior through
methods. now discuss in brief the different components of object oriented
programming.

Public Interface

The point where the software entities interact with each other either in a single
computer or in a network is known as pubic interface. This help in data security.
Other objects can change the state of an object in an interaction by using only
those methods that are exposed to the outer world through a public interface.

Class

A class is a group of objects that has mutual methods. It can be considered as the
blueprint using which objects are created.

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Classes being passive do not communicate with each other but are used to
instantiate objects that interact with each other.

Example

Object Oriented Modeling of User Interface Design

Object oriented interface unites users with the real world manipulating software
objects for designing purpose. see the diagram.

Interface design strive to make successful accomplishment of user’s goals with

the help of interaction tasks and manipulation.

While creating the OOM for interface design, first of all analysis of user
requirements is done. The design specifies the structure and components

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required for each dialogue. After that, interfaces are developed and tested
against the Use Case. Example − Personal banking application.

The sequence of processes documented for every Use Case are then analyzed for
key objects. This results into an object model. Key objects are called analysis
objects and any diagram showing relationships between these objects is called
object diagram.

C++ Identifiers

C++ identifiers in a program are used to refer to the name of the variables,
functions, arrays, or other user-defined data types created by the programmer.
They are the basic requirement of any language. Every language has its own rules
for naming the identifiers.

In short, we can say that the C++ identifiers represent the essential elements in a
program which are given below:

 Constants
 Variables
 Functions
 Labels
 Defined data types

Some naming rules are common in both C and C++. They are as follows:

 Only alphabetic characters, digits, and underscores are allowed.

 The identifier name cannot start with a digit, i.e., the first letter should
be alphabetical. After the first letter, we can use letters, digits, or
underscores.
 In C++, uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct. Therefore, we can
say that C++ identifiers are case-sensitive.
 A declared keyword cannot be used as a variable name.

For example, suppose we have two identifiers, named as 'FirstName', and

'Firstname'. Both the identifiers will be different as the letter 'N' in the first case in
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uppercase while lowercase in second. Therefore, it proves that identifiers are

case-sensitive.

Valid Identifiers

The following are the examples of valid identifiers are:

Result

Test2

_sum

power

Invalid Identifiers

The following are the examples of invalid identifiers:

Sum-1 // containing special character '-'.

2data // the first letter is a digit.

break // use of a keyword.

Note: Identifiers cannot be used as the keywords. It may not conflict with the
keywords, but it is highly recommended that the keywords should not be used as
the identifier name. We should always use a consistent way to name the
identifiers so that our code will be more readable and maintainable.

The major difference between C and C++ is the limit on the length of the name of
the variable. ANSI C considers only the first 32 characters in a name while ANSI
C++ imposes no limit on the length of the name.

Constants are the identifiers that refer to the fixed value, which do not change
during the execution of a program. Both C and C++ support various kinds of literal
constants, and they do have any memory location. For example, 123, 12.34, 037,
0X2, etc. are the literal constants.

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A simple example to understand the concept of identifiers.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a;

int A;

cout<<"Enter the values of 'a' and 'A'";

cin>>a;

cin>>A;

cout<<"\nThe values that you have entered are : "<<a<<" , "<<A;

return 0;

In the above code, we declare two variables 'a' and 'A'. Both the letters are same
but they will behave as different identifiers. As we know that the identifiers are
the case-sensitive so both the identifiers will have different memory locations.

Output

What are the keywords?

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Keywords are the reserved words that have a special meaning to the compiler.
They are reserved for a special purpose, which cannot be used as the identifiers.
For example, 'for', 'break', 'while', 'if', 'else', etc. are the predefined words where
predefined words are those words whose meaning is already known by the
compiler. Whereas, the identifiers are the names which are defined by the
programmer to the program elements such as variables, functions, arrays,
objects, classes.

Differences between Identifiers and Keywords

The following is the list of differences between identifiers and keywords:

Identifiers Keywords

Identifiers are the names defined by the Keywords are the reserved words
programmer to the basic elements of a whose meaning is known by the
program. compiler.

It is used to identify the name of the It is used to specify the type of

variable. entity.

It can consist of letters, digits, and It contains only letters.

underscore.

It can use both lowercase and uppercase It uses only lowercase letters.
letters.

No special character can be used except It cannot contain any special

the underscore. character.

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The starting letter of identifiers can be It can be started only with the
lowercase, uppercase or underscore. lowercase letter.

It can be classified as internal and external It cannot be further classified.

identifiers.

Examples are test, result, sum, power, etc. Examples are 'for', 'if', 'else', 'break',
etc.

C++ Variable

A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be
changed and it can be reused many times.

It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily

identified.

the syntax to declare a variable:

type variable_list;

The example of declaring variable is given below:

int x;

float y;

char z;

Here, x, y, z are variables and int, float, char are data types.

We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:

int x=5,b=10; //declaring 2 variable of integer type

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float f=30.8;

char c='A';

Rules for defining variables

A variable can have alphabets, digits and underscore.

A variable name can start with alphabet and underscore only. It can't start with
digit.

No white space is allowed within variable name.

A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword e.g. char, float etc.

Valid variable names:

int a;

int _ab;

int a30;

Invalid variable names:

int 4;

int x y;

int double;

C++ Data Types

A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer,
floating, character etc.

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There are 4 types of data types in C++ language.

Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double, etc

Derived Data Type array, pointer, etc

Enumeration Data Type enum

User Defined Data Type structure

The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system.

the basic data types. It size is given according to 32 bit OS.

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Data Types Memory Size Range

char 1 byte -128 to 127

signed char 1 byte -128 to 127

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 127

short 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767

signed short 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 32,767

int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767

signed int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 32,767

short int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767

signed short int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 32,767

long int 4 byte

signed long int 4 byte

unsigned long int 4 byte

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float 4 byte

double 8 byte

long double 10 byte

C++ Operators

An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be

many types of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise etc.

There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in

C language.

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operator
 Unary operator
 Ternary or Conditional Operator
 Misc Operator

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Precedence of Operators in C++

The precedence of operator species that which operator will be evaluated first
and next. The associativity specifies the operators direction to be evaluated, it
may be left to right or right to left.

the precedence by the example given below:

1. int data=5+10*10;

The "data" variable will contain 105 because * (multiplicative operator) is

evaluated before + (additive operator).

The precedence and associativity of C++ operators is given below:

Category Operator Associativity

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Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Right to left

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == !=/td> Right to left

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Right to left

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Decision making in C++ - if, else and else if

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Decision making is about deciding the order of execution of statements based on

certain conditions or repeat a group of statements until certain specified
conditions are met. C++ handles decision-making by supporting the following
statements,

 if statement
 switch statement
 conditional operator statement
 goto statement

Decision making with if statement

The if statement may be implemented in different forms depending on the

complexity of conditions to be tested. The different forms are,

1. Simple if statement

2. if....else statement

3. Nested if....else statement

4. else if statement

Simple if statement

The general form of a simple if statement is,

if(expression)

statement-inside;

statement-outside;

If the expression is true, then 'statement-inside' will be executed, otherwise

'statement-inside' is skipped and only 'statement-outside' will be executed.

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Example:

#include< iostream.h>

int main( )

int x,y;

x=15;

y=13;

if (x > y )

cout << "x is greater than y";

Output

x is greater than y

y is greater than x

Nested if....else statement

The general form of a nested if...else statement is,

if(expression)

if(expression1)

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statement-block1;

else

statement-block2;

else

statement-block3;

if 'expression' is false or returns false, then the 'statement-block3' will be

executed, otherwise execution will enter the if condition and check for
'expression 1'. Then if the 'expression 1' is true or returns true, then the
'statement-block1' will be executed otherwise 'statement-block2' will be
executed.

Example:

void main( )

int a,b,c;

cout << "enter 3 number";

cin >> a >> b >> c;

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if(a > b)

if( a > c)

cout << "a is greatest";

else

cout << "c is greatest";

else

if( b> c)

cout << "b is greatest";

else

cout << "c is greatest";

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The above code will print different statements based on the values
of a, b and c variables.

else-if Ladder

The general form of else-if ladder is,

if(expression 1)

statement-block1;

else if(expression 2)

statement-block2;

else if(expression 3 )

statement-block3;

else

default-statement;

The expression is tested from the top(of the ladder) downwards. As soon as the
true condition is found, the statement associated with it is executed.
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Example:

void main( )

int a;

cout << "enter a number";

cin >> a;

if( a%5==0 && a%8==0)

cout << "divisible by both 5 and 8";

else if( a%8==0 )

cout << "divisible by 8";

else if(a%5==0)

cout << "divisible by 5";

else

cout << "divisible by none";

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If We enter value 40 for the variable a, then the output will be:

Output

divisible by both 5 and 8

Points to Remember

In if statement, a single statement can be included without enclosing it into

curly braces { }.

int a = 5;

if(a > 4)

cout << "success";

Output

success

No curly braces are required in the above case, but if we have more than one
statement inside if condition, then we must enclose them inside curly braces
otherwise only the first statement after the if condition will be considered.

int a = 2;

if(a > 4)

cout << "success";

// below statement is outside the if condition

cout << "Not inside the if condition"

Output
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Not inside the if condition

1. == must be used for comparison in the expression of if condition, if you

use = the expression will always return true, because it performs
assignment not comparison.

2. Other than 0(zero), all other positive numeric values are considered as true.

3. if(27)

4. cout << "hello";\

Output

hello

C++ Functions

The function in C++ language is also known as procedure or subroutine in other

programming languages.

To perform any task, we can create function. A function can be called many times.
It provides modularity and code reusability.

Advantage of functions in C

There are many advantages of functions.

1) Code Reusability

By creating functions in C++, we can call it many times. So we don't need to write
the same code again and again.

2) Code optimization

It makes the code optimized, we don't need to write much code.

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Suppose, we have to check 3 numbers (531, 883 and 781) whether it is prime
number or not. Without using function, we need to write the prime number logic
3 times. So, there is repetition of code.

But if we use functions, we need to write the logic only once and we can reuse it
several times.

Types of Functions

There are two types of functions in C programming:

1. Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C++ header files
such as ceil(x), cos(x), exp(x), etc.

2. User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C++
programmer, so that he/she can use it many times. It reduces complexity of a big
program and optimizes the code.

Declaration of a function

The syntax of creating function in C++ language is given below:

return_type function_name(data_type parameter...)

//code to be executed
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C++ Function Example

the simple example of C++ function.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void func() {

static int i=0; //static variable

int j=0; //local variable

i++;

j++;

cout<<"i=" << i<<" and j=" <<j<<endl;

int main()

func();

func();

func();

Output:

i= 1 and j= 1

i= 2 and j= 1

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i= 3 and j= 1

Call by value and call by reference in C++

There are two ways to pass value or data to function in C language: call by value
and call by reference. Original value is not modified in call by value but it is
modified in call by reference.

Understand call by value and call by reference in C++ language one by one.

Call by value in C++

In call by value, original value is not modified.

In call by value, value being passed to the function is locally stored by the function
parameter in stack memory location. If We change the value of function
parameter, it is changed for the current function only. It will not change the value
of variable inside the caller method such as main().

The concept of call by value in C++ language by the example given below:
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#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void change(int data);

int main()

int data = 3;

change(data);

cout << "Value of the data is: " << data<< endl;

return 0;

void change(int data)

data = 5;

Output:

Value of the data is: 3

Call by reference in C++

In call by reference, original value is modified because we pass reference

(address).

Here, address of the value is passed in the function, so actual and formal
arguments share the same address space. Hence, value changed inside the
function, is reflected inside as well as outside the function.

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Note: To understand the call by reference, We must have the basic knowledge of
pointers.

the concept of call by reference in C++ language by the example given below:

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

void swap(int *x, int *y)

int swap;

swap=*x;

*x=*y;

*y=swap;

int main()

int x=500, y=100;

swap(&x, &y); // passing value to function

cout<<"Value of x is: "<<x<<endl;

cout<<"Value of y is: "<<y<<endl;

return 0;

Output:

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Value of x is: 100

Value of y is: 500

Difference between call by value and call by reference in C++

No. Call by value Call by reference

1 A copy of value is passed to the An address of value is passed to

function the function

2 Changes made inside the function is Changes made inside the function
not reflected on other functions is reflected outside the function
also

3 Actual and formal arguments will be Actual and formal arguments will
created in different memory be created in same memory
location location

C++ virtual function

 A C++ virtual function is a member function in the base class that We

redefine in a derived class. It is declared using the virtual keyword.
 It is used to tell the compiler to perform dynamic linkage or late binding
on the function.
 There is a necessity to use the single pointer to refer to all the objects of
the different classes. So, we create the pointer to the base class that
refers to all the derived objects. But, when base class pointer contains
the address of the derived class object, always executes the base class
function. This issue can only be resolved by using the 'virtual' function.

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 A 'virtual' is a keyword preceding the normal declaration of a function.

 When the function is made virtual, C++ determines which function is to
be invoked at the runtime based on the type of the object pointed by
the base class pointer.

Late binding or Dynamic linkage

In late binding function call is resolved during runtime. Therefore compiler

determines the type of object at runtime, and then binds the function call.

Rules of Virtual Function

 Virtual functions must be members of some class.

 Virtual functions cannot be static members.
 They are accessed through object pointers.
 They can be a friend of another class.
 A virtual function must be defined in the base class, even though it is not
used.
 The prototypes of a virtual function of the base class and all the derived
classes must be identical. If the two functions with the same name but
different prototypes, C++ will consider them as the overloaded
functions.
 We cannot have a virtual constructor, but we can have a virtual
destructor
 Consider the situation when we don't use the virtual keyword.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class A

int x=5;

public:
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void display()

std::cout << "Value of x is : " << x<<std::endl;

};

class B: public A

int y = 10;

public:

void display()

std::cout << "Value of y is : " <<y<< std::endl;

};

int main()

A *a;

B b;

a = &b;

a->display();

return 0;

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Output:

Value of x is : 5

In the above example, * a is the base class pointer. The pointer can only access
the base class members but not the members of the derived class. Although C++
permits the base pointer to point to any object derived from the base class, it
cannot directly access the members of the derived class. Therefore, there is a
need for virtual function which allows the base pointer to access the members of
the derived class.

C++ virtual function Example

the simple example of C++ virtual function used to invoked the derived class in a
program.

#include <iostream>

public:

virtual void display()

cout << "Base class is invoked"<<endl;

};

class B:public A

public:

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void display()

cout << "Derived Class is invoked"<<endl;

};

int main()

A* a; //pointer of base class

B b; //object of derived class

a = &b;

a->display(); //Late Binding occurs

Output:

Derived Class is invoked

Pure Virtual Function

 A virtual function is not used for performing any task. It only serves as a
placeholder.
 When the function has no definition, such function is known as "do-
nothing" function.
 The "do-nothing" function is known as a pure virtual function. A pure
virtual function is a function declared in the base class that has no
definition relative to the base class.
 A class containing the pure virtual function cannot be used to declare
the objects of its own, such classes are known as abstract base classes.
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 The main objective of the base class is to provide the traits to the
derived classes and to create the base pointer used for achieving the
runtime polymorphism.

Pure virtual function can be defined as:

1. virtual void display() = 0;

A simple example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Base

public:

virtual void show() = 0;

};

class Derived : public Base

public:

void show()

std::cout << "Derived class is derived from the base class." << std::endl;

};

int main()

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Base *bptr;

//Base b;

Derived d;

bptr = &d;

bptr->show();

return 0;

Output:

Derived class is derived from the base class.

In the above example, the base class contains the pure virtual function. Therefore,
the base class is an abstract base class. We cannot create the object of the base
class.

C++ Inheritance

In C++, inheritance is a process in which one object acquires all the properties and
behaviors of its parent object automatically. In such way, we can reuse, extend or
modify the attributes and behaviors which are defined in other class.

In C++, the class which inherits the members of another class is called derived
class and the class whose members are inherited is called base class. The derived
class is the specialized class for the base class.

Advantage of C++ Inheritance

Code reusability: Now we can reuse the members of our parent class. So, there is
no need to define the member again. So less code is required in the class.

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Types Of Inheritance

C++ supports five types of inheritance:

 Single inheritance
 Multiple inheritance
 Hierarchical inheritance
 Multilevel inheritance
 Hybrid inheritance

Derived Classes

A Derived class is defined as the class derived from the base class.

The Syntax of Derived class:

class derived_class_name :: visibility-mode base_class_name

// body of the derived class.

Where,

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derived_class_name: It is the name of the derived class.

visibility mode: The visibility mode specifies whether the features of the base
class are publicly inherited or privately inherited. It can be public or private.

base_class_name: It is the name of the base class.

o When the base class is privately inherited by the derived class, public
members of the base class becomes the private members of the derived
class. Therefore, the public members of the base class are not accessible by
the objects of the derived class only by the member functions of the
derived class.

o When the base class is publicly inherited by the derived class, public
members of the base class also become the public members of the derived
class. Therefore, the public members of the base class are accessible by the
objects of the derived class as well as by the member functions of the base
class.

Note:

o In C++, the default mode of visibility is private.

o The private members of the base class are never inherited.

C++ Single Inheritance

Single inheritance is defined as the inheritance in which a derived class is

inherited from the only one base class.

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Where 'A' is the base class, and 'B' is the derived class.

C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Fields

When one class inherits another class, it is known as single level inheritance. the
example of single level inheritance which inherits the fields only.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Account {

public:

float salary = 60000;

};

class Programmer: public Account {

public:

float bonus = 5000;

};

int main(void) {

Programmer p1;

cout<<"Salary: "<<p1.salary<<endl;

cout<<"Bonus: "<<p1.bonus<<endl;

return 0;

Output:

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Salary: 60000

Bonus: 5000

In the above example, Employee is the base class and Programmer is

the derived class.

C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Methods

another example of inheritance in C++ which inherits methods only.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Animal {

public:

void eat() {

cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;

};

class Dog: public Animal

public:

void bark(){

cout<<"Barking...";

};

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int main(void) {

Dog d1;

d1.eat();

d1.bark();

return 0;

Output:

Eating...

Barking...

How to make a Private Member Inheritable

The private member is not inheritable. If we modify the visibility mode by making
it public, but this takes away the advantage of data hiding.

C++ introduces a third visibility modifier, i.e., protected. The member which is
declared as protected will be accessible to all the member functions within the
class as well as the class immediately derived from it.

Visibility modes can be classified into three categories:

 Public: When the member is declared as public, it is accessible to all the

functions of the program.

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 Private: When the member is declared as private, it is accessible within

the class only.
 Protected: When the member is declared as protected, it is accessible
within its own class as well as the class immediately derived from it.

Visibility of Inherited Members

Base class visibility Derived class visibility

Public Private Protected

Private Not Inherited Not Inherited Not Inherited

Protected Protected Private Protected

Public Public Private Protected

C++ Multilevel Inheritance

Multilevel inheritance is a process of deriving a class from another derived class.

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C++ Multi Level Inheritance Example

When one class inherits another class which is further inherited by another class,
it is known as multi level inheritance in C++. Inheritance is transitive so the last
derived class acquires all the members of all its base classes.

the example of multi level inheritance in C++.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Animal {

public:

void eat() {

cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;

};

class Dog: public Animal

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public:

void bark(){

cout<<"Barking..."<<endl;

};

class BabyDog: public Dog

public:

void weep() {

cout<<"Weeping...";

};

int main(void) {

BabyDog d1;

d1.eat();

d1.bark();

d1.weep();

return 0;

Output:

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Eating...

Barking...

Weeping...

C++ Multiple Inheritance

Multiple inheritance is the process of deriving a new class that inherits the
attributes from two or more classes.

Syntax of the Derived class:

class D : visibility B-1, visibility B-2, ?

// Body of the class;

Ambiquity Resolution in Inheritance

Ambiguity can be occurred in using the multiple inheritance when a function with
the same name occurs in more than one base class.

 The above issue can be resolved by using the class resolution operator
with the function. In the above example, the derived class code can be
rewritten as:

class C : public A, public B

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void view()

A :: display(); // Calling the display() function of class A.

B :: display(); // Calling the display() function of class B.

};

An ambiguity can also occur in single inheritance.

Consider the following situation:

class A

public:

void display()

cout<<?Class A?;

};

class B

public:

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void display()

cout<<?Class B?;

};

In the above case, the function of the derived class overrides the method of the
base class. Therefore, call to the display() function will simply call the function
defined in the derived class. If we want to invoke the base class function, we can
use the class resolution operator.

int main()

B b;

b.display(); // Calling the display() function of B class.

b.B :: display(); // Calling the display() function defined in B class.

C++ Hybrid Inheritance

Hybrid inheritance is a combination of more than one type of inheritance.

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C++ Hierarchical Inheritance

Hierarchical inheritance is defined as the process of deriving more than one class
from a base class.

Syntax of Hierarchical inheritance:

class A

// body of the class A.

class B : public A

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// body of class B.

class C : public A

// body of class C.

class D : public A

// body of class D.

C++ Object and Class

Since C++ is an object-oriented language, program is designed using objects and

classes in C++.

C++ Object

In C++, Object is a real world entity, for example, chair, car, pen, mobile, laptop
etc.

In other words, object is an entity that has state and behavior. Here, state means
data and behavior means functionality.

Object is a runtime entity, it is created at runtime.

Object is an instance of a class. All the members of the class can be accessed
through object.

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An example to create object of student class using s1 as the reference variable.

Student s1; //creating an object of Student

In this example, Student is the type and s1 is the reference variable that refers to
the instance of Student class.

C++ Class

In C++, object is a group of similar objects. It is a template from which objects are
created. It can have fields, methods, constructors etc.

An example of C++ class that has three fields only.

class Student

public:

int id; //field or data member

float salary; //field or data member

String name;//field or data member

C++ Constructor

In C++, constructor is a special method which is invoked automatically at the time

of object creation. It is used to initialize the data members of new object
generally. The constructor in C++ has the same name as class or structure.

There can be two types of constructors in C++.

 Default constructor
 Parameterized constructor

C++ Default Constructor

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A constructor which has no argument is known as default constructor. It is

invoked at the time of creating object.

the simple example of C++ default Constructor.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Employee

public:

Employee()

cout<<"Default Constructor Invoked"<<endl;

};

int main(void)

Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee

Employee e2;

return 0;

Output:

Default Constructor Invoked

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Default Constructor Invoked

C++ Parameterized Constructor

A constructor which has parameters is called parameterized constructor. It is used

to provide different values to distinct objects.

C++ Destructor

A destructor works opposite to constructor; it destructs the objects of classes. It

can be defined only once in a class. Like constructors, it is invoked automatically.

A destructor is defined like constructor. It must have same name as class. But it is
prefixed with a tilde sign (~).

Note: C++ destructor cannot have parameters. Moreover, modifiers can't be

applied on destructors.

C++ Constructor and Destructor Example

An example of constructor and destructor in C++ which is called automatically

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Employee

public:

Employee()

cout<<"Constructor Invoked"<<endl;

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~Employee()

cout<<"Destructor Invoked"<<endl;

};

int main(void)

Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee

Employee e2; //creating an object of Employee

return 0;

Output:

Constructor Invoked

Constructor Invoked

Destructor Invoked

Destructor Invoked

C++ Overloading (Operator and Function)

C++ allows us to specify more than one definition for a function name or
an operator in the same scope, which is called function overloading and operator
overloading respectively.

An overloaded declaration is a declaration that is declared with the same name as

a previously declared declaration in the same scope, except that both

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declarations have different arguments and obviously different definition

(implementation).

When we call an overloaded function or operator, the compiler determines the

most appropriate definition to use, by comparing the argument types We have
used to call the function or operator with the parameter types specified in the
definitions. The process of selecting the most appropriate overloaded function or
operator is called overload resolution.

Function Overloading in C++

we can have multiple definitions for the same function name in the same scope.
The definition of the function must differ from each other by the types and/or the
number of arguments in the argument list. We cannot overload function
declarations that differ only by return type.

Following is the example where same function print() is being used to print
different data types −

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class printData {

public:

void print(int i) {

cout << "Printing int: " << i << endl;

void print(double f) {

cout << "Printing float: " << f << endl;

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void print(char* c) {

cout << "Printing character: " << c << endl;

};

int main(void) {

printData pd;

// Call print to print integer

pd.print(5);

// Call print to print float

pd.print(500.263);

// Call print to print character

pd.print("Hello C++");

return 0;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −

Printing int: 5

Printing float: 500.263

Printing character: Hello C++

Operators Overloading in C++

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We can redefine or overload most of the built-in operators available in C++. Thus,
a programmer can use operators with user-defined types as well.

Overloaded operators are functions with special names: the keyword "operator"
followed by the symbol for the operator being defined. Like any other function,
an overloaded operator has a return type and a parameter list.

Box operator+(const Box&);

declares the addition operator that can be used to add two Box objects and
returns final Box object. Most overloaded operators may be defined as ordinary
non-member functions or as class member functions. In case we define above
function as non-member function of a class then we would have to pass two
arguments for each operand as follows −

Box operator+(const Box&, const Box&);

Following is the list of operators which can be overloaded −

+ - * / % ^

& | ~ ! , =

< > <= >= ++ --

<< >> == != && ||

+= -= /= %= ^= &=

|= *= <<= >>= [] ()

-> ->* new new [] delete delete []

Following is the list of operators, which can not be overloaded −

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:: .* . ?:

Operator Overloading Examples

Here are various operator overloading examples to help us in understanding the

concept.

Sr.No Operators & Example

1 Unary Operators Overloading

2 Binary Operators Overloading

3 Relational Operators Overloading

4 Input/Output Operators Overloading

5 ++ and -- Operators Overloading

6 Assignment Operators Overloading

7 Function call () Operator Overloading

8 Subscripting [] Operator Overloading

9 Class Member Access Operator -> Overloading

Templates in C++

A template is a simple and yet very powerful tool in C++. The simple idea is to
pass data type as a parameter so that we don’t need to write the same code for
different data types. For example, a software company may need sort() for

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different data types. Rather than writing and maintaining the multiple codes, we
can write one sort() and pass data type as a parameter.

C++ adds two new keywords to support templates: ‘template’ and ‘typename’.
The second keyword can always be replaced by keyword ‘class’.

How templates work?

Templates are expanded at compiler time. This is like macros. The difference is,
compiler does type checking before template expansion. The idea is simple,
source code contains only function/class, but compiled code may contain multiple
copies of same function/class.

Function Templates We write a generic function that can be used for different
data types. Examples of function templates are sort(), max(), min(), printArray().

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#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// One function works for all data types. This would work

// even for user defined types if operator '>' is overloaded

template <typename T>

T myMax(T x, T y)

return (x > y)? x: y;

int main()

cout << myMax<int>(3, 7) << endl; // Call myMax for int

cout << myMax<double>(3.0, 7.0) << endl; // call myMax for double

cout << myMax<char>('g', 'e') << endl; // call myMax for char

return 0;

Output:

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Class Templates Like function templates, class templates are useful when a class
defines something that is independent of the data type. Can be useful for classes
like LinkedList, BinaryTree, Stack, Queue, Array, etc.

C++ Exception Handling

An exception is a problem that arises during the execution of a program. A C++

exception is a response to an exceptional circumstance that arises while a
program is running, such as an attempt to divide by zero.

Exceptions provide a way to transfer control from one part of a program to

another. C++ exception handling is built upon three keywords: try,
catch, and throw.

 throw − A program throws an exception when a problem shows up. This

is done using a throw keyword.
 catch − A program catches an exception with an exception handler at
the place in a program where We want to handle the problem.
The catch keyword indicates the catching of an exception.
 try − A try block identifies a block of code for which particular
exceptions will be activated. It's followed by one or more catch blocks.

Assuming a block will raise an exception, a method catches an exception using a

combination of the try and catch keywords. A try/catch block is placed around the
code that might generate an exception. Code within a try/catch block is referred
to as protected code, and the syntax for using try/catch as follows −

try {

// protected code

} catch( ExceptionName e1 ) {

// catch block

} catch( ExceptionName e2 ) {

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// catch block

} catch( ExceptionName eN ) {

// catch block

We can list down multiple catch statements to catch different type of exceptions
in case our try block raises more than one exception in different situations.

Throwing Exceptions

Exceptions can be thrown anywhere within a code block using throw statement.
The operand of the throw statement determines a type for the exception and can
be any expression and the type of the result of the expression determines the
type of exception thrown.

Following is an example of throwing an exception when dividing by zero condition

occurs −

double division(int a, int b) {

if( b == 0 ) {

throw "Division by zero condition!";

return (a/b);

Catching Exceptions

The catch block following the try block catches any exception. We can specify
what type of exception We want to catch and this is determined by the exception
declaration that appears in parentheses following the keyword catch.

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try {

// protected code

} catch( ExceptionName e ) {

// code to handle ExceptionName exception

Above code will catch an exception of ExceptionName type. If We want to specify

that a catch block should handle any type of exception that is thrown in a try
block, We must put an ellipsis, ..., between the parentheses enclosing the
exception declaration as follows −

try {

// protected code

} catch(...) {

// code to handle any exception

C++ Standard Exceptions

C++ provides a list of standard exceptions defined in <exception> which we can

use in our programs. These are arranged in a parent-child class hierarchy shown
below −

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Here is the small description of each exception mentioned in the above hierarchy
−

Sr.No Exception & Description

1 std::exception

An exception and parent class of all the standard C++ exceptions.

2 std::bad_alloc

This can be thrown by new.

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3 std::bad_cast

This can be thrown by dynamic_cast.

4 std::bad_exception

This is useful device to handle unexpected exceptions in a C++ program.

5 std::bad_typeid

This can be thrown by typeid.

6 std::logic_error

An exception that theoretically can be detected by reading the code.

7 std::domain_error

This is an exception thrown when a mathematically invalid domain is used.

8 std::invalid_argument

This is thrown due to invalid arguments.

9 std::length_error

This is thrown when a too big std::string is created.

10 std::out_of_range

This can be thrown by the 'at' method, for example a std::vector and
std::bitset<>::operator[]().

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11 std::runtime_error

An exception that theoretically cannot be detected by reading the code.

12 std::overflow_error

This is thrown if a mathematical overflow occurs.

13 std::range_error

This is occurred when We try to store a value which is out of range.

14 std::underflow_error

This is thrown if a mathematical underflow occurs.

C++ Files and Streams

another standard C++ library called fstream, which defines three new data types −

Sr.No Data Type & Description

1 ofstream

This data type represents the output file stream and is used to create files
and to write information to files.

2 ifstream

This data type represents the input file stream and is used to read
information from files.

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3 fstream

This data type represents the file stream generally, and has the capabilities
of both ofstream and ifstream which means it can create files, write
information to files, and read information from files.

To perform file processing in C++, header files <iostream> and <fstream> must be
included in our C++ source file.

Opening a File

A file must be opened before We can read from it or write to it.

Either ofstream or fstream object may be used to open a file for writing. And
ifstream object is used to open a file for reading purpose only.

Following is the standard syntax for open() function, which is a member of

fstream, ifstream, and ofstream objects.

void open(const char *filename, ios::openmode mode);

Here, the first argument specifies the name and location of the file to be opened
and the second argument of the open() member function defines the mode in
which the file should be opened.

Sr.No Mode Flag & Description

1 ios::app

Append mode. All output to that file to be appended to the end.

2 ios::ate

Open a file for output and move the read/write control to the end of the
file.

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3 ios::in

Open a file for reading.

4 ios::out

Open a file for writing.

5 ios::trunc

If the file already exists, its contents will be truncated before opening the
file.

we can combine two or more of these values by ORing them together. For
example if We want to open a file in write mode and want to truncate it in case
that already exists, following will be the syntax −

ofstream outfile;

outfile.open("file.dat", ios::out | ios::trunc );

Similar way, We can open a file for reading and writing purpose as follows −

fstream afile;

afile.open("file.dat", ios::out | ios::in );

Closing a File

When a C++ program terminates it automatically flushes all the streams, release
all the allocated memory and close all the opened files. But it is always a good
practice that a programmer should close all the opened files before program
termination.

Following is the standard syntax for close() function, which is a member of

fstream, ifstream, and ofstream objects.

void close();
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Writing to a File

While doing C++ programming, We write information to a file from our program
using the stream insertion operator (<<) just as We use that operator to output
information to the screen. The only difference is that We use
an ofstream or fstream object instead of the cout object.

Reading from a File

We read information from a file into our program using the stream extraction
operator (>>) just as We use that operator to input information from the
keyboard. The only difference is that We use an ifstream or fstream object
instead of the cin object.

File Position Pointers

Both istream and ostream provide member functions for repositioning the file-
position pointer. These member functions are seekg ("seek get") for istream
and seekp ("seek put") for ostream.

The argument to seekg and seekp normally is a long integer. A second argument
can be specified to indicate the seek direction. The seek direction can
be ios::beg (the default) for positioning relative to the beginning of a
stream, ios::cur for positioning relative to the current position in a stream
or ios::end for positioning relative to the end of a stream.

The file-position pointer is an integer value that specifies the location in the file as
a number of bytes from the file's starting location. Some examples of positioning
the "get" file-position pointer are −

// position to the nth byte of fileObject (assumes ios::beg)

fileObject.seekg( n );

// position n bytes forward in fileObject

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fileObject.seekg( n, ios::cur );

// position n bytes back from end of fileObject

fileObject.seekg( n, ios::end );

// position at end of fileObject

fileObject.seekg( 0, ios::end );

C++ Exceptions

C++ Exceptions

When executing C++ code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by the
programmer, errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.

When an error occurs, C++ will normally stop and generate an error message. The
technical term for this is: C++ will throw an exception (throw an error).

C++ try and catch

Exception handling in C++ consist of three keywords: try, throw and catch:

The try statement allows We to define a block of code to be tested for errors
while it is being executed.

The throw keyword throws an exception when a problem is detected, which lets
us create a custom error.

The catch statement allows We to define a block of code to be executed, if an

error occurs in the try block.

