Physics

Useful for
SSC EXAMS | ALL GOV EXAMS 2025
 1. sI UNITS 1-3

2. MOTION 4-6

3. WORK, ENERGY & POWER 7-8

4. GRAVITATION, pressure & Floatation 9 - 10

5. WAVE & sound wave 11 - 13

6. OPTICS, human eye, Defects and Remedies 14 - 21

7. ELECTRICITY 22 - 24

8. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM 25 - 26

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The seven fundamental SI units are the basic units from which all other SI units are
derived.
These are:

QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Luminous Intensity Candela cd

OTHER IMPORTANT SI UNITS

QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL
Area Square Meter m²
Volume Cubic Meter m³

Velocity Meter per Second m/s

Acceleration Meter per Second² m/s²

Force Newton N

Pressure Pascal Pa
Energy Joule J
Work Joule J
Power Watt W
Charge Coulomb C
Voltage (Potential Diff.) Volt V
Resistance Ohm Ω
Capacitance Farad F
Inductance Henry H
Conductance Siemens S
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb

Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T

Magnetic Induction Gauss G

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 QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL
Magnetic Intensity Oersted Oe
Frequency Hertz Hz
Impulse Newton-second Ns
Angular Velocity Radian per Second rad/s
Viscosity Pascal-second Pa·s
Surface Tension Newton per Meter N/m
Heat Joule J
Electric Energy Kilowatt-hour kWh
Electric Power Kilowatt or Watt kW / W
Electrical Conductivity Siemens per Meter S/m
Radioactivity Becquerel Bq
Luminous Flux Lumen lm

Illuminance Lux lx
Intensity of Sound Decibel dB
Power of Lens Dioptre D
Depth of Sea Fathom ftm
Angle Radian Rad

Solid angle Steradian sr

CGS (Centimeter-Gram-Second) units

QUANTITY CGS UNIT NAME CGS UNIT SYMBOL
Time Second s
Mass Gram g

Velocity Centimeter per second cm/s

Acceleration Gal Gal
Force Dyne dyn
Energy Erg erg
Power Erg per second erg/s
Pressure Barye Ba
Electric Charge Statcoulomb (esu) statsC
Electric Current Biot (or abampere) Bi
Length Centimeter cm

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 प्रकाश वर्ष = निर्वात में एक वर्ष में प्रकाश द्वारा तय की गई दूरी = 9.46x10¹⁵ मीटर
1 पारसेक = 3.26 प्रकाश वर्ष, 1 समुद्री मील = 1.852 किमी
लंबाई 1 माइक्रोन=10-6, 1 एं गस्ट्रॉन = 10-10 मीटर

1 क्विं टल = 10² किलोग्राम, 1 मीट्रिक टन = 10³, 1 पाउं ड = 0.4537 किलोग्राम

द्रव्यमान 1 amu (परमाणु द्रव्यमान इकाई) = 1.66x10-27 किग्रा

1 सौर दिवस = 86400 सेकण्ड.

समय 1 वर्ष = 365.2 सौर दिवस
नाक्षत्र मास (चं द्रमा को पृथ्वी की एक परिक्रमा करने में लगा समय)= 27.3 सौर दिवस

Astronomical distances are measured in light year.

DIMENSIONAL FORMULA OF SOME QUANTITIES:-

QUANTITY DIMENSIONAL FORMULA

Volume M0 L3T0

Density M1 L-3 T0

Velocity M0 L1 T-1

Acceleration M0 L1 T-2

Force M L T-2

Work, Energy M L2 T-2

Power M L2 T-3

Momentum, Impulse M L T-1

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 MOTION
SCALAR QUANTITY VECTOR QUANTITY
Only magnitude, no direction. Both magnitude and direction.
Example: Mass, speed, volume, Example: Displacement, velocity,
work, time, power, energy, etc. acceleration, force, momentum,
torque, etc.

Note:- Electric current has a direction but it is considered as a scalar quantity.

