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POLITICAL EDUCATION MANUAL

2019

SP
ONSOR’S SIGNATURE: ............................

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL EDUCATION

“A low level of Political Education breeds selfishness and mischief. It is the mother of corruption
in the Army. In order to save ourselves from this disgrace…, we must re-address ourselves to the
whole question of Political Education.” (HEX YK Museveni 1989)

GENERAL

1. Political Education is one of the time-tested transformative methods of work. Though it is

derived from two words; Politics and Education, it is important to note that politics itself is as old
as man. The only way to live well in society is by engaging into political activity, since man left
alone is in no way different from a beast!

2. Politics. It is usually defined as the science of management of society. However, politics

can be simplified to mean the Ways and Means of identifying and solving problems of society.
Means and ways refers to the processes, procedures, laws, resources etc that make politics a
reality, relevant to all people in all walks of life.

3. Education. It can be simplified to mean:

a. The transformative process of learning.

b. The sum total of all transformative knowledge.
c. The holistic development of the Human Person.

4. Education therefore, is a product of learning, but this product also has to continuously be
improved through learning... till the end of one’s life. So, one may be learned but not educated.
How and why? Education is not just acquisition of knowledge for the sake of it. It is knowledge
acquired and applied to correctly diagnose problems and prescribe solutions with intent to
improve the quality of life. Political Education is therefore a study of the ways and means of
identifying and solving the problems of society.

DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS

5. In order to understand Political Education, the following concepts should be defined:

a. Society. It is a group of people organized and living together in a given area

engaged in production, distribution and exchange of goods and services to satisfy their
needs. A society is characterized by among others- common history, common interests,
common goals and common language.

b. State. A state is a package of pillars of power and authority exercised over a

territorial demarcation. In history the pillar of the state is always a coercive arm of which
the Army is the chief component seconded by the police and prisons. Other examples are;

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parliament, judiciary, public service, Uganda revenue authority etc. The state is charged
with ensuring that there is harmony in society amidst class struggles.

c. Nation. It is a community of people who share common ethnic origin, culture,

historical tradition, language whether they live together or not in one territory or have
their own government.

d. Management. It is the science of employing man and materials in a purposeful

activity for sustainment.

e. A country. Means a political unit that is sovereign and is recognized by the

international community as such.

f. Social forces. Social forces of society are the actions that influence the
development of society either positively or negatively. Social forces have been
categorized into three:

(1) Progressive forces. These are forces which struggle for progressive change
in conditions of society e.g. democracy, improvement in welfare of people,
undergoing military courses etc.

(2) Conservative forces. These forces struggle to keep society in the status
quo.

(3) Reactionary forces. These forces struggle to take society back in the heap
of history, which is turning the clock backwards e.g sectarian tendencies,
oppressive/ repressive rule, human right abuses, etc.

g. Ideology. Ideology is a set of ideas, values, beliefs- that are put together to give a
coherent view of what a society should be like. In other words, it forms a systematic way
of looking at the world and influences the way people behave. (mind set or world
outlook); the perceptions, ideas and the way of interpreting reality leading to actions
taken by an individual or group of individuals [Link] NRM/A that has a liberation/pro-
peoples’ movement ideology. Others are; Marxist, capitalist, ideologies, etc. Ideology
may be correct depending on how correct the perceptions of reality are or may be wrong
if the perceptions are not correct.

THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM OF UGANDA/AFRICA

6. There are two fundamental causes of the Africa’s problem.

a. Colonial distortions.

c. Internal weaknesses.

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COLONIAL DISTORTIONS

7. a. Historical Distortions. The interference of the colonizers into the African social
evolution and integration disrupted and distorted that process, and up to now, the African
people have remained balkanized ineffectual entities, and not Nations. They have
remained "tribes" instead of Nationalities. To date, African Countries have incongruous
borders that have distributed communities into different countries.

b. Economic Distortions. Ugandans were divided into Labour Reserves to work in

Kilembe mines and Sugar Estates, Reserved North and Eastern Uganda as Armed Forces
Reserve, Central and Western region to produce the so called cash crops of coffee, tea,
cotton, and an elite social class of clerks to manage the export process of these [Link]
resulted in a distortion where Ugandans consumed what we did not produce, and
produced what we did not consume as we depended on cosmopolitan London for all our
manufactured goods, while they took away our resources as raw materials and at their
self-determined prices! The curse of producing and exporting raw materials and
importing finished goods, introduced into the world trade an unfair and parasitic division
of labour.

c. Political Distortions. These were in the evolution of our currently incongruous

boarders, having the Kingdom of Buganda with special privileges, Ankore, Busoga and
Bunyoro with Semi-Kingdom status and; the North, having District status with District
Commissioner answerable to the Colonial governor- simply divide and rule. Karamoja
was a "hardship" administrative area, which was treated like a game reserve. All these
and several other distortions, led to another mental/psychological distortions where an
African saw himself as a total dependent, to be saved from the York of poverty and
underdevelopment by God and the often touted "International Community", which is a
veiled cry to the former colonizers to come to our aid in our "hopelessness".

d. Ideologically therefore, the colonial people, even after independence, had lost the
self-confidence and esteem to determine their own destiny. We were fragmented with:
(1) No common vision.
(2) No common interest.
(3) No common National vision and National interest.

INTERNAL WEAKNESSES

8. a. Africa is a huge but "empty" continent in terms of its population. To demonstrate

the empty size, one can fit a number of subcontinents into the continent of Africa, like
Australia, Canada, India, China, USA, and yet if you compare the populations of those
subcontinents with the total population of Africa, ours becomes an empty continent by
comparison. This emptiness did not induce and encourage African Chiefs and small

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Kingdoms to politically unite or conquer for unity, organize higher and be able to starve
off foreign aggression. Each community felt falsely secure as history later proved.

b. Another weakness on the continent was the tropical warm climate that is a haven
for tropical diseases like malaria, which up today, is a leading killer in Sub-Saharan
Africa. It was bad enough to be a small population, but worse to lose a young Human
Resource to diseases. Africa kept depopulated, and did not benefit from the impetus of
market to innovate and produce, like China has done.

c. The third, a natural gift of Africa which turned into a disadvantage, is the
abundant natural resources. In Africa, one does not have to look for gas or coal to warm a
house against a freezing winter. One can live under mango trees, feed on them, get shelter
under them; same applies to other fruit trees, which up to now Ugandans have not been
able to harvest, process, add value and export as juice. Up to recently, Uganda still
imported all TOMATO SAUCE!

13. The three problems of a small population, tropical diseases and abundant natural
resources kept Africans in an African "SLUMBERLAND" from which the colonial
York jolted us, but it was too late to effectively keep that colonial interference at bay. In fact,
these weaknesses facilitated colonization of the African people.

14. The value of Political Education therefore, is to highlight these African ills, their causes,
our current situation, so that then we can be correctly enlightened and forge a way forward.
These ills, having distorted our peoples' IDEOLOGICAL foundation and development, caused us
IDEOLOGICAL ill-health. Political Education then, helps as an ideological rectification
intervention measure to:
(1) Immunize those who are ideologically weak and vulnerable.
(2) Treat those who are ideologically sick.
(3) Fortify those who may be ideologically strong but would still need fortification
for sustainability.

THE PEOPLE – ALLIES AND ENEMIES

9. Allies and Enemies can be determined in relation to the fundamental problem of

Backwardness/ underdevelopment that characterizes the entire continent. Underdevelopment or
backwardness is not accidental in Africa, but rather has a root cause /those forces that perpetuate
it. Therefore in our analysis the main forces that are responsible for our state of
underdevelopment qualify to be the enemy. All the groups and forces that either are victims of
backwardness or are engaged in fighting backwardness qualify to be allies. Therefore, our
primary enemy in the Region and Africa as a whole is imperialism (foreign domination and
exploitation). The others but secondary in nature are all those internal forces that abet
imperialism. It thrives on bad politics manifested by various machinations of enemy actions.
They include:-

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a. Dividing the dominated people (sectarianism, factionalism and Balkanization).

b. Destabilization – wars of annihilation.

c. Inferiority complex.

d. Politics of obscurantism and ignorance. Any internal forces that promote the
above enemy machinations are also regarded as the enemy. The question that we must
answer at this point is in a struggle to transform East Africa from backwardness to
prosperity, who are the people or the Allies; The allies/people are the majority of the
peasants of East Africa across the ethnic divides, the producers in all the big plantations,
factories, National and foreign investors, (national capitalists) and the
pro-people/progressive intelligentsia and security personnel. The enemy on the other
hand, includes the foreign exploiters, their agents (compradors), anti-people intelligentsia
(who practice bad politics). The military as a Peoples’ Defence Force and other security
personnel MUST be conscious of this alignment of forces. It becomes the duty of the
East African region to serve the sovereign Wananchi.

THE VALUE OF POLITICAL EDUCATION

10. The total package of Political Education material is intended to show students the
importance of Political Education in the Defence Forces.

a. The total packages of Political Education material, is intended to show an African

Cadre, the causes of the African problem, tools of analysis and a diagnostic competence
to handle the problems and their effects on our people.

b. Political education is meant to provide the means and ways of analyzing the
problems in the society and build capacity to chat out their solutions.

c. Political education will enable the student to deal with the effects of colonial
manipulation as well as ideological confusion that were earlier inherited by the army of
the past regimes.

d. To build consciousness in troops as a weapon to enable the army as an institution

and the country in general to achieve the ultimate goal of Uganda’s economic
transformation.

e. Political education acts as the media and the light of the Defense Forces. The
current Defense Forces have their roots in the pro-people Resistance Movements that
have emerged overtime. They are based on a pro-people ideology with the organizational
set up guided by the law.

f. Political education keeps the vanguard force updated on the government achieved
areas, challenges and future prospects.

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g. Raise the consciousness of officers and soldiers to know and appreciate their
rights, duties and obligations.

h. Reduce soldier’s mentality of superiority due to gun on the public and discipline

i. Shift soldier’s world outlook from idealism to materialistic ways of looking at

things.

j. Lift the understanding and appreciation of the national and international situations
and circumstances surrounding them.

k. Give correct understanding of history i.e. past, present and determine the future.

l. Define friends and enemies at national level and for Africa as a whole, using
simple and precise illustrations or demonstration etc.

CONCLUSION

11. Learning is a process and Political Education is such. It cannot therefore be considered an
event. It entails love for knowledge and a lot of practice to gain the necessary tested methods of
work and discipline. It is indeed one of the transformative methods of work which we must
embrace to avoid “disgrace” so that we are easily Deployable, Dependable and Reliable.
President Museveni, quoting from the bible said; “…everyone who hears these words of mine
and puts them into practice is like a wise man who built his house on a rock. …. But everyone
who hears…and does not put them into practice is like a foolish man who built his house on
sand. …and it fell with a great crash. Mt 7:24-27” (Museveni YK 2006).

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CHAPTER TWO

IMPORTANCE OF IDEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Quote “A soldier without any political or ideological training is a potential criminal” Sankara
Thomas (1987).

INTRODUCTION

1. Ideology is taken to be a set of ideas, values, beliefs that are put together to give a
coherent/logical/consistent and sound view of what a society should be like. In other words, it
forms a systematic way of looking at the world and of influences the way people behave
(mindset or world outlook); the perceptions, ideas and the way interpreting reality leading to
actions taken by an individual or group of individuals [Link] NRM/A that has a pro-peoples’
ideology. Others ideologies include; Marxist/collective/communalist,
capitalist/consumerist/commercial, etc.

2. Ideology influences politics. The politics of a country is based on its ideology. If it’s a
correct ideology, then it leads to good politics but if it’s a wrong ideology then it gives rise to
bad politics.

AIM

3. The aim of this lecture is to generally clarify to you why ideological approach to issues is
important in our struggle to transform the UPDF institution.

CONTENTS OF IDEOLOGY

4. The Encarta Dictionary (2008) describes ideology as:

a. System of social beliefs. A closely organized system of beliefs, values and ideas
forming the basis of a social, economic or political philosophy or program.

b. Meaningful belief system. A set of beliefs, values, and opinions that shapes the
way a person or group such as a social class thinks, acts, and understands the world. The
common words are belief system or system of beliefs; values, and also social. Therefore,
meaning and implying that ideology, is societal, it’s not personal opinion.

5. Both definitions have a philosophical connotation/implication/suggestion because,

indeed, to think, act and seek to understand the world is simply to philosophize. Therefore the
synthesized definition of ideology is simply a Political Philosophy plus an Action Program. A
correct philosophy without an action plan to realize, to feasibilize, to crystallize/take shape
societal interest and benefit, leaves society with only intellectual, academic philosophers.
Ideology can be wrong or correct depending on the content.

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a. Correct ideology – realistic perceptions of universe and society resulting in achievable,

beneficial outcomes.
b. Wrong ideology – idealistic perceptions of universe, society resulting in unachievable,
disastrous outcome.

ASPECTS OF IDEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

6. An ideology therefore, because of its philosophical nature, is the radar by which society
is able to navigate/plot a course/route/steer the world; which is a labyrinth/tangle/maze (a
complicated series of paths, which it is difficult to find your way through – Advanced Leaner’s
Dictionary – New 8th Edition) of conflicting and contradictory interests. Ideology helps society or
socio-economic or political classes understand this world, identify who they are, their interests
and their role. When a correct prescription of the world is done from a philosophical
understanding of society, then you have an ideology. Leaders who have no ideology are
therefore, pretenders, fraudsters or “misguided missiles”. Ideology can be revolutionary or
reactionary/backward. Revolutionary/ground breaking/ innovative ideology is progressive,
qualitative and transformative. However, reactionary ideology is retrogressive, quantitative,
inhibitive, exploitative, distortive, and diversionary. That is why the NRM ideology was
enshrined in the Ten-Point Program. The program was the plan of action to achieve their system
of beliefs and is still valid.