The try and catch keywords come in pairs:

Example

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try {
// Block of code to try
throw exception; // Throw an exception when a problem arise
}
catch () {
// Block of code to handle errors
}

Web Programming

Web programming refers to the writing, markup and coding involved in Web
development, which includes Web content, Web client and server scripting and
network security. The most common languages used for Web programming are
XML, HTML, JavaScript, Perl 5 and PHP. Web programming is different from just
programming, which requires interdisciplinary knowledge on the application area,
client and server scripting, and database technology.

Web programming can be briefly categorized into client and server coding. The
client side needs programming related to accessing data from users and providing
information. It also needs to ensure there are enough plug ins to enrich user
experience in a graphic user interface, including security measures.

1. To improve user experience and related functionalities on the client side,

JavaScript is usually used. It is an excellent client-side platform for designing
and implementing Web applications.

2. HTML5 and CSS3 supports most of the client-side functionality provided by

other application frameworks.

The server side needs programming mostly related to data retrieval, security and
performance. Some of the tools used here include ASP, Lotus Notes, PHP, Java
and MySQL. There are certain tools/platforms that aid in both client- and server-
side programming. Some examples of these are Opa and Tersus.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

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Hypertext markup language (HTML) is the major markup language used to display
Web pages on the Internet. In other words, Web pages are composed of HTML,
which is used to display text, images or other resources through a Web browser.

All HTML is plain text, meaning it is not compiled and may be read by humans.
The file extension for an HTML file is .htm or .html.

New Web developers may mistake HTML for a programming language when it is
actually a markup language. HTML is used with other technologies because all
HTML really does is organize documents. On the client side, JavaScript (JS) is used
to provide interactivity. On the server side, a Web development platform like
Ruby, PHP or ASP.NET is used.

When a Web developer builds an application, the work is performed on the

server, and raw HTML is sent out to the user. The line between server-side
development and client side development is blurry with technologies like AJAX.

HTML was never designed for the Web that exists today, as it is just a markup
language with severe limitations, in terms of control and design. Numerous
technologies have been used to work around this issue - the most significant
being cascading style sheet (CSS).

The long term solution is (or hopefully will be) HTML5, which is the next
generation of HTML and allows for more control and interactivity. As with any
development on the Web, the move to standards is a slow and arduous process,
and Web developers and designers have to make due with current and supported
technologies, which means that basic HTML will continue to be used for some
time.

Applications of HTML

As mentioned before, HTML is one of the most widely used language over the
web. I'm going to list few of them here:

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 Web pages development - HTML is used to create pages which are

rendered over the web. Almost every page of web is having html tags in it
to render its details in browser.

 Internet Navigation - HTML provides tags which are used to navigate from
one page to another and is heavily used in internet navigation.

 Responsive UI - HTML pages now-a-days works well on all platform, mobile,

tabs, desktop or laptops owing to responsive design strategy.

 Offline support HTML pages once loaded can be made available offline on
the machine without any need of internet.

 Game development- HTML5 has native support for rich experience and is
now useful in gaming developent arena as well.

Basic HTML Document

In its simplest form, following is an example of an HTML document −

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<title>This is document title</title>

</head>

<body>

<h1>This is a heading</h1>

<p>Document content goes here.....</p>

</body>

</html>

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HTML Tags

As told earlier, HTML is a markup language and makes use of various tags to
format the content. These tags are enclosed within angle braces <Tag Name>.
Except few tags, most of the tags have their corresponding closing tags. For
example, <html> has its closing tag </html> and <body> tag has its closing
tag </body> tag etc.

Above example of HTML document uses the following tags −

Sr.No Tag & Description

1 <!DOCTYPE...>

This tag defines the document type and HTML version.

2 <html>

This tag encloses the complete HTML document and mainly comprises of
document header which is represented by <head>...</head> and
document body which is represented by <body>...</body> tags.

3 <head>

This tag represents the document's header which can keep other HTML
tags like <title>, <link> etc.

4 <title>

The <title> tag is used inside the <head> tag to mention the document
title.

5 <body>

This tag represents the document's body which keeps other HTML tags

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like <h1>, <div>, <p> etc.

6 <h1>

This tag represents the heading.

7 <p>

This tag represents a paragraph.

To learn HTML, we will need to study various tags and understand how they
behave, while formatting a textual document. Learning HTML is simple as users
have to learn the usage of different tags in order to format the text or images to
make a beautiful webpage.

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends to use lowercase tags starting
from HTML 4.

HTML Document Structure

A typical HTML document will have the following structure −

<html>

<head>

Document header related tags

</head>

<body>

Document body related tags

</body>

</html>
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The <!DOCTYPE> Declaration

The <!DOCTYPE> declaration tag is used by the web browser to understand the
version of the HTML used in the document. Current version of HTML is 5 and it
makes use of the following declaration −

<!DOCTYPE html>

There are many other declaration types which can be used in HTML document
depending on what version of HTML is being used.

Extensible Markup Language (XML)

Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a universal format, maintained by the W3C,

used for representation and transfer of structured data on the web or between
different applications.

The language uses a structured representation by allowing users to create custom

defined tags according to XML Document Type Definition (DTD) standards. The
structure of an XML document can be represented in the form of a tree known as
a Document Object Model (DOM).

XML is designed to describe data but is not concerned with the data’s
visualization. The tags created in XML are self explanatory and the user is free to
define their own tags — hence the “extensible.”

XML support is provided by many programming language platforms to create and

process XML data. Simplicity, portability, platform independence, and usability
are some of the key features that have resulted in the increasing popularity of the
use of XML-based standards.

XML has been the main source of motivation for development of service oriented
architecture (SOA) platforms such as web services that are not tied to any
particular language and collaborate effectively in heterogeneous environments.
RSS, Atom, SOAP and XHTML are some of the standards influenced by XML.

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JavaScript (JS)

Javascript (JS) is a scripting languages, primarily used on the Web. It is used to

enhance HTML pages and is commonly found embedded in HTML code. JavaScript
is an interpreted language. Thus, it doesn't need to be compiled. JavaScript
renders web pages in an interactive and dynamic fashion. This allowing the pages
to react to events, exhibit special effects, accept variable text, validate data,
create cookies, detect a user’s browser, etc.

HTML pages are fine for displaying static content, e.g. a simple image or text.
However, most pages nowadays are rarely static. Many of today’s pages have
menus, forms, slideshows and even images that provide user interaction.
Javascript is the language employed by web developers to provide such
interaction. Since JavaScript works with HTML pages, a developer needs to know
HTML to harness this scripting language’s full potential. While there are other
languages that can be used for scripting on the Web, in practice it is essentially all
Javascript.

There are two ways to use JavaScript in an HTML file. The first one involves
embedding all the JavaScript code in the HTML code, while the second method
makes use of a separate JavaScript file that’s called from within a Script element,
i.e., enclosed by Script tags. JavaScript files are identified by the .js extension.
Although JavaScript is mostly used to interact with HTML objects, it can also be
made to interact with other non-HTML objects such as browser plugins, CSS
(Cascading Style Sheets) properties, the current date, or the browser itself. To
write JavaScript code, all We need is a basic text editor like Notepad in Windows,
Gimp in Linux, or BBEdit. Some text editors, like BBEdit feature syntax highlighting
for JavaScript. This will allow We easily identify elements of JavaScript code. The
latest versions of Internet Explorer, Firefox, and Opera all support JavaScript.

Java

Java is a programming language that produces software for multiple platforms.

When a programmer writes a Java application, the compiled code (known as
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bytecode) runs on most operating systems (OS), including Windows, Linux and
Mac OS. Java derives much of its syntax from the C and C++ programming
languages.

Java was developed in the mid-1990s by James A. Gosling, a former computer

scientist with Sun Microsystems.

Java produces applets (browser-run programs), which facilitate graphical user

interface (GUI) and object interaction by Internet users. Prior to Java applets, Web
pages were typically static and non-interactive. Java applets have diminished in
popularity with the release of competing products, such as Adobe Flash and
Microsoft Silverlight.

Java applets run in a Web browser with Java Virtual Machine (JVM), which
translates Java bytecode into native processor instructions and allows indirect OS
or platform program execution. JVM provides the majority of components needed
to run bytecode, which is usually smaller than executable programs written
through other programming languages. Bytecode cannot run if a system lacks
required JVM.

Java program development requires a Java software development kit (SDK) that
typically includes a compiler, interpreter, documentation generator and other
tools used to produce a complete application.

Development time may be accelerated through the use of integrated

development environments (IDE) - such as JBuilder, Netbeans, Eclipse or JCreator.
IDEs facilitate the development of GUIs, which include buttons, text boxes,
panels, frames, scrollbars and other objects via drag-and-drop and point-and-click
actions.

Java programs are found in desktops, servers, mobile devices, smart cards and
Blu-ray Discs (BD).

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Java is −

 Object Oriented − In Java, everything is an Object. Java can be easily

extended since it is based on the Object model.
 Platform Independent − Unlike many other programming languages
including C and C++, when Java is compiled, it is not compiled into
platform specific machine, rather into platform independent byte code.
This byte code is distributed over the web and interpreted by the Virtual
Machine (JVM) on whichever platform it is being run on.
 Simple − Java is designed to be easy to learn. If We understand the basic
concept of OOP Java, it would be easy to master.
 Secure − With Java's secure feature it enables to develop virus-free,
tamper-free systems. Authentication techniques are based on public-key
encryption.
 Architecture-neutral − Java compiler generates an architecture-neutral
object file format, which makes the compiled code executable on many
processors, with the presence of Java runtime system.
 Portable − Being architecture-neutral and having no implementation
dependent aspects of the specification makes Java portable. Compiler in
Java is written in ANSI C with a clean portability boundary, which is a
POSIX subset.
 Robust − Java makes an effort to eliminate error prone situations by
emphasizing mainly on compile time error checking and runtime
checking.
 Multithreaded − With Java's multithreaded feature it is possible to write
programs that can perform many tasks simultaneously. This design
feature allows the developers to construct interactive applications that
can run smoothly.
 Interpreted − Java byte code is translated on the fly to native machine
instructions and is not stored anywhere. The development process is
more rapid and analytical since the linking is an incremental and light-
weight process.

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 High Performance − With the use of Just-In-Time compilers, Java

enables high performance.
 Distributed − Java is designed for the distributed environment of the
internet.
 Dynamic − Java is considered to be more dynamic than C or C++ since it
is designed to adapt to an evolving environment. Java programs can
carry extensive amount of run-time information that can be used to
verify and resolve accesses to objects on run-time.

Dynamic HyperText Markup Language (DHTML)

Dynamic HyerText Markup Language (DHTML) is a combination of Web

development technologies used to create dynamically changing websites. Web
pages may include animation, dynamic menus and text effects. The technologies
used include a combination of HTML, JavaScript or VB Script,
CSS and the document object model (DOM).

Designed to enhance a Web user’s experience, DHTML includes the following

features:

 Dynamic content, which allows the user to dynamically change Web

page content
 Dynamic positioning of Web page elements
 Dynamic style, which allows the user to change the Web page’s color,
font, size or content

While DHTML enhances the website user’s experience, the technology may also
be frustrating for users when it is used incorrectly. For example, a website menu
with flashy DHTML animations can easily confuse user navigation. Another
DHTML issue occurs when Web developers attempt to create cross-browser
DHTML, which is very difficult.

For Web developers, DHTML poses the following problems:

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 It can be difficult to develop and debug because of lack of Web browser

and technological support.
 DHTML scripts may not work correctly in various Web browsers.
 The Web page layout may not display correctly when it is developed to
display in different screen size combinations and in different browsers.

As a result of these problems, Web developers must determine whether DHTML

enhances the user experience in any given context. Most Web developers
abandon complex DHTML and use simple cross-browser routines to improve user
experience, as opposed to integrating excessive DHTML visual effects.

Components of Dynamic HTML

DHTML consists of the following four components or languages:

 HTML 4.0
 CSS
 JavaScript
 DOM.

HTML 4.0

HTML is a client-side markup language, which is a core component of the DHTML.

It defines the structure of a web page with various defined basic elements or tags.

CSS

CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheet, which allows the web users or developers
for controlling the style and layout of the HTML elements on the web pages.

JavaScript

JavaScript is a scripting language which is done on a client-side. The various

browser supports JavaScript technology. DHTML uses the JavaScript technology
for accessing, controlling, and manipulating the HTML elements. The statements
in JavaScript are the commands which tell the browser for performing an action.

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DOM

DOM is the document object model. It is a w3c standard, which is a standard

interface of programming for HTML. It is mainly used for defining the objects and
properties of all elements in HTML.

Uses of DHTML

Following are the uses of DHTML (Dynamic HTML):

o It is used for designing the animated and interactive web pages that are
developed in real-time.

o DHTML helps users by animating the text and images in their documents.

o It allows the authors for adding the effects on their pages.

o It also allows the page authors for including the drop-down menus or
rollover buttons.

o This term is also used to create various browser-based action games.

o It is also used to add the ticker on various websites, which needs to refresh
their content automatically.

Features of DHTML

Following are the various characteristics or features of DHTML (Dynamic HTML):

o Its simplest and main feature is that we can create the web page
dynamically.

o Dynamic Style is a feature, that allows the users to alter the font, size,
color, and content of a web page.

o It provides the facility for using the events, methods, and properties. And,
also provides the feature of code reusability.

o It also provides the feature in browsers for data binding.

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o Using DHTML, users can easily create dynamic fonts for their web sites or
web pages.

o With the help of DHTML, users can easily change the tags and their
properties.

o The web page functionality is enhanced because the DHTML uses low-
bandwidth effect.

Difference between HTML and DHTML

Following table describes the differences between HTML and DHTML:

HTML (Hypertext Markup language) DHTML (Dynamic Hypertext Markup

language)

1. HTML is simply a markup language. 1. DHTML is not a language, but it is a set

of technologies of web development.

2. It is used for developing and 2. It is used for creating and designing the
creating web pages. animated and interactive web sites or
pages.

3. This markup language creates static 3. This concept creates dynamic web
web pages. pages.

4. It does not contain any server-side 4. It may contain the code of server-side
scripting code. scripting.

5. The files of HTML are stored with 5. The files of DHTML are stored with the
the .html or .htm extension in a .dhtm extension in a system.

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system.

6. A simple page which is created by a 6. A page which is created by a user using

user without using the scripts or the HTML, CSS, DOM, and JavaScript
styles called as an HTML page. technologies called a DHTML page.

7. This markup language does not 7. This concept needs database

need database connectivity. connectivity because it interacts with
users.

DHTML JavaScript

JavaScript can be included in HTML pages, which creates the content of the page
as dynamic. We can easily type the JavaScript code within the <head> or <body>
tag of a HTML page. If we want to add the external source file of JavaScript, we
can easily add using the <src> attribute.

Following are the various examples, which describes how to use the JavaScript
technology with the DHTML:

Scripting Language

A scripting language is a language that uses a sophisticated method to bring codes

to a runtime environment. In key ways, scripting languages are made for specific
runtime environments, and they automate some of the code implementation.

In that sense, they are modernizations of a system that previously used compilers
to interpret inputs.

Examples of scripting language implementation involve their use in operating

system shells and web browser technologies, and elsewhere, where the
interpreter can enhance how the language is used.

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Example: Python

A basic comparison of scripting languages in programming evolution involves

Python, one of the most popular languages used for many new kinds of projects
involving machine learning.

Python is known as a scripting language in its modular and automated build,

compared to legacy programming languages like COBOL and BASIC, which are
known as compiled languages.

Interpreted Languages

In many cases, a scripting language uses an interpreter instead of a compiler, and

that's how We can tell whether a language is a scripting language or not.

Compiled languages use a compiler to make code into assembly language or

machine language. By contrast, scripting languages and other interpreted
languages use an interpreter.

The interpreter is responsible to interpret the source code for program execution.
We could say that in a scripting language with an interpreter, the code is the
language itself, and it gets interpreted relatively on-the-fly. Other kinds of
systems like just-in-time compiling can also apply.

Hybrids

An example of the complexity of compiler languages and interpreted languages

such as scripting languages is evident in the evolution of Sun Microsystems and its
Java computer programming language set, which has been so much a
fundamental part of computer science for so many years.

Classic Java is commonly known as a compiler language. It uses the traditional

compiler system to convert code into machine language, as do C++ and other
object oriented programming methods of its time.

However, languages like JavaScript are known as interpreter languages, where

instead of using a compiler, an interpreter tool is used to change the way that the
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code syntax is used and implemented. If We, for example, have a virtual machine
friendly language like ByteCode interpreting Java script for a compiler, that would
be an interpreted language.

Benefits and Disadvantages of Scripting and Interpreted Languages

There are various benefits and disadvantages associated with the use of
interpreted languages over compiler languages. The uniqueness of domain-
specific scripting languages and their use in various runtime environments has
been discussed. There's also the idea that interpreted language systems can help
when distributed systems have different machine languages in play that make it
difficult for compiled languages to bridge these cross-platform gaps.

On the other hand, some experts talk about latency with interpreted programs,
just because the code has to run through an interpreter instead of being
traditionally compiled. Experts have to assess these sorts of trade-offs as they
consider whether using a scripting language makes sense in a given project
environment.

Generally, though, the ability to abstract programming in this way is an attractive

part of modernizing our codebase tools.

Java Servlet

Java Servlets are server-side Java program modules that process and answer client
requests and implement the servlet interface. It helps in enhancing Web server
functionality with minimal overhead, maintenance and support.

A servlet acts as an intermediary between the client and the server. As servlet
modules run on the server, they can receive and respond to requests made by the
client. Request and response objects of the servlet offer a convenient way to
handle HTTP requests and send text data back to the client.

Since a servlet is integrated with the Java language, it also possesses all the Java
features such as high portability, platform independence, security and Java
database connectivity.
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There are two Java Servlet types: Basic and HTTP.

HTTP servlets are used as follows:

 When an HTML form is submitted, the servlet processes and stores the data.

 When a client supplies a database query, the results are provided to the
client by the servlet.

 In most cases, the server uses the common gateway interface (CGI).

However, Java Servlets have many advantages over CGI, including:

 A servlet runs in the same process, eliminating the need to create a new
process for every request.

 The CGI program must be reloaded for each CGI request. A servlet, however,
does not require reloading and remains in the memory between requests.

 A servlet answers multiple requests simultaneously by using one instance,

saving memory and easily managing persistent data.

 The servlet engine runs in a sandbox or restricted environment, protecting

the server from potentially harmful servlets.

Servlet Life Cycle

The servlet life cycle is the Java servlet processing event sequence that occurs
from servlet instance creation to destruction. The servlet life cycle is controlled by
the container that deploys the servlet.

The servlet life cycle is made up of four stages:

 Instantiation

 Initialization

 Client request handling

 Destruction
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When a servlet request is mapped, the servlet container checks for the existence
of a servlet class instance. If an instance does not exist, the Web container loads
the servlet class, creates an instance of this class and initializes this instance by
calling the init() method.

The initialization process is completed prior to client request handling. The

container does not call the init() method again, unless a servlet is reloaded. After
the instantiation and initialization are completed, the servlet container calls the
service() method to respond to the request. When the servlet is no longer
needed, the container destroys the servlet with the destroy() method. This
method is also executed only one time.

Applications of Servlet

 Read the explicit data sent by the clients (browsers). This includes an
HTML form on a Web page or it could also come from an applet or a
custom HTTP client program.
 Read the implicit HTTP request data sent by the clients (browsers). This
includes cookies, media types and compression schemes the browser
understands, and so forth.
 Process the data and generate the results. This process may require
talking to a database, executing an RMI or CORBA call, invoking a Web
service, or computing the response directly.
 Send the explicit data (i.e., the document) to the clients (browsers). This
document can be sent in a variety of formats, including text (HTML or
XML), binary (GIF images), Excel, etc.
 Send the implicit HTTP response to the clients (browsers). This includes
telling the browsers or other clients what type of document is being
returned (e.g., HTML), setting cookies and caching parameters, and
other such tasks.

Java Applet

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A Java applet is a small dynamic Java program that can be transferred via the
Internet and run by a Java-compatible Web browser. The main difference
between Java-based applications and applets is that applets are typically executed
in an AppletViewer or Java-compatible Web browser. All applets import
the java.awt package.

The following are two issues with Java applets:

 Security: Java resolves the security issue by restricting applets to Java’s

execution environment and preventing access to system resources.
 Portability: Portability is defined as the applet’s ability to run on
different computers and operating systems.

Any browser with Java Virtual Machine (JVM) can execute bytecode, which is the
output of a Java compiler and can be run only in a JVM. Bytecode is Java’s
solution for security and portability.

Application Conversion to Applets

It is easy to convert a graphical Java application (that is, an application that uses
the AWT and that We can start with the Java program launcher) into an applet
that We can embed in a web page.

Following are the specific steps for converting an application to an applet.

 Make an HTML page with the appropriate tag to load the applet code.
 Supply a subclass of the JApplet class. Make this class public. Otherwise,
the applet cannot be loaded.
 Eliminate the main method in the application. Do not construct a frame
window for the application. Our application will be displayed inside the
browser.
 Move any initialization code from the frame window constructor to the
init method of the applet. We don't need to explicitly construct the
applet object. The browser instantiates it for We and calls the init
method.

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 Remove the call to setSize; for applets, sizing is done with the width and
height parameters in the HTML file.
 Remove the call to setDefaultCloseOperation. An applet cannot be
closed; it terminates when the browser exits.
 If the application calls setTitle, eliminate the call to the method. Applets
cannot have title bars. (You can, of course, title the web page itself,
using the HTML title tag.)
 Don't call setVisible(true). The applet is displayed automatically.

Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics involves technology to access. The Process transforms and

presents information in a visual form. The role of computer graphics insensible. In
today life, computer graphics has now become a common element in user
interfaces, T.V. commercial motion pictures.

Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the help of a computer. The
end product of the computer graphics is a picture it may be a business graph,
drawing, and engineering.

In computer graphics, two or three-dimensional pictures can be created that are

used for research. Many hardware devices algorithm has been developing for
improving the speed of picture generation with the passes of time. It includes the
creation storage of models and image of objects. These models for various fields
like engineering, mathematical and so on.

Today computer graphics is entirely different from the earlier one. It is not
possible. It is an interactive user can control the structure of an object of various
input devices.

Definition of Computer Graphics:

It is the use of computers to create and manipulate pictures on a display device. It

comprises of software techniques to create, store, modify, represents pictures.
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Why computer graphics used?

Suppose a shoe manufacturing company want to show the sale of shoes for five
years. For this vast amount of information is to store. So a lot of time and memory
will be needed. This method will be tough to understand by a common man. In
this situation graphics is a better alternative. Graphics tools are charts and graphs.
Using graphs, data can be represented in pictorial form. A picture can be
understood easily just with a single look.

Interactive computer graphics work using the concept of two-way communication

between computer users. The computer will receive signals from the input device,
and the picture is modified accordingly. Picture will be changed quickly when we
apply command.

Display Devices in Computer Graphics

The display device is an output device used to represent the information in the
form of images (visual form). Display systems are mostly called a video
monitor or Video display unit (VDU).

Display devices are designed to model, display, view, or display information. The
purpose of display technology is to simplify information sharing.

Today, the demand for high-quality displays is increasing.

There are some display devices given below:

1. Cathode-Ray Tube(CRT)

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2. Color CRT Monitor

3. Liquid crystal display(LCD)

4. Light Emitting Diode(LED)

5. Direct View Storage Tubes(DVST)

6. Plasma Display

7. 3D Display

1. Cathode-ray Tube (CRT): Here, CRT stands for Cathode ray tube. It is a
technology which is used in traditional computer monitor and television.

Cathode ray tube is a particular type of vacuum tube that displays images when
an electron beam collides on the radiant surface.

Component of CRT:

 Electron Gun: The electron gun is made up of several elements, mainly a

heating filament (heater) and a cathode.

The electron gun is a source of electrons focused on a narrow beam facing the
CRT.

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 Focusing & Accelerating Anodes: These anodes are used to produce a

narrow and sharply focused beam of electrons.

 Horizontal & Vertical Deflection Plates: These plates are used to guide the
path of the electron the beam. The plates produce an electromagnetic field
that bends the electron beam through the area as it travels.

 Phosphorus-coated Screen: The phosphorus coated screen is used to

produce bright spots when the high-velocity electron beam hits it.

There are two ways to represent an object on the screen:

1. Raster Scan: It is a scanning technique in which the electron beam moves

along the screen. It moves from top to bottom, covering one line at a time.

A raster scan is based on pixel intensity control display as a rectangular box on the
screen called a raster.

Picture description is stored in the memory area called as Refresh buffer, or

Frame Buffer.

Frame buffer is also known as Raster or Bitmap. Raster scan provides the refresh
rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.

For Example: Television

The beam refreshing has two types:

1. Horizontal Retracing

2. Vertical Retracing

When the beam starts from the top left corner and reaches bottom right, and
again return to the top left, it is called the vertical retrace.

It will call back from top to bottom more horizontally as a horizontal reversal.

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Advantages:

1. Real image

2. Many colors to be produced

3. Dark scenes can be pictured

Disadvantages:

1. Less resolution

2. Display picture line by line

3. More costly

2. Random Scan (Vector scan): It is also known as stroke-writing display or

calligraphic display. In this, the electron beam points only to the area in which the
picture is to be drawn.

It uses an electron beam like a pencil to make a line image on the screen. The
image is constructed from a sequence of straight-line segments. On the screen,
each line segment is drawn by the beam to pass from one point on the screen to
the other, where its x & y coordinates define each point.
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After compilation of picture drawing, the system cycle back to the first line and
create all the lines of picture 30 to 60 times per second.

Fig: A Random Scan display draws the lines of an object in a specific order

Advantages:

1. High Resolution

2. Draw smooth line Drawing

Disadvantages:

1. It does only the wireframe.

2. It creates complex scenes due to flicker.

2.Color CRT Monitor: It is similar to a CRT monitor.

The basic idea behind the color CRT monitor is to combine three basic colors- Red,
Green, and Blue. By using these three colors, we can produce

millions of different colors.

The two basic color display producing techniques are:

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1. Beam–Penetration Method: It is used with a random scan monitor for

displaying pictures. There are two phosphorus layers- Red and Green are
coated inside the screen. The color shown depends on how far the electron
beam penetrates the phosphorus surface.

A powerful electron beam penetrates the CRT, it passes through the red layer and
excites the green layer within.

A beam with slow electrons excites only the red layer.

A beam with the medium speed of electrons, a mixture of red and green light is
emitted to display two more colors- orange and yellow.

Advantages:

1. Better Resolution

2. Half cost

3. Inexpensive

Disadvantages:

1. Only four possible colors

2. Time Consuming

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2.Shadow–Mask Method: It is used with a raster scan monitor for displaying

pictures. It has more range of color than the beam penetration method. It is used
in television sets and monitors.

Structure:

1. It has three phosphorus color dots at each position of the pixel.

First Dot: Red color

Second Dot: Green color

Third Dot: Blue color

1. It has three different guns. Each for one color.

2. It has a metal screen or plate just before the phosphorus screen,

named “Shadow-Mask.”

3. It also has a shadow grid just behind the phosphorus coated screen with
tiny holes in a triangular shape.

Working: A Shadow Mask is a metal plate with tiny holes present inside a color
monitor.

A Shadow Mask directs the beam by consuming the electrons so that the beam
hits only the desired point and displays a resulting picture.

It has three different guns. These guns direct their beams to shadow mask, which
allows them to pass. It is a task of a shadow mask to direct the beam on its
particular dot on the screen and produce a picture on the screen.

A Shadow Mask can display a wider range of pictures than beam penetration.

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Advantages:

1. Display a wider range picture.

2. Display realistic images.

3. In-line arrangement of RGB color.

Disadvantages:

Difficult to cover all three beams on the same hole.

Poor Resolution.

3.Liquid crystal display (LCD): The LCD depends upon the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals.

LCD is used in watches and portable computers. LCD requires an AC power supply
instead of DC, so it is difficult to use it in circuits.

It generally works on flat panel display technology. LCD consumes less power than
LED. The LCD screen uses the liquid crystal to turn pixels on or off.

Liquid Crystals are a mixture of solid and liquid. When the current flows inside it,
its position changes into the desired color.

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For Example: TFT(Thin Film Transistor)

Advantages:

1. Produce a bright image

2. Energy efficient

3. Completely flat screen

Disadvantages:

Fixed aspect ratio & Resolution

Lower Contrast

More Expensive

4.Light Emitting Diode (LED): LED is a device which emits when current passes
through it. It is a semiconductor device.

The size of the LED is small, so we can easily make any display unit by arranging a
large number of LEDs.

LED consumes more power compared to LCD. LED is used on TV, smartphones,
motor vehicles, traffic light, etc.

LEDs are powerful in structure, so they are capable of withstanding mechanical

pressure. LED also works at high temperatures.

Advantages:

1. The Intensity of light can be controlled.

2. Low operational Voltage.

3. Capable of handling the high temperature.

Disadvantages:

More Power Consuming than LCD.

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5.Direct View Storage Tube (DVST): It is used to store the picture information as a
charge distribution behind the phosphor-coated screen.

There are two guns used in DVST:

1.Primary Gun: It is used to store the picture information.

2.Flood / Secondary Gun: It is used to display a picture on the screen.

Advantages:

1. Less Time Consuming

2. No Refreshing Required

3. High-Resolution

4. Less Cost

Disadvantages:

The specific part of the image cannot be erased.

They do not display color.

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6.Plasma Display: It is a type of flat panel display which uses tiny plasma cells. It is
also known as the Gas-Discharge display.

Components of plasma display:

1.Anode: It is used to deliver a positive voltage. It also has the line wires.

2.Cathode: It is used to provide negative voltage to gas cells. It also has fine wires.

3.Gas Plates: These plates work as capacitors. When we pass the voltage, the cell
lights regularly.

4.Fluorescent cells: It contains small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is
passed to this neon gas. It emits light.

Advantages:

1. Wall Mounted

2. Slim

3. Wider angle

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Disadvantages:

Phosphorus loses luminosity over time.

It consumes more electricity than LCD.

Large Size

7.3D Display: It is also called stereoscope display technology. This technology is

capable of bringing depth perception to the viewer.

It is used for 3D gaming and 3D TVs.

For Example: Fog Display, Holographic Display, Retina Display Etc.

Advantages:

 Impressive Picture Quality

 High Definition

 Motion Communicates

Disadvantage:

 Expensive

 Binocular Fusion

Raster Scan

In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at
a time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the
beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.

A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a

rectangular box called Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is
stored in refresh buffer or Frame buffer. Televisions in our house are based on
Raster Scan Method. The raster scan system can store information of each pixel

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position, so it is suitable for realistic display of objects. Raster Scan provides a

refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.

Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are
called picture elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is
horizontal retracing and second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from
the top left corner and reaches the bottom right scale, it will again return to the
top left side called at vertical retrace. Then it will again more horizontally from
top to bottom call as horizontal retracing shown in fig:

Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

1. Interlaced Scanning

2. Non-Interlaced Scanning

In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to
bottom. Due to which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can be
solved by Non-Interlaced scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines are
traced or visited by an electron beam, then in the next circle, even number of
lines are located.

For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it gives
flickers. For interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used.

Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame
Buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen
points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and
“painted” on the screen one row scanlinescanline at a time as shown in the
following illustration.

Each screen point is referred to as a pixel pictureelementpictureelement or pel.

At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the
screen to begin displaying the next scan line.

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Advantages:

1. Realistic image

2. Million Different colors to be generated

3. Shadow Scenes are possible.

Disadvantages:

1. Low Resolution

2. Expensive

Random Scan VectorScanVectorScan

In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen
where the picture is to be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to
bottom as in raster scan. It is also called vector display, stroke-writing
display, or calligraphic display.

Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to
create a line image on the CRT screen. The picture is constructed out of a
sequence of straight-line segments. Each line segment is drawn on the screen by
directing the beam to move from one point on the screen to the next, where its x
& y coordinates define each point. After drawing the picture. The system cycles

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back to the first line and design all the lines of the image 30 to 60 time each
second. The process is shown in fig:

Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or stroke-writing

displays or calligraphic displays.

Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of

memory referred to as the refresh display file. To display a specified picture, the
system cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each
component line in turn. After all the line-drawing commands are processed, the
system cycles back to the first line command in the list.

Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture
30 to 60 times each second.

Advantages:

1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where
an image is to be drawn.

2. Produce smooth line drawings.

3. High Resolution

Disadvantages:

1. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.

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Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan Display:

Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if needed is 3.Modification is tough

easy

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or 5. Refresh rate does not depend on

resolution the picture.

6. Only screen with view on an area 6. Whole screen is scanned.

is displayed.

7. Beam Penetration technology 7. Shadow mark technology came

come under it. under this.

8. It does not use interlacing 8. It uses interlacing

method.

9. It is restricted to line drawing 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

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applications

Input Devices

The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the
computer. The data can be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output
device display data from the memory of the computer. Output can be text,
numeric data, line, polygon, and other objects.

These Devices include:

1. Keyboard

2. Mouse

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3. Trackball

4. Spaceball

5. Joystick

6. Light Pen

7. Digitizer

8. Touch Panels

9. Voice Recognition

10. Image Scanner

Keyboard:

The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by
pressing the set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a
QWERTY keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also
available.

1. Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

2. Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)

3. Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt

4. Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :

5. Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓

6. Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.

7. Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used

for fast entry of numeric data.

Function of Keyboard:
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1. Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)

2. Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates

entry, Menu selection or graphics functions, etc.

3. Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches.
Dials are used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons
and switches are used to enter predefined function values.

Advantage:

1. Suitable for entering numeric data.

2. Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with
fewer errors.

Disadvantage:

1. Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

Mouse:

A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a
small palm size box. There are two or three depression switches on the top. The
movement of the mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the
cursor and the movement along the y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the
cursor on the screen. The mouse cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they
are used in conjunction with a keyboard.

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Advantage:

1. Easy to use

2. Not very expensive

Filled Area Primitives:

Region filling is the process of filling image or region. Filling can be of boundary or
interior region as shown in fig. Boundary Fill algorithms are used to fill the
boundary and flood-fill algorithm are used to fill the interior.

