Climate and Climate Change

Earth Sciences

Contents
1 Introduction to Climate 3

2 Climate vs. Weather 3

3 The Climate System 3

4 Climate Change Definition 4

5 Climate Change Forcings and Responses 4

5.1 Forcings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.2 Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2.1 Atmospheric Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2.2 Oceanic Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2.3 Vegetation Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2.4 Land Surface Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2.5 Ice/Cryosphere Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

6 Climate Change Components 5

7 Biological Responses to Climate Change 6

7.1 Genetic Level Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.2 Physiological Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.3 Phenological Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.4 Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.5 Distribution Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.6 Interspecific Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.7 Community and Ecosystem Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

8 Observable Changes Due to Climate Change 7

8.1 Coral Bleaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.2 Habitat Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.3 The ”Escalator to Extinction” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.4 Wildlife Health Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

9 Addressing Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation 9

9.1 Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.1.1 Reducing Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.1.2 Creating Carbon Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.2 Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.2.1 Types of Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.2.2 Adaptation Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.2.3 Adaptation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.3 Maladaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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10 Decision Framework for Climate Action 11

11 Conclusion 11

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1 Introduction to Climate
Climate Definition
Climate is a broad composite of the average conditions of a region, measured in terms of
temperature, amount of rainfall or snowfall, snow and ice cover, and winds over a period
of 30 years.

Climate represents the long-term average weather conditions of a particular place. While
daily weather fluctuates, climate provides a statistical overview of what can generally be expected
in a region. Climate data helps us understand patterns that affect agriculture, wildlife, human
settlements, and various ecosystems.

2 Climate vs. Weather

It’s important to distinguish between climate and weather:

Aspect Climate Weather

Time Scale Long-term (30+ years) Short-term (minutes to days)
Focus Average conditions Current conditions
Prediction Statistical probability Specific forecast
Described as Hot, cold, temperate, arid, Sunny, cloudy, rainy, foggy,
etc. etc.

Table 1: Comparison between Climate and Weather

Climate vs. Weather Example

A region in North India typically has a cold climate in December (climate). However, on
a specific day in December, it might experience rain or sunshine (weather).

The simplest way to understand the distinction: Climate is what you expect, weather is what
you get.

3 The Climate System

The climate system consists of five interconnected components:

Erosion
Precipitation
Hydrosphere (Water) Lithosphere (Land)

Evaporation Nutrients

CO2
Atmosphere (Air) Melting
Biosphere (Vegetation)
O2

Cryosphere (Ice)

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These components continuously interact with each other through various processes:

• Plants absorb CO2 and release O2 , affecting atmospheric composition

• Water causes erosion of land, shaping landscapes

• Ocean temperatures affect air masses and winds

• Wind patterns create ocean currents

• Ice cover influences temperature through albedo effect

4 Climate Change Definition

Climate Change

Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of
the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or
longer).

Key aspects of this definition:

• Statistically significant - Changes must exceed normal variability

• Mean state or variability - Changes can affect averages or increase extremes

• Extended period - Not temporary fluctuations but persistent changes

Climate change may result from:

• Natural internal processes - Volcanic activity, natural carbon cycle variations

• External forcings - Changes in solar radiation, orbital variations

• Persistent anthropogenic changes - Human-induced alterations to:

– Atmospheric composition (greenhouse gas emissions)

– Land use (deforestation, urbanization)

5 Climate Change Forcings and Responses

5.1 Forcings
Climate forcings are factors that cause the climate to change. Major forcings include:

Forcing Description
Plate Tectonics Continental drift affects ocean currents; volcanic eruptions
release CO2
Earth’s Orbit Changes in eccentricity, precession, and tilt (Milankovitch
cycles)
Solar Output Variations in the Sun’s energy output
Anthropogenic Forc- Greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, land use changes
ings

Table 2: Major Climate Forcings

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5.2 Responses
Climate forcings trigger responses in various components of the climate system:

5.2.1 Atmospheric Responses

• Atmospheric expansion as temperatures increase

• Changes in wind patterns and air masses

• Altered precipitation patterns

5.2.2 Oceanic Responses

• Warming of ocean waters

• Increased ocean acidity from CO2 absorption

• Rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting ice

5.2.3 Vegetation Responses

• Shifts in species distribution

• Changes in growing seasons

• Altered productivity rates

5.2.4 Land Surface Responses

• Isostatic rebound when ice sheets melt

• Changed erosion patterns with altered precipitation

• Melting of permafrost

5.2.5 Ice/Cryosphere Responses

• Melting of ice caps and glaciers

• Reduced snow cover

• Thawing permafrost

6 Climate Change Components

Climate change manifests through several interrelated components:

• Temperature changes

– Mean temperature shifts

– Extreme temperature events
– Altered temperature variability and seasonality

• Precipitation changes

– Mean rainfall alterations

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– Extreme rainfall events

– Changed rainfall variability and seasonality
• Extreme weather events
– Floods, droughts
– Storms, hurricanes
– Wildfires
• Atmospheric composition
– CO2 concentration
– Ocean acidification
• Ocean dynamics
– Sea level changes
– Marine current alterations

7 Biological Responses to Climate Change

Climate change triggers cascading biological responses at multiple levels:

7.1 Genetic Level Responses

• Changed allelic diversity
• Altered mutation rates
• Shifted selection pressures
Tawny Owl Color Adaptation

The Tawny Owl occurs in two color morphs: brown and gray. Traditionally, gray morphs
had better camouflage in snowy conditions. With reduced snow cover due to warming,
brown morphs now have better camouflage against tree trunks, leading to increased fre-
quency of the brown color allele in the population.