Distance:- The length of actual path Displacement:- Shortest distance

covered by a moving body. covered in a specific direction.

SPEED VELOCITY
Distance travelled in unit time Speed + Direction.
Speed = Distance/Time Velocity = displacement/time.
SI Unit:- m/s

ACCELERATION EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The rate of change of velocity. v = u+at
Acceleration = change in velocity/time S = ut+(1/2)at2
SI unit- m/s2 v2 = u2 + 2as
Negative acceleration is called [ u= initial velocity, v= final velocity, a =
retardation. acceleration, t = time, s = displacement ]

CIRCULAR MOTION

If an object moves in circular path.

If the object moves with uniform speed, its motion is uniform circular motion, in this type of
motion velocity changes continuously but the magnitude(speed) remains unchanged.

ANGULAR VELOCITY

The angle subtended by the line joining the object from the origin of circle in unit time
interval is called angular velocity.
It is denoted by w.
[ w= angle/time, t= time period ]

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 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton is known as the father of physics.

He published the laws of motion in his book Principia in 1687.

i) Every body in this universe maintains its initial state of rest or motion unless an external
force acts on it. This law is also known as law of inertia or law of Galileo.

Inertia- It is the property of a body which opposes change in its initial state of rest or
motion.
Examples- When a vehicle starts suddenly, the passengers bend backward and when a
running car stops, the passengers bend forward etc.

ii) The rate of change in momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force applied on
the body in the direction of force.

Force:- Force is a push or pull that causes an object to move, stop, or change shape. It has
both magnitude and direction and is measured in Newton (N).
F= ma (F= force, m=mass, a=acceleration)

Momentum:- Measure of amount of motion contained in a body.

Momentum(P) = mass x velocity.
SI Unit = kgm/s

iii) To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Examples: Recoil of a gun, motion of a rocket, swimming etc.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM:-

If no external force acts on a system of bodies, the total linear momentum of the system of
bodies remains constant.
The total momentum of bodies before and after collision remains same.
Rockets work on the principle of conservation of linear momentum.

IMPULSE

When a large force acts on a body for a very small time, then the force is called impulsive
force.
Impulse is defined as the product of force and time.
Impulse = Force x Time
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Newton Second.

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 FRICTION

The force which opposes the relative motion between two bodies in contact is called
friction.
It is a contact force.
Friction is of two types.
i) Static Friction:- When there is no relative motion. It is also known as limiting friction.
ii) Kinetic Friction:- When a body slides over the surface of other body. It is also known as
dynamic friction.

Static friction is more than kinetic friction.

Friction depends upon the nature of contact surface.
Rougher surface means more friction.

ROLLING FRICTION
When a body rolls over the surface of another body. Rolling friction is smaller than the kinetic
friction.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

The force required to maintain the It is equal and opposite to centripetal

circular motion of a body is called force. Equal in magnitude and opposite
centripetal force. in direction (outwards).
It acts on the body towards the centre of It is a pseudo force or inertial force.
the path. Example- cream separator of milk
F=mv2/r Centrifugal force in not a reaction of
[ r= radius of circular path. ] centripetal force.
Examples- motion of electron, motion of
planets.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the entire weight of body acts.

EQUILIBRIUM

If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero then the body is said to be in
equilibrium.
A body will be either at rest or in uniform motion in equilibrium.

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 WORK, ENERGY & POWER
WORK
If a body gets displaced when a force acts on it, work is said to be done.
Work is measured by the product of force and displacement.
w = fs cos a (a=angle)
If both force and displacement are in same direction to each other then w=fs, if force and
displacement are perpendicular to each other then w=0.
Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.

ENERGY
Capacity of doing work.
Energy is scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule

MECHANICAL ENERGY

Energy developed in a body due to work done is known as mechanical energy.

There are two types of mechanical energy.