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Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm:

This algorithm lines interior points of a polygon on the scan line and these points
are done on or off according to requirement. The polygon is filled with various
colors by coloring various pixels.

In above figure polygon and a line cutting polygon in shown. First of all, scanning
is done. Scanning is done using raster scanning concept on display device. The
beam starts scanning from the top left corner of the screen and goes toward the
bottom right corner as the endpoint. The algorithms find points of intersection of
the line with polygon while moving from left to right and top to bottom. The
various points of intersection are stored in the frame buffer. The intensities of
such points is keep high. Concept of coherence property is used. According to this
property if a pixel is inside the polygon, then its next pixel will be inside the
polygon.

Side effects of Scan Conversion:

1. Staircase or Jagged: Staircase like appearance is seen while the scan was
converting line or circle.

2. Unequal Intensity: It deals with unequal appearance of the brightness of

different lines. An inclined line appears less bright as compared to the horizontal
and vertical line.

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Flood Fill Algorithm:

In this method, a point or seed which is inside region is selected. This point is
called a seed point. Then four connected approaches or eight connected
approaches is used to fill with specified color.

The flood fill algorithm has many characters similar to boundary fill. But this
method is more suitable for filling multiple colors boundary. When boundary is of
many colors and interior is to be filled with one color we use this algorithm.

In fill algorithm, we start from a specified interior point (x, y) and reassign all pixel
values are currently set to a given interior color with the desired color. Using

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either a 4-connected or 8-connected approaches, we then step through pixel

positions until all interior points have been repainted.

Disadvantage:

1. Very slow algorithm

2. May be fail for large polygons

3. Initial pixel required more knowledge about surrounding pixels.

Algorithm:

Procedure floodfill (x, y,fill_ color, old_color: integer)

If (getpixel (x, y)=old_color)

setpixel (x, y, fill_color);

fill (x+1, y, fill_color, old_color);

fill (x-1, y, fill_color, old_color);

fill (x, y+1, fill_color, old_color);

fill (x, y-1, fill_color, old_color);

Program1: To implement 4-connected flood fill algorithm:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<graphics.h>

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#include<dos.h>

void flood(int,int,int,int);

void main()

intgd=DETECT,gm;

initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:/TURBOC3/bgi");

rectangle(50,50,250,250);

flood(55,55,10,0);

getch();

void flood(intx,inty,intfillColor, intdefaultColor)

if(getpixel(x,y)==defaultColor)

delay(1);

putpixel(x,y,fillColor);

flood(x+1,y,fillColor,defaultColor);

flood(x-1,y,fillColor,defaultColor);

flood(x,y+1,fillColor,defaultColor);

flood(x,y-1,fillColor,defaultColor);

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Output:

Boundary Filled Algorithm:

This algorithm uses the recursive method. First of all, a starting pixel called as the
seed is considered. The algorithm checks boundary pixel or adjacent pixels are
colored or not. If the adjacent pixel is already filled or colored then leave it,
otherwise fill it. The filling is done using four connected or eight connected
approaches.

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Four connected approaches is more suitable than the eight connected

approaches.

1. Four connected approaches: In this approach, left, right, above, below pixels
are tested.

2. Eight connected approaches: In this approach, left, right, above, below and
four diagonals are selected.

Boundary can be checked by seeing pixels from left and right first. Then pixels are
checked by seeing pixels from top to bottom. The algorithm takes time and
memory because some recursive calls are needed.

Problem with recursive boundary fill algorithm:

It may not fill regions sometimes correctly when some interior pixel is already
filled with color. The algorithm will check this boundary pixel for filling and will
found already filled so recursive process will terminate. This may vary because of
another interior pixel unfilled.

So check all pixels color before applying the algorithm.

Algorithm:

Procedure fill (x, y, color, color1: integer)

int c;

c=getpixel (x, y);

if (c!=color) (c!=color1)

setpixel (x, y, color)

fill (x+1, y, color, color 1);

fill (x-1, y, color, color 1);

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fill (x, y+1, color, color 1);

fill (x, y-1, color, color 1);

MidPoint Circle Algorithm

It is based on the following function for testing the spatial relationship between
the arbitrary point (x, y) and a circle of radius r centered at the origin:

Now, consider the coordinates of the point halfway between pixel T and pixel S

This is called midpoint (xi+1,yi- ) and we use it to define a decision parameter:

Pi=f (xi+1,yi- ) = (xi+1)2+(yi- )2-r2 ...............equation 2

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If Pi is -ve ⟹midpoint is inside the circle and we choose pixel T

If Pi is+ve ⟹midpoint is outside the circle (or on the circle)and we choose pixel S.

The decision parameter for the next step is:

Pi+1=(xi+1+1)2+(yi+1- )2- r2............equation 3

Since xi+1=xi+1, we have

If pixel T is choosen ⟹Pi<0

We have yi+1=yi

If pixel S is choosen ⟹Pi≥0

We have yi+1=yi-1

We can continue to simplify this in n terms of (x i,yi) and get

Now, initial value of Pi (0,r)from equation 2

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We can put ≅1
∴r is an integer
So, P1=1-r

Algorithm:

Step1: Put x =0, y =r in equation 2

We have p=1-r

Step2: Repeat steps while x ≤ y

Plot (x, y)
If (p<0)
Then set p = p + 2x + 3
Else
p = p + 2(x-y)+5
y =y - 1 (end if)
x =x+1 (end loop)

Step3: End

Program to draw a circle using Midpoint Algorithm:

#include <graphics.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <math.h>

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#include <iostream.h>

class bresen

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float x, y,a, b, r, p;

public:

void get ();

void cal ();

};

void main ()

bresen b;

b.get ();

b.cal ();

getch ();

Void bresen :: get ()

cout<<"ENTER CENTER AND RADIUS";

cout<< "ENTER (a, b)";

cin>>a>>b;

cout<<"ENTER r";

cin>>r;

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void bresen ::cal ()

/* request auto detection */

int gdriver = DETECT,gmode, errorcode;

int midx, midy, i;

/* initialize graphics and local variables */

initgraph (&gdriver, &gmode, " ");

/* read result of initialization */

errorcode = graphresult ();

if (errorcode ! = grOK) /*an error occurred */

printf("Graphics error: %s \n", grapherrormsg (errorcode);

printf ("Press any key to halt:");

getch ();

exit (1); /* terminate with an error code */

x=0;

y=r;

putpixel (a, b+r, RED);

putpixel (a, b-r, RED);

putpixel (a-r, b, RED);

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putpixel (a+r, b, RED);

p=5/4)-r;

while (x<=y)

If (p<0)

p+= (4*x)+6;

else

p+=(2*(x-y))+5;

y--;

x++;

putpixel (a+x, b+y, RED);

putpixel (a-x, b+y, RED);

putpixel (a+x, b-y, RED);

putpixel (a+x, b-y, RED);

putpixel (a+x, b+y, RED);

putpixel (a+x, b-y, RED);

putpixel (a-x, b+y, RED);

putpixel (a-x, b-y, RED);

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Output:

Bresenham's Line Algorithm

This algorithm is used for scan converting a line. It was developed by Bresenham.
It is an efficient method because it involves only integer addition, subtractions,
and multiplication operations. These operations can be performed very rapidly so
lines can be generated quickly.

In this method, next pixel selected is that one who has the least distance from
true line.

The method works as follows:

Assume a pixel P1'(x1',y1'),then select subsequent pixels as we work our may to

the night, one pixel position at a time in the horizontal direction toward
P2'(x2',y2').

Once a pixel in choose at any step

The next pixel is

1. Either the one to its right (lower-bound for the line)

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2. One top its right and up (upper-bound for the line)

The line is best approximated by those pixels that fall the least distance from the
path between P1',P2'.

To chooses the next one between the bottom pixel S and top pixel T.
If S is chosen
We have xi+1=xi+1 and yi+1=yi
If T is chosen
We have xi+1=xi+1 and yi+1=yi+1

The actual y coordinates of the line at x = xi+1is

y=mxi+1+b

The distance from S to the actual line in y direction

s = y-yi

The distance from T to the actual line in y direction

t = (yi+1)-y

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Now consider the difference between these 2 distance values

s-t

When (s-t) <0 ⟹ s < t

The closest pixel is S

When (s-t) ≥0 ⟹ s < t

The closest pixel is T

This difference is
s-t = (y-yi)-[(yi+1)-y]
= 2y - 2yi -1

Substituting m by and introducing decision variable

di=△x (s-t)

di=△x (2 (xi+1)+2b-2yi-1)
=2△xyi-2△y-1△x.2b-2yi△x-△x
di=2△y.xi-2△x.yi+c

Where c= 2△y+△x (2b-1)

We can write the decision variable di+1 for the next slip on
di+1=2△y.xi+1-2△x.yi+1+c
di+1-di=2△y.(xi+1-xi)- 2△x(yi+1-yi)

Since x_(i+1)=xi+1,we have

di+1+di=2△y.(xi+1-xi)- 2△x(yi+1-yi)

Special Cases

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If chosen pixel is at the top pixel T (i.e., di≥0)⟹ yi+1=yi+1

di+1=di+2△y-2△x

If chosen pixel is at the bottom pixel T (i.e., di<0)⟹ yi+1=yi

di+1=di+2△y

Finally, we calculate d1
d1=△x[2m(x1+1)+2b-2y1-1]
d1=△x[2(mx1+b-y1)+2m-1]

Since mx1+b-yi=0 and m = , we have

d1=2△y-△x

Advantage:

1. It involves only integer arithmetic, so it is simple.

2. It avoids the generation of duplicate points.

3. It can be implemented using hardware because it does not use multiplication

and division.

4. It is faster as compared to DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) because it does

not involve floating point calculations like DDA Algorithm.

Disadvantage:

1. This algorithm is meant for basic line drawing only Initializing is not a part of
Bresenham's line algorithm. So to draw smooth lines, We should want to look into
a different algorithm.

Bresenham's Line Algorithm:

Step1: Start Algorithm

Step2: Declare variable x1,x2,y1,y2,d,i1,i2,dx,dy

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Step3: Enter value of x1,y1,x2,y2

Where x1,y1are coordinates of starting point
And x2,y2 are coordinates of Ending point

Step4: Calculate dx = x2-x1

Calculate dy = y2-y1
Calculate i1=2*dy
Calculate i2=2*(dy-dx)
Calculate d=i1-dx

Step5: Consider (x, y) as starting point and xendas maximum possible value of x.
If dx < 0
Then x = x2
y = y2
xend=x1
If dx > 0
Then x = x1
y = y1
xend=x2

Step6: Generate point at (x,y)coordinates.

Step7: Check if whole line is generated.

If x > = xend
Stop.

Step8: Calculate co-ordinates of the next pixel

If d < 0
Then d = d + i1
If d ≥ 0
Then d = d + i2
Increment y = y + 1

Step9: Increment x = x + 1

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Step10: Draw a point of latest (x, y) coordinates

Step11: Go to step 7

Step12: End of Algorithm

Example: Starting and Ending position of the line are (1, 1) and (8, 5). Find
intermediate points.

Solution: x1=1
y1=1
x2=8
y2=5
dx= x2-x1=8-1=7
dy=y2-y1=5-1=4
I1=2* ∆y=2*4=8
I2=2*(∆y-∆x)=2*(4-7)=-6
d = I1-∆x=8-7=1

x y d=d+I1 or I2

1 1 d+I2=1+(-6)=-5

2 2 d+I1=-5+8=3

3 2 d+I2=3+(-6)=-3

4 3 d+I1=-3+8=5

5 3 d+I2=5+(-6)=-1

6 4 d+I1=-1+8=7

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7 4 d+I2=7+(-6)=1

8 5

Program to implement Bresenham's Line Drawing Algorithm:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<graphics.h>

void drawline(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1)

int dx, dy, p, x, y;

dx=x1-x0;

dy=y1-y0;

x=x0;

y=y0;

p=2*dy-dx;

while(x<x1)
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if(p>=0)

putpixel(x,y,7);

y=y+1;

p=p+2*dy-2*dx;

else

putpixel(x,y,7);

p=p+2*dy;}

x=x+1;

int main()

int gdriver=DETECT, gmode, error, x0, y0, x1, y1;

initgraph(&gdriver, &gmode, "c:\\turboc3\\bgi");

printf("Enter co-ordinates of first point: ");

scanf("%d%d", &x0, &y0);

printf("Enter co-ordinates of second point: ");

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scanf("%d%d", &x1, &y1);

drawline(x0, y0, x1, y1);

return 0;

Output:

Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm:

This is an incremental method for scan converting an ellipse that is centered at

the origin in standard position i.e., with the major and minor axis parallel to
coordinate system axis. It is very similar to the midpoint circle algorithm. Because
of the four-way symmetry property we need to consider the entire elliptical curve
in the first quadrant.

first rewrite the ellipse equation and define the function f that can be used to
decide if the midpoint between two candidate pixels is inside or outside the
ellipse:

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Now divide the elliptical curve from (0, b) to (a, 0) into two parts at point Q where
the slope of the curve is -1.

Slope of the curve is defined by the f(x, y) = 0 is where fx & fy are partial
derivatives of f(x, y) with respect to x & y.

We have fx = 2b2 x, fy=2a2 y & Hence we can monitor the slope value
during the scan conversion process to detect Q. Our starting point is (0, b)

Suppose that the coordinates of the last scan converted pixel upon entering step i
are (xi,yi). We are to select either T (xi+1),yi) or S (xi+1,yi-1) to be the next pixel. The
midpoint of T & S is used to define the following decision parameter.

pi = f(xi+1),yi- )

pi=b2 (xi+1)2+a2 (yi- )2-a2 b2

If pi<0, the midpoint is inside the curve and we choose pixel T.

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If pi>0, the midpoint is outside or on the curve and we choose pixel S.

Decision parameter for the next step is:

pi+1=f(xi+1+1,yi+1- )

= b2 (xi+1+1)2+a2 (yi+1- )2-a2 b2

Since xi+1=xi+1,we have

pi+1-pi=b2[((xi+1+1)2+a2 (yi+1- )2-(yi - )2]

pi+1= pi+2b2 xi+1+b2+a2 [(yi+1- )2-(yi - )2]

If T is chosen pixel (pi<0), we have yi+1=yi.

If S is chosen pixel (pi>0) we have yi+1=yi-1. Thus we can express

pi+1in terms of pi and (xi+1,yi+1): pi+1= pi+2b2 xi+1+b2 if pi<0 =

pi+2b2 xi+1+b2-2a2 yi+1 if pi>0

The initial value for the recursive expression can be obtained by the evaluating
the original definition of pi with (0, b):

p1 = (b2+a2 (b- )2-a2 b2

= b2-a2 b+a2/4

Suppose the pixel (xj yj) has just been scan converted upon entering step j. The
next pixel is either U (xj ,yj-1) or V (xj+1,yj-1). The midpoint of the horizontal line
connecting U & V is used to define the decision parameter:

qj=f(xj+ ,yj-1)

qj=b2 (xj+ )2+a2 (yj -1)2-a2 b2

If qj<0, the midpoint is inside the curve and we choose pixel V.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

If qj≥0, the midpoint is outside the curve and we choose pixel U.Decision
parameter for the next step is:

qj+1=f(xj+1+ ,yj+1-1)

= b2 (xj+1+ )2+ a2 (yj+1-1)2- a2 b2

Since yj+1=yj-1,we have

qj+1-qj=b2 [(xj+1+ )2-(xj + )2 ]+a2 (yj+1-1)2-( yj+1)2 ]

qj+1=qj+b2 [(xj+1+ )2-(xj + )2]-2a2 yj+1+a2

If V is chosen pixel (qj<0), we have xj+1=xj.

If U is chosen pixel (pi>0) we have xj+1=xj. Thus we can express

qj+1in terms of qj and (xj+1,yj+1 ):

qj+1=qj+2b2 xj+1-2a2 yj+1+a2 if qj < 0
=qj-2a2 yj+1+a2 if qj>0

The initial value for the recursive expression is computed using the original
definition of qj. And the coordinates of (x k yk) of the last pixel choosen for the part
1 of the curve:

q1 = f(xk+ ,yk-1)=b2 (xk+ )2-a2 (yk-1)2- a2 b2

Algorithm:

int x=0, y=b; [starting point]

int fx=0, fy=2a2 b [initial partial derivatives]

int p = b2-a2 b+a2/4

while (fx<="" 1="" {="" set="" pixel="" (x,="" y)="" x++;="" fx="fx" +="" 2b 2;

if (p<0)

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p = p + fx +b2;

else

y--;

fy=fy-2a2

p = p + fx +b2-fy;

Setpixel (x, y);

p=b2(x+0.5)2+ a2 (y-1)2- a2 b2

while (y>0)

y--;

fy=fy-2a2;

if (p>=0)

p=p-fy+a2

else

x++;

fx=fx+2b2

p=p+fx-fy+a2;

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Setpixel (x,y);

Transformations

Computer Graphics provide the facility of viewing object from different angles.
The architect can study building from different angles i.e.

1. Front Evaluation

2. Side elevation

3. Top plan

A Cartographer can change the size of charts and topographical maps. So if

graphics images are coded as numbers, the numbers can be stored in memory.
These numbers are modified by mathematical operations called as
Transformation.

The purpose of using computers for drawing is to provide facility to user to view
the object from different angles, enlarging or reducing the scale or shape of
object called as Transformation.

Two essential aspects of transformation are given below:

1. Each transformation is a single entity. It can be denoted by a unique name

or symbol.

2. It is possible to combine two transformations, after connecting a single

transformation is obtained, e.g., A is a transformation for translation. The B
transformation performs scaling. The combination of two is C=AB. So C is
obtained by concatenation property.

There are two complementary points of view for describing object

transformation.

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1. Geometric Transformation: The object itself is transformed relative to the

coordinate system or background. The mathematical statement of this
viewpoint is defined by geometric transformations applied to each point of
the object.

2. Coordinate Transformation: The object is held stationary while the

coordinate system is transformed relative to the object. This effect is
attained through the application of coordinate transformations.

An example that helps to distinguish these two viewpoints:

The movement of an automobile against a scenic background we can simulate

this by

o Moving the automobile while keeping the background fixed-(Geometric

Transformation)

o We can keep the car fixed while moving the background scenery-
(Coordinate Transformation)

Types of Transformations:

1. Translation

2. Scaling

3. Rotating

4. Reflection

5. Shearing

Note: Translation, Scaling, and Rotation are also called as Basic Transformations.

Translation

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It is the straight line movement of an object from one position to another is called
Translation. Here the object is positioned from one coordinate location to
another.

Translation of point:

To translate a point from coordinate position (x, y) to another (x 1 y1), we add

algebraically the translation distances Tx and Ty to original coordinate.

x1=x+Tx

y1=y+Ty

The translation pair (Tx,Ty) is called as shift vector.

Translation is a movement of objects without deformation. Every position or

point is translated by the same amount. When the straight line is translated, then
it will be drawn using endpoints.

For translating polygon, each vertex of the polygon is converted to a new

position. Similarly, curved objects are translated. To change the position of the
circle or ellipse its center coordinates are transformed, then the object is drawn
using new coordinates.

Let P is a point with coordinates (x, y). It will be translated as (x1 y1).

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Matrix for Translation:

Scaling:

It is used to alter or change the size of objects. The change is done using scaling
factors. There are two scaling factors, i.e. S x in x direction Sy in y-direction. If the

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original position is x and y. Scaling factors are Sx and Sy then the value of
coordinates after scaling will be x1 and y1.

If the picture to be enlarged to twice its original size then S x = Sy =2. If Sxand Sy are
not equal then scaling will occur but it will elongate or distort the picture.

If scaling factors are less than one, then the size of the object will be reduced. If
scaling factors are higher than one, then the size of the object will be enlarged.

If Sxand Syare equal it is also called as Uniform Scaling. If not equal then called as
Differential Scaling. If scaling factors with values less than one will move the
object closer to coordinate origin, while a value higher than one will move
coordinate position farther from origin.

Enlargement: If T1= ,If (x1 y1)is original position and T1is translation vector
then (x2 y2) are coordinated after scaling

The image will be enlarged two times

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Reduction: If T1= . If (x1 y1) is original position and T1 is translation vector,

then (x2 y2) are coordinates after scaling

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Matrix for Scaling:

Example: Prove that 2D Scaling transformations are commutative i.e, S 1 S2=S2 S1.

Solution: S1 and S2 are scaling matrices

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Rotation:

It is a process of changing the angle of the object. Rotation can be clockwise or

anticlockwise. For rotation, we have to specify the angle of rotation and rotation
point. Rotation point is also called a pivot point. It is print about which object is
rotated.

Types of Rotation:

1. Anticlockwise

2. Counterclockwise

The positive value of the pivot point (rotation angle) rotates an object in a
counter-clockwise (anti-clockwise) direction.

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The negative value of the pivot point (rotation angle) rotates an object in a
clockwise direction.

When the object is rotated, then every point of the object is rotated by the same
angle.

Straight Line: Straight Line is rotated by the endpoints with the same angle and
redrawing the line between new endpoints.

Polygon: Polygon is rotated by shifting every vertex using the same rotational
angle.

Curved Lines: Curved Lines are rotated by repositioning of all points and drawing
of the curve at new positions.

Circle: It can be obtained by center position by the specified angle.

Ellipse: Its rotation can be obtained by rotating major and minor axis of an ellipse
by the desired angle.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Matrix for rotation is a clockwise direction.

Matrix for rotation is an anticlockwise direction.

Matrix for homogeneous co-ordinate rotation (clockwise)

Matrix for homogeneous co-ordinate rotation (anticlockwise)

Rotation about an arbitrary point: If we want to rotate an object or point about

an arbitrary point, first of all, we translate the point about which we want to
rotate to the origin. Then rotate point or object about the origin, and at the end,
we again translate it to the original place. We get rotation about an arbitrary
point.

Example: The point (x, y) is to be rotated

The (xc yc) is a point about which counterclockwise rotation is done

Step1: Translate point (xc yc) to origin

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Step2: Rotation of (x, y) about the origin

Step3: Translation of center of rotation back to its original position

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Example1: Prove that 2D rotations about the origin are commutative i.e.
R1 R2=R2 R1.

Solution: R1 and R2are rotation matrices

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Example2: Rotate a line CD whose endpoints are (3, 4) and (12, 15) about origin
through a 45° anticlockwise direction.

Solution: The point C (3, 4)

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Example3: Rotate line AB whose endpoints are A (2, 5) and B (6, 12) about origin
through a 30° clockwise direction.

Solution: For rotation in the clockwise direction. The matrix is

Step1: Rotation of point A (2, 5). Take angle 30°

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Step2: Rotation of point B (6, 12)

Reflection:

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

It is a transformation which produces a mirror image of an object. The mirror

image can be either about x-axis or y-axis. The object is rotated by180°.

Types of Reflection:

1. Reflection about the x-axis

2. Reflection about the y-axis

3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through the

origin

4. Reflection about line y=x

1. Reflection about x-axis: The object can be reflected about x-axis with the help
of the following matrix

In this transformation value of x will remain same whereas the value of y will
become negative. Following figures shows the reflection of the object axis. The
object will lie another side of the x-axis.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

2. Reflection about y-axis: The object can be reflected about y-axis with the help
of following transformation matrix

Here the values of x will be reversed, whereas the value of y will remain the same.
The object will lie another side of the y-axis.

The following figure shows the reflection about the y-axis

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through origin:

In the matrix of this transformation is given below

In this value of x and y both will be reversed. This is also called as half revolution
about the origin.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

4. Reflection about line y=x: The object may be reflected about line y = x with the
help of following transformation matrix

First of all, the object is rotated at 45°. The direction of rotation is clockwise. After
it reflection is done concerning x-axis. The last step is the rotation of y=x back to
its original position that is counterclockwise at 45°.

Example: A triangle ABC is given. The coordinates of A, B, C are given as

A (3 4)
B (6 4)
C (4 8)

Find reflected position of triangle i.e., to the x-axis.

Solution:

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

The a point coordinates after reflection

The b point coordinates after reflection

The coordinate of point c after reflection

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

a (3, 4) becomes a1 (3, -4)

b (6, 4) becomes b1 (6, -4)
c (4, 8) becomes c1 (4, -8)

Program to perform Mirror Reflection about a line:

#include <iostream.h>

#include <conio.h>

#include <graphics.h>

#include <math.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#define pi 3.14

class arc

float x[10],y[10],theta,ref[10][10],ang;

float p[10][10],p1[10][10],x1[10],y1[10],xm,ym;

int i,k,j,n;

public:

void get();

void cal ();

void map ();

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void graph ();

void plot ();

void plot1();

};

void arc::get ()

cout<<"\n ENTER ANGLE OF LINE INCLINATION AND Y INTERCEPT";

cin>> ang >> b;

cout <<"\n ENTER NO OF VERTICES";

cin >> n;

cout <<"\n ENTER";

for (i=0; i<n; i++)

cout<<"\n x["<<i<<"] and y["<<i<<"]";

theta =(ang * pi)/ 180;

ref [0] [0] = cos (2 * theta);

ref [0] [1] = sin (2 * theta);

ref [0] [2] = -b *sin (2 * theta);

ref [1] [0] = sin (2 * theta);

ref [1] [1] = -cos (2 * theta);

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ref [1] [2] = b * (cos (2 * theta)+1);

ref [2] [0]=0;

ref [2] [1]=0;

ref [2] [2] = 1;

void arc :: cal ()

for (i=0; i < n; i++)

p[0] [i] = x [i];

p [1] [i] = y [i];

p [2] [i] = 1;

for (i=0; i<3;i++)

for (j=0; j<n; j++)

p1 [i] [j]=0;

for (k=0;k<3; k++)

p1 [i] [j] + = ref [i] [k] * p [k] [j];

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for (i=0; i<n; i++)

x1 [i]=p1[0] [i];

y1 [i] = p1 [1] [i];

void arc :: map ()

int gd = DETECT,gm;

initgraph (&gd, &gm, " ");

int errorcode = graphresult ();

/* an error occurred */

if (errorcode ! = grOK)

printf ("Graphics error: %s \n", grapherrormsg (errorcode));

printf ("Press any key to halt:");

getch ();

exit (1); /* terminate with an error code */

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void arc :: graph ()

xm=getmaxx ()/2;

ym=getmaxy ()/2;

line (xm, 0, xmm 2*ym);

void arc :: plot 1 ()

for (i=0; i <n-1; i++)

circle (x1[i]+xm, (-y1[i]+ym), 2);

line (x1[i]+xm, (-y1[i]+ym), x1[i+1]+xm, (-y1[i+1]+ym));

line (x1[n-1)+xm, (-y1[n-1]+ym), x1[0]+xm, (-y1[0]+ym));

getch();

void arc :: plot ()

for (i=0; i <n-1; i++)

circle (x1[i]+xm, (-y1[i]+ym, 2);

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line (x1[i]+xm, (-y1[i]+ym), x[i+1]+xm, (-y1[i+1]+ym));

line (x[n-1]+xm, (-y1[n-1]+ym), x[0]+xm, (-y[0]+ym));

getch();

void main ()

class arc a;

clrscr();

a.map();

a.graph();

a.get();

a.cal();

a.plot();

a.plot1();

getch();

Output:

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Shearing:

It is transformation which changes the shape of object. The sliding of layers of

object occur. The shear can be in one direction or in two directions.

Shearing in the X-direction: In this horizontal shearing sliding of layers occur. The
homogeneous matrix for shearing in the x-direction is shown below:

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Shearing in the Y-direction: Here shearing is done by sliding along vertical or y-

axis.

Shearing in X-Y directions: Here layers will be slided in both x as well as y

direction. The sliding will be in horizontal as well as vertical direction. The shape
of the object will be distorted. The matrix of shear in both directions is given by:

Matrix Representation of 2D Transformation

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Homogeneous Coordinates

The rotation of a point, straight line or an entire image on the screen, about a
point other than origin, is achieved by first moving the image until the point of
rotation occupies the origin, then performing rotation, then finally moving the
image to its original position.

The moving of an image from one place to another in a straight line is called a
translation. A translation may be done by adding or subtracting to each point, the
amount, by which picture is required to be shifted.

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Translation of point by the change of coordinate cannot be combined with other

transformation by using simple matrix application. Such a combination is essential
if we wish to rotate an image about a point other than origin by translation,
rotation again translation.

To combine these three transformations into a single transformation,

homogeneous coordinates are used. In homogeneous coordinate system, two-
dimensional coordinate positions (x, y) are represented by triple-coordinates.

Homogeneous coordinates are generally used in design and construction

applications. Here we perform translations, rotations, scaling to fit the picture
into proper position.

Example of representing coordinates into a homogeneous coordinate

system: For two-dimensional geometric transformation, we can choose
homogeneous parameter h to any non-zero value. For our convenience take it as
one. Each two-dimensional position is then represented with homogeneous
coordinates (x, y, 1).

Following are matrix for two-dimensional transformation in homogeneous

coordinate:

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Composite Transformation:

A number of transformations or sequence of transformations can be combined

into single one called as composition. The resulting matrix is called as composite
matrix. The process of combining is called as concatenation.

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Suppose we want to perform rotation about an arbitrary point, then we can

perform it by the sequence of three transformations

1. Translation

2. Rotation

3. Reverse Translation

The ordering sequence of these numbers of transformations must not be

changed. If a matrix is represented in column form, then the composite
transformation is performed by multiplying matrix in order from right to left side.
The output obtained from the previous matrix is multiplied with the new coming
matrix.

Example showing composite transformations:

The enlargement is with respect to center. For this following sequence of

transformations will be performed and all will be combined to a single one

Step1: The object is kept at its position as in fig (a)

Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with the origin as in fig
(b)

Step3: Scaling of an object by keeping the object at origin is done in fig (c)

Step4: Again translation is done. This second translation is called a reverse

translation. It will position the object at the origin location.

Above transformation can be represented as TV.STV-1

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Note: Two types of rotations are used for representing matrices one is column
method. Another is the row method.

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Advantage of composition or concatenation of matrix:

1. It transformations become compact.

2. The number of operations will be reduced.

3. Rules used for defining transformation in form of equations are complex as

compared to matrix.

Composition of two translations:

Let t1 t2 t3 t4are translation vectors. They are two translations P1 and P2. The
matrix of P1 and P2 given below. The P1 and P2are represented using
Homogeneous matrices and P will be the final transformation matrix obtained
after multiplication.

Above resultant matrix show that two successive translations are additive.

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Composition of two Rotations: Two Rotations are also additive

Composition of two Scaling: The composition of two scaling is multiplicative. Let

S11 and S12are matrix to be multiplied.

Computer Graphics Window to Viewport Co-ordinate Transformation

Once object description has been transmitted to the viewing reference frame, we
choose the window extends in viewing coordinates and selects the viewport limits
in normalized coordinates.

Object descriptions are then transferred to normalized device coordinates:

We do this thing using a transformation that maintains the same relative

placement of an object in normalized space as they had in viewing coordinates.

If a coordinate position is at the center of the viewing window:

It will display at the center of the viewport.

Fig shows the window to viewport mapping. A point at position (xw, yw) in
window mapped into position (xv, yv) in the associated viewport.

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In order to maintain the same relative placement of the point in the viewport as
in the window, we require:

Solving these impressions for the viewport position (xv, yv), we have

xv=xvmin+(xw-xwmin)sx
yv=yvmin+(yw-ywmin)sy ...........equation 2

Where scaling factors are

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Equation (1) and Equation (2) can also be derived with a set of transformation
that converts the window or world coordinate area into the viewport or screen
coordinate area. This conversation is performed with the following sequence of
transformations:

1. Perform a scaling transformation using a fixed point position (xw min,ywmin)

that scales the window area to the size of the viewport.

2. Translate the scaled window area to the position of the viewport. Relative
proportions of objects are maintained if the scaling factors are the same
(sx=sy).

From normalized coordinates, object descriptions are mapped to the various

display devices.

Any number of output devices can we open in a particular app, and three
windows to viewport transformation can be performed for each open output
device.

This mapping called workstation transformation (It is accomplished by selecting a

window area in normalized space and a viewport area in the coordinates of the
display device).

As in fig, workstation transformation to partition a view so that different parts of

normalized space can be displayed on various output devices).

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Matrix Representation of the above three steps of Transformation:

Step1:Translate window to origin 1

Tx=-Xwmin Ty=-Ywmin

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Step2:Scaling of the window to match its size to the viewport

Sx=(Xymax-Xvmin)/(Xwmax-Xwmin)
Sy=(Yvmax-Yvmin)/(Ywmax-Ywmin)

Step3:Again translate viewport to its correct position on screen.

Tx=Xvmin
Ty=Yvmin

Above three steps can be represented in matrix form:

VT=T * S * T1

T = Translate window to the origin

S=Scaling of the window to viewport size

T1=Translating viewport on screen.

Viewing Transformation= T * S * T1

Advantage of Viewing Transformation:

We can display picture at device or display system according to our need and
choice.

Note:

 World coordinate system is selected suits according to the application

program.

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 Screen coordinate system is chosen according to the need of design.

 Viewing transformation is selected as a bridge between the world and
screen coordinate.

Line Clipping:

It is performed by using the line clipping algorithm. The line clipping algorithms
are:

1. Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm

2. Midpoint Subdivision Line Clipping Algorithm

3. Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm

Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm:

In the algorithm, first of all, it is detected whether line lies inside the screen or it is
outside the screen. All lines come under any one of the following categories:

1. Visible

2. Not Visible

3. Clipping Case

1. Visible: If a line lies within the window, i.e., both endpoints of the line lies
within the window. A line is visible and will be displayed as it is.

2. Not Visible: If a line lies outside the window it will be invisible and rejected.
Such lines will not display. If any one of the following inequalities is satisfied, then
the line is considered invisible. Let A (x1,y2) and B (x2,y2) are endpoints of line.

xmin,xmax are coordinates of the window.

ymin,ymax are also coordinates of the window.

x1>xmax
x2>xmax
y1>ymax
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y2>ymax
x1<xmin
x2<xmin
y1<ymin
y2<ymin

3. Clipping Case: If the line is neither visible case nor invisible case. It is
considered to be clipped case. First of all, the category of a line is found based on
nine regions given below. All nine regions are assigned codes. Each code is of 4
bits. If both endpoints of the line have end bits zero, then the line is considered to
be visible.