7. Today, the whole package of political education is geared towards ideological

development. It is meant to give the correct thinking, belief, values and approach to members of
our forces on how to be progressive patriots.

IMPORTANCE OF IDEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

8. The C-I-C said, “If you are not careful and if you do not have a political compass, you are
going to get lost. We have been guided by 4 principles; Nationalism, Pan Africanism, Socio-
economic Transformation and Democracy. While underscoring the need for ideological
development, the president in his address to Defence Forces Council in 2015, which later became
a preface to the Uganda Defence Doctrine (UDD) said that doctrine usually overlap with
ideology. But more importantly, ideology guides doctrine and a people without an ideology are
like seamen without a radar; their destiny is uncertain, may get lost or danger. This is how, the
ten-point program of the NRA/NRM was arrived at as a product of the philosophical
understanding of Uganda’s past, present, possible and or desired future.

IMPORTANCE OF IDEOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN BUILDING PATRIOTISM AND

NATIONALISM

9. HE President Museveni points out the bottleneck of ideological disorientation as a

strategic and critical challenge of our times. Therefore ideological education must clarify
strategic bottle necks facing Africa and Uganda; clearly articulate/fluent/eloquent the cause,

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manifestations of the problem; and then correctly discern/distinguish/separate the enemy and the
allies in line with the generational mission. Ultimately each generation ought to define its
Historic mission; ours is social economic transformation within a Pan-Africanist frame work.

10. To deepen the basis of ideological clarity, one must acquire essential tools of analysis in
order to appreciate universal and social reality. Such knowledge gives one the necessary
conviction to be committed to nation building. Firm ideological clarity entails being
knowledgeable about the country's strategic Resources and geopolitics.

11. Ideology as a campus and mirror that guides action and practice. As a mirror, an
ideology reflects the real world problems, challenges and prospects and hence gives an indicator
of appropriate courses of action by way of solutions and other interventions. Because of the
reality of Africa's history characterized by fragmentation and sectarianism, the appropriate
ideology ought to be:

a. Nationalism on account of prosperity as a core interest, humanity, African inter linkages

and commonalities Vs Sectarianism; Africa is inhabited by four broad categories of
nationalities which are culturally and linguistically linked.

b. Pan-Africanism.
c. Social economic transformation.
d. Democracy.

12. According to Uganda Defence Doctrine (UDD), Unity among all Ugandans, development
and socio-economic transformation of Uganda into a modern country and society, regardless of
anything, should be the minimum element in our ideology and doctrine. Fortunately, this is
within our means. Therefore, basing on our ideology, our military doctrine should embrace the
following as a minimum:
a. Wiping out sectarianism of all forms and maximizing the unity of our people;

b. Working patiently, for the economic and political integration of East and Central
Africa to stimulate and sustain the prosperity of our people;

c. The political Integration will more easily guarantee the strategic security of Africa
in global terms for all ages;

d. Prepare to defeat any external aggressor either now or in future irrespective of the
level of development; and

e. Avoid being provoked into diversionary military conflicts over the

irrational/unfounded/silly/foolish colonial borders.

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CONCLUSION

13. Ideological development, using the medical analogy/equivalence/likeness/similarity,

entails three aspects: diagnosis/finding/analysis, prescription/recommendation/direction and
available medicine and techniques (capacity). In other words, stating the problems, providing
answers for them and creating the capacity to have the answers, constitutes the doctrine of a
people or a country. Our ideology must wipe out sectarianism and chauvinism/prejudice/narrow
mindedness/discrimination/sexism, which is irrational/absurd foolish and an ideology of the
parasites that negates the legitimate interests of citizens. We must always pay attention to the
symbiosis between ideology and military doctrine. Ideology remains a political compass/radar to
show the way. It clears the mindset and cleans the mirror for good visibility. It corrects
ideological disorientation and defines the proper way to socio-economic transformation as well
as military doctrine.

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CHAPTER THREE

THE VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF A FAMILY

INTRODUCTION
1. The topic introduces the soldier to family issues surrounding him and how to handle them
in order to improve his life. The chapter focuses on the following scope:
a. Definition of family.
b. Types of families.
(1) Nuclear family.
(2) Single Parent family.
(3) Extended family.
(4) Childless family.
(5) Step family.
c. Roles of parents.
d. Basic needs of a family.
e. Basic needs of children from parents.
f. Family planning.
g. conclusion.

DEFINITION OF FAMILY
2. A family is a basic unit consisting of parents and their children, considered as a group
whether staying together or not. It’s any group of persons closely related by blood as parents,
children, and their close relatives. These are the people who live in our homes in the barracks or
those that we take care of from our home villages.

TYPES OF FAMILIES
3. There are several types of families among which include; nuclear family, single parent
family, extended family, childless family, step family, grandparent family among others.
a. NUCLEAR FAMILY. This is a traditional type of family which consists of two
parents and children. Children in Nuclear families receive strength and stability from the
two parents.
(1) Advantages of Nuclear family
(a) Privacy. The couple can get their privacy in their own house, live
their own way and do whatever they want.

(b) Financial Stability. There is less number of people and hence less
expenses
(c) Freedom; There no elders to restrict the grown parents and
therefore can decided things on their own.

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(d) Ease in moving; for example during transfers, shifting becomes

easy.
(e) Avoidance of stress and discomforts. Some people are emotional
they can’t tolerate any kind of fun that is always in a joint/extended
family.
(2) Disadvantages
(a) No care especially for children with working parents.
(b) There is no guarantee for security and safety especially with
robberies and murders.
(c) No support for any one when there is an argument between them.

b. EXTENDED FAMILY. This consists of grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins in

addition to those of a nuclear family, for example when elderly parents move in with their
children due to old age.
Advantages of Extended family
(1) (a) Sharing economic responsibilities.
(b) Child care support which involves multi-parenting by various adults.
(c) Adult care giving for the elderly, disabled and the sick members is much
easier.
(d) There is a chance for building strong family bonds.
(e) A close support structure from family members like parents who
genuinely care for their wellbeing is assured especially during worries, stress and
responsibilities.
(f) Family members can frequently spend time together with their loved one
hence companionship is possible.
(2) Disadvantages of an extended family (Look at the advantages of nuclear family)

c. SINGLE PARENT FAMILY. This is where a parent cares for one or more children
without the assistance of the other biological parent. Single parent homes are increasing as
married couples divorce or as unmarried couples have children, but most often this used to be as
a result of death of a spouse.

d. STEP FAMILY. This is where parents’ divorce, or after one spouses death, there is
another marriage but with children already.

e. CHILDLESS FAMILY. This is a family which is unique and doesn’t involve children. In
this case the couples never produced or produced and all the children died.
ROLES OF PARENTS
4. a. The 1st role of the parents is to takecare of their children’s biological needsi.e.
proper food, fresh air, good lighting, enough sleep, recreation time and many others.

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b. Provide an optimal environment; a safe, nurturing and supportive environment

that allows a child to grow healthy.
c. Protect your Children; Make sure the environment is safe, tell them what is safe to
do what isn’t before they venture out on their own.
d. Teach and educate your children. To shape knowledge and character, possible
learning of such actions as walking, talking, reading and working must be carried out.
Provide the children with the best possible education.
e. Provide Guidance, direction, assistance and help in the process of personal
development and growth. Advise them instead of commanding and guide them in their
development without doing their work.
f. Support and motivate the child. Love your children either when they succeed or
they fail, encourage instead of crushing child’s capacity to say no at all costs.
g. Take care of the social emotional skills. There are positive factors such as praise,
encouragement, calm talk and response, affectionate attention etc. that will help to build
healthy emotions
h. Discipline gently. Establish and maintain order in the family by requesting a
certain level of discipline, practice a gentle but firm style of discipline.
BASIC NEEDS OF FAMILY
5. a. Food (Including water).
b. Shelter.
c. clothing, also in addition to the 3 basics a family needs.
d. Sanitation.
e. Education.
f. Health care.

BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDREN FROM PARENTS

6. There are 10 basic needs of children from parent which every soldier must know. These
are:
a. Acceptance; Children need to believe their parents like them for who they are.
b. Control. They need to know there are limits to what they are permitted to do and
their parents will hold them to those limits
c. Faith. Children need a set of moral standards to live by, a belief in human values,
kindness, courage, honesty, generosity and justice.
d. Guidance. Every child needs to have friendly help in learning how to behave
towards persons and things.
e. Independence. Children need to know their parents have confidence in them and
will help them develop their ability to do good things for themselves and others

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f. Love. They need to know parents love them, want them and enjoy them; that they
matter to someone.
g. Praise. Every child needs approval; they also need pat on the back for something
good they have accomplished.
h. Protection. They need to know their parents want them safe from harm, that they
will help them when face a strange or frightening situation.
j. Recognition. Children need to be recognized for what they are inside and outside
home. Consider them in planning a new home, buying furniture or when deciding to go
for a vacation.
k. Security. All children need to know their home is a place of safety that their
parents will be at hand in the time of need.
FAMILY PLANNING
7. Family planning is the practice of controlling the number of children in a family and the
intervals between their birth, particularly by means of artificial contraception or voluntary
sterilization.

METHODS OF FAMILY PLANNING

8. a. Short Acting Methods (Ranges from 1 day to 3 months)
(1) Control Pill. It inhibits ovulation, causes changes in the lining of the
uterus, thickens cervical mucus preventing sperm penetration and reduces sperm
transportation in the fallopian tubes.
(2) Condoms. These prevent sperms from entering the vagina.
( 3) Inject able. Partially inhibits ovulation, causes changes in the lining of the
uterus and thickens cervical mucus
(4) Natural Methods (Fertility Awareness Methods). A woman observes the
changes that naturally occur during her menstrual cycle to determine her fertile
and infertile periods
b. Long Acting & Reversible Methods. (Ranges from 5 to 10 years)
(1) Implants (Jadelle & Implanon). These prevent ripening and maturing of
the egg in the ovary, thickens the cervical mucus making it difficult for sperms to
pass through, inner lining of the womb does not prepare itself for the baby to
grow and reduces sperm transportation in the fallopian tubes.
(2) Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD).Prevents an egg from
implanting in the uterus and the devices with copper releases ions that kill the
sperms.

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c. Permanent and Non Reversible methods.

(1) Female Surgical Contraception (Tuber Ligation). Fallopian tubes are
blocked and cut to prevent sperms from reaching the egg.
(2) Male Surgical Contraception (Vasectomy). By blocking the vas deferens,
sperms are not present in the ejaculate (semen).
(3) Advantages of family planning (to the Mother).
(a) Enables her to regain her heath after delivery.
(b) Gives enough time and opportunity to love and provide
attention to her husband and children.
(c) Give more time for her family and own personal
advancement like in education.
(d) When suffering from an illness, gives enough time for
treatment and recovery.
(4) Advantages of family planning (to the Children).
(a) Healthy mothers produce healthy children.
(b) They will get all the attention, security, love and care they
deserve.
(5) Advantages of family planning (to the Father).
(a) Lightens the burden and responsibility in supporting his
family.
(b) Enables him to give his children their basic needs (food,
shelter, education and better future).
(c) Gives him time for his family and own personal
advancement like training.
(d) Reduces strain on the limited resources available in the
barracks (water, power, food ratios).
(e) Family planning reduces stress on the soldier and their
increase his morale/performances.
(f) Reduces disgruntlement due to limited salary since the
family will be manageable.

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CHALLENGES FACING SOLDIERS FAMILIES

9. a. Self-rejection.
b. Anti- social Behaviors such as drunkenness, Drug Abuse,
Infidelity(womanizing),promiscuity etc.
c. Lack of financial literacy.
d. Low level of ideological orientation.
e. Dependency syndrome.
f. Problem of settling families due the nature of our deployments.
g. Sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS.
h. Family pressure to accumulate wealth which endangers the life of the soldier to
such illegal acts such as robbery sale of soldier’s entitlement.
i. Peer influence.
j. Rigid and bad cultural practices.
k. Sectarian politics.
l. Lack of patriotism.
m. etc.
WAY FORWARD
10. a. Emphasize political Education.
b. Financial literacy as a must for all troops.
c. Deliberate effort be put on both formal and informal education.
d. Health and sanitation.
e. Self-control on matters of the families.
CONCLUSION
11. a. A Soldier needs to look at what type of family structure is good for his children, a
nuclear family is good for a soldier whose family stays in the barracks, however when in
the village an extended family would be the ideal one.
b. As service men much effort is need to avoid other structures of step family and
single parent family through sticking to our spouses in thick and thin, avoiding marrying
many women especially when one is transferred to a different location
c. “ A soldier should at all times differentiate between sex for leisure and sex for
producing children, otherwise everyman is capable of producing more than 10 children”
Maj Gen Fred Mugisha (Former JCOS UPDF). There is need for family planning at all
level so that every militant can have a manageable family which will not stress him by its
demands. This will improve performance and productivity of every soldier. However
there is need to consult the physician and agree as couples which method of family
planning suites you.