1. Potential Energy:-
The capacity or potential of doing work due to position or configuration is called potential
energy.
Example- stretched or compressed springs, stretched bow, water collected at a height.
PE of a body on earth is mgh, m= mass, g= acceleration due to gravity 9.8m/s2, h= height of
body from surface of the earth.

2. Kinetic Energy:-
Energy possessed by a body due to its motion is called Kinetic Energy.
KE = (1/2)mv2
Example- a running person, a moving car.
A body can have both kinetic and potential energy.
Example- a flying aeroplane.
If two bodies have same kinetic energy, then the body with more mass will have more
momentum.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can neither be created nor can be destroyed, it can be transformed from one form
to another form.

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 EQUIPMENT ENERGY TRANSFORMED
Dynamo Mechanical to electrical
Microphone Sound to electrical
Solar Cell Solar to electrical
Bulb Electrical to light and heat
Battery Chemical to electrical
Electric Motor Electrical to mechanical
Coal Chemical to light and heat

POWER
Rate of doing work is called power.
Power = work/time.
SI unit of power is watt.
watt = joule/sec, 1 kilo watt = 103 watt, 1 mega watt = 106 watt.
1 horse power = 746 watt.
1 watt second = 1 watt x 1 second = 1 joule
1 watt hour = 3600 joule
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 joule.
{ w, kw, mw are units of power, ws, wh, kwh are units of work and energy. }

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GRAVITATION
Gravitation:- Every body attracts other body by a force called force of gravitation.

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

The force of gravitational attraction between two point bodies is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
F = G (M1M2)/R2
G = universal gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2

[The scientist who experimentally measured the value of G is Henry Cavendish ]

GRAVITY
Gravity is the force by which earth pulls a body towards its centre.
g = 9.8 m/s2 = acceleration due to gravity.

weight(force)=mg

Value of g decreases with height or depth from earth’s surface.

g is maximum at poles.
g is minimum at equator.
g decreases due to rotation of earth.
The moon’s gravity is about one-sixth of Earth’s gravity.

KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

All planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits, with the sun being at rest at one focus
of the orbit.
A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.
The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly proportional to
the cube of mean distance of planet from the sun.

PRESSURE
Force acting per unit area.
Pressure = F/A
2
SI unit of pressure is N/m also known as pascal.
It is a scalar quantity.
Pressure is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to area i.e, more force =
more pressure, less area = more pressure.

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 PASCAL’S LAW FOR PRESSURE OF LIQUID
If gravitational attraction is negligible, in equilibrium condition, pressure is same at all
points in a liquid.
If an external pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished to
every direction.
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic brake work on Pascal’s law.

FLOATATION
BUOYANT FORCE
When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid, a force is exerted on the body by
the liquid in the upward direction. This force is called Buoyant Force or upthrust.
It is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body and acts at the centre of gravity of
displaced liquid. Its study was first done by Archimedes.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid, there is a loss in the weight of the
body which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body.

LAW OF FLOATATION
A body floats in a liquid if density of material of body is less than or equal to the density
of liquid.
If density of material of body is equal to density of liquid, the body floats fully submerged
in liquid in neutral equilibrium.
When body floats in neutral equilibrium, the weight of the body is equal to the weight of
the displaced liquid.
The centre of gravity of the body and the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid should
be in one vertical line.

DENSITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
d = m/v.
3
Its SI unit is kg/m

Relative density = density of material/density of water at 4 degree c

Relative density is a ratio so it is unitless.
Relative density is measured by hydrometer.
The density of sea water is more than that of normal water. This is why it is easier to
swim in sea water.
When ice floats on water, its 1/10th part remains outside of water.
Purity of milk is measured by lactometer.

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 WAVE
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy from one place to another without the
transport of matter.
There are two types of waves:-
i) mechanical
ii) non-mechanical

MECHANICAL WAVES
The waves which require material medium for their propagation. Also known as elastic
waves.
Mechanical waves are of two types:-
Longitudinal waves:- If the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of
propagation of wave.
Example: sound, waves of spring.
Transverse Waves:- If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction
of propagation.
Example: waves on the surface of water, waves on strings under tension.