The center area is having the code, 0000, i.e., region 5 is considered a rectangle
window.

Following figure show lines of various types

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Line AB is the visible case

Line OP is an invisible case
Line PQ is an invisible line
Line IJ are clipping candidates
Line MN are clipping candidate
Line CD are clipping candidate

Advantage of Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping:

1. It calculates end-points very quickly and rejects and accepts lines quickly.

2. It can clip pictures much large than screen size.

Algorithm of Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping:

Step1:Calculate positions of both endpoints of the line

Step2:Perform OR operation on both of these end-points

Step3:If the OR operation gives 0000

Then
line is considered to be visible
else
Perform AND operation on both endpoints
If And ≠ 0000

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then the line is invisible

else
And=0000
Line is considered the clipped case.

Step4:If a line is clipped case, find an intersection with boundaries of the window
m=(y2-y1 )(x2-x1)

(a) If bit 1 is "1" line intersects with left boundary of rectangle window
y3=y1+m(x-X1)
where X = Xwmin
where Xwminis the minimum value of X co-ordinate of window

(b) If bit 2 is "1" line intersect with right boundary

y3=y1+m(X-X1)
where X = Xwmax
where X more is maximum value of X co-ordinate of the window

(c) If bit 3 is "1" line intersects with bottom boundary

X3=X1+(y-y1)/m
where y = ywmin
ywmin is the minimum value of Y co-ordinate of the window

(d) If bit 4 is "1" line intersects with the top boundary

X3=X1+(y-y1)/m
where y = ywmax
ywmax is the maximum value of Y co-ordinate of the window

Example of Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm:

Let R be the rectangular window whose lower left-hand corner is at L (-3, 1) and
upper right-hand corner is at R (2, 6). Find the region codes for the endpoints in
fig:

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The region code for point (x, y) is set according to the scheme
Bit 1 = sign (y-ymax)=sign (y-6) Bit 3 = sign (x-xmax)= sign (x-2)
Bit 2 = sign (ymin-y)=sign(1-y) Bit 4 = sign (xmin-x)=sign(-3-x)

Here

So

A (-4, 2)→ 0001 F (1, 2)→ 0000

B (-1, 7) → 1000 G (1, -2) →0100
C (-1, 5)→ 0000 H (3, 3) → 0100

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D (3, 8) → 1010 I (-4, 7) → 1001

E (-2, 3) → 0000 J (-2, 10) → 1000

We place the line segments in their appropriate categories by testing the region
codes found in the problem.

Category1 (visible): EF since the region code for both endpoints is 0000.

Category2 (not visible): IJ since (1001) AND (1000) =1000 (which is not 0000).

Category 3 (candidate for clipping): AB since (0001) AND (1000) = 0000, CD since
(0000) AND (1010) =0000, and GH. since (0100) AND (0010) =0000.

The candidates for clipping are AB, CD, and GH.

In clipping AB, the code for A is 0001. To push the 1 to 0, we clip against the
boundary line xmin=-3. The resulting intersection point is I1 (-3,3 ). We clip (do
not display) AI1 and I1 B. The code for I1is 1001. The clipping category for I1 B is 3
since (0000) AND (1000) is (0000). Now B is outside the window (i.e., its code is
1000), so we push the 1 to a 0 by clipping against the line y max=6. The resulting
intersection is l2 (-1 ,6). Thus I2 B is clipped. The code for I2 is 0000. The
remaining segment I1 I2 is displayed since both endpoints lie in the window (i.e.,
their codes are 0000).

For clipping CD, we start with D since it is outside the window. Its code is 1010.
We push the first 1 to a 0 by clipping against the line ymax=6. The resulting
intersection I3 is ( ,6),and its code is 0000. Thus I3 D is clipped and the remaining
segment CI3 has both endpoints coded 0000 and so it is displayed.

For clipping GH, we can start with either G or H since both are outside the
window. The code for G is 0100, and we push the 1 to a 0 by clipping against the
line ymin=1.The resulting intersection point is I4 (2 ,1) and its code is 0010. We
clip GI4 and work on I4 H. Segment I4 H is not displaying since (0010) AND (0010)
=0010.

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Polygon:

Polygon is a representation of the surface. It is primitive which is closed in nature.

It is formed using a collection of lines. It is also called as many-sided figure. The
lines combined to form polygon are called sides or edges. The lines are obtained
by combining two vertices.

Example of Polygon:

1. Triangle

2. Rectangle

3. Hexagon

4. Pentagon

Following figures shows some polygons.

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Types of Polygons

1. Concave

2. Convex

A polygon is called convex of line joining any two interior points of the polygon
lies inside the polygon. A non-convex polygon is said to be concave. A concave
polygon has one interior angle greater than 180°. So that it can be clipped into
similar polygons.

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A polygon can be positive or negative oriented. If we visit vertices and vertices

visit produces counterclockwise circuit, then orientation is said to be positive.

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Polygon Clipping SutherlandHodgmanAlgorithmSutherlandHodgmanAlgorithm

A polygon can also be clipped by specifying the clipping window. Sutherland

Hodgeman polygon clipping algorithm is used for polygon clipping. In this
algorithm, all the vertices of the polygon are clipped against each edge of the
clipping window.

First the polygon is clipped against the left edge of the polygon window to get
new vertices of the polygon. These new vertices are used to clip the polygon
against right edge, top edge, bottom edge, of the clipping window as shown in the
following figure.

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While processing an edge of a polygon with clipping window, an intersection

point is found if edge is not completely inside clipping window and the a partial
edge from the intersection point to the outside edge is clipped. The following
figures show left, right, top and bottom edge clippings −

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3-D Object Representation, Geometric Transformations and Viewing

9. 3D Object Representations

Methods:

 Polygon and Quadric surfaces: For simple Euclidean objects

 Spline surfaces and construction: For curved surfaces
 Procedural methods: Eg. Fractals, Particle systems
 Physically based modeling methods
 Octree Encoding
 Isosurface displays, Volume rendering, etc.

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Classification:

Boundary Representations (B-reps) eg. Polygon facets and spline patches Space-
partitioning representations eg. Octree Representation

Objects may also associate with other properties such as mass, volume, so as to
determine their response to stress and temperature etc.

Polygon Surfaces

Objects are represented as a collection of surfaces. 3D object representation is

divided into two categories.

 Boundary Representations B−repsB−reps − It describes a 3D object as a set

of surfaces that separates the object interior from the environment.

 Space–partitioning representations − It is used to describe interior

properties, by partitioning the spatial region containing an object into a set
of small, non-overlapping, contiguous solids usuallycubesusuallycubes.

The most commonly used boundary representation for a 3D graphics object is a

set of surface polygons that enclose the object interior. Many graphics system use
this method. Set of polygons are stored for object description. This simplifies and
speeds up the surface rendering and display of object since all surfaces can be
described with linear equations.

The polygon surfaces are common in design and solid-modeling applications,

since their wireframe display can be done quickly to give general indication of
surface structure. Then realistic scenes are produced by interpolating shading
patterns across polygon surface to illuminate.

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Curved Surfaces

1. Regular curved surfaces can be generated as

- Quadric Surfaces, eg. Sphere, Ellipsoid, or

- Superquadrics, eg. Superellipsoids

2. Irregular surfaces can also be

generated using some special
formulating approach, to form
a kind of blobby objects -- The
shapes showing a certain
degree of fluidity.

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3. Spline Representations

Spline means a flexible strip used to produce a smooth curve through a

designated set of points. Several small weights are distributed along the
length of the strip to hold it in position on the drafting table as the curve is
drawn.
We can mathematically describe such a curve with a piecewise cubic
polynomial function => spline curves. Then a spline surface can be described
with 2 sets of orthogonal spline curves.

Quadric Surfaces

Quadric surfaces are defined by quadratic equations in two dimensional space.

Spheres and cones are examples of quadrics. The quadric surfaces of RenderMan
are surfaces of revolution in which a finite curve in two dimensions is swept in
three dimensional space about one axis to create a surface. A circle centered at
the origin forms a sphere. If the circle is not centered at the origin, the circle
sweeps out a torus. A line segment with one end lying on the axis of rotation
forms a cone. A line segment parallel to the axis of rotation forms a cylinder. The
generalization of a line segment creates a hyperboloid by rotating an arbitrary line
segment in three dimensional space about the Z axis. The axis of rotation is
always the z axis. Each quadric routine has a sweep parameter, specifying the

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angular extent to which the quadric is swept about z axis. Sweeping a quadric by
less than 360 degrees leaves an open surface.

Quadrics

Many common shapes can be modeled with quadrics. Although it is possible

to convert quadrics to patches, they are defined as primitives because special-
purpose rendering programs render them directly and because their surface
parameters are not necessarily preserved if they are converted to patches.
Quadric primitives are particularly useful in solid and molecular modeling
applications.

All the following quadrics are rotationally symmetric about the z axis. In all the
quadrics u and v are assumed to run from 0 to 1. These primitives all define
a bounded region on a quadric surface. It is not possible to define
infinite quadrics. Note that each quadric is defined relative to the origin of the
object coordinate system. To position them at another point or with their
symmetry axis in another direction requires the use a modeling transformation.
The geometric normal to the surface points ``outward'' from the z-axis, if
the current orientation matches the orientation of the current transformation and
"inward" if they don't match. The sense of a quadric can be reversed by giving
negative parameters. For example, giving a negative thetamax parameter in any
of the following definitions will turn the quadric inside-out.

Each quadric has a parameterlist. This is a list of token-array pairs where each
token is one of the standard geometric primitive variables or a variable which has
been defined with RiDeclare. Position variables should not be given with quadrics.
All angular arguments to these functions are given in degrees. The trigonometric
functions used in their definitions are assumed to also accept angles in degrees.

RiSphere( radius, zmin, zmax, thetamax, parameterlist )

RtFloat radius;

RtFloat zmin, zmax;

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RtFloat thetamax;

Requests a sphere defined by the following equations:

Note that if zmin > -radius or zmax < radius, the bottom or top of the sphere is
open, and that if thetamax is not equal to 360 degrees, the sides are also open.

RIB BINDING

Sphere radius zmin zmax thetamax parameterlist

Sphere [radius zmin zmax thetamax] parameterlist

EXAMPLE

RiSphere(0.5, 0.0, 0.5, 360.0, RI_NULL);

RiCone( height, radius, thetamax, parameterlist )

RtFloat height;

RtFloat radius;

RtFloat thetamax;

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Requests a cone defined by the following equations:

Note that the bottom of the cone is open, and if thetamax is not equal to 360
degrees, the sides are open.

RIB BINDING

Cone height radius thetamax parameterlist

Cone [height radius thetamax] parameterlist

EXAMPLE

RtColor four_colors[4];

RiCone(0.5, 0.5, 270.0, "Cs", (RtPointer)four_colors, RI_NULL);

RiCylinder( radius, zmin, zmax, thetamax, parameterlist )

RtFloat radius;

RtFloat zmin, zmax;

RtFloat thetamax;

Requests a cylinder defined by the following equations:

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Note that the cylinder is open at the top and bottom, and if thetamax is not equal
to 360 degrees, the sides also are open.

RIB BINDING

Cylinder radius zmin zmax thetamax parameterlist

Cylinder [radius zmin zmax thetamax] parameterlist

Bezier Curves

Bezier curve is discovered by the French engineer Pierre Bézier. These curves can
be generated under the control of other points. Approximate tangents by using
control points are used to generate curve. The Bezier curve can be represented
mathematically as −

Where pipi is the set of points and Bni(t)Bin(t) represents the Bernstein
polynomials which are given by −

Where n is the polynomial degree, i is the index, and t is the variable.

The simplest Bézier curve is the straight line from the point P0P0 to P1P1. A
quadratic Bezier curve is determined by three control points. A cubic Bezier curve
is determined by four control points.

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Properties of Bezier Curves

Bezier curves have the following properties −

 They generally follow the shape of the control polygon, which consists of
the segments joining the control points.

 They always pass through the first and last control points.

 They are contained in the convex hull of their defining control points.

 The degree of the polynomial defining the curve segment is one less that
the number of defining polygon point. Therefore, for 4 control points, the
degree of the polynomial is 3, i.e. cubic polynomial.

 A Bezier curve generally follows the shape of the defining polygon.

 The direction of the tangent vector at the end points is same as that of the
vector determined by first and last segments.

 The convex hull property for a Bezier curve ensures that the polynomial
smoothly follows the control points.

 No straight line intersects a Bezier curve more times than it intersects its
control polygon.

 They are invariant under an affine transformation.

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 Bezier curves exhibit global control means moving a control point alters the
shape of the whole curve.

 A given Bezier curve can be subdivided at a point t=t0 into two Bezier
segments which join together at the point corresponding to the parameter
value t=t0.

B-Spline Curves

The Bezier-curve produced by the Bernstein basis function has limited flexibility.

 First, the number of specified polygon vertices fixes the order of the
resulting polynomial which defines the curve.

 The second limiting characteristic is that the value of the blending function
is nonzero for all parameter values over the entire curve.

The B-spline basis contains the Bernstein basis as the special case. The B-spline
basis is non-global.

A B-spline curve is defined as a linear combination of control points Pi and B-

spline basis function Ni,Ni, k tt given by

Where,

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Properties of B-spline Curve

B-spline curves have the following properties −

 The sum of the B-spline basis functions for any parameter value is 1.

 Each basis function is positive or zero for all parameter values.

 Each basis function has precisely one maximum value, except for k=1.

 The maximum order of the curve is equal to the number of vertices of

defining polygon.

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 The degree of B-spline polynomial is independent on the number of

vertices of defining polygon.

 B-spline allows the local control over the curve surface because each vertex
affects the shape of a curve only over a range of parameter values where its
associated basis function is nonzero.

 The curve exhibits the variation diminishing property.

 The curve generally follows the shape of defining polygon.

 Any affine transformation can be applied to the curve by applying it to the

vertices of defining polygon.

 The curve line within the convex hull of its defining polygon.

Bezier and B-spline Surfaces

Bezier Surfaces.

Like the Bezier curves, the Bezier surfaces use the Bernstein polynomials as
blending functions. We now have the control points being points on a design net,
which is again a rectangular mesh spread over area of interest. The x and y
coordinates of the control points are fixed and the shape of the surface varies as
the control points are moved up or down. The figure below shows a Bezier
surface with an associated control net of 3 points by 4 points. The values of the
points are stored in an array B(4,3) and the blending functions are obtained from
the equations of the Bezier curves.

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Bezier Surface and Control Net

Thus, the three point Bezier curve is given by :

B(v) = (1-v)2B(I,1) + 2v(1-v)B(I,2) + v2B(I,3)

or

B(v) = b(20)(v) B(I,1) + b(21)(v) B(I,2) + b(22)(v) B(I,3)

and the 4-point Bezier curve needed in the u-direction has the form:

B(u) = (1-u)3B(1,J) + 3u(1-u)2B(2,J) + 3u2(1-u)B(3,J) + u3B(4,J)

or B(u) = b{30}(u)B(1,J) + b{31}(u) B(2,J) + b{32}(u) B(3,J) + b{33}(u) B(4,J)

These must be combined together in the matrix equation to calculate any point
on the surface. The equation of a point on the Bezier surface is given by:

r(u,v) = [b{30}(u) b{31}(u) b{32}(u) b{33}(u)] B(1,1)B(1,2) B(1,3) b{20}(v)

B(2,1) B(2,2) B(2,3) b{21}(v)

B(3,1) B(3,2) B(3,3) b{22}(v)

B(4,1) B(4,2) B(4,3)

To obtain the equation of one of the edge-curves, e.g. when u=0, we must
substitute in the matrix equation:

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

r(0,v) = B(1,1) B(1,2) B(1,3) (1-v)(1-v)

2v(1-v)

v*v

which becomes r(0,v) = (1-v)(1-v)B(1,1) + 2v(1-v)B(1,2) + v*vB(1,3) and similarly

for the other edge curves. This form of the Bezier curve assumes a rectangular
mesh with m+1 points in the one direction and n+1 points in the other. It requires
the edge curves defining the patches to be coplanar and does not provide local
control within a patch. A surface may be made up of several Bezier patches and,
as for the curves, if we require the tangents to be continuous across the joins,
then the sets of control points across the curves must be not only coplanar but
also collinear.

The Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, for February 1971 contained the
papers from a meeting on `Computer Aids in Mechanical Engineering Design'. This
included a paper by Bezier on his `Unisurf' package used by the Renault car
company to design their car bodies. Although it is not obvious from the paper,
this was the earliest use of Bezier surfaces, which were invented for this package.
Another paper described the `Multiobject' package by Armit, which used the
same equations. The paper by Sabin, discribing the `Numerical Master Geometry'
in use at the British Aircraft Corporation, shows the extensive use of Bicubic
Surface tiles in their work because they are particularly concerned to get the extra
smoothness of functions which can only be guaranteed by bicubic or higher-order
patches.

This volume of the proceedings gives an interesting insight into the way that
these packages were viewed at the time. In some respects, things have changed
little since then. They describe a situation where many users had their own two or
three C.A.D. programs to use, and there was very little guidance on the best
choice for a newcomer to the field. Nowadays, there is a bewildering variety of
large and comprehensive packages for C.A.D. but the newcomer still has little

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guidance amongst an even larger choice of software. Unfortunately the cost of a

mistake is very much larger, since these packages are now big business.

B-Spline Surfaces.

The use of B-Spline surfaces is necessary in some CAD applications to give local
control of the shape. The equation of this surface is given by

Q(u,v) = sum{i=0 to m} sum{j=0 to n} B(i+1,j+1) N{i,k}(u) M{j,l}(v)

In the x-direction, x(i) are the elements of the k-knot vector and

N{i,1}(u) = 1 if x(i) <= u <= x(i+1)

= 0 otherwise

and

N{i.k}(u) = (u-x(i)) * N{i,k-1}(u) + (x(i+k)-u) * N{i+1,k-1}(u)

--------------------- -------------------------
(x(i+k-1)-x(i)) (x(i+k)-x(i+1))

In the y-direction, the y(j) are elements of the l-knot vector and we have similar
expressions for M{j,1}(v) and M{j,l}(v).

This simple version of the B-Spline expects a rectangular net and requires all
polygons in the one-direction to have the same degree of multiplicity (i.e. to use
one knot-vector for all lines across the net). We can obtain greater flexibility by
relaxing these conditions, but at the expense of greater complexity. These curves
are widely used in many CAD packages.

Illumination model

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Illumination model, also known as Shading model or Lightning model, is used to

calculate the intensity of light that is reflected at a given point on surface. There
are three factors on which lightning effect depends on:

1. Light Source :
Light source is the light emitting source. There are three types of light
sources:

1. Point Sources – The source that emit rays in all directions (A bulb in a
room).

2. Parallel Sources – Can be considered as a point source which is far

from the surface (The sun).

3. Distributed Sources – Rays originate from a finite area (A tubelight).

Their position, electromagnetic spectrum and shape determine the lightning

effect.

2. Surface :
When light falls on a surface part of it is reflected and part of it is absorbed.
Now the surface structure decides the amount of reflection and absorption
of light. The position of the surface and positions of all the nearby surfaces
also determine the lightning effect.

3. Observer :
The observer’s position and sensor spectrum sensitivities also affect the
lightning effect.

1. Ambient Illumination :
Assume We are standing on a road, facing a building with glass
exterior and sun rays are falling on that building reflecting back from
it and the falling on the object under observation. This would
be Ambient Illumination. In simple words, Ambient Illumination is
the one where source of light is indirect.

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The reflected intensity Iamb of any point on the surface is:

2. Diffuse Reflection :
Diffuse reflection occurs on the surfaces which are rough or grainy. In this
reflection the brightness of a point depends upon the angle made by the light
source and the surface.

The reflected intensity Idiff of a point on the surface is:

3. Specular Reflection :

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When light falls on any shiny or glossy surface most of it is reflected back, such
reflection is known as Specular Reflection.

Phong Model is an empirical model for Specular Reflection which provides us with
the formula for calculation the reflected intensity I spec:

Polygen Rending Methods

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Image of Flow Chart of polygen rending methods

Gouraud shading

This Intensity-Interpolation scheme, developed by Gouraud and usually referred

to as Gouraud Shading, renders a polygon surface by linear interpolating intensity
value across the surface. Intensity values for each polygon are coordinate with the
value of adjacent polygons along the common edges, thus eliminating the
intensity discontinuities that can occur in flat shading.

Each polygon surface is rendered with Gouraud Shading by performing the

following calculations:

1. Determining the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

2. Apply an illumination model to each vertex to determine the vertex

intensity.

3. Linear interpolate the vertex intensities over the surface of the polygon.

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At each polygon vertex, we obtain a normal vector by averaging the surface

normals of all polygons staring that vertex as shown in fig:

Thus, for any vertex position V, we acquire the unit vertex normal with the
calculation

Once we have the vertex normals, we can determine the intensity at the vertices
from a lighting model.

Following figures demonstrate the next step: Interpolating intensities along the
polygon edges. For each scan line, the intensities at the intersection of the scan
line with a polygon edge are linearly interpolated from the intensities at the edge
endpoints. For example: In fig, the polygon edge with endpoint vertices at
position 1 and 2 is intersected by the scanline at point 4. A fast method for
obtaining the intensities at point 4 is to interpolate between intensities I 1 and
I2 using only the vertical displacement of the scan line.

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Similarly, the intensity at the right intersection of this scan line (point 5) is
interpolated from the intensity values at vertices 2 and 3. Once these bounding
intensities are established for a scan line, an interior point (such as point P in the
previous fig) is interpolated from the bounding intensities at point 4 and 5 as

Incremental calculations are used to obtain successive edge intensity values

between scan lines and to obtain successive intensities along a scan line as shown
in fig:

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

If the intensity at edge position (x, y) is interpolated as

Then we can obtain the intensity along this edge for the next scan line, Y-1 as

Similar calculations are used to obtain intensities at successive horizontal pixel

positions along each scan line.

When surfaces are to be rendered in color, the intensities of each color

component is calculated at the vertices. Gouraud Shading can be connected with
a hidden-surface algorithm to fill in the visible polygons along each scan-line. An
example of an object-shaded with the Gouraud method appears in the following
figure:

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Gouraud Shading discards the intensity discontinuities associated with the

constant-shading model, but it has some other deficiencies. Highlights on the
surface are sometimes displayed with anomalous shapes, and the linear intensity
interpolation can cause bright or dark intensity streaks, called Match bands, to
appear on the surface. These effects can be decreased by dividing the surface into
a higher number of polygon faces or by using other methods, such as Phong
shading, that requires more calculations.

Viewing-Pipeline

The viewing-pipeline in 3 dimensions is almost the same as the 2D-viewing-

pipeline. Only after the definition of the viewing direction and orientation (i.e., of
the camera) an additional projection step is done, which is the reduction of 3D-
data onto a projection plane:

This projection step can be arbitrarily complex, depending on which 3D-viewing

concepts should be used.
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Viewing-Coordinates

Similar to photography there are certain degrees of freedom when specifying the
camera:

1. Camera position in space

2. Viewing direction from this position

3. Orientation of the camera (view-up vector)

4. Size of the display window (corresponds to the focal length of a photo-

camera)

With these parameters the camera-coordinate system is defined (viewing

coordinates). Usually the xy-plane of

this viewing-coordinate system is orthogonal to the main viewing direction and

the viewing direction is in the direction of the negative z-axis.

Based on the camera position the usual way to define the viewing-coordinate
system is:

1. Choose a camera position (also called eye-point, or view-point).

2. Choose a viewing direction = Choose the z – direction of the viewing-

coordinates.

3. Choose a direction „upwards“. From this, the x-axis and y-axis can be
calculated: the image-plane is orthogonal to the viewing direction. The parallel
projection of the „view-up vector“ onto this image plane defines the y-axis of
the viewing coordinates.

4. Calculate the x-axis as vector-product of the z- and y-axis.

5. The distance of the image-plane from the eye-point defines the viewing angle,
which is the size of the scene to be displayed.

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In animations the camera-definition is often automatically calculated according to

certain conditions, e.g. when the camera moves around an object or in flight-
simulations, such that desired effects can be achieved in an uncomplicated way.

To convert world-coordinates to viewing-coordinates a series of simple

transformations is needed: mainly a translation of the coordinate origins onto
each other and afterwards 3 rotations, such that the coordinate-axes also
coincide (two rotations for the first axis, one for the second axis, and the third axis
is already correct then). Of course, all these

transformations can be merged by multiplication into one matrix, which looks

about like this:

MWC,VC = Rz· Ry· Rx· T

Projection

It is the process of converting a 3D object into a 2D object. It is also defined as

mapping or transformation of the object in projection plane or view plane. The
view plane is displayed surface.

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Perspective Projection

In perspective projection farther away object from the viewer, small it appears.
This property of projection gives an idea about depth. The artist use perspective
projection from drawing three-dimensional scenes.

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Two main characteristics of perspective are vanishing points and perspective

foreshortening. Due to foreshortening object and lengths appear smaller from the
center of projection. More we increase the distance from the center of projection,
smaller will be the object appear.

Vanishing Point

It is the point where all lines will appear to meet. There can be one point, two
point, and three point perspectives.

One Point: There is only one vanishing point as shown in fig (a)

Two Points: There are two vanishing points. One is the x-direction and other in
the y -direction as shown in fig (b)

Three Points: There are three vanishing points. One is x second in y and third in
two directions.

In Perspective projection lines of projection do not remain parallel. The lines

converge at a single point called a center of projection. The projected image on
the screen is obtained by points of intersection of converging lines with the plane
of the screen. The image on the screen is seen as of viewer's eye were located at
the centre of projection, lines of projection would correspond to path travel by
light beam originating from object.

Important terms related to perspective

1. View plane: It is an area of world coordinate system which is projected into

viewing plane.

2. Center of Projection: It is the location of the eye on which projected light

rays converge.

3. Projectors: It is also called a projection vector. These are rays start from the
object scene and are used to create an image of the object on viewing or
view plane.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Anomalies in Perspective Projection

It introduces several anomalies due to these object shape and appearance gets
affected.

1. Perspective foreshortening: The size of the object will be small of its

distance from the center of projection increases.

2. Vanishing Point: All lines appear to meet at some point in the view plane.

3. Distortion of Lines: A range lies in front of the viewer to back of viewer is

appearing to six rollers.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Foreshortening of the z-axis in fig (a) produces one vanishing point, P1.
Foreshortening the x and z-axis results in two vanishing points in fig (b). Adding a
y-axis foreshortening in fig (c) adds vanishing point along the negative y-axis.

Parallel Projection

Parallel Projection use to display picture in its true shape and size. When
projectors are perpendicular to view plane then is called orthographic projection.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

The parallel projection is formed by extending parallel lines from each vertex on
the object until they intersect the plane of the screen. The point of intersection is
the projection of vertex.

Parallel projections are used by architects and engineers for creating working
drawing of the object, for complete representations require two or more views of
an object using different planes.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

1. Isometric Projection: All projectors make equal angles generally angle is of

30°.

2. Dimetric: In these two projectors have equal angles. With respect to two
principle axis.

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3. Trimetric: The direction of projection makes unequal angle with their

principle axis.

4. Cavalier: All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are projected with
no change in length.

5. Cabinet: All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are projected to

one half of their length. These give a realistic appearance of object.

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Frames of Reference

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Computers will do exactly what We tell them to do. The question is about
understanding what do we actually want to do and explaining that to a computer
with enough rigor. For example we might want the computer to render a square,
but this sentence is way too abstract for the computer to understand. More
rigorous way to think about this is that we want lines between pairs of
vertices (1,1), (−1,1), (−1,−1) and (1,−1), that are represented in the world space,
to be drawn in a 400×300 area of the screen so that there is a linear mapping:

[−4,4]×[−3,3]→[0,400]×[0,300].

This will already specify which pixels to color for our vertices. For example the
vertex (1,1)(1,1) would be drawn on the pixel located at coordinates (250,200).
Here We might notice a couple of problematic things:

 Our geometry will be mirrored in the y direction, because in our world

space y will point up, but in the screen space, y will point down.
 We are mapping from 2D to 2D. How to do it from 3D to 2D? What if we
are not looking from the positive z direction?

On the other hand we might notice that with this kind of mapping our
scene would always show the same amount of the scene if the resolutions
changes. Although we might want to change that also.

There are actually many frames of references and transformations between our
vertices and what we see on the screen. look at them one at a time.

World Space

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

First, our vertices are usually defined in the object space. We will try to center our
object around some object origin (Object) that will serve as the scaling and
rotation fixed point. Our object is located somewhere in the world space though,
so we will use modelling transformations to represent the vertices with world
space coordinates. Imagine if there are multiple triangles, they can not all be
located in the world space origin, they are probably scattered all around the
world space, and thus each have distinct world space coordinates. Although they
might have the same object space (local) coordinates.

Camera Space

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Secondly, there is a camera somewhere in the world space. This camera has its
own coordinates in the world space and is transformed just like any other object /
vertex. Our goal here is to position everything into camera space so that camera
and world frames match. In other words, transform everything so that camera will
be located at the world origin and the axes will be aligned.

Usually there is a function called lookAt(), where We can say where in the world is
our camera located, which is the up direction and to what point is it pointed (is
looking) at. This is a convenience function that underneath will construct the
corresponding matrix that will do the camera transformation in this step. see,
how this can be done.

We know:

 Camera's position in world space. Call it pp.

 Camera's up-vector. Call it uu.
 Camera's looking direction. Call it ll.

Well, the first step would be to align the origins. So we want to move all our
objects so that the camera would be in the world origin. We had a
translation pp that moved camera away from the origin, so the reverse would be
just −p.

So the first transformations would be:

Next we need to align the axes. Now, the vector ll shows the direction we are
facing, but because the z-axis should be in the negative direction, we will reverse
it: w=−l. We assume that vectors uu and ww are orthogonal to each other and of
unit length. We still need one orthogonal vector, the right vector, in order to have

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

the camera basis. We could use the Gram-Schmidt process here, but a more
simpler way to find an orthogonal unit vector, given already two, would be to use
the cross product of vectors. So v=w×u. Notice that the cross product is not
commutative and will follow the right-hand rule. The vector vv will emerge
from the plane defined by ww and uu in the direction where the angle
from w to u will be counter-clockwise. If We exchange ww and uu in the cross
product, then the result will point to the opposite direction.

Now we have the vectors u, v and w that are the basis of the camera's frame of
reference. The transformation that would transform the camera basis from the
world basis (ignoring the translation for now) would be:

Remember that we can look at the columns of the matrix to determine how the
basis would transform. But that would be the transformation which would
transform the camera space (coordinates) to the world space. We need to find a
transformation to get from world space to camera space. Or in other words,
transform the camera basis to be the current world space basis. We might
remember from algebra that the inverse of an orthogonal matrix is the transpose
of it. All rotation matrices are orthogonal matrices and a multiplication of two
rotation matrices is a rotation matrix. Our camera basis will differ from the world
basis only by a number of rotations. So in order to find out how to transform the
world so that the camera basis would be aligned with the world basis, we only
need to take the inverse of those rotation. That is the inverse of the matrix we
just found. The inverse is currently just the transpose of it.

The total view transformation would be then:

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

In some sources the view transformation is called the inverse of the camera
transformation. There the camera transformation is the transformation that
transforms the actual camera as an object. In other sources the camera
transformation is the transformation that transforms all the vertices into the
camera space. One should explain what is actually meant when using those terms.
The term view transformation (the view matrix) is generally more common.

Clip Space

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Third step is to construct the clip space. This is the space that should be seen from
the camera. In our illustration here there is a 2D projection of it. In 3D We will
also have a top and a bottom plane. Based on the transformation We might have
to specify those plains directly or, as is the case with perspective projection, We
can specify a field of view parameter that will calculate those itself.

Everything outside this clip space is clipped, i.e. ignored in rendering. It might
depend on what kind of clipping techniques are in use. For example if a line
crosses the clip space, then it might be segmented: another vertex is created at
the border of the clip space. Objects that are wholly outside of the clip space, are
ignored. This is one place where we want to be able to determine the rough
locations of our objects quickly. Later we will see different methods (e.g. binary
space partitioning, bounding volume hierarchy) that help to determine that.
Mathematically We can think that the equations of the planes are constructed
and intersections with other planes (ones defined by all of the triangles in the
scene) are checked for. Of course, if we are only interested about vertices, then
we can put every vertex in the plane equation and see which side of the plane a
vertex lies.

We will look this and the next step in more detail when talking about different
projections.

Canonical View Volume

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Fourth step is to transform everything so that the clip space will form a canonical
view volume. This canonical view volume is a cube in the
coordinates [−1,1]×[−1,1]×[−1,1]. As we can see from the previous illustration we
had kind of a weird shape for the clip space. This shape is a frustum of a pyramid
in the case of perspective projection. In computer graphics we call it the view
frustum. Transforming that into a cube will transform the whole space in a very
affecting way. This is the part where we leave the world of affine transformations
and perform a perspective projection transformation. It is actually quite simple,
we will just put a non-zero value in the third column of the last row of our
transformation matrix. As we remember, affine transformations needed the last
row to be (0,0,0,1), but for perspective transformation we will have (0,0,p,0).
Depending on how an API is implemented, we might have p=1 or p=−1 or even
something else. After this transformation, there is a need for the perspective
division, because the value of w will usually no longer be 1. Remember that in
homogeneous coordinates (x,y,z,w)=(x/w,y/w,z/w).

As We can see, coordinates will be divided based on the value of w, which will
depend on the value of z. This actually causes the objects further away to be
projected smaller then objects that are closer to the camera - the same way we
see the world.
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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Screen Space

Final step is to project the canonical view volume into screen space. Our screen
has usually mapped the coordinates of pixels so that (0,0)(0,0) is in the top-left
corner and positive directions are to the right and down. Depending on the
actually screen resolution (or window / viewport size if we are not rendering full-
screen), we will have to map the canonical view volume coordinates to different
ranges. In either way, this will just be a linear mapping from the
ranges [−1,1]×[−1,1]→[0,width]×[0,height] like we saw in the beginning.