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CHAPTER FOUR

HEALTH EDUCATION

PERSONAL HYGIENE
1. Hygiene. Hygiene is a set of practices performed for the preservation of health.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions
and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases.
a. Hygiene also refers to healthy habits that include bathing, keeping the mouth
clean, keeping the skin protected from the sun and washing hands frequently before
handling edibles to insure the safe delivery of food. Hygiene is also commonly referred to
as cleanliness
Note: ‘’Good hygiene keeps you protected from things, like germs and dangerous Ultra
Violet rays from the sun, in the environment that can hurt you. ’’Bad hygiene allows
these things to affect your body and probably make you sick.
b. Personal Hygiene. Personal hygiene is the science which deals with promotion
and preservation of health. It’s preventing infection through cleanliness. Personal hygiene
may also be described as the principle of maintaining cleanliness and grooming of
external body parts. It’s the regular routine of personal care involving washing and
grooming of hair, skin, face, tooth, ears, hands, nails and feet. In a work place, personal
hygiene involves wearing clean uniforms, keeping finger nails short and natural, regular
hand washing, reporting of any sickness or illness immediately among others. Failure to
keep up a standard of hygiene can have many implications. Not only is there an increased
risk of getting an infection or illness, but there are many social and psychological aspects
that can be affected.
GENERAL CONCEPT OF PERSONAL HYGIENE
2. Personal hygiene includes different habits i.e., washing hands and brushing teeth which
keep bacteria, viruses and fungal far away from our bodies. Moreover these habits will help us to
protect our mental health and activity. Also good personal hygiene will help us to keep feeling
good about ourselves. Since those who do not take care of their personal hygiene i.e., dirty
clothes, body odor and bad breath will suffer from discrimination and this will mainly leads to
mental problems. Most importantly, all people have their own hygiene but some people do it
better than others, depending on each person’s culture, society and family norm.
KEY MESSAGES ON PERSONAL HYGIENE
3. a. Germs are tiny living things that can cause diseases. These germs can be passed
from one person to another.
b. Practicing good hygiene can help us protect against these germs and diseases.
c. A good rule to follow is to wash our hands before preparing food, before eating,
and before breast-feeding. We also need to wash our hands after going to the toilet and
after changing diapers or otherwise having contact with feces.
d. Personal hygiene should be taught to children as early as possible emphasizing
oral health, washing, toilet hygiene, and hair care among others as part of their everyday
routines.

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IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL HYGIENE

4. a. Practicingbody cleanliness is imperative in avoiding and overcoming illness, both
for the person undergoing good hygiene and others around him. Body cleanliness helps
prepare a person to fight illness and disease. Actions, such as washing hands, help kill
viruses and bacteria.
b. Avoidance of Bad Breath: Poor oral hygiene and infection of gums often results
in a bad odor emanating from the mouth.
c. Since a person's body sheds skin on a constant basis, washing it away prevents a
buildup that can lead to illnesses, notes Everyday Health.
d. Trimming nails reduces the likelihood of hangnails and infected nail beds.
e. Brushing and flossing teeth regularly helps reduce unhealthy bacteria that lead to
gum disease and tooth decay. Gum disease can cause significant heart valve problems,
while tooth decay can lead to eating difficulty.
f. Everyday exposure to dust, pollution and road grime accumulate on clothing,
which then brings germs and dirt into a person's home. Without proper bathing, the skin
becomes sticky, thereby making more dirt and bacteria adhere to a person's body. This
leads to an unpleasant odor that is unacceptable in many cultures.
g. Personal hygiene contributes greatly on one’s success to job acquisition, and
promotion.
h. Personal hygiene provides mental, physical and social benefits. These include:
(1) Lessening the risks of disease.
(2) Maintaining personal dignity and
(3) Increasing acceptance from society by giving good first impression to
others.
5. Resources for personal hygiene. Resources for personal hygiene include:
a. Deodorants.
b. Water.
c. Soap.
d. Tooth brush.
e. Tooth paste.
f. Shampoo and conditioners.
g. Nail clip/cutters and
h. Hair brush/comb.
Note: Personal hygiene greatly relies on a good diet.

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PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION

6. DEFINITION. Public health refers to "the science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting human health through organized efforts and informed choices of
society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."Sanitation generally
refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and feaces.
Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known
to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities. The
word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as
garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
7. Lack of sanitation. Lack of sanitation refers to the absence of sanitation. In practical
terms it usually means lack of toilets or lack of hygienic toilets that anybody would want to use
voluntarily. The result of lack of sanitation is usually open defecation (and open urination but
this is of less concern) with the associated serious public health issues. Diseases caused by lack
of sanitation -diseases and conditions caused by lack of sanitation and hygiene include:
a. Waterborne diseases, which can contaminate drinking water. Diseases transmitted
by the fecal-oral route.
c. Infections with intestinal helminthes (worms) – most people are infected with soil-
transmitted helminthes. They are transmitted by eggs present in human faeces which in
turn contaminate soil in areas where sanitation is poor.
d. Polio.
e. Stunted growth due to malnutrition in children.
8. Wastewater and storm water management. Wastewater management consists of
collection, wastewater treatment (be it municipal or industrial wastewater), disposal or reuse of
treated waste water. However, in developing countries like Uganda, most wastewater is still
discharged untreated into the environment. Most households are not connected to sewers, and
they rather use on-site sewage facilities or decentralized treatment if they are connected to piped
water and use flush toilets. They discharge their wastewater into septic tanks or other types of
on-site sanitation systems as well as wetlands.
9. Solid waste disposal. Disposal of solid waste is most commonly conducted in landfills,
but incineration, recycling, composting and conversion to bio-fuels are also avenues. In the case
of land fill, daily cover with top soil is required. The importance of daily cover lies in the
reduction of vector contact and spreading of pathogens. Daily cover also minimizes odor
emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have
requirements for perimeter sealing of the landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of
leachate (liquid from solid waste) that could contaminate groundwater (and hence jeopardize
some drinking water supplies).For incineration options, the release of air pollutants, including
certain toxic components is an attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and bio fuel conversion are
the sustainable options that generally have superior lifecycle costs, particularly when total
ecological consequences are considered. Composting value will ultimately be limited by the
market demand for compost product.
Ensuring adequate sanitation requires that one should avoid contamination of food, and water
through the 6 Fs (Feaces, Fluids, Fingers,, Flies Fields/floors and food). The major face-oral

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disease transmission pathways are demonstrated in the ‘‘F Diagram’’ which illustrates the
importance of particular interventions, notably the safe disposal of feaces, in preventing disease
transmission.

10. a. Disadvantages of poor sanitation. Lack of sanitation leads to:

(1) Disease (mostly diarrhea diseases).

(2) Poverty.

(3) Childhood and maternal underweight.

b. Benefits of improving sanitation. Benefits of improved sanitation extend well

beyond reducing the risk of diarrhea. These include:

(1) Reducing the spread of intestinal worms, schistosomiasis and trachoma,

which are neglected tropical diseases that cause suffering for millions.

(2) Reducing the severity and impact of malnutrition.

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(3) Promoting dignity and boosting safety, particularly among women and
girls.

(4) Promoting school attendance: girls’ school attendance is particularly

boosted by the provision of separate sanitary facilities.

(5) Potential recovery of water, renewable energy and nutrients from faecal
waste.

c. Challenges of sanitation. Wastewater in developing countries is discharged

partially treated or untreated directly into rivers, lakes or the ocean.
Wastewater is increasingly seen as a resource providing reliable water and nutrients for
food production to feed growing urban populations. There is need to ensure that:
(1) Management practices that ensure wastewater is insufficiently treated and
unsafely reused.
(2) Institutional oversight and regulation.
(3) Low Public education campaigns to inform people about wastewater use.
PHYSICAL FITNESS
11. DEFINITION. Physical Fitness is the ability of your body systems to work efficiently. A
fit person is able to carry out the typical activities of living, such as work, and still have enough
energy and vigor to respond to emergency situations and to enjoy leisure time activities. Physical
fitness is one of the components of health. FITNESS means “readiness”. Fit people are better
equipped than non-fit people. The level of fitness includes all aspects of health and life. It affects
physical, mental, and social health. Physical activity is a general term that includes sports, dance,
and activities done at work or at home, such as walking, running, climbing stairs, digging,
slashing etc. However, it is unfortunate that today’s population is moving towards a more
sedentary lifestyle. Therefore, there is a greater advocacy than ever to increase the daily physical
fitness exercise level to maintain both cardiovascular (heart muscles) fitness and body weight.
12. The importance of physical fitness cannot be emphasized enough but may result into
some of the following benefits:
a. Health - Related Physical Fitness:
(1) Physical fitness helps in increasing energy, burns calories, and may
prevent or minimize complications from chronic diseases.

(2) It helps one to get a perfect body shape and helps the body to consume
more proteins.

(3) Regular physical activity can do much to prevent disease and illness.

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(4) It can help you look your best (with proper nutrition, good posture, and
good body mechanics).

(5) Cardiovascular fitness: the ability to exercise your entire body for long
periods of time.

(6) Strength: the amount of force your muscles can produce.

(7) Muscular endurance: the ability to use your muscles many times without
tiring.

(8) Flexibility: the ability to use your joints fully through a wide range of
motion.

(9) Body fatness – composition: is the percentage of body weight that is made
up of fat when compared to other body tissue, such as bone and muscle.

(10) Being physically active can build fitness, which, in turn, provides you with
many health and wellness benefits.
b. Skill attainment. It helps people to acquire different skills for example football, athletics,
boxing etc.
c. Agility. Agility is the ability to change the position of your body quickly and to control
body’s movements. People with good agility are most likely to be good at activities such as;
diving, soccer, ice skating, wrestling, and other maneuvers
d. Balance. Balance is the ability to keep an upright posture while standing still or moving.
People with good balance are most likely to be good in activities such as gymnastics,
jumping, etc.
e. Power. Power is the ability to use strength and speed. People with good power might
have the ability to put the shot, throw the discus, high jump, play football, speed swim, speed
skate, etc.
f. Reaction time. Reaction time is the amount of time it takes to move once you realize the
need to act. People with good reaction time are able to make fast starts in track or swimming,
or to dodge a fast attack in fencing or karate.
g. Speed. Speed is the ability to perform a movement or cover a distance in a short period of
time. People with leg speed can run fast, while people with good arm speed can throw fast or
hit a ball that is thrown fast.
h. Appearance. People who do regular physical activity look better, feel better, do better on
academic work, and are less depressed than people who are less active.

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FIRST AID
13. DEFINITION. First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or
injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, and/or
promote recovery or First aid is the immediate assistance or treatment given to someone before
the arrival of medical staff/ ambulance. It includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior
to professional medical help being available, such as performing CPR while awaiting an
ambulance, as well as the complete treatment of minor conditions, such as applying a plaster to
a cut. First aid is generally performed by the layperson, with many people trained in providing
basic levels of first aid, and others willing to do so from acquired knowledge.
14. Principles of first aid include the following:
a. Assess the situation to ascertain cause of emergency and any likely risk factors
b. Make area safe to ensure protection of the victim, by standers and self.
c. Communicate to relevant authorities like police, ambulance services team for
immediate response.
d. Give emergency aid:
(1) Initial assessment
(2) Signs and symptoms
(3) Observe Air ways, breathing and blood circulation (ABC)
e. Get help from others/by standers if needed.
f. Refer the casualty for hospital management.
15. Aims of first aid. The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key points,
sometimes known as 'the three P's':-
a. Preserve life. The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid is to
save lives and minimize the threat of death. This involves;
(1) Controlling bleeding.
(2) Treating probable cause of shock.
(3) Maintaining airway in correct position.
(4) Performing cardiac pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) when needed (no
breathing or pulse).
b. Prevent further injuries/condition from worsening. Prevent further harm/prevent
the condition from worsening, or danger of further injury; this covers both external
factors, such as: moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid
techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as :
(1) Applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous.
(2) Dressing wound to prevent infection.

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(3) Providing comfort to casualty.

(4) Placing casualty in a comfortable position.
c. Promote recovery. First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from
the illness or injury. This ranges from:
(1) Relieving the casualty from anxiety.
(2) Encouraging confidence and trust.
(3) Attempting to relieve pain and discomfort.
(4) Handling the casualty gently.
(5) Protecting the casualty from cold and wet conditions.
16. Types of first aid. There are several types of first aid (and first aider) and these require
specific additional training. These are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or
activity undertaken.
a. Aquatic/Marine first aid is usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards,
professional mariners or in diver rescue, and covers the specific problems which may be
faced after water-based rescue and/or delayed
b. Battlefield first aid takes into account the specific needs of treating wounded
combatants and non-combatants during armed conflict.
c. Oxygen first aid is the providing of oxygen to casualties who suffer from
conditions resulting in hypoxia.
d. Wilderness first aid is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival
of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to
constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment. It may be necessary
to care for an injured person for several hours or days.
e. Mental health first aid. This is Support given to someone experiencing a mental
health problem or in a crisis situation.
17. Qualities of a good first aider. There are a number of personal traits and qualities that a
first responder should have to assist effectively in an emergency:
a. Good communication skills. Communication is key to good casualty care and is
very important when passing the casualty onto the next level of care. Communicating
with sick and injured people can be a challenge. Therefore you should choose someone
who has excellent communication skills and a natural ability to talk to people.
b. Ability to work in a team. First aiders are often required to work alongside
members of the emergency services, especially the ambulance service. You should look
for someone who is a good team player.
c. Ability to work under pressure. First aid situations can range from the mundane (a
cut finger), to incredibly stressful and demanding (a cardiac arrest).A first aider should be
able to keep their ‘cool’ under pressure and be able to manage tasks whilst having an

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awareness of the overall situation. If they panic, then they’re likely to make the situation
much worse and cause the casualty further distress.
d. Leadership. A first aider may have to take command of a potentially volatile
situation.
e. Knowledge of their own limits. A key skill of first aid is being able to recognize
someone who needs quick emergency help. A first aider should know the limits of their
skills and knowledge and be able to call for further help when required rather than try to
‘go it alone’.
f. Initiative. A good first aider must be in position to use any available facilities to
provide care. E.g. use of banana fibers, cloths, sticks, bystanders etc. Other qualities of a
good first aider include; Calmness, Confidence, Willingness to offer assistance whenever
necessary, Patience, Empathy, Fitness, Positivity, Selfless and Vigilance.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DISEASES - (Concepts of prevention of disease).
18. Disease prevention. Actions aimed at eradicating, eliminating or minimizing the impact
of disease and disability, or if none of these are feasible, retarding the progress of the disease and
disability. Activities designed to protect patients and other members of the public from actual or
potential health threats and their harmful consequences - Mosby’s Medical Dictionary, 8th
edition.2009. The concept of prevention is best defined in the context of levels, of primordial
prevention, primary, secondary, and tertiary. A fourth level, called was later added.
Disease prevention covers measures not only to prevent the occurrence of disease, such as risk
factor reduction, but also to arrest its progress and reduce its consequences once established.
19. Determinants of Prevention. Successful prevention depends upon:
a. A knowledge of causation.
b. Dynamics of transmission.
c. Identification of risk factors and risk group.
d. Availability of prophylactic or early detection and treatment measures.
e. An organization for applying these measures to appropriate persons or groups.
f. Continuous evaluation of and development of procedures applied.