Waves produced by a moving motor boat on the surface of water is both transverse as
well as longitudinal.

NON-MECHANICAL OR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The waves which do not require medium for their propagation.
Example: light, heat.
All electromagnetic waves consist of photon.
The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is 10-14m to 104m.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

They are neutral or uncharged
They propagate as transverse waves
They travel with the velocity of light
They contain energy and momentum
Increasing Order of Wavelength / Decreasing

Their concept was introduced by maxwell.

SOME ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Note:-
WAVES DISCOVERER
Cathode rays, canal rays, alpha
Gamma Rays Paul Villard
rays, beta rays, sound waves and
X rays W. Rontgen ultrasonic waves are not
Ultra Voilet Rays Ritter
Order of Frequency

electromagnetic waves.
Visible Radiation Newton Electromagnetic waves of
Infra Red Herschel wavelength range 10-3 m to 10-2 m
Short Radio Waves Heinrich Hertz are called microwaves.
Long Radio Waves Marconi

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 AMPLITUDE:-
Maximum displacement of the vibrating particles on either side from mean position.

WAVELENGTH:-
Distance between any two nearest particle of the medium, vibrating in the same phase. It
is denoted by Greek letter Lambda (λ).

Velocity of wave = frequency x wavelength.

SOUND WAVE
They are longitudinal mechanical waves.
According to frequency range, longitudinal mechanical waves are divided into 3 categories:-

i) Audible or Sound waves:- 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

ii) Infrasonic waves:- Less than 20 Hz.
These are produced by bigger sources such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, ocean waves ,
elephant and whales.
iii) Ultrasonic waves:- Greater than 20000 Hz.
Human ear cannot detect ultrasonic waves.
But certain creatures like dog, cat, bat, mosquito can detect and produce ultrasonic waves.

APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC WAVES:-

For sending signals

For measuring depth of sea
Cleaning clothes, aeroplanes and machinery parts of clocks
In ultrasonography.

SPEED OF SOUND:

Speed of sound is different in different media. In a medium, the speed of sound

depends upon elasticity, density of material and temperature.
Speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
When sound enters from one medium to another medium, its speed and
wavelength changes but frequency remains unchanged.
In a medium, speed of sound is independent of frequency.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES
LOUDNESS PITCH
The sensation of sound perceived in ear is Sharp and dull sound.
measured by loudness. It depends on It depends on frequency. Higher the
intensity of sound and sensitivity of ear. frequency, higher will be the pitch and
SI unit of loudness is bel. shriller be the sound.
1/10 of bel= decibel. Lower the frequency, lower will be the
Another unit of loudness is phon. pitch and dull will be the sound.

ECHO
The sound waves received after being reflected from a high tower or mountains is called
echo.
To hear echo, the minimum distance between the observer and reflector should be
16.6m(17m).
Persistence of ear is 1/10 second.
Due to refraction, sound is heard at longer distances in nights than in day.

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 OPTICS
Light is a form of energy which is propagated as electromagnetic waves. In the
spectrum of electromagnetic waves it lies between ultra-violet and infra-red region
and has wavelength between 3900 Angstrom to 7800 Angstrom.

Electromagnetic waves are transverse, hence light is transverse wave.

All the electromagnetic waves including light do not require medium to propagate.

Wave nature of light explains rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction,

interference, diffraction and polarisation of light.

Polarisation supports transverse nature of light.

The phenomena like photoelectric effect, compton effect are not explained on the
basis of wave nature of light. These phenomena are explained on the basis of
quantum theory of light/particle nature of light as proposed by Einstein.

In quantum theory, light is regarded as a packet or bundle of energy called photon.

Photon is associated with it an energy E, where E = hv.

Clearly light behaves as wave and particle both. Thus light has dual nature.

Speed of light was first measured by Roemer (1676 AD).

Speed of light is maximum in vacuum and air (3 x 10⁸ m/s) ( independent of density,
temperature, and pressure.)