This mapping is called the viewport transformation and the matrix that does it is
quite simple. This step is usually done automatically. For the proportional linear
mapping from one range into another we just need to scale the initial range to be
of the same length as the final range, and then translate it so that they cover each
other.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit - 3

Notice that the z value is brought along here. This is useful in order to later
determine which objects are in front of other objects. Also the y values still seem
to be reversed. This will be handled later by OpenGL, currently we just assume
that the (0,0) in the screen space is at the bottom-left corner and the positive
directions are up and right. Also the z value will later be normalized to a
range [0,1].

375
DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB

Programming Languages and

Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs
As per updated syllabus
DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB

2020

THE LEARN WITH EXPERTIES

 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

1) What is the 16-bit compiler allowable 3) What is required in each C program?

range for integer constants?
a. The program must have at least one
a) -3.4e38 to 3.4e38 function.
b) -32767 to 32768
c) -32668 to 32667 b. The program does not require any
d) -32768 to 32767 function.

c. Input data
Answer: (d) -32768 to 32767
d. Output data
Explanation: In a 16-bit C compiler, we have
2 bytes to store the value. Answer: (a) The program must have at least
one function.
o The range for signed integers is -
32768 to 32767. Explanation: Any C program has at least
o The range for unsigned integers is 0 one function, and even the most trivial
to 65535. programs can specify additional functions. A
o The range for unsigned character is function is a piece of code. In other words,
0 to 255. it works like a sub-program.

2) Study the following program: 4) What will this program print?

1. main() 1. main()
2. {printf("javatpoint");
2. {
3. main();}
3. int i = 2;
What will be the output of this program?
4. {
a. Wrong statement
5. int i = 4, j = 5;
b. It will keep on printing javatpoint
6. printf("%d %d", i, j);
c. It will Print javatpoint once
7. }
d. None of the these
8. printf("%d %d", i, j);
Answer: (b) It will keep on printing
javatpoint 9. }

Explanation: In this program, the main a. 4525

function will call itself again and again.
b. 2525
Therefore, it will continue to print
javatpoint. c. 4545

2
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

d. None of the these constructions, stylistic errors, bugs, and flag

programming errors. Lint is a compiler-like
Answer: (a) 4525
tool in which it parses the source files of C
Explanation: In this program, it will first programming. It checks the syntactic
print the inner value of the function and accuracy of these files.
then print the outer value of the function.
7) What is the output of this statement
5) Which of the following comment is "printf("%d", (a++))"?
correct when a macro definition includes
a. The value of (a + 1)
arguments?
b. The current value of a
a. The opening parenthesis should
immediately follow the macro name. c. Error message

b. There should be at least one blank d. Garbage

between the macro name and the opening
Answer: (b) The current value of "a".
parenthesis.
Explanation: None
c. There should be only one blank
between the macro name and the opening 8) Study the following program:
parenthesis.
1. main()
d. All the above comments are correct.
2. {
Answer: (a) The opening parenthesis should
immediately follow the macro name. 3. char x [10], *ptr = x;

Explanation: None 4. scanf ("%s", x);

6) What is a lint? 5. change(&x[4]);

a. C compiler 6. }

b. Interactive debugger 7. change(char a[])

c. Analyzing tool 8. {

d. C interpreter 9. puts(a);

Answer: (c) Analyzing tool 10. }

Explanation: Lint is an analyzing tool that If abcdefg is the input, the output will be
analyzes the source code by suspicious
a. abcd

3
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b. abc a+=4

c. efg It gives 8 as the output.

d. Garbage 10) What does this declaration mean?

Answer: (c) efg 1. int x : 4;

Explanation: None a. X is a four-digit integer.

b. X cannot be greater than a four-digit

integer.
9) Study the following program:
c. X is a four-bit integer.
1. main()
d. None of the these
2. {
Hide Answer Workspace
3. int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3:
Answer: (c) X is a four-bit integer.
4. printf("%d", a + = (a + = 3, 5, a))
Explanation: This means, "X" is a four bit
5. }
integer.
What will be the output of this program?
11) Why is a macro used in place of a
a. 6 function?

b. 9 a. It reduces execution time.

c. 12 b. It reduces code size.

d. 8 c. It increases execution time.

Answer: (d) 8 d. It increases code size.

Explanation: It is an effect of the comma Answer: (d) It reduces code size.

operator.
Explanation: Macro is used in place of a
a + = (a + = 3, 5, a) function because it reduces code size, and
very efficient.
It first evaluates to "a + = 3" i.e. a = a + 3
then evaluate 5 and then evaluate "a". 12) In the C language, the constant is
defined _______.
Therefore, we will get the output is 4.
a. Before main
Then,

4
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b. After main Answer: (d) 1008

c. Anywhere, but starting on a new Explanation: None

line.
15) What is the result after execution of the
d. None of the these. following code if a is 10, b is 5, and c is 10?

Answer: (c) Anywhere, but starting on a 1. If ((a > b) && (a <= c))
new line.
2. a = a + 1;
Explanation: In the C language, the
3. else
constant is defined anywhere, but starting
on a new line. 4. c = c+1;
13) How many times will the following loop a. a = 10, c = 10
execute?
b. a = 11, c = 10
1. for(j = 1; j <= 10; j = j-1)
c. a = 10, c = 11
a. Forever
d. a = 11, c = 11
b. Never
Answer: (b) a = 11, c = 10
c. 0
Explanation: None
d. 1
16) Which one of the following is a loop
Answer: (a) Forever construct that will always be executed
once?
Explanation: None
a. for
14) A pointer is a memory address. Suppose
the pointer variable has p address 1000, b. while
and that p is declared to have type int*, and
an int is 4 bytes long. What address is c. switch
represented by expression p + 2?
d. do while
a. 1002
Answer: (d) do while
b. 1004
Explanation: The body of a loop is often
c. 1006 executed at least once during the do-while
loop. Once the body is performed, the
d. 1008 condition is tested. If the condition is valid,
it will execute the body of a loop;

5
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

otherwise, control is transferred out of the 19) Directives are translated by the
loop.
a. Pre-processor
17) Which of the following best describes
b. Compiler
the ordering of destructor calls for stack-
resident objects in a routine? c. Linker
a. The first object created is the first d. Editor
object destroyed; last created is last
destroyed. Answer: (a) Pre-processor

b. The first object destroyed is the last Explanation: In C language, the pre-
object destroyed; last created is first processor is a macro processor that is
destroyed. dynamically used by the C programmer to
modify the program before it is properly
c. Objects are destroyed in the order compiled (Before construction, pro-
they appear in memory, the object with the processor directives are implemented).
lowest memory address is destroyed first.
20) How many bytes does "int = D" use?
d. The order is undefined and may vary
from compiler to compiler. a. 0

Answer: (b) The first object destroyed is the b. 1

last object destroyed; last created is first
c. 2 or 4
destroyed.
d. 10
Explanation: None
Answer: (c) 2 or 4
18) How many characters can a string hold
when declared as follows? Explanation: The int type takes 2 or 4 bytes.

1. char name[20]: 21) What feature makes C++ so powerful?

a. 18 a. Easy implementation

b. 19 b. Reusing the old code

c. 20 c. Easy memory management

d. None of the these d. All of the above

Answer: (b) 20 Answer: (d) All of the above

Explanation: None Explanation: None

6
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

22) Which of the following will copy the d. Attribute values

null-terminated string that is in array src
Answer: (d) Attribute values
into array dest?
Explanation: Each instance of the class has
a. dest = src;
a different set of attribute values
b. dest == src;
25) How many instances of a class can be
c. strcpy(dest, src); declared?

d. strcpy(src, dest); a. 1

Answer: (c) strcpy(dest, src) b. 10

Explanation: strcpy is a string function that c. As per required

is used to copy the string between the two
d. None of the these
files. strcpy(destination, source)
Answer: (c) As per required
23) In the statement "COUT << "javatpoint"
<< end1;", end1 is a ___. Explanation: You can always declare
multiple instances of a class, as per
a. Extractor
required. Each object will hold its own
b. Inserter individual inner variables (unless they are
static, in which case they are shared).
c. Manipulator
26) What will the result of num variable
d. Terminator
after execution of the following
Answer: (c) Manipulator statements?

Explanation: End1 is an I/O manipulator 1. int num = 58;

that takes effect in printing a new line '\ n'
2. num % = 11;
character and then flushing the output
stream. a. 3

24) Each instance of a class has a different b. 5

set of
c. 8
a. Class interfaces
d. 11
b. Methods
Answer: (a) 3
c. Return types
Explanation: num = 58

7
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

num % = 11 Answer: (c) 13

num = num % 11 Explanation: None

num = 58 % 11 29) What will the result of len variable after

execution of the following statements?
num = 3
1. int len;
27) What is the maximum number of
characters that can be held in the string 2. char str1[] = {"39 march road"};
variable char address line [40]?
3. len = strlen(str1);
a. 38
a. 11
b. 39
b. 12
c. 40
c. 13
d. 41
d. 14
Answer: (b) 39
Answer: (c) 13
Explanation: None
Explanation: strlen is a string function that
28) What will the result of num1 variable counts the word and also count the space in
after execution of the following the string. (39 march road) = 13
statements?
30) Study the following statement
1. int j = 1, num1 = 4;
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. while (++j <= 10)
2. int main()
3. {
3. {
4. num1++;
4. int *ptr, a = 10;
5. }
5. ptr = &a;
a. 11
6. *ptr += 1;
b. 12
7. printf("%d,%d/n", *ptr, a);
c. 13
8. }
d. 14
What will be the output?

8
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a. 10, 10 2. char * p;

b. 10, 11 3. p = str;

c. 11, 10 a. p+4

d. 11, 11 b. *p + 4

Answer: (d) 11, 11 c. *(p + 4)

Explanation: None d. p [3]

31) Given the following statement, what Answer: (c) *(p + 4)

will be displayed on the screen?
Explanation: None
1. int * aPtr;
33) Which one is the correct description for
2. *aPtr = 100; the variable balance declared below?

3. cout << *aPtr + 2; 1. int ** balance;

a. 100 a. Balance is a point to an integer

b. 102 b. Balance is a pointer to a pointer to

an integer
c. 104
c. Balance is a pointer to a pointer to a
d. 108
pointer to an integer
Answer: (b) 102
d. Balance is an array of integer
Explanation: aPtr is an integer pointer
Answer: (b) Balance is a pointer to a pointer
which value is 100.
to an integer
= *aPtr + 2
Explanation: This code description states
= 100 + 2 that the remainder is a pointer to a pointer
to an integer.
= 102
34) A class D is derived from a class B, b is
32) Give the following declarations and an an object of class B, d is an object of class D,
assignment statement. Which one is and pb is a pointer to class B object. Which
equivalent to the expression str [4]? of the following assignment statement is
not valid?
1. char str[80];
a. d = d;

9
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b. b = d; types interface for sequential containers,

such as stack and queue.
c. d = b;
37) What kinds of iterators can be used with
d. *pb = d:
vectors?
Answer: (c) d = b;
a. Forward iterator
Explanation: A class D is derived from a
b. Bi-directional iterator
class B, so "d" is not equal to b.
c. Random access iterator
35) Which of the following statement is not
true? d. All of the above

a. A pointer to an int and a pointer to a Answer: (d) All of the above

double are of the same size.
Explanation: An iteration is like a pointer,
b. A pointer must point to a data item indicating an element inside the container.
on the heap (free store). All these types of iterations can be used
with vectors.
c. A pointer can be reassigned to point
to another data item. 38) Let p1 be an integer pointer with a
current value of 2000. What is the content
d. A pointer can point to an array.
of p1 after the expression p1++ has been
Answer: (b) A pointer must point to a data evaluated?
item on the heap (free store).
a. 2001
Explanation: None
b. 2002
36) Which of the following SLT template
c. 2004
class is a container adaptor class?
d. 2008
a. Stack
Answer: (c) 2004
b. List
Explanation: The size of one pointer integer
c. Deque
is 4 bytes. The current value of p1 is 2000.
d. Vector
p1++ = p1 + 1
Answer: (a) Stack
p1++ = 2004
Explanation: Container Adaptors is the
subset of Containers that provides many

10
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

39) Let p1 and p2 be integer pointers. c. int my num = 1000;

Which one is a syntactically wrong
d. int my num == 10000;
statement?
Answer: (b) int my_num = 100000;
a. p1 = p1 + p2;
Explanation: Special symbol, Space, and
b. p1 = p1 - 9;
comma cannot be used in a variable name
c. p2 = p2 + 9; in c language.

d. cout << p1 - p2; 42) If addition had higher precedence than

multiplication, then the value of the
Answer: (a) p1 = p1 + p2;
expression (1 + 2 * 3 + 4 * 5) would be
Explanation: None which of the following?

40) Suppose that cPtr is a character pointer, a. 27

and its current content is 300. What will be
b. 47
the new value in cPtr after the following
assignment? c. 69

1. cPtr = cPtr + 5; d. 105

a. 305 Hide Answer Workspace

b. 310 Answer: (d) 105

c. 320 Explanation: (1 + 2 * 3 + 4 * 5)

d. 340 = (1 + 2) * (3 + 4) * 5

Hide Answer Workspace =3*7*5

Answer: (a) 305 = 105

Explanation: cPtr = cPtr + 5 43) What will be the output of this

program?
cPtr = 300 + 5
1. int main()
cPtr = 305
2. {
41) Which is valid expression in c language?
3. int a=10, b=20;
a. int my_num = 100,000;
4. printf("a=%d b=%d",a,b);
b. int my_num = 100000;

11
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

5. a=a+b; Answer: (e) All of the these

6. b=a-b; Explanation: All statements are true

7. a=a-b; 45) What does this statement mean?

8. printf("a=%d b=%d",a,b); 1. x - = y + 1;

9. return 0; a. x=x-y+1

10. } b. x = -x - y - 1

a. a = 20, b = 20 c. x=x+y-1

b. a = 10, b = 20 d. x=x-y-1

c. a = 20, b = 10 Answer: (d) x = x - y - 1

d. a = 10, b = 10 Explanation: x - = y + 1

Answer: (c) a = 20, b = 10 x = x - (y + 1)

Explanation: This program is a swapping So, x = x - y - 1

program.
46) Study the following statement
a = a + b → a = 10 + 20 → a = 30
1. for (i = 3; i < 15; i + = 3)
b = a - b → b = 30 - 20 → B = 10
2. {printf ("%d", i);
a = a - b → a = 30 - 10 → a = 20
3. ++i;
44) The following statements are about
4. }
EOF. Which of them is true?
What will be the output?
a. Its value is defined within stdio.h
a. 3 6 9 12
b. Its value is implementation
dependent b. 3 6 9 12 15
c. Its value can be negative c. 3 7 11
d. Its value should not equal the d. 3 7 11 15
integer equivalent of any character
Answer: (c) 3 7 15
e. All of the these
Explanation: None

12
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

47) Study the following statement d. None of the above

1. main() Answer: (a) num[9] is the last element of

the array num
2. {
Explanation: The num[9] is the last element
3. char *s = "Hello,"
of the array number because the total
4. "World!"; element in this array is 10, and the array
starts with 0, so the last element of the
5. printf("%s", s); array is the num[9].
6. } 49) What will the output after execution of
the following statements?
What will be the output?
1. main()
a. Hello, World!
2. {
b. Hello,
World! 3. printf ("\\n ab");
c. Hello 4. printf ("\\b si");
d. Compile error 5. printf ("\\r ha");
Answer: (b) Hello, World! 6. }
Explanation: The output of this program is a. absiha
"Hello, World!". This program's output will
not appear in the new line because the \ n b. asiha
escape sequence has not been used in this
c. haasi
program.
d. hai
48) Study the following array definition
Answer: (d) hai
1. int num[10] = {3, 3, 3};
Explanation:
Which of the following statement is
correct? o \\n - newline - printf("\\nab"); -
Prints 'ab'
a. num[9] is the last element of the
array num o \\b - backspace - printf("\\bsi"); -
firstly '\\b' removes 'b' from 'ab '
b. The value of num[8] is 3
and then prints 'si'. So, after
c. The value of num[3] is 3 execution of printf("\\bsi"); it is 'asi'

13
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

o \\r - linefeed - printf("\\rha"); - Now 52. Java is procedural programming.

here '\\r' moves the cursor to the a) True
start of the current line and then b) False
override 'asi' to 'hai'
Answer: b
50) What will the output after execution of Explanation: The statement is false. Java is a
the following statements? type of object oriented programming
language. It involves solving real-life
1. void main()
problems as well.
2. {
53. A program that can execute high-level
3. int i = 065, j = 65; language programs.
a) Compiler
4. printf ("%d %d", i, j); b) Interpreter
c) Sensor
5. }
d) Circuitry
a. 065 65
Answer: b
b. 53 65 Explanation: Interpreter is a program that
can execute high-level language programs
c. 65 65
“directly,” without first being translated
d. Syntax error into machine language.

Answer: (b) 53 65 54. Executables might be called ________

a) native code
Explanation: This value (065) is an octal b) executable code
value, and it equals to the decimal value 53. c) complex code
51. Prolog comes under ___________ d) machine code
a) Logic Programming Answer: a
b) Procedural Programming Explanation: The executables are
c) OOP sometimes called native code. HLL are
d) Functional translated to Machine language called the
Answer: a native code.
Explanation: Prolog stands for Programming 55. Source program is compiled to an
in Logic. The options mentioned are the intermediate form called ___________
four categories of programming. Prolog is a a) Byte Code
type of logic programming. b) Smart code

14
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) Executable code Answer: a

d) Machine code Explanation: JVM stands for Java Virtual
Machine. Other related terms are JRE which
Answer: a
is java runtime environment and JDK which
Explanation: The Source program is
is java development kit.
compiled to an intermediate form called
byte code. For each supported platform, 59. A language supported by MS. Net
write a “virtual machine” emulator that platform.
reads byte code and emulates its execution. a) C
b) C++
56. _______________ is the assembly
c) java
language for an imaginary architecture.
d) C#
a) Byte code
b) Machine code Answer: d
c) Native code Explanation: C# is supported by MS. Net
d) Executable code platform. JAVA was originally designed for
web purposes.
Answer: a
Explanation: Source program is compiled to 60. Which of the following isn’t a
an intermediate form – byte code. Byte characteristic of High level languages?
code is the assembly language for an a) machine code
imaginary architecture. b) platform independent
c) interactive execution
57. JIT stands for?
d) user-friendly
a) Just in time
b) Jump in time Answer: a
c) Jump in text Explanation: HLL isn’t in machine language.
d) Jump in terms It is converted to machine language for
further processing.
Answer: a
Explanation: JIT stands for Just in time. 61. Which of the following approach help us
JVMs actually compile each bytecode understand better about Real time
instruction to native code the first time it is examples, say Vehicle or Employee of an
Organisation?
used.
a) Procedural approach
58. JVM stands for? b) Object Oriented approach
c) Both a and b
a) Java virtual machine
d) None of the mentioned
b) Java visual machine
c) JRE virtual machine Answer: b
d) JRE visual machine Explanation: Object Oriented Programming

15
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

supports the concept of class and object 65. Java Compiler translates the source
which help us understand the real time code into?
examples better. Vehicle is defined to be a a) Machine code
class. Car, truck, bike are defined to be b) Assembly code
objects of the class, Vehicle. c) Byte code
d) JVM code
62. Which of the following Paradigm is
followed by Object Oriented Language Answer: c
Design? Explanation: Java program is converted into
a) Process-Oriented Model ‘byte code’ which makes it easier to run on
b) Data Controlling access to code. wide variety of environments. Only the run-
c) Both a and b time package JVM has to be implemented
d) None of the mentioned for each platform.

Answer: b 66. What is the output of this program?

Explanation: Object-oriented programming
organises a program around its data(that is, 1. class PrintTest {
objects) and a set of well-defined interfaces 2. public static void main(String
to that data. args[])
3. {
63. Which of the following approach is
4. int num = 10;
followed by Object Oriented Language
5. if (NUM < 100) {
during the execution of a program?
6. System.out.println("The
a) Bottom up approach
value of num is"+ num);
b) Top down approach
7. }
c) Both a and b
8. }
d) None of the mentioned
9. }
Answer: a a) Compilation error
Explanation: Bottom up approach begins b) Run time error
with details and moves to higher conceptual c) The value of num is 10
level there by reducing complexity and d) None of the mentioned
making the concept easier to understand.
Answer: a
64. Which of the following is/are advantage Explanation: Java is case-sensitive. The
of using object oriented programming? variable ‘num’ used in print statement is
a) Code Reusability not same as the variable ‘NUM’ used in the
b) Can create more than one instance of a if conditional statement.
class without interference
c) Platform independent 67. Which of the following is called as
d) All of the mentioned ‘Comiplation unit’?
a) Object file
Answer: d b) Byte code
Explanation: None. c) Source file

16
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

d) All of the mentioned d) a mapping from one address space to

another
Answer: c
Explanation: None. Answer: d
Explanation: None.
68. What is the output of this program?
71. Binding of instructions and data to
1. class TypeChecking { memory addresses can be done at
2. public static void main(String ____________
args[])
a) Compile time
3. {
4. int num = 10.5; b) Load time
5. System.out.println("Output c) Execution time
:The value of num is" +num); d) All of the mentioned
6. }
7. } Answer: d
Explanation: None.
a) Output: The value of num is 10.5
b) Run-time error 72. If the process can be moved during its
c) Compilation error execution from one memory segment to
d) None of the mentioned
another, then binding must be
Answer: c ____________
Explanation: Java is storngly typed a) delayed until run time
language. The variable num is declared as b) preponed to compile time
‘int’ but the value assigned to it is ‘float’, as c) preponed to load time
a result the code does not get compiled. d) none of the mentioned
69. Which is a named memory location
Answer: a
assigned a value by the program?
a) variable Explanation: None.
b) literal
73. What is Dynamic loading?
c) identifier
a) loading multiple routines dynamically
d) None of the mentioned
b) loading a routine only when it is called
Answer: a c) loading multiple routines randomly
Explanation: None. d) none of the mentioned

70. What is Address Binding? Answer: b

a) going to an address in memory Explanation: None.
b) locating an address with the help of
another address 74. What is the advantage of dynamic
c) binding two addresses together to form a loading?
new address in a different memory space a) A used routine is used multiple times

17
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b) An unused routine is never loaded the higher priority process finishes, the
c) CPU utilization increases lower priority process is swapped back in
d) All of the mentioned and continues execution. This variant of
swapping is sometimes called?
Answer: b
a) priority swapping
Explanation: None.
b) pull out, push in
75. The idea of overlays is to ____________ c) roll out, roll in
a) data that are needed at any given time d) none of the mentioned
b) enable a process to be larger than the
Answer: c
amount of memory allocated to it
Explanation: None.
c) keep in memory only those instructions
d) all of the mentioned 79. If binding is done at assembly or load
time, then the process _____ be moved to
Answer: d
different locations after being swapped out
Explanation: None.
and in again.
76. The ___________ must design and a) can
program the overlay structure. b) must
a) programmer c) can never
b) system architect d) may
c) system designer
Answer: c
d) none of the mentioned
Explanation: None.
Answer: a
80. Which of the following is not the
Explanation: None.
primary objectives in the analysis model?
77. The ___________ swaps processes in a) describing the customer complaints
and out of the memory. b) establishing a basis for the creation of a
a) Memory manager software design
b) CPU c) defining a set of requirements that can
c) CPU manager be validated once the software is built
d) User d) none of the mentioned

Answer: a Answer: d
Explanation: None. Explanation: All the options are covered in
analysis model.
78. If a higher priority process arrives and
wants service, the memory manager can 81. A description of each function
swap out the lower priority process to presented in the DFD is contained in a
execute the higher priority process. When ________

18
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) data flow a) data object

b) process specification b) attributes
c) control specification c) relationships
d) data store d) data object and attributes

Answer: b Answer: b
Explanation: None. Explanation: They can be used to name an
instance of the data object, describe the
82. Which diagram indicates the behaviour
instance, or make reference to another
of the system as a consequence of external
instance in another table.
events?
a) data flow diagram 85. Which of the following is not a data
b) state transition diagram type?
c) control specification diagram a) Symbolic Data
d) workflow diagram b) Alphanumeric Data
c) Numeric Data
Answer: b
d) Alphabetic Data
Explanation: The state transition diagram
represents the various modes of behavior Answer: a
(called states) of the system and the Explanation: Data types are of three basic
manner in which transitions are made from types: Numeric, Alphabetic and
state to state. Alphanumeric. Numeric Data consists of
only numbers.
83. A data model contains
Alphabetic Data consists of only letters and
a) data object
a blank character and alphanumeric data
b) attributes
consists of symbols.
c) relationships
d) all of the mentioned 86. *@Ac# is a type of ________________
data.
Answer: d
a) Symbolic
Explanation: The data model consists of
b) Alphanumeric
three interrelated pieces of information:
c) Alphabetic
the data object,
d) Numeric
the attributes that describe the data object,
and the relationships that connect data Answer: b
objects to one another. Explanation: Alphanumeric data consists of
symbols. Alphanumeric data may be a
84. _________ defines the properties of a
letter, either in uppercase or lowercase or
data object and take on one of the three
some special symbols like #,^,*,(, etc.
different characteristics.

19
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

87. Which of the following is not a valid whereas void is a valueless special data
representation in bits? type.
a) 8-bit
90. BOOLEAN is a type of data type which
b) 24-bit
basically gives a tautology or fallacy.
c) 32-bit
a) True
d) 64-bit
b) False
Answer: b
Answer: a
Explanation: There are no criteria like the
Explanation: A Boolean representation is for
24-bit representation of numbers. Numbers
giving logical values. It returns either true or
can be written in 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and
false. If a result gives a truth value, it is
64-bit as per the IEEE format.
called tautology whereas if it returns a false
88. What are the entities whose values can term, it is referred to as fallacy.
be changed called?
91. What does FORTRAN stands for?
a) Constants
a) Formula Transfer
b) Variables
b) Formula Transformation
c) Modules
c) Formula Translation
d) Tokens
d) Format Transformation
Answer: b
Answer: c
Explanation: Variables are the data entities
Explanation: FORTRAN is a type of
whose values can be changed. Constants
computer language. It was developed for
have a fixed value. Tokens are the words
solving mathematical and scientific
which are easily identified by the compiler.
problems. It is very commonly used among
89. Which of the following is not a basic the scientific community.
data type in C language?
92. The program written by the
a) float
programmer in high level language is called
b) int
_____________
c) real
a) Object Program
d) char
b) Source Program
Answer: c c) Assembled Program
Explanation: There are 5 basic data types in d) Compiled Program
C language: int, char, float, double, void.
Answer: b
Int is for the representation of integers,
Explanation: The program written by the
char is for strings and characters, float and
programmer is called a source program. The
double are for floating point numbers
program generated by the compiler after

20
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

compilation is called an object program. Answer: c

The object program is in machine language. Explanation: SmallTalk was the first
programming language developed which
93. A standardized language used for
was purely object oriented. It was
commercial applications.
developed by Alan Kay. OOP concept came
a) C
into the picture in 1970’s.
b) Java
c) COBOL 96. Which of the following best defines a
d) FORTRAN class?
a) Parent of an object
Answer: c
b) Instance of an object
Explanation: COBOL is a language used in
c) Blueprint of an object
business and commercial applications. It
d) Scope of an object
stands for Common Business Oriented
Language. It is imperative, procedural as Answer: b
well as object oriented language. Explanation: A class is Blueprint of an object
which describes/ shows all the functions
94. ______________ define how the
and data that are provided by an object of a
locations can be used.
specific class. It can’t be called as parent or
a) Data types
instance of an object. Class in general
b) Attributes
describes all the properties of an object.
c) Links
d) Data Objects 97. Who invented OOP?
a) Alan Kay
Answer: b
b) Andrea Ferro
Explanation: Attributes can determine how
c) Dennis Ritchie
any location can be used. Attributes can be
d) Adele Goldberg
type, name, component, etc. Data objects
are the variables and constants in a Answer: a
program. Explanation: Alan Kay invented OOP,
Andrea Ferro was a part of SmallTalk
95. Which was the first purely object
Development. Dennis invented C++ and
oriented programming language
Adele Goldberg was in team to develop
developed?
SmallTalk but Alan actually had got
a) Java
rewarded for OOP.
b) C++
c) SmallTalk 98. What is the additional feature in classes
d) Kotlin that was not in structures?
a) Data members
b) Member functions

21
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) Static data allowed b) Abstraction

d) Public access specifier c) Encapsulation
d) Inheritance
Answer: b
Explanation: Member functions are allowed Answer: d
inside a class but were not present in Explanation: Using inheritance we can reuse
structure concept. Data members, static the code already written and also can avoid
data and public access specifiers were creation of many new functions or
present in structures too. variables, as that can be done one time and
be reused, using classes.
99. Which is not feature of OOP in general
definitions? 102. Which language does not support all 4
a) Code reusability types of inheritance?
b) Modularity a) C++
c) Duplicate/Redundant data b) Java
d) Efficient Code c) Kotlin
d) Small Talk
Answer: c
Explanation: Duplicate/Redundant data is Answer: b
dependent on programmer and hence can’t Explanation: Java doesn’t support all 4
be guaranteed by OOP. Code reusability is types of inheritance. It doesn’t support
done using inheritance. Modularity is multiple inheritance. But the multiple
supported by using different code files and inheritance can be implemented using
classes. Codes are more efficient because of interfaces in Java.
features of OOP.
103. How many classes can be defined in a
100. Pure OOP can be implemented without single program?
using class in a program. (True or False) a) Only 1
a) True b) Only 100
b) False c) Only 999
d) As many as you want
Answer: b
Explanation: It’s false because for a Answer: d
program to be pure OO, everything must be Explanation: Any number of classes can be
written inside classes. If this rule is violated, defined inside a program, provided that
the program can’t be labelled as purely OO. their names are different. In java, if public
class is present then it must have the same
101. Which Feature of OOP illustrated the
name as that of file.
code reusability?
a) Polymorphism

22
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

104. When OOP concept did first came into use classes, and hence codes can be written
picture? without using OOP concept. Classes may or
a) 1970’s may not contain member functions, so it’s
b) 1980’s not a necessary condition in C++. And, an
c) 1993 object can only be declared in a code if its
d) 1995 class is defined/included via header file.

Answer: a 107. Which header file is required in C++ to

Explanation: OOP first came into picture in use OOP?
1970’s by Alan and his team. Later it was a) iostream.h
used by some programming languages and b) stdio.h
got implemented successfully, SmallTalk c) stdlib.h
was first language to use pure OOP and d) OOP can be used without using any
followed all rules strictly. header file

105. Why Java is Partially OOP language? Answer: d

a) It supports usual declaration of primitive Explanation: We need not include any
data types specific header file to use OOP concept in
b) It doesn’t support all types of inheritance C++, only specific functions used in code
c) It allows code to be written outside need their respective header files to be
classes included or classes should be defined if
d) It does not support pointers needed.

Answer: a 108. Which of the two features match each

Explanation: As Java supports usual other?
declaration of data variables, it is partial a) Inheritance and Encapsulation
implementation of OOP. Because according b) Encapsulation and Polymorphism
to rules of OOP, object constructors must c) Encapsulation and Abstraction
be used, even for declaration of variables. d) Abstraction and Polymorphism

106. Which concept of OOP is false for C++? Answer: c

a) Code can be written without using Explanation: Encapsulation and Abstraction
classes are similar features. Encapsulation is
b) Code must contain at least one class actually binding all the properties in a single
c) A class must have member functions class or we can say hiding all the features of
d) At least one object should be declared in object inside a class. And Abstraction is
code hiding unwanted data (for user) and
showing only the data required by the user
Answer: b
of program.
Explanation: In C++, it’s not necessary to

23
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

109. Which feature allows open recursion, 112. What is default access specifier for
among the following? data members or member functions
a) Use of this pointer declared within a class without any
specifier, in C++?
b) Use of pointers
a) Private
c) Use of pass by value b) Protected
d) Use of parameterized constructor c) Public
d) Depends on compiler
Answer: a
Explanation: Use of this pointer allows an Answer: a
object to call data and methods of itself Explanation: The data members and
whenever needed. This helps us call the member functions are Private by default in
members of an object recursively, and C++ classes, if none of the access specifier is
differentiate the variables of different used. It is actually made to increase the
privacy of data.
scopes.
113. Which is most appropriate comment
110. Which of the following is not type of on following class definition?
class?
a) Abstract Class
b) Final Class class Student
c) Start Class {
d) String Class int a;
public : float a;
Answer: c };
Explanation: Only 9 types of classes are a) Error : same variable name can’t be used
provided in general, namely, abstract, final, twice
mutable, wrapper, anonymous, input- b) Error : Public must come first
output, string, system, network. We may c) Error : data types are different for same
further divide the classes into parent class variable
and subclass if inheritance is used. d) It is correct
111. Class is pass by _______
Answer: a
a) Value
Explanation: Same variable can’t be defined
b) Reference
twice in same scope. Even if the data types
c) Value or Reference, depending on
are different, variable name must be
program
different. There is no rule like Public
d) Copy
member should come first or last.
Answer: b 114. Which is known as a generic class?
Explanation: Classes are pass by reference, a) Abstract class
and the structures are pass by copy. It b) Final class
doesn’t depend on the program. c) Template class

24
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

d) Efficient Code member of another class but can use it’s

methods
Answer: c
Explanation: Template classes are known to Answer: a
be generic classes because those can be Explanation: A friend class can access all the
used for any data type value and the same private members of another class, of which
class can be used for all the variables of it is a friend. It is a special class provided to
different data types. use when you need to reuse the data of a
class but don’t want that class to have
115. Size of a class is _____________ those special functions.
a) Sum of the size of all the variables
declared inside the class 118. What is the scope of a class nested
b) Sum of the size of all the variables along inside another class?
with inherited variables in the class a) Protected scope
c) Size of the largest size of variable b) Private scope
d) Classes doesn’t have any size c) Global scope
d) Depends on access specifier and
Answer: d inheritance used
Explanation: Classes doesn’t have any size,
actually the size of object of the class can be Answer: d
defined. That is done only when an object is Explanation: It depends on the access
created and its constructor is called. specifier and the type of inheritance used
with the class, because if the class is
116. Which class can have member inherited then the nested class can be used
functions without their implementation? by subclass too, provided it’s not of private
a) Default class type.
b) String class
c) Template class 119. Class with main() function can be
d) Abstract class inherited.
a) True
Answer: d b) False
Explanation: Abstract classes can have
member functions with no implementation, Answer: a
where the inheriting subclasses must Explanation: The class containing main
implement those functions. function can be inherited and hence the
program can be executed using the derived
117. Which of the following describes a class names also in java.
friend class?
a) Friend class can access all the private 120. Which definition best describes an
members of the class, of which it is a friend object?
b) Friend class can only access protected a) Instance of a class
members of the class, of which it is a friend b) Instance of itself
c) Friend class don’t have any c) Child of a class
implementation d) Overview of a class
d) Friend class can’t access any data
25
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: a 124. The object can’t be __________

Explanation: An object is instance of its a) Passed by reference
class. It can be declared in the same way b) Passed by value
that a variable is declared, only thing is you c) Passed by copy
have to use class name as the data type. d) Passed as function

121. How many objects can be declared of a Answer: d

specific class in a single program? Explanation: Object can’t be passed as
a) 32768 function as it is an instance of some class,
b) 127 it’s not a function. Object can be passed by
c) 1 reference, value or copy. There is no term
d) As many as you want defined as pass as function for objects.