20. Levels of prevention.

a. Primordial prevention. Primordial prevention consists of actions and measures
that inhibit the emergence of risk factors in the form of environmental, economic, social,
and behavioral conditions and cultural patterns of living etc. It is the prevention of the
emergence or development of risk factors in countries or population groups in which they
have not yet appeared. For example, many adult health problems (e.g., obesity,
hypertension) have their early origins in childhood, because this is the time when
lifestyles are formed (for example, smoking, eating patterns, physical exercise).In
primordial prevention, efforts are directed towards discouraging children from adopting

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harmful lifestyles. The main intervention in primordial prevention is through individual

and mass education.
b. Primary prevention. Primary prevention can be defined as the action taken prior to
the onset of disease, which removes the possibility that the disease will ever occur. It
signifies intervention in the pre-pathogenesis phase of a disease or health problem.
Primary prevention may be accomplished by measures of “Health promotion” (health
education, modification of the environment, nutritional intervention including lifestyles
and behavior changes) and “specific protection” like immunization, mosquito nets use,
water treatment, bush clearing, protective gear use, nutrition, control of environmental
hazards e.g. pollution etc. It includes the concept of "positive health", a concept that
encourages achievement and maintenance of "an acceptable level of health that will
enable every individual to lead a socially and economically productive life". Primary
prevention may be accomplished by measures designed to promote general health and
well-being, and quality of life of people or by specific protective measures.
c. Secondary prevention. It is defined as “action which halts the progress of a
disease at its incipient stage and prevents complications.”
The specific interventions are: early diagnosis (e.g. screening tests, and case finding
programs….) and adequate treatment. Secondary prevention attempts to arrest the disease
process, restore health by seeking out unrecognized disease and treating it before
irreversible pathological changes take place, and reverse communicability of infectious
diseases. It thus protects others from in the community from acquiring the infection and
thus provides at once secondary prevention for the infected ones and primary prevention
for their potential contacts. Secondary prevention attempts to arrest the disease process,
restore health by seeking out unrecognized disease and treating it before irreversible
pathological changes take place, and reverse communicability of infectious diseases. It
thus protects others from in the community from acquiring the infection and thus
provides at once secondary prevention for the infected ones and primary prevention for
their potential contacts. The earlier the disease is diagnosed and treated the better it is for
prognosis of the case and in the prevention of the occurrence of other secondary cases.
d. Tertiary prevention. It is defined as “all the measures available to reduce or limit
impairments (“any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical
structure or function.”); disabilities (any restriction or lack of ability to perform an
activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for the human being.”);
Handicap (“a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or
disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role in the community that is normal
(depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual.”), and
Rehabilitation (to promote the patients’ adjustment to irremediable conditions.”)It is
used when the disease process has advanced beyond its early stages.
21. Concept of disease control. The term disease control describes ongoing operations aimed
at reducing:
a. The incidence of disease.

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b. The duration of disease and consequently the risk of transmission.

c. The effects of infection, including both the physical and psychosocial
complications.
d. The financial burden to the community.
22. Control activities focus on primary prevention or secondary prevention, but most
programs combine both to effectively achieve control, elimination and eradication of a given
health condition/event or disease. Elimination of a disease or health condition/event involves
interruption of transmission of disease, as for example, elimination of measles, polio and
diphtheria from large geographic regions or areas through vaccination/immunization. Eradication
means to "tear out by roots”. It is the process of “Termination of all transmission of infection by
extermination of the infectious agent through surveillance and containment”. Eradication is an
absolute process, an "all or none" phenomenon, restricted to termination of an infection from the
whole world. It implies that disease will no longer occur in a population. Currently, only small
pox has been eradicated in a number of countries.
23. Monitoring and surveillance is also very important in disease control. This is the
performance and analysis of routine measurements aimed at detecting changes in the
environment or health status of population” the environment can be monitored to ensure limited
air pollution, good water quality, as well as growth and nutritional status, etc).Continuous
monitoring of performance of a health service or a health professional, or of the extent to which
patients comply with or adhere to advice from health professionals is also very important.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
24. Communicable Diseases can be transmitted from one infected person/animal to another
person. Examples of communicable diseases include diarrheal diseases, acute respiratory
infections, measles, malaria, Hepatitis HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, polio, influenza, meningococcal
disease, tuberculosis, relapsing fever, Typhus/Typhoid etc. Malnutrition and trauma are
additional causes of illness and death amongst most populations. Provision of shelter, water,
sanitation, food and basic health care are the most effective means of protecting health of people.
A systematic approach to control of communicable diseases is a key component of humanitarian
response and crucial for the protection of the health of the population.
25. Fundamental principles of Control of Communicable Diseases. Control of communicable
diseases calls for;
a. Rapid Assessment:
(1) To assess the extent of the emergency and the threat of communicable
diseases in the population.
(2) To define the type and size of interventions and priority activities.
(3) To plan the implementation of these activities.
(4) To provide information to international community, donors and the media
to mobilize resources both human and financial.

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b. Prevention. Communicable diseases can be prevented by appropriate preventive

measures which include:
(1) Good site planning.
(2) Provision of basic clinical services.
(3) Provision of appropriate shelter.
(4) Clean water supply.
(5) Sanitation.
(6) Mass vaccination against specific diseases.
(7) Regular and sufficient food supply.
(8) Control of vectors.

c. Surveillance. It is the ongoing systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of

data in order to plan, implement and evaluate public health intervention aimed at;
(1) Identifying public health priorities.
(2) Monitoring the severity of an emergency by collecting and analyzing
mortality and morbidity data.
(3) Detecting outbreaks and monitor response.
(4) Monitoring trends in incidence and case fatality from major diseases.
(5) Providing information to ministry of health, donors to assist in health
programme planning, implementation and resource mobilization.
(6) Surveillance system should be simple, flexible, acceptable and situation
specific.

d. Outbreak Control. An outbreak is occurrence of a number of cases of a disease

that is unusually large or unexpected for a given place and time. Outbreaks and epidemics
refer to the one and same thing. Outbreaks in can spread rapidly giving rise to high
morbidity and mortality rates and the aim should be to detect and control the outbreak as
early as possible.
e. Disease Management. Disease management requires one to do Prepare, Detect,
Response and evaluate the health conditions/events.
f. Preparation:
(1) Conduct Health coordination meetings.
(2) Strong surveillance system.
(3) Outbreak response plan for each disease.
(4) Stocks of iv fluids, antibiotics and vaccines.
(5) Plans for isolation wards.
(6) Laboratory support.

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g. Detection
(1) Surveillance system with early warning system for epidemic prone
diseases.
(2) Inform ministry of health and WHO in case of outbreaks of specific
diseases.
(3) Take appropriate specimens (stool, CSF or serum) for laboratory
confirmation.
(4) Include case in the weekly report.
h. Response to outbreak:
(1)Confirm the outbreak.
(2) Activate the outbreak control team.
(3) Investigate the outbreak.
(4) Control the outbreak.
j. Monitoring and Evaluation
(1) Assess appropriateness and effectiveness of containment measures.
(2) Assess timeliness of outbreak detection and response.
(3) Change public health policy if indicated.
(4) Write and disseminate outbreak report.

NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

26. Non-communicable diseases are the leading killer today and are on the increase. Non-
communicable diseases include among others; diabetes, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases
stroke, heart (cardiac) diseases, chronic kidney diseases etc. Nearly 80% of these deaths occurred
in low- and middle-income [Link] are not only a health problem but a development
challenge as [Link] risk factors, including tobacco use, pollution, sun light, physical
inactivity, and unhealthy diet, and life style greatly contribute to non-communicable diseases.
Risk factors for non-communicable diseases:
a. A person’s genetic make-up and background.
b. The foundations of adult health are laid in early life.
c. Socioeconomic group.
d. Mental health.
e. Diet.
f. Overweight and obesity.
g. Inactivity.
h. Tobacco.

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i. Alcohol.
j. Diabetes.
k. Globalization and urbanization.
27. Prevention of non-communicable diseases:
a. Focusing on a combination of risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
b. Implementing medical screening for individuals at risk.
c. Providing effective and affordable treatment to those who require it.
d. Reduction in cholesterol uptake.
e. Screening for detection of disease.
f. Avoiding sedentary life styles through physical activities and exercises.
g. Control of overweight and obesity.
h. Reduced tobacco use and advocating for stronger anti-tobacco controls.
j. Promoting healthier diets.
k. Reduced alcohol consumption.
l. Reducing harmful use of alcohol.
m. Along with improving people's access to essential health care.
n. Continuous health education.

HIV/HEPATITIS B AWARENESS
28. HIV. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes HIV infection and over time
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). HIV destroys a certain type of blood cells known
as T-cells or CD4 cells that help the body fight off infection, and gradually weakens the immune
system and exposes to other communicable diseases or cancer. It is a virus that attacks only
human beings. AIDS is a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system
allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to [Link]/AIDS is a fast
spreading disease that does not have any cure. It does not discriminate in terms of age, sex, color,
level of social status, etc. It is a disease which can stay in the body a long time (3-20 years)
without any symptom. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid,
pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus
particles and virus within infected immune cells.
29. Diagnosis. Many HIV-positive people are unaware that they are infected with the virus
but detection can be by testing for HIV.
30. TRANSMISSION OF HIV. It is transmitted through the following ways:
a. Sexual contact – Heterosexual, Anal sex and Oral sex.
b. Blood contact as below:

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(1) Injections/needles (sharing needles, IV drugs, or injury from

contaminated needles or other sharp objects).
(2) Cutting tools (using contaminated skin-piercing instruments, such as
scalpels, needles, razor blades, circumcision instruments).
(3) Transfusions (receiving infected blood or blood products) or
transplantation of an infected organ.
(4) Contact with broken skin (exposure to blood through cuts or lesions).

c. Mother to child transmission (MTCT), during pregnancy, delivery and breast

feeding. NOTE: HIV is not transmitted through; Ordinary social or casual contact,
Shared clothing, Touching, Shared food or dishes, Dry kissing, Shaking hands, Toilet
seats, Insect bites, Massaging another person and Living with a person who has HIV.

d. Risk behaviors related to HIV/AIDS include; Promiscuity, Extra marital sexual

practices, Harmful traditional practices and Alcoholism and drug use.
e. Signs and Symptoms
(1) Major Signs and symptoms; Weight loss (>10% of body weight),
Prolonged fever (>one month) and Chronic diarrhea for one month.
(2) Minor signs and Symptoms; Swelling of the lymph nodes, Persistent
cough greater than one month, Skin diseases (rashes), Pulmonary and/or
disseminated TB, Pneumonia and Chronic herpes simplex.

31. CONTROL AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES

a. Medical strategies. Some commonly considered Medical interventions for the
prevention of HIV might include the use of the following:
(1) Microbicides (Gels, creams, films, or suppositories applied inside the
vagina or rectum to protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
including HIV.) for sexually transmitted diseases
(2) Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP).
(3) Post-Exposure Prophylaxis(PEP).
(4) Circumcision.
(5) Antiretroviral drugs to reduce viral load in the infected.
(6) Condoms.
(7) Do HIV testing before marriage.
b. Social strategies; Sex Education, Avoid sharing of needles, Safe Injection Sites,
Safe Sex, Sexual Abstinence and Being faithful to sexual partners.
c. Use of adverts through media. Persuasive messages delivered through health
advertising and social marketing campaigns which are designed to educate people about
the danger of HIV/AIDS and simple prevention strategies are also an important way of
preventing HIV/AIDS. These persuasive messages have successfully increased people's
knowledge about HIV. More importantly, information sent out through advertising and

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social marketing also prove to be effective in promoting more favorable attitudes and
intentions toward future condom use even though they did not bring significant change in
actual behaviors except those were targeting at specific behavioral skills.
d. Mother-to-child prevention. Programs should be put up to prevent the
transmission of HIV from mothers to children which can reduce rates of transmission.

32. HEPATITIS B. Hepatitis” means inflammation of the liver. Hepatitis B (HBV) is a virus
that infects liver and causes liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. The liver is a vital organ that
processes nutrients, filters the blood, and fights infections. When the liver is inflamed or
damaged, its function can be affected.
33. Signs and symptoms of hepatitis B. Acute infection may cause non specific symptoms,
such as fatigue, poor appetite, and vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, grey-colored stool, joint
pain, and yellow skin and eyes, etc and inflammation of the liver. Hepatitis B (HBV) Silent killer
since most people with it do not have any symptoms until it is too late.1 in 4 adults with chronic
HBV will die from liver cancer or liver cirrhosis (WHO)
34. Transmission of hepatitis B. Hepatitis B virus is transmitted in infected blood and
secretions (body fluids) but unlike HIV not through breast milk. Non-infectious Hepatitis B is
caused by Heavy alcohol use, toxins, some medications, and certain medical conditions.
However, infectious hepatitis B is most often caused by a virus through blood, semen, or other
body fluids from an infected person/animal which enters the body of someone who is not
infected.
35. The virus can be spread through:
a. Sex with an infected person. Among adults, Hepatitis B is often spread through
sexual contact.
b. Re-use of contaminated needles and syringes
c. Injection drug use. Sharing needles, syringes, and any other equipment to inject
drugs with someone infected with Hepatitis B can spread the virus.
d. Outbreaks. While uncommon, poor infection control can result in outbreaks of
Hepatitis B in healthcare settings.
e. Mother to child transmission. Hepatitis B can be passed from an infected mother
to her baby at birth. Worldwide, most people with Hepatitis B were infected with the
virus as an infant. HBV is transmitted by contact with blood or body fluid from an
infected person:
(1) There are 10-Times more people with chronic HBV than HIV/AIDS
worldwide (WHO).
(2) HBV is 50-100-times more infectious than HIV (WHO).
(3) Unlike HIV, HBV can survive outside the body for at least 7 days (WHO).
(4) Most infections occur from mother to child (Perinatal Transmission).
(5) Over 90% of babies infected during the first year of life develop chronic
infection (CDC).