Refractive index(RI) :- Refractive Index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of

light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.

n = c/v , n = RI, c = speed of light, v= speed of light in medium.

Speed of light is different in different media. Velocity of light is higher in a medium

which has small refractive index.

MEDIUM RI SPEED OF LIGHT(M/S)

Air/Vacuum 1 3x108
Water 1.33 2.3x108
Diamond 2.42 1.2x108
Glass 1.5 2x108

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 Light takes 8 minutes 19 seconds (499 seconds) to reach from sun to earth.
The light reflected from moon takes 1.28 seconds to reach earth.
Light travels much faster than sound. This is why the flash of lightning is seen before
the thunderstorm is heard.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Light moving in one medium when falls on the surface of another medium, part of light
returns back to the same medium. This phenomenon of returning back of light in the first
medium at the interface of two media is known as reflection of light.
If the reflecting surface is smooth, reflection is regular. In case of rough surface, reflection
is irregular

LAWS OF REFLECTION
The laws of reflection of light describe how light behaves when it hits a surface. The three
laws of reflection are:

i) Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection. The angle at which light hits a surface is the
same as the angle at which it bounces back

ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.

iii) The incident ray and the reflected ray are on opposite sides of the normal to the surface.

REFLECTION FROM A PLANE MIRROR

When light rays strike a plane mirror, they obey the laws of reflection:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR

Virtual (cannot be captured on a screen)
Erect (upright)
Same size as the object
Laterally inverted (left appears right and vice versa)
Image distance = Object distance (from the mirror)

[ Plane mirrors are commonly used in homes, periscopes, and optical instruments. ]

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 REFLECTION AND USES OF CONVEX AND CONCAVE MIRRORS

CONVEX MIRROR CONCAVE MIRROR

(DIVERGING MIRROR) (CONVERGING MIRROR)
Reflection: Reflection:
Always forms a virtual, erect and Forms real and inverted images when the
diminished image. object is beyond the focal point.
The reflected rays appear to diverge Forms a virtual, erect, and magnified
from a focal point behind the mirror. image when the object is within the focal
point.
Uses:
Vehicle side mirrors (gives a wider Uses:
field of view). Shaving/makeup mirrors (magnifies the
Security mirrors (used in stores and face).
ATMs). Headlights and torches (focuses light into
Street light reflectors (spreads light a beam).
over a large area). Solar concentrators (focuses sunlight for
heating).
Dentist and ENT mirrors (for a magnified
view of internal organs).

POSITION AND NATURE OF IMAGE FORMED BY A SPHERICAL MIRROR

CONCAVE MIRROR
POSITION OF
POSITION OF IMAGE SIZE OF IMAGE NATURE OF IMAGE
OBJECT
At Infinity At F Highly Diminshed Real, inverted
Between Infinity Between F and C Diminished Real, inverted
and C
At C At C Same Size Real, inverted
Between F and C Between C and C Enlarged Real, inverted
At F At Infinity Highly Enlarged Real, inverted
Between F and P Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual, erect

CONVEX MIRROR
At F Highly diminished Virtual, erect
At F

Infront of Mirror Between P and F Diminished Virtual, erect

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 REFRACTION AND LAWS OF REFRACTION

REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another due to a
change in speed. This occurs because light travels at different speeds in different media
(e.g., air, water, glass).

LAWS OF REFRACTION (SNELL’S LAW):

i) The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
ii) Snell’s Law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a given pair of media:
sin i/sin r = n
where n is the refractive index of the medium.

KEY EFFECTS OF REFRACTION:

Objects appear bent in water.
Lenses use refraction to focus light.
Atmospheric refraction causes mirages and twinkling of stars.

REFRACTIVE INDEX ORDER IN A PRISM

Violet has the highest refractive index (bends the most).
Red has the lowest refractive index (bends the least).
This happens because violet light has the shortest wavelength and red light has the longest
wavelength.
This variation in refractive index causes dispersion, leading to the formation of a spectrum in
phenomena like rainbows and prisms.