Answer: d 125. What is size of the object of following

Explanation: You can create as many class (64 bit system)?
objects of a specific class as you want,
provided enough memory is available. class student { int rollno; char name[20];
static int studentno; };
122. Which among the following is false?
a) Object must be created before using a) 20
members of a class b) 22
b) Memory for an object is allocated only c) 24
after its constructor is called d) 28
c) Objects can’t be passed by reference
d) Objects size depends on its class data Answer: c
members Explanation: The size of any object of
student class will be of size 4+20=24,
Answer: c because static members are not really
Explanation: Objects can be passed by considered as property of a single object. So
reference. Objects can be passed by value static variables size will not be added.
also. If the object of a class is not created,
we can’t use members of that class. 126. Functions can’t return objects.
a) True
123. Which of the following is incorrect? b) False
a) class student{ }s;
b) class student{ }; student s; Answer: b
c) class student{ }s[]; Explanation: Functions can always return an
d) class student{ }; student s[5]; object if the return type is same as that of
object being returned. Care has to be taken
Answer: c while writing the prototype of the function.
Explanation: The array must be specified
with a size. You can’t declare object array, 127. How members of an object are
or any other linear array without specifying accessed?
its size. It’s a mandatory field. a) Using dot operator/period symbol
b) Using scope resolution operator

26
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) Using member names directly 130. Which feature of OOP indicates code
d) Using pointer only reusability?
a) Encapsulation
Answer: a
b) Inheritance
Explanation: Using dot operator after the
name of object we can access its members. c) Abstraction
It is not necessary to use the pointers. We d) Polymorphism
can’t use the names directly because it may
Answer: b
be used outside the class.
Explanation: Inheritance indicates the code
128. If a local class is defined in a function, reusability. Encapsulation and abstraction
which of the following is true for an object are meant to hide/group data into one
of that class?
element. Polymorphism is to indicate
a) Object is accessible outside the function
b) Object can be declared inside any other different tasks performed by a single entity.
function
131. If a function can perform more than 1
c) Object can be used to call other class
members type of tasks, where the function name
d) Object can be used/accessed/declared remains same, which feature of OOP is used
locally in that function here?
a) Encapsulation
Answer: d b) Inheritance
Explanation: For an object which belongs to c) Polymorphism
a local class, it is mandatory to declare and
d) Abstraction
use the object within the function because
the class is accessible locally within the class Answer: c
only.
Explanation: For the feature given above,
129. Which among the following is wrong? the OOP feature used is Polymorphism.
a) class student{ }; student s; Example of polymorphism in real life is a
b) abstract class student{ }; student s; kid, who can be a student, a son, a brother
c) abstract class student{ }s[50000000];
depending on where he is.
d) abstract class student{ }; class toppers:
public student{ }; topper t; 132. If different properties and functions of
a real world entity is grouped or embedded
Answer: b
into a single element, what is it called in
Explanation: We can never create instance
of an abstract class. Abstract classes doesn’t OOP language?
have constructors and hence when an a) Inheritance
instance is created there is no facility to b) Polymorphism
initialize its members. Option d is correct c) Abstraction
because topper class is inheriting the base d) Encapsulation
abstract class student, and hence topper
class object can be created easily.

27
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: d class student{ int marks; };

Explanation: It is Encapsulation, which
class topper:public student{ int age;
groups different properties and functions of
topper(int age){ this.age=age; } };
a real world entity into single element.
Abstraction, on other hand, is hiding of a) Inheritance
functional or exact working of codes and b) Polymorphism
showing only the things which are required c) Inheritance and polymorphism
by the user. d) Encapsulation and Inheritance
133. Which of the following is not a feature Answer: d
of pure OOP? Explanation: Encapsulation is indicated by
a) Classes must be used use of classes. Inheritance is shown by
b) Inheritance inheriting the student class into topper
c) Data may/may not be declared using class. Polymorphism is not shown here
object because we have defined the constructor in
d) Functions Overloading the topper class but that doesn’t mean that
default constructor is overloaded.
Answer: c
Explanation: Data must be declared using 136. Which feature may be violated if we
objects. Object usage is mandatory because don’t use classes in a program?
it in turn calls its constructors, which in turn a) Inheritance can’t be implemented
must have a class defined. If object is not b) Object must be used is violated
used, it is a violation of pure OOP concept. c) Encapsulation only is violated
d) Basically all the features of OOP gets
134. Which among the following doesn’t
violated
come under OOP concept?
a) Platform independent Answer: d
b) Data binding Explanation: All the features are violated
c) Message passing because Inheritance and Encapsulation
d) Data hiding won’t be implemented. Polymorphism and
Abstraction are still possible in some cases,
Answer: a
but the main features like data binding,
Explanation: Platform independence is not
object use and etc won’t be used hence the
feature of OOP. C++ supports OOP but it’s
use of class is must for OOP concept.
not a platform independent language.
Platform independence depends on 137. How many basic features of OOP are
programming language. required for a programming language to be
purely OOP?
135. Which feature of OOP is indicated by
a) 7
the following code?

28
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b) 6 the virtual function as required. Redefining

c) 5 the function on all the derived classes
d) 4 according to class and use represents
polymorphism.
Answer: a
Explanation: There are 7 basic features that 140. Which feature in OOP is used to
define whether a programing language is allocate additional function to a predefined
pure OOP or not. The 4 basic features are operator in any language?
inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation a) Operator Overloading
and abstraction. Further, one is, object use b) Function Overloading
is must, secondly, message passing and c) Operator Overriding
lastly, Dynamic binding. d) Function Overriding

138. The feature by which one object can Answer: a

interact with another object is Explanation: The feature is operator
_____________ overloading. There is not a feature named
a) Data transfer operator overriding specifically. Function
b) Data Binding overloading and overriding doesn’t give
c) Message Passing addition function to any operator.
d) Message reading
141. Which among doesn’t illustrates
Answer: c polymorphism?
Explanation: The interaction between two a) Function overloading
object is called the message passing b) Function overriding
feature. Data transfer is not a feature of c) Operator overloading
OOP. Also, message reading is not a feature d) Virtual function
of OOP.
Answer: b
139. ___________ underlines the feature of Explanation: Function overriding doesn’t
Polymorphism in a class. illustrate polymorphism because the
a) Nested class functions are actually different and theirs
b) Enclosing class scopes are different. Function and operator
c) Inline function overloading illustrate proper polymorphism.
d) Virtual Function Virtual functions show polymorphism
because all the classes which inherit virtual
Answer: d
function, define the same function in
Explanation: Virtual Functions can be
different ways.
defined in any class using the keyword
virtual. All the classes which inherit the
class containing the virtual function, define

29
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

142. Exception handling is a feature of OOP. specifiers. Also, only the public and global
a) True data are available globally or else the
b) False program should have proper permission to
access the private data.
Answer: a
Explanation: Exception handling is a feature 145. Which among the following best
of OOP as it includes classes concept in describes polymorphism?
most of the cases. Also it may come handy a) It is the ability for a message/data to be
while using inheritance. processed in more than one form
b) It is the ability for a message/data to be
143. Which among the following, for a pure
processed in only 1 form
OOP language, is true?
c) It is the ability for many messages/data
a) The language should follow 3 or more
to be processed in one way
features of OOP
d) It is the ability for undefined
b) The language should follow at least 1
message/data to be processed in at least
feature of OOP
one way
c) The language must follow only 3 features
of OOP Answer: a
d) The language must follow all the rules of Explanation: It is actually the ability for a
OOP message / data to be processed in more
than one form. The word polymorphism
Answer: d
indicates many-forms. So if a single entity
Explanation: The language must follow all
takes more than one form, it is known as
the rules of OOP to be called a purely OOP
polymorphism.
language. Even if a single OOP feature is not
followed, then it’s known to be a partially 146. What do you call the languages that
OOP language. support classes but not polymorphism?
a) Class based language
144. Does OOP provide better security than
b) Procedure Oriented language
POP?
c) Object-based language
a) Always true for any programming
d) If classes are supported, polymorphism
language
will always be supported
b) May not be true with respect to all
programming languages Answer: c
c) It depends on type of program Explanation: The languages which support
d) It’s vice-versa is true classes but doesn’t support polymorphism,
are known as object-based languages.
Answer: a
Polymorphism is such an important feature,
Explanation: It is always true as we have the
that is a language doesn’t support this
facility of private and protected access

30
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

feature, it can’t be called as a OOP Answer: b

language. Explanation: Only virtual functions among
these can show polymorphism. Class
147. Which among the following is the
member functions can show polymorphism
language which supports classes but not
too but we should be sure that the same
polymorphism?
function is being overloaded or is a function
a) SmallTalk
of abstract class or something like this,
b) Java
since we are not sure about all these, we
c) C++
can’t say whether it can show
d) Ada
polymorphism or not.
Answer: d
150. In case of using abstract class or
Explanation: Ada is the language which
function overloading, which function is
supports the concept of classes but doesn’t
supposed to be called first?
support the polymorphism feature. It is an
a) Local function
object-based programming language. Note
b) Function with highest priority in compiler
that it’s not an OOP language.
c) Global function
148. If same message is passed to objects of d) Function with lowest priority because it
several different classes and all of those can might have been halted since long time,
respond in a different way, what is this because of low priority
feature called?
Answer: b
a) Inheritance
Explanation: Function with highest priority
b) Overloading
is called. Here, it’s not about the thread
c) Polymorphism
scheduling in CPU, but it focuses on
d) Overriding
whether the function in local scope is
Answer: c present or not, or if scope resolution is used
Explanation: The feature defined in in some way, or if the function matches the
question defines polymorphism features. argument signature. So all these things
Here the different objects are capable of define which function has the highest
responding to the same message in priority to be called in runtime. Local
different ways, hence polymorphism. function could be one of the answer but we
can’t say if someone have used pointer to
149. Which type of function among the another function or same function name.
following shows polymorphism?
a) Inline function 151. Which among the following can’t be
b) Virtual function used for polymorphism?
c) Undefined functions a) Static member functions
d) Class member functions b) Member functions overloading

31
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) Predefined operator overloading hence implementing polymorphism in C

d) Constructor overloading language.

Answer: a 154. Which problem may arise if we use

Explanation: Static member functions are abstract class functions for polymorphism?
not property of any object. Hence it can’t a) All classes are converted as abstract class
be considered for overloading/overriding. b) Derived class must be of abstract type
For polymorphism, function must be c) All the derived classes must implement
property of object, not only of class. the undefined functions
d) Derived classes can’t redefine the
152. Which among the following can show
function
polymorphism?
a) Overloading || Answer: c
b) Overloading += Explanation: The undefined functions must
c) Overloading << be defined is a problem, because one may
d) Overloading && need to implement few undefined functions
from abstract class, but he will have to
Answer: c
define each of the functions declared in
Explanation: Only insertion operator can be
abstract class. Being useless task, it is a
overloaded among all the given options.
problem sometimes.
And the polymorphism can be illustrated
here only if any of these is applicable of 155. Which among the following is not true
being overloaded. Overloading is type of for polymorphism?
polymorphism. a) It is feature of OOP
b) Ease in readability of program
153. Polymorphism is possible in C
c) Helps in redefining the same functionality
language.
d) Increases overhead of function definition
a) True
always
b) False
Answer: d
Answer: a
Explanation: It never increases function
Explanation: It is possible to implement
definition overhead, one way or another if
polymorphism in C language, even though it
you don’t use polymorphism, you will use
doesn’t support class. We can use
the definition in some other way, so it
structures and then declare pointers which
actually helps to write efficient codes.
in turn points to some function. In this way
we simulate the functions like member 156. If 2 classes derive one base class and
functions but not exactly member function. redefine a function of base class, also
Now we can overload these functions, overload some operators inside class body.
Among these two things of function and

32
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

operator overloading, where is a) Create public member functions to

polymorphism used? access those data members
a) Function overloading only b) Create private member functions to
access those data members
b) Operator overloading only
c) Create protected member functions to
c) Both of these are using polymorphism access those data members
d) Either function overloading or operator d) Private data members can never be
overloading because polymorphism can be accessed from outside the class
applied only once in a program
Answer: a
Answer: d Explanation: We can define public member
Explanation: Both of them are using functions to access those private data
polymorphism. It is not necessary that members and get their value for use or
polymorphism can be used only once in a alteration. They can’t be accessed directly
but is possible to be access using member
program, it can be used anywhere, any
functions. This is done to ensure that the
number of times in a single program. private data doesn’t get modified
accidentally.
157. Which among the following best
describes encapsulation? 159. While using encapsulation, which
a) It is a way of combining various data among the following is possible?
members into a single unit a) Code modification can be additional
b) It is a way of combining various member overhead
functions into a single unit b) Data member’s data type can be changed
c) It is a way of combining various data without changing any other code
members and member functions into a c) Data member’s type can’t be changed, or
single unit which can operate on any data whole code have to be changed
d) It is a way of combining various data d) Member functions can be used to change
members and member functions that the data type of data members
operate on those data members into a
single unit Answer: b
Explanation: Data member’s data type can
Answer: d be changed without changing any further
Explanation: It is a way of combining both code. All the members using that data can
data members and member functions, continue in the same way without any
which operate on those data members, into modification. Member functions can never
a single unit. We call it a class in OOP change the data type of same class data
generally. This feature have helped us members.
modify the structures used in C language to
be upgraded into class in C++ and other 160. Find which of the following uses
languages. encapsulation?
a) void main(){ int a; void fun( int a=10;
158. If data members are private, what can cout<<a); fun(); }
we do to access them from the class object? b) class student{ int a; public: int b;};

33
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) class student{int a; public: void disp(){ b) Using only private members

cout<<a;} }; c) Using inheritance
d) struct topper{ char name[10]; public : int d) Using Abstraction
marks; }
Answer: a
Answer: c Explanation: Using access specifiers we can
Explanation: It is the class which uses both achieve encapsulation. Using this we can in
the data members and member functions turn implement data abstraction. It’s not
being declared inside a single unit. Only necessary that we only use private access.
data members can be there in structures
also. And the encapsulation can only be 164. Which among the following violates
illustrated if some data/operations are the principle of encapsulation almost
associated within class. always?
a) Local variables
161. Encapsulation helps in writing b) Global variables
___________ classes in java. c) Public variables
a) Mutable d) Array variables
b) Abstract
c) Wrapper Answer: b
d) Immutable Explanation: Global variables almost always
violates the principles of encapsulation.
Answer: d Encapsulation says the data should be
Explanation: Immutable classes are used for accessed only by required set of elements.
caching purpose generally. And it can be But global variable is accessible
created by making the class as final and everywhere, also it is most prone to
making all its members private. changes. It doesn’t hide the internal
working of program.
162. Which among the following should be
encapsulated? 165. Which among the following would
a) The data which is prone to change is near destroy the encapsulation mechanism if it
future was allowed in programming?
b) The data prone to change in long terms a) Using access declaration for private
c) The data which is intended to be changed members of base class
d) The data which belongs to some other b) Using access declaration for public
class members of base class
c) Using access declaration for local variable
Answer: a of main() function
Explanation: The data prone to change in d) Using access declaration for global
near future is usually encapsulated so that variables
it doesn’t get changed accidentally. We
encapsulate the data to hide the critical Answer: a
working of program from outside world. Explanation: If using access declaration for
private members of base class was allowed
163. How can Encapsulation be achieved? in programming, it would have destroyed
a) Using Access Specifiers
34
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

whole concept of encapsulation. As if it was a) This code is good to go

possible, any class which gets inherited b) This code may result in undesirable
privately, would have been able to inherit conditions
the private members of base class, and c) This code will generate error
hence could access each and every member d) This code violates encapsulation
of base class.
Answer: d
166. Which among the following can be a Explanation: This code violates the
concept against encapsulation rules? encapsulation. By this code we can get the
a) Using function pointers address of the private member of the class,
b) Using char* string pointer to be passed hence we can change the value of private
to non-member function member, which is against the rules.
c) Using object array
d) Using any kind of pointer/array address 168. Encapsulation is the way to add
in passing to another function functions in a user defined structure.
a) True
Answer: d b) False
Explanation: If we use any kind of array or
pointer as data member which should not Answer: b
be changed, but in some case its address is Explanation: False, because we can’t call
passed to some other function or similar these structures if member functions are
variable. There are chances to modify its involved, it must be called class. Also, it is
whole data easily. Hence Against not just about adding functions, it’s about
encapsulation. binding data and functions together.

167. Consider the following code and select 169. Using encapsulation data security is
the correct option. ___________
a) Not ensured
class student b) Ensured to some extent
{ c) Purely ensured
int marks; d) Very low
public : int* fun()
{ Answer: b
return &marks; Explanation: The encapsulation can only
} ensure data security to some extent. If
}; pointer and addresses are misused, it may
main() violate encapsulation. Use of global
{ variables also makes the program
student s; vulnerable, hence we can’t say that
int *ptr=c.fun(); encapsulation gives pure security.
return 0;
170. Which among the following best
}
defines abstraction?
a) Hiding the implementation

35
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b) Showing the important data 174. Object is ________ abstraction.

c) Hiding the important data a) Object
d) Hiding the implementation and showing b) Logical
only the features c) Real
d) Hypothetical
Answer: d
Explanation: It includes hiding the Answer: c
implementation part and showing only the Explanation: Object is real abstraction
required data and features to the user. It is because it actually contains those features
done to hide the implementation of class. It is the implementation of
complexity and details from the user. And overview given by class. Hence the class is
to provide a good interface in logical abstraction and its object is real.
programming.
175. Abstraction gives higher degree of
172. Hiding the implementation complexity ________
can ____________ a) Class usage
a) Make the programming easy b) Program complexity
b) Make the programming complex c) Idealized interface
c) Provide more number of features d) Unstable interface
d) Provide better features
Answer: c
Answer: a Explanation: It is to idealize the interface. In
Explanation: It can make programming this way the programmer can use the
easy. The programming need not know how programming features more efficiently and
the inbuilt functions are working but can can code better. It can’t increase the
use those complex functions directly in the program complexity, as the feature itself is
program. It doesn’t provide more number made to hide it.
of features or better features.
176. Abstraction can apply to
173. Class is _________ abstraction. ____________
a) Object a) Control and data
b) Logical b) Only data
c) Real c) Only control
d) Hypothetical d) Classes

Answer: b Answer: a
Explanation: Class is logical abstraction Explanation: Abstraction applies to both.
because it provides a logical structure for all Control abstraction involves use of
of its objects. It gives an overview of the subroutines and control flow abstraction.
features of an object.

36
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Data abstraction involves handling pieces of Answer: b

data in meaningful ways. Explanation: Higher the level of abstraction,
lower are the details. The best way to
177. Which among the following can be
understand this is to consider a whole
viewed as combination of abstraction of
system that is highest level of abstraction as
data and code.
it hides everything inside. And next lower
a) Class
level would contain few of the computer
b) Object
components and so on.
c) Inheritance
d) Interfaces 180. Encapsulation and abstraction differ as
____________
Answer: b
a) Binding and Hiding respectively
Explanation: Object can be viewed as
b) Hiding and Binding respectively
abstraction of data and code. It uses data
c) Can be used any way
members and their functioning as data
d) Hiding and hiding respectively
abstraction. Code abstraction as use of
object of inbuilt class. Answer: a
Explanation: Abstraction is hiding the
178. Abstraction principle
complex code. For example, we directly use
includes___________
cout object in C++ but we don’t know how
a) Use abstraction at its minimum
is it actually implemented. Encapsulation is
b) Use abstraction to avoid longer codes
data binding, as in, we try to combine a
c) Use abstraction whenever possible to
similar type of data and functions together.
avoid duplication
d) Use abstraction whenever possible to 182. If two classes combine some private
achieve OOP data members and provides public member
functions to access and manipulate those
Answer: c
data members. Where is abstraction used?
Explanation: Abstraction principle includes
a) Using private access specifier for data
use of abstraction to avoid duplication
members
(usually of code). It this way the program
b) Using class concept with both data
doesn’t contain any redundant functions
members and member functions
and make the program efficient.
c) Using public member functions to access
179. Higher the level of abstraction, higher and manipulate the data members
are the details. d) Data is not sufficient to decide what is
a) True being used
b) False
Answer: c
Explanation: It is the concept of hiding
program complexity and actual working in
37
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

background. Hence use of public member c) Can be safer

functions illustrates abstraction here. d) Can increase vulnerability

183. A phone is made up of many Answer: c

components like motherboard, camera, Explanation: It will make the code safer.
sensors and etc. If the processor represents One may think it reduces the readability,
all the functioning of phone, display shows but the fact is, it actually helps us
the display only, and the phone is understand the code better. We don’t have
represented as a whole. Which among the to read the complex code which is of no use
following have highest level of abstraction? in understanding the program.
a) Motherboard
186. Which among the following best
b) Display
describes the Inheritance?
c) Camera
a) Copying the code already written
d) Phone
b) Using the code already written once
Answer: d c) Using already defined functions in
Explanation: Phone as a whole have the programming language
highest level of abstraction. This is because d) Using the data and functions into derived
the phone being a single unit represents the segment
whole system. Whereas motherboard,
Answer: d
display and camera are its components.
Explanation: It can only be indicated by
184. Which among the following is not a using the data and functions that we use in
level of abstraction? derived class, being provided by parent
a) Logical level class. Copying code is nowhere similar to
b) Physical level this concept, also using the code already
c) View level written is same as copying. Using already
d) External level defined functions is not inheritance as we
are not adding any of our own features.
Answer: d
Explanation: Abstraction is generally divided 187. How many basic types of inheritance
into 3 different levels, namely, logical, are provided as OOP feature?
physical and view level. External level is not a) 4
defined in terms of abstraction. b) 3
c) 2
185. Using higher degree of abstraction
d) 1
__________
a) May get unsafe Answer: a
b) May reduce readability Explanation: There are basically 4 types of
inheritance provided in OOP, namely, single

38
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

level, multilevel, multiple and hierarchical inheritance (as in option class student{ };
inheritance. We can add one more type as class stream{ }; class topper{ };).
Hybrid inheritance but that is actually the
190. Which programming language doesn’t
combination any types of inheritance from
support multiple inheritance?
the 4 basic ones.
a) C++ and Java
188. Which among the following best b) C and C++
defines single level inheritance? c) Java and SmallTalk
a) A class inheriting a derived class d) Java
b) A class inheriting a base class
Answer: d
c) A class inheriting a nested class
Explanation: Java doesn’t support multiple
d) A class which gets inherited by 2 classes
inheritance. But that feature can be
Answer: b implemented by using the interfaces
Explanation: A class inheriting a base class concept. Multiple inheritance is not
defines single level inheritance. Inheriting supported because of diamond problem
an already derived class makes it multilevel and similar issues.
inheritance. And if base class is inherited by
191. Which among the following is correct
2 other classes, it is multiple inheritance.
for a hierarchical inheritance?
189. Which among the following is correct a) Two base classes can be used to be
for multiple inheritance? derived into one single class
a) class student{public: int marks;}s; class b) Two or more classes can be derived into
stream{int total;}; class topper:public one class
student, public stream{ }; c) One base class can be derived into other
b) class student{int marks;}; class stream{ }; two derived classes or more
class topper: public student{ }; d) One base class can be derived into only 2
c) class student{int marks;}; class classes
stream:public student{ };
Answer: c
d) class student{ }; class stream{ }; class
Explanation: One base class can be derived
topper{ };
into the other two derived classes or more.
Answer: a If only one class gets derived by only 2
Explanation: Class topper is getting derived other classes, it is also hierarchical
from 2 other classes and hence it is multiple inheritance, but it is not a mandatory
inheritance. Topper inherits class stream condition, because any number of derived
and class student publicly and hence can classes can be there.
use its features. If only few classes are
192. Which is the correct syntax of
defined, there we are not even using
inheritance?

39
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) class derived_classname : Answer: a

base_classname{ /*define class body*/ }; Explanation: It is a rule, that when a derived
b) class base_classname : class inherits the base class in private access
derived_classname{ /*define class body*/ }; mode, all the members of base class gets
c) class derived_classname : access derived as private members of the derived
base_classname{ /*define class body*/ }; class.
d) class base_classname :access
195. If a base class is inherited in protected
derived_classname{ /*define class body*/ };
access mode then which among the
Answer: c following is true?
Explanation: Firstly, keyword class should a) Public and Protected members of base
come, followed by the derived class name. class becomes protected members of
Colon is must followed by access in which derived class
base class has to be derived, followed by b) Only protected members become
the base class name. And finally the body of protected members of derived class
class. Semicolon after the body is also must. c) Private, Protected and Public all members
of base, become private of derived class
193. Which type of inheritance leads to
d) Only private members of base, become
diamond problem?
private of derived class
a) Single level
b) Multi-level Answer: a
c) Multiple Explanation: As the programming language
d) Hierarchical rules apply, all the public and protected
members of base class becomes protected
Answer: c
members of derived class in protected
Explanation: When 2 or more classes inherit
access mode. It can’t be changed because it
the same class using multiple inheritance
would hinder the security of data and may
and then one more class inherits those two
add vulnerability in the program.
base classes, we get a diamond like
structure. Here, ambiguity arises when 196. How many types of inheritance are
same function gets derived into 2 base possible in C++?
classes and finally to 3rd level class because a) 2
b) 3
same name functions are being inherited.
c) 4
194. Which access type data gets derived as d) 5
private member in derived class?
Answer: d
a) Private Explanation: There are five types of
b) Public inheritance that are possible in C++. Single
c) Protected level, Multilevel, multiple, hierarchical and
d) Protected and Private hybrid. Here we count hybrid also because
40
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

it sometimes can bring up a new form of are separate. Hence it is not hybrid
inheritance, Like inheritance using multiple inheritance.
and hierarchical, which sometimes results
in diamond problem. 199. Which among the following best
describes multiple inheritance?
197. Which among the following is true? a) Two classes being parent of any other
a) Java supports all types of inheritance classes
b) Java supports multiple inheritance b) Three classes being parent of other
c) Java doesn’t support multiple inheritance classes
d) Java doesn’t support inheritance c) More than one class being parent of
other child classes
Answer: c d) More than one class being parent of
Explanation: Java doesn’t support multiple single child
inheritance. This is done to avoid the
diamond problem that sometimes arises Answer: d
with inherited functions. Though, multiple Explanation: If a class inherits more than
inheritance can be implemented in java one class, it is known as multiple
using interfaces. inheritance. This should not be referred
with only two or three classes being
198. Which type of inheritance is illustrated inherited. But there must be one class
by the following code? which inherits more than one class to be
called as multiple inheritance.
class student{ public: int marks; };
class topper: public student { public: char 200. How many types of inheritance can be
grade; }; used at a time in a single program?
class average{ public: int makrs_needed; }; a) Any two types
class section: public average{ public: char b) Any three types
name[10]; }; c) Any 4 types
class overall: public average{ public: int d) Any type, any number of times
students; };
Answer: d
a) Single level Explanation: Any type of inheritance can be
b) Multilevel and single level used in any program. There is no rule to use
c) Hierarchical only few types of inheritance. Only thing
d) Hierarchical and single level that matters is how the classes are
inherited and used.
Answer: c
Explanation: It is hierarchical inheritance 201. Which among the following defines
and single level inheritance. Since class single level inheritance?
topper is inheriting class student, it is single a) One base class derives another class
level inheritance. And then average is b) One derived class inherits from one base
inherited by section and overall, so it is class
hierarchical inheritance. But both of them c) One base class inherits from one derived
class
d) One derived class derives from another
41
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

derived class Answer: a

Explanation: The runtime inheritance is
Answer: b done when object of a class is created to
Explanation: If only one base class is used to call a method. At runtime the function is
derive only one subclass, it is known as searched if it is in class of object. If not, it
single level inheritance. The reason of this will search in its parent classes and
name is that we inherit the base class to hierarchy for that method.
one more level and stop the inheritance any
further. 205. Which method in the code below is
single level inherited?
202. If class A and class B are derived from
class C and class D, then ________________ class A
a) Those are 2 pairs of single inheritance {
b) That is multilevel inheritance protected int a, b;
c) Those is enclosing class public: void show()
d) Those are all independent classes {
cout&lt;&lt;a&lt;&lt;b;
Answer: a }
Explanation: Since class A is derived from };
class C and then class B is derived from class class B: public A
D, there are two pairs of classes which {
shows single inheritance. Those two pairs public: void disp()
are independent of each other though. {
203. If single inheritance is used, program
cout&lt;&lt;a++&lt;&lt;b++;
will contain ________________
}
a) At least 2 classes
};
b) At most 2 classes
class C: private A, public B
c) Exactly 2 classes
{
d) At most 4 classes
void avg()
{
Answer: a
cout&lt;&lt;(a+b)/2;
Explanation: The program will contain at
}
least 2 classes in the sense of base and
};
derived classes. At least one base class and
one derived class must be there. Types of a) Class A
inheritance remains the same though. b) Class B
c) Class C
204. Single level inheritance supports d) None
_____________ inheritance.
a) Runtime Answer: b
b) Compile time Explanation: Class B is using single level
c) Multiple inheritance inheritance. Class C is using multiple
d) Language independency

42
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

inheritance. And class A is parent of other 208. Which concept will result in derived
two classes. class with more features (consider
maximum 3 classes)?
206. If single level inheritance is used and a) Single inheritance
an abstract class is created with some b) Multiple inheritance
undefined functions, can its derived class c) Multilevel inheritance
also skip some definitions? d) Hierarchical inheritance
a) Yes, always possible
b) Yes, possible if only one undefined Answer: b
function Explanation: If single inheritance is used
c) No, at least 2 undefined functions must then only feature of a single class are
be there inherited, and if multilevel inheritance is
d) No, the derived class must implement used, the 2nd class might have use private
those methods inheritance. Hence only multiple
inheritance can result in derived class with
Answer: d more features. This is not mandatory but in
Explanation: The derived class must a case if we consider same number of
implement those methods. This is because features in each class, it will result the
the parent class is abstract and hence will same.
have some undefined functions which has
to be defined in derived classes. Since we 209. Single level inheritance is safer than
are using single level inheritance, if derived _____________
class doesn’t implement those functions a) Multiple inheritance
then one more class has to be there which b) Interfaces
will become multi-level inheritance. c) Implementations
d) Extensions
207. Which among the following is false for
single level inheritance? Answer: a
a) There can be more than 2 classes in Explanation: Interfaces also represent a way
program to implement single inheritance of inheritance but is a wide word to decide
b) There can be exactly 2 classes to which inheritance we are talking about in it,
implement single inheritance in a program hence can’t be considered. Implementation
c) There can be more than 2 independent and extensions also doesn’t match that
classes involved in single inheritance level of specific idea. And multiple
d) The derived class must implement all the inheritance not so safe as it might result in
abstract method if single inheritance is used some ambiguity.

Answer: c 210. Which language doesn’t support single

Explanation: If more than 2 independent level inheritance?
classes are involved to implement the single a) Java
level inheritance, it won’t be possible as b) C++
there must be only one child and one c) Kotlin
parent class and none other related class. d) All languages support it

43
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: d class destructor will be called at last if

Explanation: All the languages support object of C is destroyed.
single level inheritance. Since any class can a) A
inherit other classes as required, if single
b) B
level inheritance was not allowed it would
result in failing a lot of features of OOP. c) C
d) All together
211. Which among the following best
defines multilevel inheritance? Answer: a
a) A class derived from another derived Explanation: The destructors are called in
class the reverse order of the constructors being
b) Classes being derived from other derived called. Hence in multilevel inheritance, the
classes constructors are created from parent to
c) Continuing single level inheritance child, which leads to destruction from child
d) Class which have more than one parent to parent. Hence class A destructor will be
called at last.
Answer: b
Explanation: Only if the class is being 214. Which Class is having highest degree of
derived from other derived class, it can be abstraction in multilevel inheritance of 5
called as multilevel inheritance. If a class is levels?
derived from another class, it is single level a) Class at 1st level
inheritance. There must be more than one b) Class 2nd last level
level of inheritance. c) Class at 5th level
d) All with same abstraction
212. If there are 5 classes, E is derived from
D, D from C, C from B and B from A. Which Answer: a
class constructor will be called first if the Explanation: The class with highest degree
object of E or D is created? of abstraction will be the class at the 1st
a) A level. You can look at a simple example like,
b) B a CAR is more abstract than SPORTS CAR
c) C class. The level of abstraction decrease with
d) A and B each level as more details comes out.