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f. Life style/behaviors. Tattooing, tourism, and acupuncture greatly contribute to the

Hep B infection. Note: Hepatitis B viruses cannot be spread by holding hands, sharing
eating utensils, kissing, hugging, coughing, sneezing or breast feeding. There must be a
broken skin of the non-infected person getting in contact with the contaminated fluids.

36. Prevention and control of Hepatitis B:

(1) Health education about HBV and encouragement for people to Talk to families,
friends, colleagues, patients, and general public about HBV.
(2) Test blood before transfusion.
(3) Use condoms.
(4) Get tested for HBV.
(5) Get protected with HBV vaccine.
(6) Newborns born to infected mothers should be vaccinated (1 st dose vaccine +
Hepatitis B immune Globulin - HBIG) within 12 hours of birth. 3 vaccine doses at 0, 1,
and 6 months.
37. People at risk of hepatitis B:
a. All pregnant women are routinely tested for Hepatitis B. If a woman has
Hepatitis B, timely vaccination can help prevent the spread of the virus to her baby.
b. Household and sexual contacts of people with Hepatitis B are at risk for getting
Hepatitis B. Those who have never had Hepatitis B can benefit from vaccination.
c. People born in certain parts of the world that have increased rates of Hepatitis
B. Testing helps identify those who are infected so that they can receive timely medical
care.
d. People with certain medical conditions should be tested, and get vaccinated if
needed. This includes people with HIV infection, people who receive Chemotherapy
(using of any drug to treat a given disease) and people on Hem dialysis
(process/treatment to clean blood).
e. People who inject drugs are at increased risk for Hepatitis B but testing can tell
if someone is infected or could benefit from vaccination to prevent getting infected with
the virus.
f. Men who have sex with men have higher rates of Hepatitis B. Testing can identify
unknown infections or let a person know that they can benefit from vaccination.
38. Treatment of Hepatitis B. Like HIV, treatment of Hepatitis B is by administration of anti-
retroviral (ARVs). Reduction on consumption of fatty and oily foods e.g. G/nuts, pork, fatty
meat, un-skimmed milk, fried foods and vegetables.

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CHAPTER FIVE

FINANCIAL LITERACY

1. Definition. It refers to the way how people mobilize and Organize resources at their
disposal. It involves acquiring knowledge, experience and discipline on how to spend, what to
spend on and why one should spend.

2. Savings. This is withholding something valuable for future consumption. Types of saving
are:

a. Cash.

b. Kind.

3. Saving requires discipline and sacrifice as one post ponds present consumption to future
date. It leads to capital accumulation over time which can be invested in profitable enterprises or
assets that add value to the owner’s quality of life. It is difficult to make money but it is harder to
save it if you are atypical Ugandan. A 2005 World Bank report on development put Uganda’s
savings at only 90% of the population. Another study showed that 43% of Ugandans keep their
money in homes where it’s risky to keep. The sure way to financial independence is internal
resource Mobilization (savings).

3. We save for the following reasons:

a. To accumulate capital for investment.

b. To prepare for future emergencies.

c. Smoothen out variations in incomes and interventions in hardships.

d. Meet future obligations.

e. Invest in profitable businesses.

4. Investment. When one saves, the next logical step is investment. Treat your money as
your employer who must work for you 24 hours e.g. the money invested with WAZALENDO
SACCO shares will earn dividends and savings will be re- invested. Successful people learn how
to dream and dream big. The Dream shouldn’t degenerate into a fantasy but should crystallize
into a vision. Many dreams remain fantasies. Therefore take a bold step and venture out. Dreams
should be made in time bound goals. This is what distinguishes achievers from Dreamers- be an
achiever.

5. How to raise money for investment:

a. Savings out of your various sources of income.

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b. Sale of redundant property.

c. Mortgaging property – this is the biggest challenge faced by any prospective

investor.

d. Seek credit facility from any financial institution that offer favorable credit terms.

e. Form partnerships.

f. Change your life style and cut your expenditure budget by 25%.

g. Eat meals at home if possible.

h. Realign your assets.

i. Sell nonperforming assets i.e. animals and other that are not of immediate use.

j. Alternatively ensure that they begin yielding profit.

k. You can use cheap used items.

l. Live on less.

6. The laws that govern finance. Time has come to get out of the debt trap and turn your
dream or vision into money. Truth creates money but lies waste money. Know your ability; do
not spend money like a tycoon. The questions to ask myself what shall I do if my employment
ends today? If I died today who will look after my Family’s welfare and my children’s
education? If I become disabled today do I have a financial fallback position that can rescue me?
The following can help:

a. Do not waste time crying for wasted time and opportunities. Put your mind and
energies on current and available opportunities - otherwise, your head shall be confused.

b. Do not spend to impress others. Priority should be given to things that are
important to your life.

c. Spend money on important things first and on luxuries later. Your life first, your
family and luxuries last.

d. Spend money on what you know. Leave those that didn’t appear on your shopping
list before you went to the market. Please write down what you must buy or
requirements.

7. Where do we go wrong?

a. Unrealistic expectations.

b. To copy what others are doing.

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c. Worrying about the past investments that failed.

d. Refusal to change attitude. How can be successful when in our family no one is
rich!

e. To expect profit only without losses.

f. Prioritization. Failure to know is more important among the many so that it takes
precedence over the rest.

8. Types of money spenders:

a. That one who waits for luck from heaven.

b. The short sighted. He doesn’t save.

c. A coward; Fears to lose.

d. The one who waits for quick profits. He invests his money in business ventures
which are risky.

e. My money itches me. Spends money quickly as a very rich person where as not.

9. The laws that govern good saving:

a. There are no profits without investment and losses.

b. Seek for advice from experienced people.

c. Know what you don’t know and seek for advice.

d. For any type of business you have chosen, find justification for its selection.

e. Diversify your investments.

f. Have discipline and follow the procedure.

g. Use the knowledge you have.

h. Profit is just half of the gain.

10. How to make money increase:

a. Take bold decision and start your business.

b. Evaluate the available enterprises.

c. The actual reality. Is there any possibility to do that business?

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11. Starting a business. It will always be difficult but a good business idea must have the
following:-

a. What will you sell to customers?

b. Who will you sell to?

c. How will you sell?

12. Enterprises selection. The following should be considered:

a. Criteria;

(1) Market availability.

(2) Availability of resources required by the enterprise.

(3) Access to advisory services.

(4) Start up costs.

b. Management;

(1) Spouse participation.

(2) Hand/eyes on first.

(3) Later hands off, eyes on

c. Enterprises to choose from e.g. Crop, piggery, Agro processing, Poultry, farm
equipment repair, Crop protection and animal treatment, Crafts

Boda-boda, Carpentry, Shop, etc.

d. Prioritize enterprises by investing in the ones with the highest demand on the
market.

e. Steps to take.

(1) Research your idea.

(2) Get to know the key success factors.

(3) Watch out for what you copy and always strive to improve it

(5) Narrow your scope.

(6) Be focused – shaping the concept. The concept is the continuous process.

(7) If it doesn’t work on proper, then it may not work in real life.

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(8) Take the risk and implement the idea. Just like the tortoise every person
must sickout his neck into the unknown. There will always be risks. So,
calculate the risk involved.

(10) People will discourage you but confidently proceed if their advice is
disproved by research.

(11) When the risk is taken, be prepared to be called names e.g. A miser,
heartless but when results prove you right, the same people will start calling you
new names e.g. visionary, attitude.

f. Set goals and they must be smart.

(1) S - Specific.

(2) M - Measurable.

(3) A - Attainable.

(4) R - Realistic.

(5) T - Time bound.

(6) E.g. earning 1,000,000/= per month. This goal is specific. How will I get it
– by putting up10 shop building? So it is measurable. How will I build? Yet I
have 40m on my savings and I have a plot in town. So it is attainable. It is realistic
because each room shall be hired at 100,000/= per month x 10. Time bound 5
years. A realistic goal is that one which does not significantly alter your present
situation.

13. Why goals are important?

a. We need to work out our requirements.

b. Goals spur us into action.

c. They act as land marks.

d. We base on them to plan.

e. They enable us to be motivated.

f. They enable us to build consensus.

14. Factors facilitating savings:

a. Vision and determination.

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b. Availability of income.

c. Access to banking services.

d. Education levels.

e. Financial discipline.

15. Saving tips:

a. Do not buy impulsively.

b. Keep and stick to your budget/ list.

c. Do not wait to accumulate.

d. Do not wait until you are old.

e. When you get pay rise, save all or most of it.

f. Eat most meals at home if possible.

16. Enterprise development. It goes through – Creating, improving and expanding business
operations e.g. to commercialize agric, the following is necessary:

a. Participatory planning with family members.

b. Identify major issues that can hinder the development of the enterprise.

c. Prioritize enterprise.

d. Seek advisory services from e.g. NAADs.

e. Adopt new technologies.

17. Constraints. Market, funds, transport, pests and scarcity of man power.

18. How to prepare a business plan. Business planning involves setting objectives. The
following are the possible examples of objectives:

a. The first objective is profit maximization. Key steps are:

(1) Size of business.

(2) Compute costs of inputs.

(3) Compute start up costs.

(4) Budgeting expenses.

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(5) Mobilizing resources to start the business

(6) Assigning roles/ responsibilities to members of management.

(7) Write simple work plan.

(8) Agreeing on rules and regulations governing the running of the business.

b. Computing start up costs and operational expenses.

(1) Fixed costs.

(2) Variable costs.

(3) Product levels and stability per year.

(4) Resources to meet start up costs.

(5) Competitors.

c. Possibility of future expansion. Roles – Inputs, production, book keeping,

marketing and general management.

19. A Simple work plan. Collapsing under the weight of your own

Success- being over successful and it makes you collapse.

a. Describe your business as follows; Back ground information, core activities,

business location and suppliers, ownership structure, legal status, management etc.

b. Define the market and specify the marketing channels you intend to use. How big
is the market and what is your market share? You can find out this by carrying out a
simple market survey before starting up a business i.e. how many potential customers
exist? Are the resources sufficient enough to meet the startup costs? Are there
competitors making similar products? If they are there, capitalize on their weaknesses
strive to be on top. Note the following:

(1) It is better to start small and grow gradually.

(2) Use the SWOT analysis to assess yourself.

(3) Develop a financing and management strategy.

(4) Analyze financial projections i.e. how much do you need to do that business.

(5) Use cash flow statements.

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(6) Draw a business work plan and stick to it, shift from it only when it is absolutely
necessary.

(7) The market size is determined by the number of potential customers.

20. Decision making in business. This refers to making quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Qualitative is based on manager’s judgment and experience /initiative. Quantitative analysis is
mainly used in complex business analysis i.e. logic analysis. The complexity is always as a result
of the following:

a. Changes in government policy concerning pricing and taxing.

b. Privatization.

c. Globalization.

d. Liberalization.

e. Regional political and economic changes.

f. Market competition – home and abroad.

21. The qualitative techniques– Models. The common models are the following:

a. Relation between variables.

b. Revenue and volume models.

c. Cost and volume models.

d. Profit and volume models.

e. Example of revenue and volume model. Assuming Okello deals in dry beans
business in Owino market. He buys a Kg at 690/=. The formula is revenue (R) x
price (P) x quantity (Q). NB: He sells a Kg at 990/=.

22. Break even analysis. It refers to what quantity of goods would one require to sell in
order for him to start having profits (after all expenses).

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CHAPTER SIX

ETHICS AND MORALITY

INTRODUCTION

1. The basis for ethics must be morals, not the other way around. Unless there is a strong
and consistent moral base—founded on something substantial—ethics will be subject to
convenience, vested interests and fudge factors. The underpinning for decent human conduct
must be a consistent and easily understood code of conduct.

2. Ethics. The science of morals that branch of philosophy which is concerned with human
character and conduct: a system of morals, rules of behavior: a treatise on morals.

3. Moral .Of or relating to character or conduct considered as good or evil: ethical:

conformed to or directed towards right, virtuous: esp. virtuous in matters of sex: capable of
knowing right and wrong: subject to the moral law.

4. Morality. Quality of being moral: that which renders an action right or wrong: the
practice of moral duties apart from religion: virtue: the doctrine of actions as right or wrong.

5. Can humanity really do better than the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-17;
Deuteronomy 5:6–21) as the basis for morality?

6. Most of the basic, practical laws that have governed human behavior in various societies
over the centuries have in reality been amplifications of The Ten Commandments. And these ten
can be boiled down to what Christ referred to as two “great commandments.” Quoting from the
book of Deuteronomy, He said: “The first of all the commandments is: ‘Hear, O Israel, the Lord
our God, the Lord is one. And you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your
soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.’ This is the first commandment. And the
second, like it, is this: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ There is no other
commandment greater than these” (Mark 12:29–31). The two great commandments can be
understood as summarizing the two main thrusts of the Ten Commandments: loving God (the
first four) and loving our neighbor (the last six).