Critical Angle (θc):- Total Internal Reflection (TIR):-

When light travels from a denser to a rarer
The critical angle is the angle of
medium and the angle of incidence exceeds
incidence in a denser medium at which
the critical angle, all the light is reflected
the angle of refraction in the rarer
back into the denser medium instead of
medium becomes 90°.
refracting. This is called Total Internal
Reflection (TIR).

Conditions for TIR:

Light must travel from a denser to a rarer medium.
The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

Applications of TIR:
Optical fibers (used in communication).
Mirage formation in deserts.
Diamond brilliance (due to high refractive index).
Prism periscopes (used in submarines).

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 LENSES, THEIR USES, AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH LENSES

LENSES
A lens is a transparent optical device that refracts (bends) light to either converge or
diverge it.
There are two main types:
Convex Lens (Converging Lens) – Thicker in the middle, brings light rays
together.
Concave Lens (Diverging Lens) – Thinner in the middle, spreads light rays apart.

Refraction of Light Through Lenses:

When light passes through a convex lens, it converges at a focal point.
When light passes through a concave lens, it diverges, appearing to come from a
virtual focal point.

USES OF LENSES
CONVEX LENS: CONCAVE LENS:
Magnifying glass (to enlarge objects). Eyeglasses (for correcting
Cameras (for focusing light). nearsightedness).
Microscopes & Telescopes (for detailed Peepholes (in doors for
viewing). security).
Eyeglasses (for correcting Lasers and projectors (to diverge
farsightedness). light).

POWER OF A LENS

The power of a lens (P) measures its ability to converge or diverge light. It is
defined as the reciprocal of the focal length (f) in meters:
P = 1/f
where P is in dioptres (D) and f is in meters (m).
SI unit of power of lense is dioptre.

TYPES OF LENS POWER:

Convex Lens (Converging Lens) → Positive power (+P)
Concave Lens (Diverging Lens) → Negative power (-P)

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 CONVEX LENS
Position of Position of Size of Image Nature of Image
Object Image
At Infinity At F Highly Diminshed Real, inverted
Between C Between F and C Diminished Real, inverted
At C At C Same Size Real, inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real, inverted
At F At Infinity Highly Enlarged Real, inverted
Same side as the object
Between O and F Enlarged Virtual, erect

CONCAVE LENS
At Infinity At F Highly Diminished Virtual, erect
Between O and
Between O and F Diminished Virtual, erect
Infinity

MIRROR FORMULA
The mirror formula gives the relationship between the object distance (u), image
distance (v), and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror (concave or convex).
1/f = 1/u + 1/v
where:
f = Focal length of the mirror
v = Image distance
u = Object distance

SIGN CONVENTION FOR MIRRORS

All distances are measured from the mirror’s pole.
Distances measured in the direction of incident light are positive, otherwise
negative.
Concave Mirror: f is negative
Convex Mirror: f is positive

LENS FORMULA
The lens formula relates the object distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length (f) of
a convex or concave lens.
1/f = 1/v - 1/u
where:
f = Focal length of the lens
v = Image distance
u = Object distance

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 SIGN CONVENTION FOR LENSES
Convex Lens: f is positive
Concave Lens: f is negative
Distances measured in the direction of incident light are positive.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
Dispersion is the phenomenon in which white light splits into its component colors
(VIBGYOR) when passing through a prism or any refracting medium. This happens
because different colors of light have different wavelengths and refract by different
amounts.

CAUSE OF DISPERSION
Different colors have different refractive indices in a medium.
Violet bends the most (shortest wavelength, highest refraction).
Red bends the least (longest wavelength, lowest refraction).

EXAMPLES OF DISPERSION
Rainbow formation (due to sunlight refracting through raindrops).
Prism experiment (splitting white light into a spectrum).
CD/DVD reflection (showing rainbow colors due to light interference).
Dispersion helps in understanding light properties, optics, and atmospheric
phenomena.