Answer: a 215. If all the classes use private inheritance

Explanation: A is parent of all other classes in multilevel inheritance then
indirectly. Since A is parent of B and B is ______________
parent of C and so on till E. Class A a) It will not be called multilevel inheritance
constructor will be called first always. b) Each class can access only non-private
members of its parent
213. If there are 3 classes. Class C is derived c) Each subsequent class can access all
from class B and B is derived from A, Which members of previous level parent classes
44
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

d) None of the members will be available to Answer: b

any other class Explanation: The multiple inheritance is
used when a class is being derived using
Answer: b
two base classes or more. This way a single
Explanation: The classes will be able to
class can have features of more than one
access only the non-private members of its
classes inherited into a single unit. This lets
parent class. The classes are using private
us combine two class members into a single
inheritance, hence all the members of the
class.
parent class become private in the derived
class. In turn those won’t be allowed for 218. Which problem arises due to multiple
further inheritance or direct access outside inheritance, if hierarchical inheritance is
the class. used previously for its base classes?
a) Diamond
216. Multilevel inheritance allows
b) Circle
_________________ in the program.
c) Triangle
a) Only 7 levels of inheritance
d) Loop
b) At least 7 levels of inheritance
c) At most 16 levels of inheritance Answer: a
d) As many levels of inheritance as required Explanation: The diamond problem arises
when multiple inheritance is used. This
Answer: d
problem arises because the same name
Explanation: The multilevel inheritance
member functions get derived into a single
allows any number of levels of inheritance.
class. Which in turn creates ambiguity in
This is the maximum flexibility feature to
calling those methods.
make the members available to all the new
classes and to add their own functionalities. 219. Which among the following is best to
The code reusability is used too. define hierarchical inheritance?
a) More than one classes being derived
217. Multiple inheritance is
from one class
____________________
b) More than 2 classes being derived from
a) When a class is derived from another
single base class
class
c) At most 2 classes being derived from
b) When a class is derived from two or more
single base class
classes
d) At most 1 class derived from another
c) When a class is derived from other two
class
derived classes
d) When a class is derived from exactly one Answer: a
class Explanation: When two or more classes get
derived from a single base class, it is known
as hierarchical inheritance. This gives us
45
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

freedom to use same code with different Answer: b

scopes and flexibility into different classes. Explanation: There must be combination of
at least 2 types of inheritance. The
220. Do members of base class gets divided
inheritance should be of different type.
among all of its child classes?
a) Yes, equally 223. Which of the following is the correct
b) Yes, depending on type of inheritance syntax of including a user defined header
c) No, it’s doesn’t get divided files in C++?
a) #include <userdefined.h>
d) No, it may or may not get divided
b) #include <userdefined>
Answer: c c) #include “userdefined”
d) #include [userdefined]
Explanation: The class members doesn’t get
divided among the child classes. All the
Answer: c
members get derived to each of the Explanation: C++ uses double quotes to
subclasses as whole. The only restriction is include a user-defined header file. The
from the access specifiers used. correct syntax of including user-defined is
#include “userdefinedname”.
221. Which among the following best
defines the hybrid inheritance? 224. Which of the following is a correct
identifier in C++?
a) Combination of two or more inheritance
a) 7var_name
types b) 7VARNAME
b) Combination of same type of inheritance c) VAR_1234
c) Inheritance of more than 7 classes d) $var_name
d) Inheritance involving all the types of
inheritance Answer: c
Explanation: The rules for writing an
Answer: a identifier is as follows:
Explanation: When more than one type of i) may contain lowercase/uppercase letters,
inheritance are used together, it results in digits or underscore(_) only
ii) should start with a non-digit character
new type of inheritance which is in general
iii) should not contain any special characters
known as hybrid inheritance. This may of like @, $, etc.
may not have better capabilities.
225. Which of the following is called
222. How many types of inheritance should address operator?
be used for hybrid? a) *
a) Only 1 b) &
c) _
b) At least 2
d) %
c) At most two
d) Always more than 2 Answer: b
Explanation: & operator is called address

46
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

operator and is used to access the address 229. Which function is used to read a single
of a variable. character from the console in C++?
a) cin.get(ch)
226. Which of the following is used for b) getline(ch)
comments in C++? c) read(ch)
a) // comment d) scanf(ch)
b) /* comment */
c) both // comment or /* comment */ Answer: a
d) // comment */ Explanation: C++ provides cin.get() function
to read a single character from console
Answer: c whereas others are used to read either a
Explanation: Both the ways are used for single or multiple characters.
commenting in C++ programming. // is used
for single line comments and /* … */ is used 230. Which function is used to write a single
for multiple line comments. character to console in C++?
a) cout.put(ch)
227. What are the actual parameters in b) cout.putline(ch)
C++? c) write(ch)
a) Parameters with which functions are d) printf(ch)
called
b) Parameters which are used in the Answer: a
definition of a function Explanation: C++ provides cout.put()
c) Variables other than passed parameters function to write a single character to
in a function console whereas others are used to write
d) Variables that are never used in the either a single or multiple characters.
function
231. What are the escape sequences?
Answer: a a) Set of characters that convey special
Explanation: Actual parameters are those meaning in a program
using which a function call is made i.e. b) Set of characters that whose use are
which are actually passed in a function avoided in C++ programs
when that function is called. c) Set of characters that are used in the
name of the main function of the program
228. What are the formal parameters in d) Set of characters that are avoided in cout
C++? statements
a) Parameters with which functions are
called Answer: a
b) Parameters which are used in the Explanation: Escape sequence is a set of
definition of the function characters that convey a special meaning to
c) Variables other than passed parameters the program. They are used to convey a
in a function meaning which cannot be conveyed
d) Variables that are never used in the directly.
function
232. Which of the following escape
sequence represents carriage return?
47
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) \r 236. Which of the following is called

b) \n extraction/get from operator?
c) \n\r a) <<
d) \c b) >>
c) >
Answer: a d) <
Explanation: \r is used to represent carriage
return which means move the cursor to the Answer: b
beginning of the next line. Explanation: >> operator is called extraction
or get from operator i.e. extract/get things
233. Which of the following escape from console/files.
sequence represents tab?
a) \t 237. A language which has the capability to
b) \t\r generate new data types are called
c) \b ________________
d) \a a) Extensible
b) Overloaded
Answer: a c) Encapsulated
Explanation: \t is used to represent tab d) Reprehensible
which means a set of blank spaces in a line.
Answer: a
234. Who created C++? Explanation: Languages that can
a) Bjarne Stroustrup produce/generate new data types are
b) Dennis Ritchie called extensible languages as they have the
c) Ken Thompson ability to handle new data types.
d) Brian Kernighan
238. What is the size of wchar_t in C++?
Answer: a a) 2
Explanation: Bjarne Stroustrup is the b) 4
original creator of C++ during 1979 at AT&T
c) 2 or 4
Bell Labs.
d) Based on the number of bits in the
235. Which of the following is called system
insertion/put to operator?
a) << Answer: d
b) >> Explanation: Compiler wants to make CPU
c) > as more efficient in accessing the next
d) < value.

Answer: a 239. Pick the odd one out.

Explanation: << operator is called insertion a) array type
or put to operator i.e. insert/put things to
b) character type
console/files.
c) boolean type
d) integer type

48
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: a c) both enumeration and classes

Explanation: Array type is not the basic type d) int
and it is constructed using the basic type.
Answer: c
240. Which data type is used to represent Explanation: They must be defined by the
the absence of parameters? users before use, unlike the other types
a) int which are readily available.
b) short
244. Which operator is used to insert the
c) void
data into file?
d) float a) >>
b) <<
Answer: c
c) <
Explanation: Because void specifies an d) >
empty set of values/parameters.
Answer: b
241. What does ‘\a’ escape code represent? Explanation: You can write information to a
a) alert file from your program using the stream
b) backslash insertion operator <<.
c) tab
245. Which function is used to position back
d) form feed
from the end of file object?
Answer: a a) seekg
b) seekp
Explanation: Because \a is used to produce
c) both seekg & seekp
a beep sound. d) seekf
242. Which type is best suited to represent
Answer: a
the logical values? Explanation: The member function seekg is
a) integer used to position back from the end of file
b) boolean object.
c) character
246. How many objects are used for input
d) float
and output to a string?
Answer: b a) 1
b) 2
Explanation: Logical values can be either
c) 3
true or false, so the boolean type is suited d) 4
for it.
Answer: c
243. Identify the user-defined types from Explanation: The stringstream,
the following? ostringstream, and istringstream objects
a) enumeration are used for input and output to a string.
b) classes

49
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

247. What will be the output of the 5. char first, second;

following C++ code? 6. cout << "Enter a word: ";
7. first = cin.get();
1. #include <iostream> 8. cin.sync();
2. #include <fstream> 9. second = cin.get();
3. using namespace std; 10. cout << first << endl;
4. int main () 11. cout << second << endl;
5. { 12. return 0;
6. int length; 13. }
7. char * buffer; a) first
8. ifstream is; b) second
9. is.open ("sample.txt", ios :: c) returns first 2 letter or number from the
binary ); entered word
10. is.seekg (0, ios :: end);
d) third
11. length = is.tellg();
12. is.seekg (0, ios :: beg); Answer: c
13. buffer = new char [length]; Explanation: In this program, We are using
14. is.read (buffer, length); the sync function to return the first two
15. is.close(); letters of the entered word.
16. cout.write (buffer, length); Output:
17. delete[] buffer; $ g++ stream.cpp
18. return 0; $ a.out
19. } Enter a word: steve
a) This is sample s
b) sample t
c) Error
249. Which header file is required to use file
d) Runtime error
I/O operations?
Answer: d a) <ifstream>
Explanation: In this program, if the file exist, b) <ostream>
it will read the file. Otherwise it will throw c) <fstream>
an exception. A runtime error will occur d) <iostream>
because the value of the length variable will
be “-1” if file doesn’t exist and in line 13 we Answer: c
are trying to allocate an array of size “-1”. Explanation: <fstream> header file is
248. What will be the output of the needed to use file I/O operations in C++.
following C++ code? This header file contains all the file I/O
operations definition.
1. #include <iostream>
250. Which of the following is used to
2. using namespace std;
3. int main () create an output stream?
4. { a) ofstream

50
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b) ifstream 2) It is possible to combine two or more file

c) iostream opening mode in open() method.
d) fsstream
3) ios::in and ios::out are input and output
Answer: a file opening mode respectively.
Explanation: ofstream is used to create an
a) 1, 3
output stream in C++ file handling
b) 2, 3
operations. Ofstream objects are used to
c) 3 only
read files.
d) 1, 2
251. Which of the following is used to
Answer: a
create a stream that performs both input
Explanation: C++ allows to use one or more
and output operations?
file opening mode in a single open()
a) ofstream
method. ios::in and ios::out are input and
b) ifstream
output file opening mode respectively.
c) iostream
d) fstream 254. By default, all the files in C++ are
opened in _________ mode.
Answer: d
a) Text
Explanation: fstream is used to create a
b) Binary
stream that performs both input and output
c) ISCII
operations in C++ file handling.
d) VTC
252. Which of the following is not used as a
Answer: a
file opening mode?
Explanation: By default, all the files in C++
a) ios::trunc
are opened in text mode. They read the file
b) ios::binary
as normal text.
c) ios::in
d) ios::ate 255. What is the use of ios::trunc mode?
a) To open a file in input mode
Answer: a
b) To open a file in output mode
Explanation: ios::trunc is used to truncate a
c) To truncate an existing file to half
file if it exists. It is not a file opening mode.
d) To truncate an existing file to zero
253. Which of the following statements are
Answer: d
correct?
Explanation: In C++ file handling, ios::trunc
1) It is not possible to combine two or more mode is used to truncate an existing file to
file opening mode in open() method. zero length.

51
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

256. How many groups of output of Answer: b

operation are there in c++? Explanation: The operator of extraction is
a) 1 >> and it is used on the standard input
b) 2 stream.
c) 3
260. Where does a cin stops it extraction of
d) 4
data?
Answer: b a) By seeing a blank space
Explanation: There are two groups of b) By seeing (
output operation in c++. They are formatted c) By seeing a blank space & (
output and unformatted output. d) By seeing <

257. Pick out the correct objects about the Answer: a

instantiation of output stream. Explanation: cin will stop its extraction
a) cout when it encounters a blank space.
b) cerr
261. Which of the following is used for
c) clog
generic programming?
d) all of the mentioned a) Virtual functions
b) Modules
Answer: d
c) Templates
Explanation: cout, cerr and clog are the d) Abstract Classes
standard objects for the instantiation of
output stream class. Answer: c
Explanation: Templates are used for generic
258. What is meant by ofstream in c++? programming. They help in making generic
a) Writes to a file functions and classes hence achieving the
b) Reads from a file generic codes.
c) Writes to a file & Reads from a file
262. Which of the following is correct about
d) delete a file templates?
a) It is a type of compile time polymorphism
Answer: a
b) It allows the programmer to write one
Explanation: ofstream is a stream class to code for all data types
write on files. c) Helps in generic programming
d) All of the mentioned
259. Which operator is used for input
stream? Answer: d
a) > Explanation: Templates are used for generic
b) >> programming hence allowing to write a
c) < single function for all data types. It is a type
d) << of compile time polymorphism.

52
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

263. What will be the output of the static const int val = 2*funStruct<n-
following C++ code? 1>::val;
};
#include <iostream>
using namespace std; template<>
template <class T> struct funStruct<0>
T max (T &a, T &b) {
{ static const int val = 1 ;
cout << "Template Called "; };
return (a > b)? a : b;
} int main()
{
template <> cout << funStruct<10>::val << endl;
int max <int> (int &a, int &b) return 0;
{ }
cout << "Called "; a) 1
return (a > b)? a : b; b) 1024
} c) Error
d) Segmentation fault
int main ()
{ Answer: b
int a = 10, b = 20; Explanation: The above call for struct will
cout << max <int> (a, b); call the first struct for n > 0 and second one
} when n = 0. Therefore when value of n = 10
a) Template Called 20 the until n becomes 0 first struct is called so
b) Called 20 we will call 2*2*2…10 times*1 which will
c) Error give the result 210 = 1024.
d) Segmentation fault
265. What is an exception in C++ program?
Answer: b a) A problem that arises during the
Explanation: For T = int we have created a execution of a program
separate definition for the above template b) A problem that arises during compilation
function. Hence the call using int takes the c) Also known as the syntax error
newly defined function. d) Also known as semantic error
264. What will be the output of the Answer: a
following C++ code?
Explanation: An exception is defined as the
problem in C++ program that arises during
#include <iostream>
the execution of the program for example
using namespace std;
template<int n> divide by zero error.
struct funStruct
{

53
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

266. By default, what a program does when Answer: b

it detects an exception? Explanation: C++ provides a try-catch block
a) Continue running to handle exceptions in your program.
b) Results in the termination of the program
269. Which part of the try-catch block is
c) Calls other functions of the program
always fully executed?
d) Removes the exception and tells the
a) try part
programmer about an exception
b) catch part
Answer: b c) finally part
Explanation: By default, whenever a d) throw part
program detects an exception the program
Answer: c
crashes as it does not know how to handle
Explanation: finally part of the try-catch
it hence results in the termination of the
block is always executed whether
program.
exceptions are caught or not.
267. Why do we need to handle
270. Which of the following is an exception
exceptions?
in C++?
a) To avoid unexpected behaviour of a
a) Divide by zero
program during run-time
b) Semicolon not written
b) To let compiler remove all exceptions by
c) Variable not declared
itself
d) An expression is wrongly written
c) To successfully compile the program
d) To get correct output Answer: a
Explanation: Exceptions are those which are
Answer: a
encountered during run-time of the
Explanation: We need to handle exceptions
program. semicolon, variable not declared
in a program to avoid any unexpected
and the wrong expression are compile-time
behaviour during run-time because that
errors, therefore, they are not exceptions.
behaviour may affect other parts of the
Divide by zero is the problem that is
program. Also, an exception is detected
encountered during run-time, therefore, it
during run-time, therefore, a program may
is an exception.
compile successfully even with some
exceptions cases in your program. 271. Where should we place catch block of
the derived class in a try-catch block?
268. How Exception handling is
a) Before the catch block of Base class
implemented in the C++ program?
b) After the catch block of Base class
a) Using Exception keyword
c) Anywhere in the sequence of catch
b) Using try-catch block
blocks
c) Using Exception block
d) After all the catch blocks
d) Using Error handling schedules
54
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: a any exceptions that occur during run-time

Explanation: C++ asks the programmer to of the program.
place the catch block of derived class before
275. Which of the following statements are
a catch block of the base class, otherwise
correct about Catch handler?
derived catch block will never be executed.
i. It must be placed immediately after the
272. What id the syntax for catching any
try block
type of exceptions?
a) catch(Exception e) ii. It can have more than one parameters
b) catch(…)
c) catch(Exception ALL) iii. There must be one and only one catch
d) catch(ALL) handler for every try block

Answer: b iv. There can be multiple catch handler for a

Explanation: catch(…) is used in C++ to try block
catch all types of exceptions in a single
v. General catch handler can be kept
catch block.
anywhere after try block.
273. The C++ code which causes abnormal
a) i, iv, v
termination/behaviour of a program should
b) i, ii, iii
be written under _________ block.
c) i, iv
a) try
d) i, ii
b) catch
c) finally Answer: c
d) throw Explanation: A catch block should always be
placed after the try block and there can be
Answer: a
multiple catch block following a try block.
Explanation: Code that leads to the
abnormal termination of the program 276. What is the role of a constructor in
should be written under the try block. classes?
a) To modify the data whenever required
274. Exception handlers are declared with b) To destroy an object
____________ keyword. c) To initialize the data members of an
a) try object when it is created
d) To call private functions from the outer
b) catch
world
c) throw
d) finally Answer: c
Explanation: A constructor is used in classes
Answer: b to initialize data members of class in order
Explanation: C++ uses catch block to handle to avoid errors/segmentation faults.

55
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

277. Why constructors are efficient instead #include <iostream>

of a function init() defined by the user to #include <string>
initialize the data members of an object? using namespace std;
a) Because user may forget to call init() class A{
using that object leading segmentation fault int a;
b) Because user may call init() more than public:
once which leads to overwriting values A(int i){
c) Because user may forget to define init() a = i;
function }
d) All of the mentioned void assign(int i){
a = i;
Answer: d }
Explanation: We cannot use init() because int return_value(){
as mentioned in options that user may return a;
forget to initialize the members which will }
lead to a segmentation fault. Also if the };
user calls the init() function more than once int main(int argc, char const *argv[])
it may overwrite the values and may result {
into disastrous results. Also if any user A obj;
forgets to define init() function then no obj.assign(5);
object will be initialized whereas if any cout<<obj.return_value();
constructor is not defined in any class the }
class provides a default constructor for
initialization. a) 5
b) 55
278. What is a copy constructor? c) Error
a) A constructor that allows a user to move d) Segmentation Fault
data from one object to another
b) A constructor to initialize an object with Answer: c
the values of another object Explanation: As we have defined a
c) A constructor to check the whether to constructor which takes an int parameter,
objects are equal or not so when we are trying to declare an object
d) A constructor to kill other copies of a obj of class A without supplying any
given object. parameter then as a constructor is
overwritten it will give an error saying that
Answer: b no matching function found. So whenever
Explanation: Copy constructor allows the one writes a constructor then the default
user to initialize an object with the values of constructor is overwritten hence if you
another object instead of supplying the want to declare an object without
same set of values again to initialize the parameter then you also have to define that
object. constructor.

279. What will be the output of the

following C++ code?

56
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

280. In the following C++ code how many objects a1, a2 and a3 copy constructor is
times the string “A’s constructor called” will called so the string will not be printed for
be printed? them.

281. What happens if a user forgets to

#include <iostream>
define a constructor inside a class?
#include <string>
a) Error occurs
using namespace std;
b) Segmentation fault
class A{
c) Objects are not created properly
int a;
d) Compiler provides a default constructor
public:
to avoid faults/errors
A(){
cout<<"A's constructor
Answer: d
called";
Explanation: The C++ compiler always
}
provides a default constructor if one forgets
};
to define a constructor inside a class.
class B{
static A a; 282. How many parameters does a default
public: constructor require?
B(){ a) 1
cout<<"B's constructor b) 2
called"; c) 0
} d) 3
static A get(){
return a; Answer: c
} Explanation: A default constructor does not
}; require any parameters for object creation
A B::a; that’s why sometimes we declare an object
int main(int argc, char const *argv[]) without any parameters.
{
B b; 283. How constructors are different from
A a1 = b.get(); other member functions of the class?
A a2 = b.get(); a) Constructor has the same name as the
A a3 = b.get(); class itself
} b) Constructors do not return anything
c) Constructors are automatically called
a) 3 when an object is created
b) 4 d) All of the mentioned
c) 2
d) 1 Answer: d
Explanation: All the above mention are the
Answer: d reasons where constructor differs from
Explanation: As the object is defined ony other normal member functions of a class.
once in the program at line A B::a, so the
constructor of A is called only once. For

57
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

284. How many types of constructors are Answer: d

there in C++? Explanation: If a programmer does not
a) 1 define the above constructors in a class the
b) 2
C++ compiler by default provides these
c) 3
d) 4 constructors to avoid error on basic
operations.
Answer: c
286. When a copy constructor is called?
Explanation: There are three types of
constructors in C++ namely default, a) When an object of the class is returned
parameterized and copy constructor. by value
b) When an object of the class is passed by
283. What is the difference between
value to a function
constructors and destructors?
c) When an object is constructed based on
a) They have a different function name
another object of the same class
b) Constructors does not have return type
d) All of the mentioned
whereas destructors do have
c) Constructors allow function parameters Answer: d
whereas destructors do not Explanation: Copy constructor is called in all
d) Constructors does not function the above-mentioned criteria because in all
parameters the above cases we are somehow trying to
copy one object into another.
284. How many Destructors are allowed in a
Class? 287. Pick the other name of operator
a) 1 function.
b) 2 a) function overloading
c) 3 b) operator overloading
d) Any number c) member overloading
d) object overloading
Answer: a
Explanation: A class in C++ allows only one Answer: b
destructor, which is called whenever the Explanation: Operator function means
lifetime of an object ends. operation defined for that operator so if
user defines a function for an operator then
285. Which of the following constructors
that is called operator overloading i.e.
are provided by the C++ compiler if not
overloading already present operator
defined in a class?
function.
a) Default constructor
b) Assignment constructor 288. Which of the following operators can’t
c) Copy constructor be overloaded?
d) All of the mentioned a) ::

58
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b) + 291. Operator overloading is ___________

c) – a) making c++ operator works with objects
d) [] b) giving new meaning to existing operator
c) making the new operator
Answer: a
d) adding operation to the existing
Explanation: :: operator cannot be
operators
overloaded because this operator operates
on names rather than values and C++ has Answer: d
no syntax for writing codes that works on Explanation: Operator overloading is the
names than values so using syntax these way adding operation to the existing
operators cannot be overloaded. operators.

289. How to declare operator function? 292. Which operator is having the right to
a) operator sign left associativity in the following?
b) operator a) Array subscripting
b) Function call
c) name of the operator
c) Addition and subtraction
d) name of the class d) Type cast
Answer: a
Answer: d
Explanation: We have to declare the
Explanation: There are many rights to left
operator function by using the operator, associativity operators in C++, which means
operator sign. Example “operator +” where they are evaluation is done from right to
the operator is a keyword and + is the left. Type Cast is one of them. Here is a link
symbol need to be overloaded. of the associativity of operators:
https://github.com/MicrosoftDocs/cpp-
290. Which of the following statements is docs/blob/master/docs/cpp/cpp-built-in-
NOT valid about operator overloading? operators-precedence-and-associativity.md
a) Only existing operators can be 293. Which operator is having the highest
overloaded precedence?
b) The overloaded operator must have at a) postfix
least one operand of its class type b) unary
c) The overloaded operators follow the c) shift
syntax rules of the original operator d) equality
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
Answer: b Explanation: The operator which is having
the highest precedence is postfix and
Explanation: The overloaded operator must
lowest is equality.
not have at least one operand of its class
type. 294. What is this operator called ?:?
a) conditional

59
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

b) relational precedence
c) casting operator d) it converts the virtual base object to
d) unrelational derived class

Answer: a Answer: a
Explanation: In this operator, if the Explanation: Because the dynamic_cast
condition is true means, it will return the operator is used to convert from base class
first operator, otherwise second operator. to derived class.

295. What will be the output of the 297. What will be the output of the
following C++ code? following C++ code?

1. #include <iostream> 1. #include <iostream>

2. using namespace std; 2. using namespace std;
3. int main() 3. int main()
4. { 4. {
5. int a; 5. int a = 5, b = 6, c, d;
6. a = 5 + 3 * 5; 6. c = a, b;
7. cout << a; 7. d = (a, b);
8. return 0; 8. cout << c << ' ' << d;
9. } 9. return 0;
10. }
a) 35
b) 20 6 a) 5
c) 25 5 b) 6
d) 30 7 c) 6
8 d) 6
Answer: b
Explanation: Because the * operator is Answer: a
having highest precedence, So it is executed Explanation: It is a separator here. In C, the
first and then the + operator will be value a is stored in c and in d the value b is
executed. stored in d because of the bracket.
Output: Output:
$ g++ op1.cpp $ g++ op3.cpp
$ a.out $ a.out
20 5 6

296. What is the use of dynamic_cast 298. What will be the output of the
operator? following C++ code?
a) it converts virtual base class to derived
class 1. #include <iostream>
b) it converts the virtual base object to 2. using namespace std;
derived objects 3. int main()
c) it will convert the operator based on 4. {

60
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

5. int i, j; Answer: a
6. j = 10; Explanation: Because of the precedence the
7. i = (j++, j + 100, 999 + j); pre-increment and post increment
8. cout << i; operator, we got the output as 749736.
9. return 0; Output:
10. } $ g++ op.cpp
$ a.out
a) 1000 749735
b) 11
c) 1010 300. What will be the output of the
d) 1001 following C++ code?

Answer: c 1. #include <iostream>

Explanation: j starts with the value 10. j is 2. using namespace std;
then incremented to 11. Next, j is added to 3. int main()
100. Finally, j (still containing 11) is added 4. {
to 999 which yields the result 1010. 5. int a = 5, b = 6, c;
Output: 6. c = (a > b) ? a : b;
$ g++ op2.cpp 7. cout << c;
$ a.out 8. return 0;
1010 9. }
299. What will be the output of the a) 6
following C++ code? b) 5
c) 4
1. #include <iostream> d) 7
2. using namespace std;
3. int main () Answer: a
4. { Explanation: Here the condition is false on
5. int x, y; conditional operator, so the b value is
6. x = 5; assigned to c.
7. y = ++x * ++x; Output:
8. cout << x << y; $ g++ op1.cpp
9. x = 5; $ a.out
10. y = x++ * ++x; 6
11. cout << x << y;
12. return 0; 301. What will be the output of the
13. } following C++ code?

a) 749735 1. #include <iostream>

b) 736749 2. using namespace std;
c) 367497 3. main()
d) 367597 4. {
5. double a = 21.09399;

61
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

6. float b = 10.20; will predicate the output using the given

7. int c ,d; condition.
8. c = (int) a;
9. d = (int) b; 304. The switch statement is also called as?
10. cout << c <<' '<< d; a) choosing structure
11. return 0; b) selective structure
12. } c) certain structure
d) bitwise structure
10 a) 20
21 b) 10 Answer: b
10 c) 21 Explanation: The switch statement is used
20 d) 10 to choose the certain code to execute, So it
is also called as selective structure.
Answer: c
Explanation: In this program, we are casting 305. What will be the output of the
the operator to integer, So it is printing as following C++ code?
21 and 10.
Output: 1. #include <iostream>
$ g++ op5.cpp 2. using namespace std;
$ a.out 3. int main ()
21 10 4. {
5. int n;
302. How are many sequences of 6. for (n = 5; n > 0; n--)
statements present in c++? 7. {
a) 4 8. cout << n;
b) 3 9. if (n == 3)
c) 5 10. break;
d) 6 11. }
12. return 0;
Answer: c 13. }
Explanation: There are five sequences of
statements. They are Preprocessor a) 543
directives, Comments, Declarations, b) 54
Function Declarations, Executable c) 5432
statements. d) 53

303. The if..else statement can be replaced Answer: a

by which operator? Explanation: In this program, We are
a) Bitwise operator printing the numbers in reverse order but
b) Conditional operator by using break statement we stopped
c) Multiplicative operator printing on 3.
d) Addition operator Output:
$ g++ stat.cpp
Answer: b $ a.out
Explanation: In the conditional operator, it
62
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

543 a) error
b) 15
306. What will be the output of the c) infinite times of printing n
following C++ code? d) none of the mentioned

1. #include <iostream> Answer: c

2. using namespace std; Explanation: There is not a condition in the
3. int main() for loop, So it will loop continuously.
4. {
5. int a = 10; 308. What will be the output of the
6. if (a < 15) following C++ code?
7. {
8. time: 1. #include <iostream>
9. cout << a; 2. using namespace std;
10. goto time; 3. int main()
11. } 4. {
12. break; 5. int i;
13. return 0; 6. for (i = 0; i < 10; i++);
14. } 7. {
8. cout << i;
a) 1010 9. }
b) 10 10. return 0;
c) infinitely print 10 11. }
d) compile time error
a) 0123456789
Answer: d b) 10
Explanation: Because the break statement c) 012345678910
need to be presented inside a loop or a d) compile time error
switch statement.
Answer: b
307. What will be the output of the Explanation: for loop with a semicolon is
following C++ code? called as body less for loop. It is used only
for incrementing the variable values. So in
1. #include <iostream> this program the value is incremented and
2. using namespace std; printed as 10.
3. int main() Output:
4. { $ g++ stat2.cpp
5. int n = 15; $ a.out
6. for ( ; ;) 10
7. cout << n;
8. return 0; 309. How many types of loops are there in
9. } C++?
a) 4
b) 2

63
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) 3 the class
d) 1 c) It becomes an inline function of the class
d) The program gives an error
Answer: a
Explanation: There are four types of loop. Answer: c
They are the while, do while, nested, for the Explanation: Any function which is defined
loop.
inside a class and has no complex
310. Which looping process is best used operations like loops, a large number of
when the number of iterations is known? lines then it is made inline.
a) for
b) while 313. What is an inline function?
c) do-while a) A function that is expanded at each call
d) all looping processes require that the during execution
iterations be known b) A function that is called during compile
time
Answer: a
Explanation: Because in for loop we are c) A function that is not checked for syntax
allowed to provide starting and ending errors
conditions of loops, hence fixing the d) A function that is not checked for
number of iterations of loops, whereas no semantic analysis
such things are provided by other loops.
Answer: a
311. Which of the following is the default Explanation: Inline function is those which
return value of functions in C++? are expanded at each call during the
a) int execution of the program to reduce the cost
b) char of jumping during execution.
c) float
d) void 314. An inline function is expanded during
______________
Answer: a a) compile-time
Explanation: C++ uses int as the default b) run-time
return values for functions. It also restricts c) never expanded
that the return type of the main function d) end of the program
must be int.
Answer: a
312. What happens to a function defined Explanation: An inline function is expanded
inside a class without any complex during the compile-time of a program.
operations (like looping, a large number of
lines, etc)? 315. How many ways of passing a
a) It becomes a virtual function of the class parameter are there in c++?
b) It becomes a default calling function of a) 1
b) 2

64
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) 3 10. {
d) 4 11. int x = 1, y = 3, z = 7;
12. copy (x, y, z);
Answer: c 13. cout << "x =" << x << ", y ="
Explanation: There are three ways of << y << ", z =" << z;
passing a parameter. They are pass by 14. return 0;
value,pass by reference and pass by 15. }
pointer.
a) 2 5 10
316. Which is used to keep the call by b) 2 4 5
reference value as intact? c) 2 6 14
a) static d) 2 4 9
b) const
c) absolute Answer: c
d) virtual Explanation: Because we multiplied the
values by 2 in the copy function.
Answer: b Output:
Explanation: Because const will not change $ g++ arg6.cpp
the value of the variables during the $ a.out
execution. x = 2,y = 6,z = 14

317. By default how the value are passed in 319. What will happen when we use void in
c++? argument passing?
a) call by value a) It will not return value to its caller
b) call by reference b) It will return value to its caller
c) call by pointer c) Maybe or may not be return any value to
d) call by object its caller
d) It will return value with help of object
Answer: a
Explanation: None. Answer: a
Explanation: As void is not having any
318. What will be the output of the return value, it will not return the value to
following C++ code? the caller.