SPIRITUALITY

7. This is a broader concept with room for many perspectives in general. It includes a sense
of connection to something bigger than our self which is connected to a search for meaning in
life. Spirituality is a universal human experience that touches all of us. Modern spirituality is
centered the deepest values and meanings embraced by alleged and immaterial realities.
Spirituality further attempts to find answer to the following questions:

a. Where do I find meaning in life?

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b. How do I feel connected to others and the world?

c. How should I live my life?
SUPERSTITION

8. A belief or way of behaving that is based on fear of the unknown and faith in magic or
luck: a belief that certain events or things will bring good or bad luck .For instance while on your
way to any destination the crossing of the black cat is believed to be a bad omen.

RELIGION
9. Belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or
gods. (Brief highlights on types and forms of religion and it impact on the individual)

WITCHCRAFT

10. Witchcraft or witchery broadly means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and
abilities that are able to be exercised by individuals and certain social groups. Witchcraft is a
complex concept that varies culturally and socially. Therefore, it is difficult to define with
precision and cross-cultural assumptions about the meaning or significance of the term should be
applied with caution. Witchcraft often occupies a religious, divinatory or medicinal

VALUES AND BELIEFS

WHAT ARE VALUES?

11. These are principles, standards or qualities that an individual or group of people hold in
high regard. These values guide the way we live our lives and the decisions we make. A value
may be defined as something that we hold dear, those things/qualities which we consider to be of
worth.

12. A ‘value’ is commonly formed by a particular belief that is related to the worth of an idea
or type of behavior. Some people may see great value in saving the world’s rainforests. However
a person who relies on the logging of a forest for their job may not place the same value on the
forest as a person who wants to save it.

13. Values can influence many of the judgments we make as well as have an impact on the
support we give clients. It is important that we do not influence client’s decisions based on our
values. We should always work from the basis of supporting the client’s values.

WHAT IS A BELIEF?
14. Beliefs come from real experiences but often we forget that the original experience is not
the same as what is happening in life now. Our values and beliefs affect the quality of our work
and all our relationships because what you believe is what you experience. We tend to think that
our beliefs are based on reality, but it is our beliefs that govern our experiences.

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15. The beliefs that we hold are an important part of our identity. They may be religious,
cultural or moral. Beliefs are precious because they reflect who we are and how we live our lives.

WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE?
16. The word ‘attitude’ can refer to a lasting group of feelings, beliefs and behavior
tendencies directed towards specific people, groups, ideas or objects. An attitude is a belief about
something. It usually describes what we think is the ‘proper’ way of doing something. The
attitudes that we feel very strongly about are usually called values. Other attitudes are not so
important and are more like opinions. Sometimes our own attitudes can make us blind to other
people’s values, opinions and needs. Attitudes will always have appositive and negative element
and when you hold an attitude you will have a tendency to behave in a certain way towards that
person or object.

NB. You will need to be aware of your own personal values, beliefs and attitudes and how
they might impact on your work.

THE IMPORTANCE OF VALUES AND BELIEFS

17. a. They help to develop certain principles that help guide the society move morally
upright.

b. When we know our values, we can live a happier life doing what’s most
important, and of real value to us and to others.

c. They help in broadening our minds through visualization of what has happened and
those that are yet to happen.

d. They are an effective method of identifying ourselves through picturing our future.

e. They help us take the time to reflect on the many different aspects of our life.
Where do you see yourself as you continue to age gracefully? What are the things that are
most important to you? What do you hope to accomplish in life? Searching for and
finding the answers to these questions will help you discover your own values. For
instance, if you picture yourself growing old and remaining close to your family and
spending valuable time with your grandchildren, then a strong sense of family is one of
your core values.

f. Beliefs and values help us to discover which values are your highest priorities.
That way, at the end of each day, you can feel confident that you are nurturing the most
important parts of your life.

PERSONAL CONDUCT OF A UPDF SOLDIER

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18. Article 208 of the constitution provides for the existence of the Uganda Peoples' Defence
Forces (UPDF) and how it should conduct itself and these include:
a. There shall be armed forces to be known as the Uganda Peoples' Defense Forces.

b. The Uganda Peoples' Defense Forces shall be non-partisan, national in character,

patriotic, professional, disciplined, productive and subordinate to the civilian authority as
established under this Constitution.

c. Members of the Uganda Peoples' Defense Forces shall be citizens of Uganda of

good character.

19. However the international bodies outline a general conduct of a good soldier as:

a. Have respect for others

b. Respect for men under you
c. Have a greater sense of self control
d. Have a sense of humor
e. Have respect for women while in and outside operation.
f. Should have good manners and good will
g. Should be mined full of the word he/she uses

20. The NRA/UPDF while conducting a protracted struggle in the bush came out with
guiding principles; the dos and the don’ts on how to conduct themselves while in the struggle
and these were our traditional values which kept the force morally upright. These included:

THE DO’s

That a member of the army shall:

a. Offer necessary help to a member of the public at the time of need.

b. Offer medical treatment to civilians around the area of jurisdiction.
c. Offer any form of assistance to any member of the public.
DON’TS:

That a member of the army shall not:

a. Abuse, insult, shout at and annoy any member of the public.
b. Steal any property, obtain goods by false pretense.
c. Take anything without prior agreement.
d. Retain what is borrowed from any member of the public.
e. Develop any illegal marriage/relationship with any Woman.
f. Consume alcohol in public whether or not on duty.
g. Take or be in possession of any drugs.
h. Kill any person illegally.

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i. Tress passes on any person’s property.

j. Deal or aid the media.
k. Give public speeches/broadcast public statements.

SOCIALIZATION
21. Learning the customs, attitudes, and values of a social group, community, or culture. Its
roles are:

a. Socialization is essential for the development of individuals who can participate

and function within their societies.
b. Ensuring that a society's cultural features will be carried on through new
generations.
c. Therefore Socialization is most strongly enforced by family, school, and peer
groups and is continues throughout an individual's lifetime.
CONCLUSION

22. Ethics and Morality is an aspect of good will deeds and acts that fosters harmony, social
cohesion and wellbeing of any given society. But because of moral decay such as witchcraft theft
dishonesty, miss trust religion becomes a key binding factor for which ethics and morality are
reconstructed.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

THE CONSTITUTION OF UGANDA

INTRODUCTION

1. A constitution is the supreme law of the land (country) that is intended to guide direct and
protect the citizens.

AIM

2. The aim of this lesson is to enable learners to appreciate the value of preserving our
constitution and internalize their duties and obligations.

SCOPE

3. a. The preamble of the Constitution (National objectives, directives and National

policy)
b. Article 208 and 209. Establishment of UPDF, its Composition and its character.
c. Article 4. The need to popularize the teaching of the constitution to citizens as
well as among the Defence Forces.
d. Article 29. Enjoyment of Rights in relation to observing the Rights of others.
PREAMBLE

4. WE THE PEOPLE OF UGANDA

Recalling our history which has been characterized by political and constitutional instability;

Recognizing our struggles against the forces of tyranny, oppression and exploitation;

Committed to building a better future by establishing a socio-economic and political order

through a popular and durable national Constitution based on the principles of unity, peace,
equality, democracy, freedom, social justice and progress;

Exercising our sovereign and inalienable right to determine the form of governance for our
country, and having fully participated in the Constitution-making process;

Noting that a Constituent Assembly was established to represent us and to debate the Draft
Constitution prepared by the Uganda Constitutional Commission and to adopt and enact a
Constitution for Uganda:

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Do hereby, in and through this constituent Assembly solemnly adopt, enact and give to
ourselves and our posterity, this Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, this 22nd day of
September, in the year 1995.

“FOR GOD AND MY COUNTRY”

NATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

General

I. Implementation of objectives.

(i) The following objectives and principles shall guide all organs and agencies of the State, all
citizens, organizations and other bodies and persons in applying, or interpreting the Constitution
or any other law and in taking and implementing any policy decisions for the establishment and
promotion of a just, free and democratic society .

(ii) The President shall report to Parliament and the nation at least once a year, all steps taken to
ensure the realization of these policy objectives and principles.

Political Objectives

II. Democratic principles.

(i) The State shall be based on democratic principles, which empower and encourage the active
participation of all citizens at all levels in their own governance.

(ii) All the people of Uganda shall have access to leadership positions at all levels, subject to the
Constitution.

(iii) The State shall be guided by the principle of decentralization and devolution of
governmental functions and powers to the people at appropriate levels where they can best
manage and direct their own affairs.

(iv) The composition of Government shall be broadly representative of the national character and
social diversity of the country.

(v) All political and civic associations aspiring to manage and direct public affairs shall conform
to democratic principles in their internal organizations and practice.

(vi) Civicorganizations shall retain their autonomy in pursuit of their declared objectives.

III. National unity and Stability.

(i) All organs of State and people of Uganda shall work towards the promotion of national unity,
peace and stability.

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(ii) Every effort shall be made to integrate all the peoples of Uganda while at the same time
recognizing the existence of their ethnic, religious, ideological, political and cultural diversity.

(iii) Everything shall be done to promote a culture of co-operation, understanding, appreciation,

tolerance and respect for each other's customs, traditions and beliefs.

(iv)There shall be established and nurtured institutions and procedures for the resolution of
conflicts fairly and peacefully.

(v) The State shall provide a peaceful, secure and stable political environment which is necessary
for economic development.

IV. National Sovereignty, Independence and Territorial Integrity.

(i) The State and citizens of Uganda shall at all times defend the independence, sovereignty and
territorial integrity of Uganda.

(ii) The State and citizens of Uganda shall endeavor to build national strength in political,
economic and social spheres to avoid undue dependence on other countries and institutions.

(iii) The State shall endeavor to mobilize, organize and empower the Ugandan people to build
independent and sustainable foundations for the development of Uganda.

Protection and Promotion of Fundamental and other Human Rights and Freedoms.

V. Fundamental and Other Human Rights and Freedoms

(i) The State shall guarantee and respect institutions which are charged by the State with
responsibility for protecting and promoting human rights by providing them with adequate
resources to function effectively.

(ii) The State shall guarantee and respect the independence of non-governmental organizations
which protect and promote human rights.

VI. Gender Balance and Fair Representation of Marginalized Groups

The State shall ensure gender balance and fair representation of marginalized groups on all
constitutional and other bodies.

VII. Protection of the Aged

The State shall make reasonable provision for the welfare and maintenance of the aged.

VIII. Provision of Adequate Resources for Organs of Government.

The distribution of powers and functions as well as checks and balances provided for in the
Constitution among various organs and institutions of government shall be supported through the
provision of adequate resources to their effective functioning at all levels.

IX. The Right to Development.

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In order to facilitate rapid and equitable development, the State shall encourage private initiative
and self-reliance.

X. Role of the People in Development

The State shall take all necessary steps to involve the people in the formulation and
implementation of development plans and programmes which affect them.

XI. Role of the State in Development

(i) The State shall give the highest priority to the enactment of legislation establishing measures
that protect and enhance the right of the people to equal opportunities in development.

(ii) The State shall stimulate agricultural, industrial, technological and scientific development by
adopting appropriate policies and the enactment of enabling legislation.

(iii) In furtherance of social justice, the State may regulate the acquisition, ownership, use and
disposition of land and other property, in accordance with the Constitution.

XII. Balanced and Equitable Development

(i) The State shall adopt an integrated and coordinated planning approach.

(ii) The State shall take necessary measures to bring about balanced development of the different
areas of Uganda and between the rural and urban areas.

(iii) The State shall take special measures in favour of the development of the least developed
areas.

XIII. Protection of Natural Resources.

The State shall protect important natural resources, including land, water, wetlands, minerals, oil,
fauna and flora on behalf of the people of Uganda.

Social and Economic Objectives

XIV. General Social and Economic Objectives

The State shall endeavor to fulfill the fundamental rights of all Ugandans to social justice and
economic development and shall, in particular, ensure that-

(i) All developmental efforts are directed at ensuring the minimum social and cultural well-being
of the people; and

(ii) All Ugandans enjoy rights and opportunities and access to education, health services, clean
and safe water, and work. Decent shelter, adequate clothing, food security and pension and
retirement benefits.

XV. Recognition of Role of Women in Society

The State shall recognize the significant role that women play in society.

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XVI. Recognition of the Dignity of Persons with Disabilities

Society and the State shall recognize the right of persons with disabilities to respect and human
dignity.

XVII. Recreation and Sports

The State shall promote recreation and sports for the citizens of Uganda.

XVIII. Education Objectives

(i) The State shall promote free and compulsory basic education.

(ii) The State shall take appropriate measures to afford every citizen equal opportunity to attain
the highest educational standard possible.

(iii) Individuals, religious bodies and other non-governmental organizations shall be free to
found and operate educational institutions if they comply with the general educational policy of
the country and maintain national standards.

XIX. Protection of the Family

The family is the natural and basic unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the
State.

XX. Medical Services

The State shall take all practical measures to ensure the provision of basic medical services to the
population.

XXI. Clean and Safe Water

The State shall take all practical measures to promote a good water management system at all
levels.

XXII. Food Security and Nutrition

The State shall-

(i) Take appropriate steps to encourage people to grow and store adequate food;

(ii) Establish national food reserves; and

(iii) Encourage and promote proper nutrition through mass education and other appropriate
means in order to build a healthy State.

XXIII. Natural Disasters

The State shall institute effective machinery for dealing with any hazard or disaster arising out of
natural calamities or any situation resulting in general displacement of people or serious
disruption of the normal life.

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Cultural Objectives

XXIV. Cultural Objectives

Cultural and customary values which are consistent with fundamental rights and freedoms,
human dignity, democracy, and with the Constitution may be developed and incorporated in
aspects of Ugandan life. The State shall-

(i) Promote and preserve those cultural values and practices which enhance the dignity and well-
being of Ugandans;

(ii) Encourage the development, preservation and enrichment of all Ugandan languages;

(iii) Promote the development of a sign language for the deaf; and

(iv) Encourage the development of a national language or languages.