HUMAN EYE, DEFECTS, AND REMEDIES

HUMAN EYE
The human eye is an organ that detects light and converts it into electrical signals, which the
brain interprets as images.
Key parts include:
Cornea: The transparent outer layer that helps focus light.
Pupil: The opening that controls the amount of light entering the eye.
Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
Retina: Contains light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) that send signals to the brain.
Optic Nerve: Carries visual information from the retina to the brain.

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 DEFECTS OF HUMAN EYE
Myopia (Nearsightedness):
The inability to focus on distant objects.
The image forms in front of the retina.
Remedy: Use of concave lenses to diverge light and correct focus.

Hypermetropia (Farsightedness):
Difficulty in focusing on nearby objects.
The image forms behind the retina.
Remedy: Use of convex lenses to converge light and bring the image onto the retina.

Astigmatism:
Irregular curvature of the cornea, causing blurred vision at all distances.
Remedy: Cylindrical lenses to correct the uneven focus.

Presbyopia:
Age-related difficulty in focusing on nearby objects, due to loss of lens elasticity.
Remedy: Bifocal or reading glasses.

Cataract:
Clouding of the eye’s lens, leading to blurry vision.
Remedy: Surgical removal of the clouded lens and replacement with an artificial lens.

These defects can be corrected with glasses, contact lenses, or surgeries like LASIK.

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 ELECTRICITY
CHARGE
Charge is the basic property associated with matter due to which it produces and
experiences electrical and magnetic effects.
Its SI unit is coulomb .
Benjamin Franklin names the two types of charges as positive and negative.
Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other.
Charging of bodies takes place due to transfer of electrons from one body to other
body.

COUNDUCTOR
Materials which allow electricity to pass through themselves. They have loosely bound
electrons.
Example: Metals, Earth, lemon juice etc.

INSULATOR
Materials which do not allow electricity to flow through themselves.
Example: wood, paper, glass, mica etc.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
The rate of flow of charge or charge flowing per unit time interval. Its direction is the
direction of flow of positive charge. Its SI unit is ampere (A). It is a scalar quantity.
In a wire, electric current is set up due to flow of electrons.
A current of one ampere flowing through a conductor means 6.25 x 1018 electrons are
entering at one end or leaving the other end of the conductor in one second.

RESISTANCE
The opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current through it is called
resistance.
It arises due to collisions of drifting electrons with the core ions.
Its SI unit is Ohm.

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 OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s Law states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across its ends, provided the temperature
remains constant.

MATHEMATICAL FORMULA:
V = IR
V = Potential difference (Volts, V)
I = Current (Amperes, A)
R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)

COUNDUCTANCE
Reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance.
It is denoted by G .
G = 1/R
Its SI unit is ohm-1 also called mho or siemen.

The Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional
to its cross sectional area.

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

RESISTIVITY
Resistivity is the property of a material that measures how strongly it resists the flow of electric
current. It is also called specific resistance.

FORMULA:
R = ρL/A
R = Resistance (Ω)
ρ = Resistivity (Ω·m)
L = Length of the conductor (m)
A = Cross-sectional area (m²)

KEY POINTS:
Unit of resistivity: Ohm meter (Ω·m)
Good conductors (e.g., copper, silver) have low resistivity.
Insulators (e.g., rubber, glass) have high resistivity.
Resistivity depends on material and temperature but not on shape or size.

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 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is the ability of a material to allow electric current to flow through it. It is the
reciprocal of resistivity.

FORMULA:
σ = 1/ρ
σ = Conductivity (Siemens per meter, S/m)
ρ = Resistivity (Ω·m)

KEY POINTS:
Unit of conductivity: Siemens per meter (S/m)

RESISTORS IN SERIES RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

In a series circuit, resistors are connected In a parallel circuit, resistors are connected
end-to-end, so the same current flows side by side, so the same voltage is applied
through each resistor. across each resistor.

