1.
Introduction to Database Systems
A database is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. It helps multiple users access, manage, and update data efficiently.
2. History of Database Systems
Early Computers were used for mathematical and engineering purposes.
File Processing Systems were introduced for business use, where each application
managed its own data.
Led to the Database Approach with centralized data and management using a Database
Management System (DBMS).
3. Limitations of File-Based Systems
Data duplication: Same data stored in multiple places.
Inconsistency: Different formats and values for same data.
Isolation: Difficult to access data across applications.
Tight coupling: Programs and data dependent on each other.
4. Advantages of Database Approach
Data Sharing among multiple users.
Data Independence from application programs.
Reduced Redundancy and improved Data Integrity.
Enhanced Security and Backup/Recovery support.
Faster application development.
5. What is a DBMS?
A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that helps create, manage, and use
databases. It allows controlled access, enforces rules, and ensures security.
Examples: MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, PostgreSQL
6. Components of a DBMS Environment
Hardware: Computers, networks, and storage devices.
Software: DBMS, operating system, application programs.
Data: Stored information and metadata (data about data).
Procedures: Rules and instructions for using the DBMS.
People:
o Data Administrator (DA): Strategic oversight.
o Database Administrator (DBA): Technical tasks (security, backup, tuning).
o Database Designers: Logical and physical design of databases.
o Application Programmers: Write code to access databases.
o End Users:
Naive: Use applications without knowing database structure.
Sophisticated: Use SQL, write queries, analyze data.
7. ANSI-SPARC Three-Level Architecture
Purpose:
To separate users from the physical details of data storage and promote data independence.
Levels:
External Level: Individual user views.
Conceptual Level: Community-wide logical structure.
Internal Level: Physical storage of data.
Data Independence:
Logical: Changes to conceptual schema do not affect user views.
Physical: Changes to physical storage do not affect conceptual structure.
8. Database Languages
DDL (Data Definition Language): Define database structure (e.g., CREATE TABLE).
DML (Data Manipulation Language): Access and modify data (e.g., SELECT,
INSERT).
o Procedural DML: Specifies how data should be accessed.
o Non-Procedural DML: Specifies what data is needed.
4GL (Fourth-Generation Languages): High-level tools like query generators, forms,
reports.
9. Data Models
Used to represent data logically and clearly.
Categories:
Object-Based: Entity-Relationship (ER), Object-Oriented.
Record-Based: Relational (most used), Hierarchical, Network.
Physical: Focuses on actual storage structures.
10. Conceptual Modeling
Involves creating a conceptual schema, a high-level representation of organizational data. This
is implementation-independent and supports all user views.
11. DBMS Functions
Data storage, retrieval, update
Transaction and concurrency control
Recovery and backup
Authorization and security
Integrity enforcement
Utility services
12. Multi-User DBMS Architectures
a. Teleprocessing:
Traditional model with a central mainframe and dumb terminals.
b. File-Server:
Database resides on a server; DBMS runs on client machines.
High network traffic and complex control.
c. Client-Server:
Server runs DBMS and stores data.
Clients handle interfaces and apps.
Efficient, scalable, and consistent.
13. System Catalog (Metadata)
Stores information like:
Table and column names
User access rights
Data constraints
Used by the DBMS for security, integrity, and optimization.
14. IRDS (Information Resource Dictionary System)
A standard for organizing and managing metadata:
Supports data integrity and controlled access.
Promotes consistency across applications.