XXV. Preservation of Public Property and Heritage

The State and citizens shall endeavor to preserve and protect and generally promote, the culture
of preservation of public property and Uganda's heritage.

Accountability

XXVI. Accountability
(i) All public offices shall be held in trust for the people.

(ii) All persons placed in positions of leadership and responsibility shall, in their work, be
answerable to the people.

(iii) All lawful measures shall be taken to expose, combat and eradicate corruption and abuse or
misuse of power by those holding political and other public offices.

The Environment

XXVII. The Environment

(i) The State shall promote sustainable development and public awareness of the need to manage
land, air, water resources in a balanced and sustainable manner for the present and future
generations.

(ii) The utilization of the natural resources of Uganda shall be managed in such a way as to meet
the development and environmental needs of present and future generations of Ugandans; and in
particular, the State shall take all possible measures to prevent or minimize damage and
destruction to land, air and water resources resulting from pollution or other causes.

(iii) The State shall promote and implement energy policies that will ensure that people's basic
needs and those of environmental preservation are met.

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(iv)The State, including local governments, shall-

(a) Create and develop parks, reserves and recreation areas and ensure the conservation of
natural resources;

(b) Promote the rational use of natural resources so as to safeguard and protect the bio-diversity
of Uganda.

Foreign Policy Objectives

XXVIII. Foreign Policy Objectives

(i) The foreign policy of Uganda shall be based on the principles of:

(a) Promotion of the national interest of Uganda;

(b) Respect for international law and treaty obligations;

(c) Peaceful co-existence and non-alignment;

(d) Settlement of international disputes by peaceful means;

(e) Opposition to all forms of domination, racism and other forms of oppression and exploitation.

(ii) Uganda shall actively participate in international and regional organizations that stand for
peace and for the well-being and progress of humanity.

(iii) The State shall promote regional and pan-African cultural, economic and political co-
operation and integration.

Duties of a Citizen
XXIX. Duties of a Citizen

The exercise and enjoyment of rights and freedoms is inseparable from the performance of duties
and obligations, and accordingly, it shall be the duty of every citizen-

(a) To be patriotic and loyal to Uganda and to promote its well-being;

(b) To engage in gainful work for the good of that citizen, the family, the common good and to
contribute to national development;

(c) To contribute to the well-being of the community where that citizen lives;

(d) To promote responsible parenthood;

(e) To foster national unity and live in harmony with others;

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(f) To promote democracy and the rule of law; and

(g) To acquaint himself or herself with the provisions of the Constitution and to uphold and
defend the Constitution and the law.

ESTABLISHMENT AND COMPOSITION OF UPDF

Article 208 Uganda Peoples' Defence Forces (UPDF)

(l) There shall be armed forces to be known as the Uganda Peoples' Defence Forces.

(2) The Uganda Peoples' Defence Forces shall be non-partisan, national in character,
patriotic, professional, disciplined, productive and subordinate to the civilian authority as
established under this Constitution.

(3) Members of the Uganda Peoples' Defence Forces shall be citizens of Uganda of good
character.

(4) No person shall raise an armed force except in accordance with this Constitution.

Article 209
The functions of the Uganda Peoples' Defence Forces are-

(a) To preserve and defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Uganda;

(b) To co-operate with the civilian authority in emergency situations and in cases of natural
disasters;

(c) To foster harmony and understanding between the Defence Forces and civilians; and

(d) To engage in productive activities for the development of Uganda.

Article 4. Promotion of public awareness of the Constitution

The State shall promote public awareness of this Constitution by-

(a) Translating it into Ugandan languages and disseminating it as widely as possible; and

(b) Providing for the teaching of the Constitution in all educational institutions and armed
forces training institutions and regularly transmitting and publishing programmes through the
media generally.

ENJOYMENT OF RIGHTS IN RELATION TO RIGHTS OF OTHERS

Article 29 Protection of freedom of co-science, expression, movement, religion, assembly

and association
(1) Every person shall have the right to-

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(a) Freedom of speech and expression, which shall include freedom of the press and
other media;

(b) Freedom of thought, conscience and belief which shall include academic freedom
in institutions of learning;

(c) Freedom to practice any religion and manifest such practice which shall include
the right to belong to and participate in the practices of any religious body or organization
in a manner consistent with this Constitution;

(d) Freedom to assemble and to demonstrate together with others peacefully and
unarmed and to petition; and

(e) Freedom of association which shall include the freedom to form and join
associations or unions, including trade unions and political and other civic organizations.

(2) Every Ugandan shall have the right-

(a) To move freely throughout Uganda and to reside and settle in any part of
Uganda;

(b) To enter, leave and return to, Uganda; and

(c) To a passport or other travel document.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

THE UPDF ACT

INTRODUCTION

1. Every member of the UPDF is obligated to have a thorough knowledge of all the
provisions written especially in the UPDF ACT NO 7 of 2005, so that he/she can be able to
know his rights and privileges as well as the weight of disciplinary measure that may be taken
against him or her in case they said provisions are contravened. Military law is a set of laws,
rules and regulations that are written down and govern the Army. They must be complied
with a breach of which may lead to prosecution.

THE LAW APPLICABLE TO UPDF

2. a The 1995 Constitution of the republic of [Link] amended

b. The UPDF ACT NO 7 of 2005.

c. The PENAL CODE ACT CAP 120.
d. TRIAL INDICTMENT ACT (TIA).
e. CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE AND ACT (CPCA).
f. INTERNATIONAL CONVETION AND TREATIES.
g. Case Law.
h. ANY other Law that is put in PLACE

SUPREMERCY OF THE 1995 CONSTITUTION

3. The constitution is the supreme law of Uganda and shall have biding force on all
authorities and persons throughout Uganda. If any other law or custom is inconsistent with any
of the provisions of this constitution, the constitution shall prevail and that other law or custom
shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.

4. ART 208, it creates the UPDF. It stipulates that, there shall be ARMED forces to be
known as the UGANDA PEOPLES DEFENCE FORCE. It lays down the qualifications of the
UPDF.

a. It shall be non-partisan.
b. National in character.
c. Patriotic.

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d. Professional.
e. Disciplined.
f. Productive.
g. Subordinate to civilian authority as established under the constitution.
h. Citizens of Uganda.
FUNCTIONS OF UPDF

5. ART 209 of the constitution 1995 lays down the roles and duties of the UPDF as follows:

a. To Preserve and defend the independence and territory of UGANDA.

b. To cooperate with the civilian authority in emergency situations and in case of natural
disasters.
c. To foster harmony and understanding between the Defence Forces and civilians.
d. To engage in productive activities for the development of Uganda.
COMPOSITION OF THE ARMY

6. Sec 3 (2) of the UPDF ACT; provides that the Defence Forces shall be composed of the
following services:

a. The Land Forces.

b. The Air Forces and.

c. Any other services prescribed by parliament.

Sec 4 of UPDF act provides for establishment and composition of each service.

(1) Composition of services

(a) Regular forces.

(b) Reserve forces.

COMPOSITION OF THE REGULAR FORCES

7. Sec 5 UPDF Act provides that each regular force shall consist of:

a. Officers commissioned by the President.

b. Militant enrolled into the Defence Forces.
c. Such other officers and militants as attached to regular forces.
COMPOSITION OF THE RESERVE FORCES

8. Sec 6 (1) provides that the sources of the reserve forces shall include the following:

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a. Persons seconded from regular forces.

b. Retired officers and discharged militants.
c. Auxiliary forces which the Act under Sec 2 defines to mean Home guards, local
Defence Forces and vigilantes (members of a self-appointed group trying to prevent
crimes in the community) and state security organizations.
USE/SCOPE OF UPDF ACT 7 2005

9. a. Composition, Organs and structures of the Defence Forces.

b. Employment of the Defence Forces.

c. Terms and conditions of services.

d. Persons subject to military law.

e. Offence.

f. Arrests and searches and the handling of persons arrested.

g. Military Courts.

h. Trials.

j. Punishments.

k. Post-Trial matters.

l. Appeals.

m. Revision.

SERVICE OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS

GENERAL

1. a. “Service offence” means an offence under the UPDF ACT NO 7 of 2007 or any
other Act for the time being in forces, committed by a person who is subjected to
MILITARY LAW. Sec 119 defines a person subject to military law.

b. Service offences ranges from capital offences to miscellaneous offences (i.e.

Cases of different sorts or kind) and their punishment varies according to nature of the
offence committed.

c. Every person who commits a service offence while subject to military law shall
be liable to be charged, dealt with and triad for that offence committed.

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OPERATIONAL OFFENCES

2. Below are some of the operational officers offences related to security.

a. Sec 120 cowardice in action. Where it results into failure of operation or loss of
life, is liable to suffer death or in other cases life imprisonment.

b. Sec 121 breaching concealment. Where it results into loss of life is liable to
suffer death or in any other case life imprisonment.

c. Sec 122 failure to protect war materials etc liable to suffer death.

d. Sec 123 failure to brief etc where it result into death shall suffer death or life
imprisonment.

e. Sec 124 personal interest endangering operational efficiency. Life imprisonment.

f. Sec 125 Careless shooting in operation. Life imprisonment.

g. Sec 126 offences relating to operations. Life imprisonment.
h. Sec 128 offences by persons in command when in action. Life imprisonment
(Marine laws).
j. Sec 129 Treachery. Death.

k. Sec 130 offences relating to security. Death.

l. Sec 131 Offences relating to guard duties. Five years.
m. Sec 132 Mutiny. Death where it results in to failure of operation or loss of life
imprisonment.
3. a. Sec 120 Cowardice in action. (Fear or lack of courage or bravery)

(1) For the purpose of this sec cowardice in action means:

(a) Running away or inciting others to run away from enemy.
(b) Going over to the enemy.
(c) Improper delaying or discouraging any actions against the
enemy.

(d) Failing to use utmost exertion to carry out an operation when

ordered to do so. (Use of enough force).
(e) Failing to capture or destroy war materials from a routed enemy.

(f) Improper abandoning or delivering up a defence establishment,

garrison place, material, post or guard.

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(g) Talking or behaving in a manner that is likely to instill fear in

other soldiers.
(h) Premature an authorized firing.

(j) Assisting the enemy with materials.

(k) Improper casting away or abandoning of any materials in the

presences of the enemy.

(l) Improper doing or omitting does any things which results in the
capture or destruction of material by the enemy.

(m) Leaving posts before being regularly reliable when on watch in the
presence or vicinity of the enemy.

(n) Doing or omitting to do anything with intent to imperil the success

of the Defence Forces. (Put in dangers).

Sec 120 (i) any person subject to military law who displays cowardice in
action, where it results in failure of operation or loss of life, liable to suffer
death or in any other cases liable to life imprisonment.

b. Sec 121 breaching concealment. (Failing to hiding others)

(1) A person subject to military law who breaches concealment in operation commits on
offence and is on conviction, where it results in loss of life, liable to suffer death or in any other
cases, liable to life imprisonment.

(2) Breach of concealment in operation means:

(a) Unauthorized making of noise.
(b) Unauthorized talking.
(c) Unauthorized walking.
(d) Unauthorized smoking, lighting or any other form of exposures.
(e) Unauthorized contact with other people.
(f) Premature or unauthorized shooting.
(g) Premature or unauthorized withdrawal.
(h) Negligently choosing bad ground for concealment.
(j) Giving premature orders that can endanger concealment; or

(k) Any other act or omission that may result in breach or concealment.

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Any person who does so commits an offence of Breach of concealment and liable
to suffer death where it result into loss of life or in any other case liable to life
imprisonment.

c. Sec 122 Failure to protect war materials

(1) A person subject to military law who fails to protect war materials, misuses or sells them
commits an offence and is on conviction, liable to suffer death. I.e. failing to guard arms and
ammunition, malicious danger of arms, allowing arms and ammunitions to be handled by
unauthorized persons or losing arms or possessing them illegally.

d. Sec 123 Failure to Brief etc.

(1) A person subject to military law who:

(a) Is charged with the responsibility of briefing for an operation

fails to do so.

(b) Fails to prepare for an operation; commits an offence and is on

conviction, where there is failure of operation or loss of life liable
to suffer death or in any other case liable to life imprisonment.

(2) Failure to brief or to prepare an operation means:

(a) Failing to ensure that soldiers are thoroughly briefed before an

operation.

(b) Failing to carry out de-briefing after an operation (De-brief – Is

to ask questions officially, in order to get information about the
task that has been concluded).

(c) Failing to ensure personal preparations for an operation.

(d) Failing to ensure group preparations for an operation.

(e) Failing to ensure combat readiness of all soldiers.

(f) Failing to ensure thorough reconnaissance.

(g) Giving false or unreliable information about reconnaissance. Or

(h) Neglecting training of soldiers.

e. Sec 124 Personal interest endangering operational efficiency

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(1) A person subject to military law who does any of the following acts
commits an offence and is on conviction, liable to life imprisonment.

(a) Exposing operational and plans to unauthorized persons.

(b) Misusing operational funds, food or other supplies for person interest.
(c) Capturing from enemy goods for personal use instead of capturing
materials for Defence Forces.
(d) Failing to report and hand in goods captured from the enemy.
(e) Failing to ensure that good capture from enemy are brought to base and
are accounted for; or
(f) Being drunk during an operation.
f. Sec 129 Treachery (behaviors of not being loyal i.e. to one who entrust you)

(1) A person subject to military law who, for any purpose prejudicial to the
security or interests of Uganda:

(a) Infiltrates the Defence Forces or is an agent of a foreign power or

of any force engaging in war or war-like activities against the
government.

(b) Consciously gives classified information to a foreign power or

any force engaging in war or war-like activities against the
government or solicits information with avian to giving it such a power
or force.

(c) Consciously gives confidential information to any one without

the knowledge and approval of the proper authority. Or

(d) Consciously withholds vital information from the proper

authorities, commits the offence of treachery and is on conviction, liable
to suffer death.