Formula for Equivalent Resistance Formula for Equivalent

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Resistance
= Total (equivalent) resistance
= Individual resistances 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + …

ELECTRIC POWER
The rate at which electrical energy is consumed in a circuit is called power.
EP = I2R = V2/R = VI.
Its SI unit is watt.
Ammeter:- Used to measure electric current.
Voltmeter:- Used to measure potential difference.

ELECTRIC FUSE
Protective device used in series with an electric appliance to save it from being damaged
due to high current. It is a small conducting wire of alloy of copper , tin and lead.
Pure fuse is made up of tin.
The fuse material should have low melting point and high resistance.
The heating element of an electric heating device is made of nichrome.

Galvanometer:- Used to detect and measure small electric current.

Shunt:- Wire of very small resistance.

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 ELCTRO-MAGNETISM
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) is the process of generating electric current in a conductor
by changing the magnetic field around it. This phenomenon was discovered by Michael
Faraday in 1831.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electric Generators – Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Transformers – Used to increase or decrease AC voltage.
Induction Cooktops – Use changing magnetic fields to heat food.
Electric Guitars & Microphones – Convert sound into electrical signals.

The Right-Hand Rule and the Left-Hand Rule are useful tools in understanding the direction
of magnetic forces, currents, and fields in electromagnetic phenomena. They help visualize
the relationship between current, magnetic fields, and forces in electrical circuits and
motors.

Right-Hand Rule (For Magnetic Field around a Current-Carrying Conductor) also known
as Maxwell’s corkscrew rule.
The Right-Hand Rule helps determine the direction of the magnetic field produced by a
current-carrying conductor (wire).

HOW TO USE THE RIGHT-HAND RULE

Hold the conductor (wire) with your Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule (For Force on
right hand. a Current-Carrying Conductor in a
Wrap your fingers around the wire in the Magnetic Field)
direction of the current. The Left-Hand Rule is used to
Your thumb will point in the direction of determine the direction of force
the current. experienced by a current-carrying
The curled fingers will point in the conductor placed in a magnetic field.
direction of the magnetic field around APPLICATION:
the conductor. This rule is used in motors (where
APPLICATION: electric current and magnetic fields
This rule is used to understand the interact to produce motion) and in
magnetic field produced around a devices like loudspeakers and electric
straight wire or coil when an electric generators.
current passes through it.

MAGNETISM IN A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

When an electric current flows through a conductor, such as a wire, it creates a magnetic field
around the wire. The magnetic field can be detected using a compass or by using the Right-
Hand Rule.

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 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE
The magnetic field around a straight conductor is circular and concentric around the wire.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the amount of current and the distance from
the wire.

Key Points:
The magnetic field around a current-carrying wire forms concentric circles.
The strength of the magnetic field is stronger near the wire and weaker farther from the
wire.

MAGNETISM IN A SOLENOID
A solenoid is a long wire wound into a coil. When an electric current passes through the
solenoid, it produces a magnetic field that resembles the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
The solenoid has a distinct north and south pole.

MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A SOLENOID

The magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform and strong.
The magnetic field lines are parallel and straight, running from one end of the solenoid to the
other, making it resemble a bar magnet.

MAGNETIC FIELD OUTSIDE THE SOLENOID

The magnetic field outside the solenoid behaves like the field of a bar magnet.
The lines of force spread out and form a closed loop.

Key Points about Solenoid Magnetism:

The magnetic field is stronger and more uniform inside the solenoid.
The solenoid creates a north and south pole, similar to a bar magnet.

Applications of Magnetism in Solenoid and Wire:

Electromagnets: A solenoid with an iron core becomes an electromagnet, used in devices
like motors, loudspeakers, and cranes.
Magnetic Field Control: The solenoid can be used in applications where we need to control
or concentrate magnetic fields.

MAGNET
Magnets are objects that produce a magnetic field. They attract or repel other magnetic
materials, like iron, and have two poles: North and South.

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