1. #include <iostream> 320. What will be the output of the

2. using namespace std; following C++ code?
3. void copy (int& a, int& b, int&
c) 1. #include <iostream>
4. { 2. using namespace std;
5. a *= 2; 3. void Sum(int a, int b, int & c)
6. b *= 2; 4. {
7. c *= 2; 5. a = b + c;
8. } 6. b = a + c;
9. int main () 7. c = a + b;

65
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

8. } Answer: c
9. int main() Explanation: There are 3 specifiers used to
10. { derive a class. They are private, protected
11. int x = 2, y =3;
and public.
12. Sum(x, y, y);
13. cout << x << " " << y; 323. Which specifier makes all the data
14. return 0;
members and functions of base class
15. }
inaccessible by the derived class?
a) 2 3 a) private
b) 6 9 b) protected
c) 2 15 c) public
d) compile time error
d) both private and protected
Answer: c Answer: a
Explanation: We have passed three values
Explanation: Private access specifier is used
and it will manipulate according to the
given condition and yield the result as 2 15 to make all the data members and functions
Output: of the base class inaccessible.
$ g++ arg.cpp
$ a.out 324. If a class is derived privately from a
2 15 base class then
______________________________
321. What is Inheritance in C++?
a) no members of the base class is inherited
a) Wrapping of data into a single class
b) all members are accessible by the
b) Deriving new classes from existing classes
derived class
c) Overloading of classes
c) all the members are inherited by the class
d) Classes with same names
but are hidden and cannot be accessible
Answer: b d) no derivation of the class gives an error
Explanation: Inheritance is the concept of
Answer: c
OOPs in which new classes are derived from
Explanation: Whenever a class is derived, all
existing classes in order to reuse the
the members of the base class is inherited
properties of classes defined earlier.
by the derived class but are not accessible
322. How many specifiers are used to derive by the derived class.
a class?
325. What is a virtual function in C++?
a) 1 a) Any member function of a class
b) 2 b) All functions that are derived from the
c) 3 base class
d) 4 c) All the members that are accessing base
class data members
d) All the functions which are declared in

66
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

the base class and is re-defined/overridden

by the derived class int main(int argc, char const *argv[])
{
Answer: d B b;
Explanation: Virtual function is a function b.func();
that is declared inside the base class and is return 0;
re-defined inside the derived class. }

326. Which is the correct syntax of a) Hello this is class B

declaring a virtual function? b) Hello this is class A
a) virtual int func(); c) Error
b) virtual int func(){}; d) Segmentation fault
c) inline virtual func();
d) inline virtual func(){}; Answer: a
Explanation: Normal execution of the
Answer: a program and object calls func() from class B.
Explanation: To make a function virtual
function we just need to add virtual 328. What will be the output of the
keyword at the starting of the function following C++ code?
declaration.
#include <iostream>
327. What will be the output of the #include <string>
following C++ code? using namespace std;
class A
#include <iostream> {
#include <string> float d;
using namespace std; public:
class A{ virtual void func(){
float d; cout<<"Hello this is class
public: A\n";
virtual void func(){ }
cout<<"Hello this is class };
A\n";
} class B: public A
}; {
int a = 15;
class B: public A{ public:
int a = 15; void func(){
public: cout<<"Hello this is class
void func(){ B\n";
cout<<"Hello this is class }
B\n"; };
}
}; int main(int argc, char const *argv[])

67
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

{ late binding or dynamic linkage. Late

A *a; binding because function binding to the
a->func(); object is done during runtime. Dynamic
return 0; linkage because this binding is done during
} runtime.

a) Hello this is class A 331. What is a pure virtual function?

b) Hello this is class B a) A virtual function defined inside the base
c) Error class
d) Segmentation Fault b) A virtual function that has no definition
relative to the base class
Answer: d c) A virtual function that is defined inside
Explanation: As object ‘a’ is a pointer object the derived class
and we know every pointer needs to be d) Any function that is made virtual
initialised memory before use. Hence
segmentation fault. Use A *a = new A(); to Answer: b
initialise memory to the object. Explanation: A virtual function that has no
definition relative to the base class is called
329. Which statement is incorrect about a pure virtual function.
virtual function.
a) They are used to achieve runtime 332. Which attribute specifies a unique
polymorphism alphanumeric identifier to be associated
b) They are used to hide objects with an element?
c) Each virtual function declaration starts
a) class
with the virtual keyword
d) All of the mentioned b) id
c) article
Answer: b d) html
Explanation: Virtual function are used to
Answer: b
achieve runtime polymorphism by calling
the right function during runtime. Their Explanation: HTML is Hyper Text Markup
declaration starts with a virtual keyword. Language which is used to create web pages
and applications. The id attribute is most
330. The concept of deciding which function
used to point to a style in a style sheet, and
to invoke during runtime is called
______________________ by JavaScript (via the HTML DOM) to
a) late binding manipulate the element with the specific id.
b) dynamic linkage Class is a name given to HTML elements
c) static binding which can be used by CSS and JavaScript for
d) both late binding and dynamic linkage styling the web pages. A self-contained
content is called attribute.
Answer: d
Explanation: The concept of deciding which 333. The _____________ attribute specifies
function to invoke during runtime is called an inline style associated with an element,

68
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

which determines the rendering of the a) lang

affected element. b) sub
a) dir c) dir
b) style d) ds
c) class
Answer: c
d) article
Explanation: The dir attribute specifies the
Answer: b text direction of the element’s content. List
Explanation: Style attribute specifies an of directory files is given by dir tag which is
inline style for an element. The style not supported in HTML5. The language of
attribute will override any style set globally, an element’s content is given by lang
e.g. styles specified in the style tag or in an attribute. The subscript text is defined by
external style sheet. A self-contained sub attribute.
content is called attribute. Class is a name
336. Which of the following is the attribute
given to HTML elements which can be used
that specifies the column name from the
by CSS and JavaScript for styling the web
data source object that supplies the bound
pages. List of directory files is given by dir
data?
tag which is not supported in HTML5.
a) dataFormatAs
334. Which attribute is used to provide an b) datafld
advisory text about an element or its c) disabled
contents? d) datasrc
a) tooltip
Answer: b
b) dir
Explanation: DataFormatAs specifies how
c) title
data is rendered. The identifier for data
d) head
source is set by dataSrc. Datafld attribute
Answer: c specifies the column name from the data
Explanation: The extra information about source object that supplies the bound data.
an element is specified by title tag. The This attribute is specific to Microsoft’s data
information is most often shown as a binding. A Disabled is a boolean attribute
tooltip text when the mouse moves over which specifies that <input> element should
the element. List of directory files is given be disabled.
by dir tag which is not supported in HTML5.
337. Which of the following is the attribute
Tooltip or else infotip is a graphical user
that indicates the name of the data source
interface of an element. Container of
object that supplies the data that is bound
metadata is called head.
to this element?
335. The __________ attribute sets the text a) dataFormatAs
direction as related to the lang attribute. b) datafld
69
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) disabled specifies a shortcut key to activate/focus an

d) datasrc element. It specifies a keyboard navigation
accelerator for the element. We can use
Answer: d
accesskey attribute in forms or links.
Explanation: The identifier for data source is
set by dataSrc. When the dataSrc property 340. Which feature was already introduced
is applied to a tabular data consumer, the before HTML5?
entire data set is repeated by the a) Canvas/SVG
consuming elements. DataFormatAs b) Video
specifies how data is rendered. A Disabled is c) Geolocation
a boolean attribute which specifies that d) Frames
<input> element should be disabled.
Answer: d
338. Which of the following is the attribute Explanation: Until recently you could not
that specifies additional horizontal space, in draw on the web and graphics were not
pixels, to be reserved on either side of an very interactive but canvas/SVG which were
embedded item like an iframe, applet, introduced by HTML5 solved all the
image, and so on? problems. Video, Geolocation were also
a) height new features introduced by HTML5. Frames
b) hspace were already there before the launch of
c) hidefocus HTML5.
d) datasrc
341. Which tag is used with JavaScript?
Answer: b a) <canvas>
Explanation: Height of element is pixels is b) <table>
specified by height attribute. The hspace c) <article>
attribute specifies the whitespace on left d) <footer>
and right side of an object. The hidefocus
Answer: a
specifies whether a focused rectangle is
Explanation: <canvas> tag is basically used
drawn around an object. The identifier for
for graphics via scripting i.e. usually with
data source is set by dataSrc.
Java Script (scripting language, basically
339. The accesskey attribute specifies a used to create animations). Other tags like
keyboard navigation accelerator for the <table>, <article>, <footer> can be used
element. simply with HTML.
a) True
342. What application can one create even
b) False
before the introduction of HTML5?
Answer: a a) Web applications
Explanation: The accesskey attribute b) Mobile applications

70
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) Forms a) 00
d) Browser based games b) 0x
c) 0X
Answer: c
d) Both 0x and 0X
Explanation: With the help of HTML5 and
JavaScript it became possible to create Answer: d
excellent mobile applications, browser Explanation: Generally, X or x denotes
based games, web applications and many hexadecimal values. So, any integer literal
more other applications. Forms were that begins with 0X or 0x denotes a
already introduced before HTML5. hexadecimal number.

343. JavaScript Code can be called by using 346. The generalised syntax for a real
___________ number representation is __________
a) RMI a) [digits][.digits][(E|e)[(+|-)]digits]
b) Triggering Event b) [digits][+digits][(E|e)[(+|-)]digits]
c) Preprocessor c) [digits][(E|e)[(+|-)]digits]
d) Function/Method d) [.digits][digits][(E|e)[(+|-)]digits]

Answer: d Answer: a
Explanation: JavaScript code can be called Explanation: Floating-point literals may also
by making a function call to the element on be represented using exponential notation:
which JavaScript has to be run. There are a real number followed by the letter e (or
many other methods like onclick, onload, E), followed by an optional plus or minus
and onsubmit etc. sign, followed by an integer exponent. This
notation represents the real number
344. The type of a variable that is volatile is
multiplied by 10 to the power of the
_______________
exponent.
a) Volatile variable
b) Mutable variable 347. JavaScript _________ when there is an
c) Immutable variable indefinite or an infinite value during an
d) Dynamic variable arithmetic computation.
a) Prints an exception error
Answer: b
b) Prints an overflow error
Explanation: The variables whose values can
c) Displays “Infinity”
be changed are called mutable variable
d) Prints the value as such
types. In JavaScript, only objects and arrays
are mutable, not primitive values. Answer: c
Explanation: When the result of a numeric
345. A hexadecimal literal begins with
operation is larger than the largest
__________
representable number (overflow),

71
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

JavaScript prints the value as Infinity. the output device is a printer rather than a
Similarly, when a negative value becomes VDU).
larger than the largest representable
350. The snippet that has to be used to
negative number, the result is negative
check if “a” is not equal to “null” is
infinity. The infinite values behave as you
_________
would expect: adding, subtracting,
a) if(a!=null)
multiplying, or dividing them by anything
b) if (!a)
results in an infinite value (possibly with the
c) if(a!null)
sign reversed).
d) if(a!==null)
348. Which of the following is not
Answer: d
considered as an error in JavaScript?
Explanation: A strict comparison (e.g., ===)
a) Syntax error
is only true if the operands are of the same
b) Missing of semicolons
type and the contents match. The more
c) Division by zero
commonly-used abstract comparison (e.g.
d) Missing of Bracket
==) converts the operands to the same type
Answer: c before making the comparison. The not-
Explanation: Division by zero is not an error equal operator !== compares 0 to null and
in JavaScript: it simply returns infinity or evaluates to either true or false.
negative infinity. There is one exception,
351. The statement a===b refers to
however: zero divided by zero does not
_________
have a well defined value, and the result of
a) Both a and b are equal in value, type and
this operation is the special not-a-number
reference address
value, printed as NaN.
b) Both a and b are equal in value
349. The escape sequence ‘\f’ stands for c) Both a and b are equal in value and type
_________ d) There is no such statement
a) Floating numbers
Answer: c
b) Representation of functions that returns
Explanation: ”===” operator is known as the
a value
strict comparison operator. A strict
c) \f is not present in JavaScript
comparison (===) is only true if the
d) Form feed
operands are of the same type and the
Answer: d contents match.
Explanation: \f is the JavaScript escape
352. Assume that we have to convert
sequence that stands for Form feed
“false” that is a non-string to string. The
(\u000C). It skips to the start of the next
command that we use is (without invoking
page. (Applies mostly to terminals where
the “new” operator).

72
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) false.toString() structure with a list of legal elements and

b) String(false) attributes.
c) String newvariable=”false”
355. Which among the following are true
d) Both false.toString() and String(false)
for an Extensible markup language?
Answer: d a) Human Readable/ Machine Readable
Explanation: The three approaches for b) Extended from SGML
converting to string are: value.toString(),”” c) Developed by www consortium
+ value and String(value). A non-string can d) All of the mentioned
be converted in two ways without using a
Answer: d
new operator false.toString () and
Explanation: XML is an open format markup
String(false).
language with a filename extension of .xml.
353. XML is a _________ markup language.
356. Which of them have XML as their
a) meta
default format?
b) beta
a) IWork
c) octa
b) LibreOffice
d) peta
c) OpenOffice
Answer: a d) All of the mentioned
Explanation: Generally speaking, a meta
Answer: d
language is a language used to describe a
Explanation: More that hundred of
language. XML is a metalanguage that is
document formats using XML syntax have
used to describe a markup language.
been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP
354. XML uses _________ principle to and XHTML.
formally describe the data.
357. A DTD is associated with a XML file by
a) DDL
means of ___________
b) DTD
a) Function
c) DML
b) <!DOCTYPE>
d) None of the mentioned
c) Macros
Answer: b d) None of the mentioned
Explanation: A document type definition
Answer: b
(DTD) is a set of markup declarations that
Explanation: A document type definition
define a document type for an SGML-family
defines the legal building blocks of an XML
markup language (SGML, XML, HTML). A
document .
Document Type Definition (DTD) defines
the legal building blocks of an XML 358. Which of the following is not an
document. It defines the document example of electronic mark up?

73
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) HTML Answer: a
b) LaTeX Explanation: There are two types of
c) PostScript polymorphism in Java. Compile time
d) None of the mentioned polymorphism (overloading) and runtime
polymorphism (overriding).
Answer: d
Explanation: There are three categories of 362. When does method overloading is
electronic markup: presentational, determined?
procedural, and descriptive markup. a) At run time
Examples are XML, HTML, LaTeX, etc. b) At compile time
c) At coding time
359. troff and nroff are _________ in Unix.
d) At execution time
a) functions
b) typesetting tools Answer: b
c) System sofwares Explanation: Overloading is determined at
d) None of the mentioned compile time. Hence, it is also known as
compile time polymorphism.
Answer: b
Explanation: Early examples of computer 363. What is the range of short data type in
markup languages can be found in Java?
typesetting tools like troff and nroff in Unix. a) -128 to 127
b) -32768 to 32767
360. Which of the following is not OOPS
c) -2147483648 to 2147483647
concept in Java?
d) None of the mentioned
a) Inheritance
b) Encapsulation Answer: b
c) Polymorphism Explanation: Short occupies 16 bits in
d) Compilation memory. Its range is from -32768 to 32767.

Answer: d 364. What is the range of byte data type in

Explanation: There are 4 OOPS concepts in Java?
Java. Inheritance, Encapsulation, a) -128 to 127
Polymorphism and Abstraction. b) -32768 to 32767
c) -2147483648 to 2147483647
361. Which of the following is a type of
d) None of the mentioned
polymorphism in Java?
a) Compile time polymorphism Answer: a
b) Execution time polymorphism Explanation: Byte occupies 8 bits in
c) Multiple polymorphism memory. Its range is from -128 to 127.
d) Multilevel polymorphism

74
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

365. How constructor can be used for a c) i, iii are correct

servlet? d) i, ii, iii, iv are correct
a) Initialization
Answer: b
b) Constructor function
Explanation: Servlets execute on Server and
c) Initialization and Constructor function
doesn’t have GUI. Applets execute on
d) Setup() method
browser and has GUI.
Answer: c
368. Which of the following code is used to
Explanation: We cannot declare
get an attribute in a HTTP Session object in
constructors for interface in Java. This
servlets?
means we cannot enforce this requirement
a) session.getAttribute(String name)
to any class which implements Servlet
b) session.alterAttribute(String name)
interface.
c) session.updateAttribute(String name)
Also, Servlet requires ServletConfig object
d) session.setAttribute(String name)
for initialization which is created by
container. Answer: a
Explanation: session has various methods
366. Can servlet class declare constructor
for use.
with ServletConfig object as an argument?
a) True 369. Which of these functions is called to
b) False display the output of an applet?
a) display()
Answer: b
b) paint()
Explanation: ServletConfig object is created
c) displayApplet()
after the constructor is called and before
d) PrintApplet()
init() is called. So, servlet init parameters
cannot be accessed in the constructor. Answer: b
Explanation: Whenever the applet requires
367. What is the difference between
to redraw its output, it is done by using
servlets and applets?
method paint().
i. Servlets execute on Server; Applets
execute on browser 370. Which of these methods can be used
ii. Servlets have no GUI; Applet has GUI to output a string in an applet?
iii. Servlets creates static web pages; a) display()
Applets creates dynamic web pages b) print()
iv. Servlets can handle only a single request; c) drawString()
Applet can handle multiple requests d) transient()
a) i, ii, iii are correct
b) i, ii are correct Answer: c
Explanation: drawString() method is defined

75
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

in Graphics class, it is used to output a 374. Which keys allows user to enter
string in an applet. frequently used operations in a single key
stroke?
371. Which of these methods is a part of
a) Function keys
Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) ?
b) Cursor control keys
a) display()
c) Trackball
b) paint()
d) Control keys
c) drawString()
d) transient() Answer: a
Explanation: Function keys are used to
Answer: b
access frequently used areas.
Explanation: paint() is an abstract method
defined in AWT. 375. ________ are used to measure dial
rotations.
372. Which of these modifiers can be used
a) Potentiometers
for a variable so that it can be accessed
b) Volta meter
from any thread or parts of a program?
c) Parameter
a) transient
d) Only a
b) volatile
c) global Answer: d
d) No modifier is needed Explanation: Potentiometer measures the
dial rotations.
Answer: b
Explanation: The volatile modifier tells the 376. The device which is used to position
compiler that the variable modified by the screen cursor is
volatile can be changed unexpectedly by a) Mouse
other part of the program. Specially used in b) Joystick
situations involving multithreading. c) Data glove
d) Both a and c
373. The most commonly used input device
is Answer: a
a) Mouse Explanation: A mouse is small hand-held
b) Keyboard box used to position the screen cursor.
c) Scanner
377. _________ is used for detecting mouse
d) Printer
motion.
Answer: b a) Optical sensor
Explanation: Keyboard is the most b) Rollers on the bottom of mouse
commonly used input device. c) Both a and b
d) Sensor

76
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: c 381. Expansion of line DDA algorithm is

Explanation: Rollers and optical sensors are a) Digital difference analyzer
used to record the amount and direction of b) Direct differential analyzer
movement. c) Digital differential analyzer
d) Data differential analyzer
378. The Cartesian slope-intercept equation
for a straight line is Answer: c
a) y = m.x + b Explanation: DDA stands for digital
b) y = b.x + m differential analyzer.
c) y = x.x + m
382. Which algorithm is a faster method for
d) y = b + m.m
calculating pixel positions?
Answer: a a) Bresenham’s line algorithm
Explanation: Equation for a straight line is y b) Parallel line algorithm
= m.x + b. c) Mid-point algorithm
d) DDA line algorithm
379. For lines with slope magnitude |m|<1,
?x can be_________ Answer: d
a) A set corresponding vertical deflection Explanation: The DDA is a faster method for
b) A set proportional to a small horizontal calculating pixel positions.
deflection voltage
383. The function which references a single
c) Only a
attribute that specifies how a primitive is to
d) All of the mentioned
be displayed with that attribute setting is
Answer: b called
Explanation:?x can be a set proportional to a) Individual attribute
a small horizontal deflection voltage only if b) Unbundled attribute
slope magnitude |m| < 1. c) Bundled attribute
d) A or B
380. On raster system, lines are plotted
with Answer: d
a) Lines Explanation: Individual attribute are also
b) Dots known as unbundled attribute.
c) Pixels
384. A particular set of attribute values for a
d) None of the mentioned
primitive on each output device is chosen
Answer: c by specifying appropriate table index is
Explanation: Using pixels lines can be known as?
plotted. a) Individual attribute
b) Unbundled attribute

77
 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

c) Bundled attribute Answer: a

d) A or B Explanation: A translation is applied to an
object by repositioning it along with straight
Answer: c
line path from one location to another.
Explanation: Bundle attributes specifies
group of attribute values. And these values 388. We translate a two-dimensional point
can be bundled into the workstation table. by adding
a) Translation distances
385. A table for which, a primitive defines
b) Translation difference
groups of attribute values to be used when
c) X and Y
displaying that primitive on a particular
d) Only a
output device is called
a) Bundle table Answer: d
b) Index table Explanation: We can translate 2D point by
c) Both a and b adding translation distances dx and dy.
d) None of these
389. The translation distances (dx, dy) is
Answer: a called as
Explanation: None. a) Translation vector
b) Shift vector
386. The choice between a bundled
c) Both a and b
attribute or an unbundled attribute is made
d) Neither a nor b
by
a) Setting switch Answer: c
b) Setting bundle table Explanation: The translation distances (dx,
c) Index table dy) from its original position is called as
d) Only a translation vector or shift vector.

Answer: d 390. In 2D-translation, a point (x, y) can

Explanation: By setting switch the user can move to the new position (x’, y’) by using
change their choice between bundled the equation
attribute or an unbundled attribute. a) x’=x+dx and y’=y+dx
b) x’=x+dx and y’=y+dy
387. A translation is applied to an object by
c) X’=x+dy and Y’=y+dx
a) Repositioning it along with straight line
d) X’=x-dx and y’=y-dy
path
b) Repositioning it along with circular path Answer: b
c) Only b Explanation: By adding translation distance
d) All of the mentioned dx and dy to its originsl position (x, y) we
can obtain a new position (x’, y’).

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

391.The two-dimensional translation end points

equation in the matrix form is b) Counterclockwise translation about the
a) P’=P+T pivot point
b) P’=P-T c) Counterclockwise rotations about the
c) P’=P*T pivot point
d) P’=p d) Negative direction

Answer: a Answer: c
Explanation: The 2D translation equation is Explanation: A positive value for the
P’=P+T. rotation angle ϴ defines counterclockwise
rotations about the pivot point.
392. A two dimensional rotation is applied
to an object by 395. The rotation axis that is perpendicular
a) Repositioning it along with straight line to the xy plane and passes through the
path pivot point is known as
b) Repositioning it along with circular path a) Rotation
c) Only b b) Translation
d) Any of the mentioned c) Scaling
d) Shearing
Answer: c
Explanation: A two dimensional rotation is Answer: a
applied to an object by repositioning it Explanation: The rotation transformation is
along with circular path. also described as a rotation about a
rotation axis that is perpendicular to the xy
393. To generate a rotation , we must
plane and passes through the pivot point.
specify
a) Rotation angle ϴ 396. The original coordinates of the point in
b) Distances dx and dy polor coordinates are
c) Rotation distance a) X’=r cos (Ф +ϴ) and Y’=r cos (Ф +ϴ)
d) All of the mentioned b) X’=r cos (Ф +ϴ) and Y’=r sin (Ф +ϴ)
c) X’=r cos (Ф -ϴ) and Y’=r cos (Ф -ϴ)
Answer: a
d) X’=r cos (Ф +ϴ) and Y’=r sin (Ф -ϴ)
Explanation: Generate a rotation, we must
specify rotation angle ϴ of the rotation Answer: b
point or pivot point which the object is to Explanation: The original coordinates of the
be rotated. point in polor coordinates are X’=r cos (Ф
+ϴ) and Y’=r sin (Ф +ϴ).
394. Positive values for the rotation angle ϴ
defines 397. The two-dimensional rotation equation
a) Counterclockwise rotations about the in the matrix form is

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) P’=P+T vertex with scaling factor sx and sy to

b) P’=R*P produce the transformation coordinates (
c) P’=P*P Xnew, Ynew).
d) P’=R+P
401. If the scaling factors values sx and sy <
Answer: b 1 then
Explanation: The 2D translation equation is a) It reduces the size of object
P’=R*P. b) It increases the size of object
c) It stunts the shape of an object
398. The transformation that is used to
d) None
alter the size of an object is
a) Scaling Answer: a
b) Rotation Explanation: If the scaling factors values sx
c) Translation and sy < 1 then it reduces the size of object.
d) Reflection
402. If the scaling factors values sx and sy
Answer: a are assigned to the same value then
Explanation: Scaling is used to alter the size a) Uniform rotation is produced
of an object. b) Uniform scaling is produced
c) Scaling cannot be done
399. The two-dimensional scaling equation
d) Scaling can be done or cannot be done
in the matrix form is
a) P’=P+T Answer: b
b) P’=S*P Explanation: When sx and sy are assigned
c) P’=P*R the same value then uniform scaling is
d) P’=R+S produced that maintains relative object
proportions.
Answer: b
Explanation: The 2d scaling equation is 403.The matrix representation for
P’=S*P. translation in homogeneous coordinates is
a) P’=T+P
400. Scaling of a polygon is done by
b) P’=S*P
computing
c) P’=R*P
a) The product of (x, y) of each vertex
d) P’=T*P
b) (x, y) of end points
c) Center coordinates Answer: d
d) Only a Explanation: The matrix representation for
translation is P’=T*P.
Answer: d
Explanation: Scaling of a polygon is done by 104. The matrix representation for scaling
computing the product of (x, y) of each in homogeneous coordinates is

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

a) P’=S*P Answer: d
b) P’=R*P Explanation: Successive translations are
c) P’=dx+dy additive.
d) P’=S*S P’= T(tx1, ty1) .[T(tx2, ty2)] P
= {T(tx1, ty1). T(tx2, ty2)}.P
Answer: a
Or T(tx1, ty1). T(tx2, ty2) = T(tx1+tx2 , ty1 +
Explanation: The matrix representation for
ty2).
scaling is P’=S*P.
408. Two successive translations are not
405. The matrix representation for rotation
commutative.
in homogeneous coordinates is
a) True
a) P’=T+P
b) False
b) P’=S*P
c) P’=R*P Answer: b
d) P’=dx+dy Explanation: According to commutative
property, the order does not matter. Same
Answer: c
as in the case of successive translations.
Explanation: The matrix representation for
Hence we can say that two successive
rotation is P’=R*P.
translations are commutative.
406. What is the use of homogeneous
409. General pivot point rotation can be
coordinates and matrix representation?
expressed as _____________________
a) To treat all 3 transformations in a
a) T(zr,yr).R(θ).T(-zr,-yr) = R(xr,yr,θ)
consistent way
b) T(xr,yr).R(θ).T(-xr,-yr) = R(xr,yr,θ)
b) To scale
c) T(xr,yr).R(θ).T(-xr,-yr) = R(zr,yr,θ)
c) To rotate
d) T(xr,yr).R(θ).T(-xr,-yr) = R(xr,yr,Q)
d) To shear the object
Answer: b
Answer: a
Explanation: Since the first two parameters
Explanation: To treat all 3 transformations
are in 2D, hence only ‘x’ and ‘y’ can be
in a consistent way, we use homogeneous
variable along with ‘θ’. In other options,
coordinates and matrix representation.
there is one more parameter ‘z’.
407. Two successive translations
410. Which of the following is NOT correct?
are___________________
(A, B and C are matrices)
a) Multiplicative
a) A.B = B.A
b) Inverse
b) A.B.C = (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
c) Subtractive
c) C(A+B) = C.A + C.B
d) Additive
d) 1 A = A 1

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: a 414. If two pure reflections about a line

Explanation: Matrix multiplication does not passing through the origin are applied
commute. We cannot switch the order of successively the result is
the factors and expect to end up with the ___________________
same result. Hence, A.B ≠ B.A. a) Pure rotation
b) Quarter rotation
411. Reflection about the line y=0, the axis,
c) Half rotation
is accomplished with the transformation
d) True reflection
matrix with how many elements as ‘0’?
a) 8 Answer: a
b) 9 Explanation: When we apply reflection one
c) 4 time, it rotates the image by 180 degrees.
d) 6 So, if we repeat it 2 times the total
reflection will be of 360 degrees.
Answer: d
Explanation: The matrix used for reflection 415. What is the determinant of the pure
about y=0 is an identity matrix with 6 ‘0’s reflection matrix?
and two ‘1’s and one element as ‘-1’. a) 1
b) 0
412. In a rotation, by how much angle is the
c) -1
object rotated?
d) 2
a) 45 degree
b) 90 degree Answer: c
c) 180 degree Explanation: The pure reflection matrix is:
d) 360 degree [T] = | 1 0 |
| 0 -1|
Answer: c
So, the determinant will be = (1) (-1) – (0)
Explanation: Reflection is the mirror image
(0) = 0.
of the original object. It rotates the object
1890 degrees. The left side image is formed 416. Shearing is also termed as
into right side and vice versa. ________________
a) Selecting
413. Reflection is a special case of rotation.
b) Sorting
a) True
c) Scaling
b) False
d) Skewing
Answer: b
Answer: d
Explanation: Reflection is a special case of
Explanation: In the case of shear only one
rotation of 180° about a line in xy plane
coordinate changes its coordinates and
passing through the origin.

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

other preserves its values, that’s why it is 420. Co-ordinates are ranging according to
also called skewing. the screen resolution.
a) True
417. Shearing and reflection are types of
b) False
translation.
a) True Answer: a
b) False Explanation: When we display a scene, only
those objects which have a particular
Answer: b
window are displayed. So for that
Explanation: Shearing and reflection are not
mechanism to work, co-ordinates are made
types of translation. They are types of
to range themselves according to the
transformation. Even translation is also a
screen resolution.
type of transformation.
422. Any convenient co-ordinate system or
418. Which of this is compulsory for 2D
Cartesian co-ordinates which can be used to
reflection.
define the picture is called ___________
a) Reflection plane.
a) spherical co-ordinates
b) Origin
b) vector co-ordinates
c) Reflection axis
c) viewport co-ordinates
d) Co-ordinate axis.
d) world co-ordinates
Answer: c
Answer: d
Explanation: Reflection axis is the axis with
Explanation: World Coordinate Systems
respect to which reflection is done. In 3D, it
(WCS) are the type of coordinate systems
is reflection plane rather than reflection
which describe the physical coordinates
axis.
associated with a data array, such as sky
419. A view is selected by specifying a sub- coordinates. It is also used to denote
area of the __________ picture area. wavelengths of a spectrum and to draw
a) half astronomical images.
b) total
423. The object space or the space in which
c) full
the application model is defined is called
d) quarter
____________
Answer: b a) World co-ordinate system
Explanation: We consider a formal b) Screen co-ordinate system
mechanism of view, that is, which part of c) World window
the picture is to be displayed. That’s why d) Interface window
we select a view by specifying a sub-area of
Answer: a
the total picture area.
Explanation: World Coordinate System also

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

called as WCS is any coordinate systems c) zooming

that describe the physical coordinates d) copying
associated with a data array. They also used
Answer: b
for an astronomical image, or for
Explanation: The primary use of clipping in
determining the wavelength scale for a
computer graphics is to remove objects,
spectrum.
lines, or line segments that are outside the
424. What is the name of the space in which viewing pane.
the image is displayed?
427. A polygon can be clipped using clipping
a) World co-ordinate system
operations.
b) Screen co-ordinate system
a) True
c) World window
b) False
d) Interface window
Answer: a
Answer: b
Explanation: A polygon can also be clipped
Explanation: The coordinate system of the
by specifying the clipping window.
screen is a Cartesian coordinate system.
Sutherland Hodgeman polygon clipping
The origin (0,0) is at the top left of the
algorithm is used for polygon clipping.
screen. Point is denoted by (x,y), where x is
x co-ordinate and y is y co-ordinate. 428. Which vertex of the polygon is clipped
first in polygon clipping?
425. What is the rectangle in the world
a) top right
defining the region that is to be displayed?
b) bottom right
a) World co-ordinate system
c) bottom left
b) Screen co-ordinate system
d) top left
c) World window
d) Interface window Answer: d
Explanation: In polygon clipping, first the
Answer: c
polygon is clipped against the left edge of
Explanation: The world window specifies
the polygon window to get new vertices of
which part of the window needs to be
the polygon. So, it is the top left which is
drawn. It also defines which part of the
clipped first.
window should be drawn and which part
outside the window should not be drawn 429. How many methods of text clipping are
and should be clipped away. there?
a) 5
426. What is the primary use of clipping in
b) 4
computer graphics?
c) 3
a) adding graphics
d) 2
b) removing objects and lines

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

Answer: c Answer: a
Explanation: There are three methods for Explanation: Line clipping follows the same
text clipping which are − algorithm that is in the case of point
1) All or none string clipping 2) All or none clipping. So, in line clipping also, we will cut
character clipping 3) Text clipping. the portion of the line which is outside of
the window and keep only the portion that
430. A bitmap is collection of
is inside the window.
___________________ that describes an
image. 433. Cohen-Sutherland clipping is an
a) bits example of _________________
b) colors a) polygon clipping
c) algorithms b) text clipping
d) pixels c) line clipping
d) curve clipping
Answer: d
Explanation: A bitmap is a collection of Answer: c
pixels that describe an image. It is a type of Explanation: It is a type of algorithm which
computer graphics that the computer uses is used for line clipping or in other words it
to store and display pictures. is line clipping algorithm. Other examples of
line clipping algorithms are a Liang-Barsky
431. We can change the size or resize the
algorithm and Cyrus-Beck algorithm.
bitmap image.
a) True 434. The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm
b) False divides the region into _____ number of
spaces.
Answer: b
a) 8
Explanation: We can’t resize the bitmap
b) 6
image. When the bitmap image is resized,
c) 7
the image pixels get distorted. It is one of
d) 9
the main disadvantages of the bitmap.
Answer: d
432. In line clipping, the portion of line
Explanation: The Cohen-Sutherland
which is _____________ of window is cut
algorithm divides a two-dimensional space
and the portion that is _____________ the
into 9 regions and then efficiently
window is kept.
determines the lines and portions of lines
a) outside, inside
that are visible. The portions are visible in
b) inside, outside
the central region of interest.
c) exact copy, different
d) different, an exact copy 435. What is the name of the small integer
which holds a bit for the result of every

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 Programming Languages and Computer Graphics Unit – 3 MCQs

plane test?
a) setcode
b) outcode
c) incode
d) bitcode

Answer: b
Explanation: A small integer holding a bit
for the result of every plane test failed in
clipping is termed as outcode. Primitives
may be trivially rejected if the bitwise of all
its vertices outcodes is non zero.

436. An outcode can have ____ bits for two-

dimensional clipping and ____ bits for
three-dimensional clipping.
a) 4,6
b) 6,8
c) 2,4
d) 1,3

Answer: a
Explanation: The outcode will have 4 bits
for two-dimensional clipping, or 6 bits in the
three-dimensional case. The first bit is set
to 1 if the point is above the viewport. The
bits in the 2D outcode represent: top,
bottom, right, left.

86