7.2 Physiological Responses

• Changed activity rates and rhythms
• Increased disease susceptibility
• Altered reproduction and survival rates
• Skewed sex ratios in temperature-dependent sex determination species (e.g., reptiles)

7.3 Phenological Responses

Changes in timing of biological events:
• Migration patterns
• Flowering and budding times
• Breeding seasons
• Hibernation periods

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7.4 Population Dynamics

• Altered sex ratios

• Changed age structure

• Recruitment variations

• Abundance fluctuations

7.5 Distribution Changes

• Range shifts (poleward or upward in elevation)

• Habitat quality changes

• Range contractions or expansions

Warm Edge Extinction Cold Edge Expansion

Warm Edge Cold Edge
Original Range

New Range

Figure 1: Range Shift Due to Climate Warming

7.6 Interspecific Relationships

• Desynchronization of ecological relationships

• Uncoupling of predator-prey or pollinator-plant relationships

• New interactions with invasive species

7.7 Community and Ecosystem Responses

• Changed productivity

• Altered energy and material flows

• Decreased ecosystem services

• Shifted biome boundaries

• Increased desertification

8 Observable Changes Due to Climate Change

8.1 Coral Bleaching
Coral bleaching occurs when environmental
stressors cause corals to expel their symbiotic
algae:

• Triggered by increased temperature, Healthy Coral with Algae

ocean acidification, and pollution

• Results in white/bleached appearance

Bleached Coral (Algae Expelled)

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Figure 2: Coral Bleaching Process
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• Makes corals more vulnerable to disease

and death

• Threatens entire reef ecosystems that

depend on corals

8.2 Habitat Destruction

• Kelp forest die-offs

• Mangrove loss

• Polar ice reduction

• Invasive species spread (e.g., Lantana ca-

mara)

8.3 The ”Escalator to Extinction”

As temperatures warm, species move:

• Upward in elevation (mountain species)

• Poleward in latitude

Mountain Peak
Cold

Warm

The ”Escalator to Extinction”

Mountain-dwelling species move upslope as temperatures warm, but eventually run out of
habitat at the summit, leading to extinction.

8.4 Wildlife Health Impacts

• Respiratory issues from air pollution

• Heat stress and dehydration

• Drowning and waterborne diseases during floods

• Vector-borne disease increases

• Malnutrition from food source disruption

• New infectious diseases

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9 Addressing Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation

9.1 Mitigation
Mitigation

Human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.

Mitigation strategies fall into two main categories:

9.1.1 Reducing Emissions

• Climate policy and legislation

• Renewable energy development

• Energy efficiency improvements

• Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD)

• Sustainable transportation

9.1.2 Creating Carbon Sinks

• Artificial carbon capture technologies

• Geological carbon sequestration

• Afforestation and reforestation

• REDD+ (includes conservation and sustainable forest management)

• Soil carbon enhancement

9.2 Adaptation
Adaptation

Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli

or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

9.2.1 Types of Adaptation

Classification Types
By Timing Anticipatory/proactive vs. Reactive
By Spontaneity Autonomous/spontaneous vs. Planned
By Actor Private vs. Public

Table 3: Types of Adaptation Responses

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9.2.2 Adaptation Capacity

Adaptive Capacity

The ability of a system to adjust to climate change, including climate variability and
extremes, to moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or cope with
consequences.

9.2.3 Adaptation Options

Three primary approaches to adaptation:

• Resistance - Creating systems that can withstand climate changes

– Developing drought-resistant crops

– Building stronger infrastructure
– Creating predictive models for fires, diseases, etc.

• Resilience - Enhancing ability to recover from climate impacts

– Seed banking to preserve genetic diversity

– Promoting biodiversity-rich ecosystems
– Intensive management during establishment phases

• Response - Enabling systems to adjust to new conditions

– Assisted migration of species to new areas

– Creating connected landscapes for natural migration
– Managing asynchrony between interacting species

Note
Adaptation efforts must be regularly evaluated through the PDCA cycle: Plan, Do, Check,
Act (Deming cycle), with adjustments based on ongoing observations and assessments.

9.3 Maladaptation
Warning

Maladaptation refers to actions intended to reduce vulnerability to climate change that

actually increase vulnerability. For example, installing air conditioners everywhere may
provide short-term relief but increase energy demand and emissions, worsening climate
change in the long term.

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10 Decision Framework for Climate Action

Climate Change

Impact Assessment

Yes
Minimal Impact? No Action Needed

No

Mitigate Emissions

Yes
Successful? Low Impact

No

Adaptation

Yes
Sufficient Capacity? Hope

No

Yes
Build Capacity

Sufficient?

No

Doom

11 Conclusion
Climate change represents one of the most significant challenges facing humanity and natural
systems in the 21st century. The observable impacts—from coral bleaching to species migration
to extreme weather events—demonstrate that climate change is not a future threat but a present
reality.
Addressing climate change requires a dual approach:

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• Mitigation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sinks

• Adaptation to help human and natural systems cope with unavoidable impacts

As biological systems demonstrate limited capacity to adapt quickly to rapid changes, hu-
man intervention becomes crucial for preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. Without
effective action, many species face extinction, and human communities face increasing threats
from extreme weather, food insecurity, and resource conflicts.
The time for decisive climate action is now—to preserve both human and natural systems
for future generations.

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