OFFENCES RELATING TO SECURITY SEC 130

4. Person subject to military law who:

a. Discloses by word of mouth or by document, confidential information to the

enemy or to unauthorized members of the Defence Forces or the public.

b. Talks about or discuss any confidential information to unauthorized place or

with authorized persons will in hearing distance of unauthorized persons.

c. Gives parole (special pass word) watch, pass ward, countersign or identification
signal different from that which he or she received or without authority, alters or

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interferes with any identification or other signs or does omit to do anything with intent
to prejudice the security of the Defence Forces or forces co-operating with defence
forces; Commits an offence and is on conviction liable to suffer death.

5. Sec 131 Offences relating to guard duties.

6. Sec 132 Mutiny. (The act of refusing to obey orders)

a. A person subject to military law who:

(1) Plots, incites, conspires to cause, takes part in or endeavors to persuade

any person to join in a mutiny.

(2) Being present does not use his or her outmost endeavours to suppress a
mutiny or.

(3) Being aware of an actual or intended mutiny, does not without delay
inform his or her superior office of the mutiny. Commits the offence of mutiny
and is on conviction where it results in failure of operation, loss of life or
destruction of military operation materials, liable to suffer death or in any other
case, liable to life imprisonment.

OFFENCES OF INSUBORDINATION

7. a. Sec 133 Disobeying lawful orders.

(1) A person subject to military law who either willfully or through neglect, disobeys a
lawful order commits an offence and is on conviction where it results in failure of operation or
loss of life liable to suffer death or in any other case liable to life imprisonment.

(2) Disobeying lawful orders means:

(a) Failing to carryout lawful orders.

(b) Failing to communicate lawful orders.

(c) Breaking lines of formation.

(d) Taking unauthorized route while on operation.

(e) Breaking of from main operational group.

(f) Talking to unauthorized persons outside terms of reference while on operation.

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b. Sec 134 UPDF Act – Failure to execute one’s duties.

(1) A person subject to military law who fails to execute his or her duties commits an
offence and is on conviction when it results in failure of operation or loss of life liable to
suffer death or in any other case liable to life imprisonment.

(2) Failure to execute one’s duties means:

(a) Failing to take charge of road-blocks.

(b) Failing to oversee observation posts or when acting as a sentry or lock out,
leaving posts before being regularly relieved or sleeping or being drunk.

(c) Failing to manage quarter guard or other guard duties.

(d) Failing to deliver messages of information on time.

(e) Mishandling, misplacing or losing information.

(f) Raising undue complaints over operations.

(g) Failing to execute assigned duties or missions without reasonable excuse.

c. Sec 135 UPDF Act Violence to a superior officer

A person subject to military law who unlawfully strikes or draws or lifts up a weapon
against a superior officer or uses or officers violence against a superior officer commits
an offence and is on conviction liable to imprisonment not exceeding five years.

d. Sec 136 UPDF Act Insubordinate behavior

A person subject to military law who uses threatening or insulting language to or behaves
with contempt towards a superior officer commits an offence and is on conviction liable
to imprisonment not exceeding five years.

OFFENCE OF DISGRACEFUL CONDUCT

8. a. Sec 137 UPDF Act: Spreading harmful propaganda

(1) A person subject to military law who spreads harmful propaganda

commits an offence and is on conviction where there is failure of operation or loss
of life liable to suffer death or in other case liable to life imprisonment.

(2) Spreading harmful propaganda means:

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(a) Discouraging other soldiers from carrying out an operation.

(b) Speculation about an operation.

(c) Making oral or written statement ill of the Defence Forces or of the
Government not being constructive criticism.

(d) Spreading false stories intended to undermine morale of the

members of UPDF.

b. Sec 139 Drunkenness. Not exceeding 07 years imprisonment whether on duty

or not.

(1) A person is drunk if owing to the influence of alcohol whether alone or in

combination with any other circumstances, he or she is unfit to be entrusted with
his or her duty or with any duty which he or she might be called upon to perform
or behaves in a disorderly manner or in a manner likely to bring discredit to
the Defence Forces.

OTHER OFFENCES

9. Sec 140 (Taking or possessing drugs). A person subject to military law who takes or is
in a lawful possession of bangi, cannabis, marijuana, loccuise or any other intoxicating drug may
be prescribed by Defence Forces council, commits an offence and is on conviction liable to
imprisonment not exceeding seven years.

10. Sec 141 Abuse of and violence of inferior. If strikes, draws, lifts up a weapon or any
way treats any person by reason of rank or appointment commits a defence and liable to
imprisonment not exceeding 5 yrs.

11. Sec 142 False accusation, etc. (05 yrs imprisonment). A person subject to military law
who makes false accusation against any officer or militant knowing the accusation to be false,
commits an offence is liable to imprisonment not exceeding 05 yrs.

12. Sec 143 Quarrels and disturbances. (02 Years). A person subject to military law who
quarrels or fights with any other person or uses piduozing words or gestures towards any
person tending to cause a quarrel or disturbance, commits an offence and is on conjunction,
liable to imprisonment exceeding 02 years.

13. Sec 145 Scandalous conduct by officers etc. This means the personal conduct of an
officer which is generally against public order, expectation and morality, whether or not the
conduct directly or indirectly affects others. Any person found guilty of this offence is liable to
dismissal from the Defence Forces with or without disgrace.(Dismissal in a shameful manner
with no respect)

14. Sec 146 Desertion. If desertion endangers life or leads to loss of life.

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a. Deserted with arms and ammunitions.

b. Deserted and joined the enemy – death or life imprisonment.

15. Sec 148 Absence without leave. 04 Yrs.

a. With authority but fails to report when the leave has expired.

b. Without authority.

OTHER OFFENCES LISTED BELOW FROM THE PCA (CAP 120)

16. a. Murder. See 188 and 189 shall be sentenced to death with malice intention.

b. Manslaughter. See 187 and 189 life imprisonment causing death without
intention.

c. Robbery. See 285 and 286 punishment 10 yrs and life imprisonment by
magistrate court, life imprisonment by High Court and death if he threatens to use deadly
weapon.

d. Rape. See 123 and 124 liable to suffer death. Unlawful having canal knowledge
of a woman or girl without her consent or withdraws her consent or when obtained by
force/threat.

e. Defilement. See 129 Death and 18 yrs for attempt.

f. Thief. See 254 and 261 term not exceeding the year. Fraudulently and without
claim of right takes anything capable of being stolen or fraudulently convents, it is said to
have stolen that thing and any offences as per UPDF and PCA.

PERSONS SUBJECT TO MILITARY LAW

17. a. Sec 119 UPDF Include:

(1) Every officer and militant of regular forces.

(2) Every officer and militant of the reserve forces and prescribed force
when he or she is:

(a) Undergoing drill or training whether in uniform or not.

(b) In uniform.

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(c) On duty.

(d) Officers and militant continuing full time military service.

(e) On active service.

(f) In or on any vessel, vehicle or air craft of the Defence Forces.

(3) Persons attached or seconded to the army or any force.

(4) A person who accompanies an army unit and service in any place.

(5) A civilian who works with the army and approved to be subject to military law.

(6) A person who aids or abets an officer or man to commit an offence.

(7) A person who unlawful possesses equipment, arms and ammunitions.

ARREST CUSTODY SEC 185 UPDF ACT & PREPARATION OF CHARGE SHEET

INTRODUCTION

1. The expression “arrest” means deprivation of liberty of an alleged offender for an offence
known at law. An alleged offender under arrest may be in close custody (to holding under arrest
or confinement of a person in prison) or open arrest.

a. 185 (1) A person who has committed, found committing, is suspected

of being about to commit, a service offence may be placed under
arrest.

(2) The ordinary arresting officer shall be the commanding officer of

the unit to which the suspect belongs but in cases where it is impracticable
for him or her to do so any member of the Defence Forces may conduct
arrest of suspect of equal or lower rank.

(3) A member of the Defence Forces or the public may without a

warrant (legal document giving authority someone to effect arrest).
Conduct the arrest of any member of the defence found committing
or
suspected of being about to commit a service offence.

(4) A soldier may, without warrant, conduct the arrest of a member

of the Defence Forces of any rank who is wanted to answer
charges in
respect of the following offences.

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(a) Murder.
(b) Treason.
(c) Mutiny.
(d) Rape.
(e) Defilement.
(f) Desertion.
(g) Breaking concealment.
(h) Careless shooting of a fellow soldier or civilian or
(j) Any other offence carrying a maximum sentence of death.

(5) A person authorized to effect an arrest under this Act may use such
force as is reasonable necessary for that purpose.

b. Custody Sec 188 UPDF Act.A person effecting an arrest under the UPDF Act
shall immediately commit the person arrested to civil custody or service custody or take
him or her to the unit or formation with which he or she is serving or to any other unit or
formation of the Defence Forces and shall, at the time of the committal, or as soon as is
practicable after that, but in any case not later than twenty four hours, deliver to the
officer or militant in whose custody that person is committed, a statement in writing,
signed by himself or herself stating the nature of the offence the person is alleged to have
committed and the particulars of the offence.

c. Charge report Sec 188. (This is a written accusation by an arresting officer or

men incriminating the wanted person). An officer or a militant commanding a guard,
guard room or safe guard or an officer or a militant appointed shall receive a person
committed to his or her custody and shall as soon as practicable and in any case within
twenty four hours, give in writing to the officer or militant to whom it is his or her duty to
report a statement stating.

(1) The name of the person committed to his or her custody.

(2) The particulars of the offence alleged to have been committed by that
person so far as is known.
(3) The name and the rank of the officer, militant or other person by whom
the person so committed has place in custody.
(4) The statement received from him as under sec (i) above.
d. Copies of the report made under sub section 2 above shall be submitted to:

(1) The commanding officer of the unit of the detained person.

(2) The service Chief of Military Intelligence and security or his or her representative
and The service Chief of Legal Services or his or her representative.

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e. If there is no statement received from the person arrest as per sub-sec (i) above. The
reporting officer or militant shall report:

(1) The name of the committed person.

(2) The name of committing officer or militant.

(3) The date and the time of committal, and seek for advice as to whether or not he or
she should continue to detain the person.

f. Irregular detention sec 189.

(1) A person subjected to military law who, fails to release or effect the release of that
person (under arrest) when it is his or her duty to do so, commits an offence.

(2) A person subject to military law who, having committed a person to the custody
of any officer or militant, fails without reasonable cause to deliver, make statement
signed by him stating the nature of the offence which the arrested person is alleged to
have committed and the particulars of the offence, commits an offence and is liable to
imprisonment not exceeding two years.

CHARGE SHEET UPDF RULES OF PROCEDURE

2. Rule 6 of SI 307 – I provides that;

a. A charge sheet shall contain the whole of the issue or issues to be tried at one time
and may contain more than one charge if the charge are founded on the same facts or are
part of a series of offences of the same or similar character except charges under section
39(1) and (2) (a), 41(1), 67(a) and (c) or 68.

b. The commencement of each charge sheet shall state the number, rank, name and
unit of the accused and show by description that accused is subject to military law.

MILITARY COURTS

2. There are courts established under the UPDF Act No. 7 2005. Their aim is to try officers
and militant who have committed service offences in line with ordinary courts. There are six
types of military courts under the UPDF Act. Namely:

a. Unit Disciplinary Committee - Sec 195.

b. The Division Court Martial - Sec 194.

c. The General Court Martial - Sec 197.

d. The Court Martial Appeal Court - Sec 199.

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e. The Field Court Martial - Sec 200.

f. The Summary Trial Authority - Sec 191.

3. Sec 196 UPDF Act convening authority

a. The military court is convened by the High Command or any other authority as
may be authorized by the high command.

b. A Division Commander or a commander of an equivalent formation may

convene a unit disciplinary committee.

THE UNIT DISCIPLINARY COMMITTEE SEC 195 (1)

4. The Unit Disciplinary Committee for each unit of the Defence Forces shall consist of:

a. The C/Person who shall not be below the rank of a captain.

b. The Administration Officer of the unit.

c. The Political Commissar of the unit.

d. The Regimental Sergeant Major or Company Sergeant Major of the Unit.

e. Two Junior Officers and

f. One Pte (Private) other person/people to sit on the UDC.

(1) Secretary to record proceedings.

(2) Legal Officer from member of the Army to advice in the law and
procedure and a prosecutor.

The quorum of the Unit Disciplinary Committee shall be five.

POWERS OF THE UNIT DISCIPLINARY COMMITTEE

5. See 195(3) a Unit Disciplinary Committee shall have powers to try person for any non-
capital offence under the UPDF Act and shall have powers to impose any sentence authorized by
Law.

DIVISION COURT MARTIAL (See 194 UPDF Act)

6. There shall be in each Division or equipment formation of the Defence force. A Division
Court Martial with unlimited original Jurisdiction under the Act which shall consist of:

a. A Chairperson who shall not be below the rank of Major.

b. Two Senior Officers.

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c. Two Junior Officers.

d. A Political Commissar and
e. One non-Commissioned officer.
GENERAL COURT MARTIAL (See 197 UPDF Act)

7. There shall be a General Court Martial for the Defence Forces which shall consist of:

a. A Chairperson who shall not be below the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.

b. Two Senior Officers.

c. Two Junior Officers.

d. A Political Commissar and

e. One Non-Commissioned Officer.

POWERS OF DIVISION COURT MARTIAL (See 197(2) UPDF Act)

7. The General Court Martial shall have unlimited original Jurisdiction and shall hear and
determine all appeals referred to it from decisions of Division Courts Martial and Unit
Disciplinary Committees. Section 197(3) the General Court Martial shall have Reversionary
powers in respect of any findings, sentences or order made or imposed by any summary trial
authority or Unit Disciplinary Committee to be exercised in accordance with the provisions of
part xiii of the UPDF Act.

COURT MARTIAL APPEAL COURT (See 199 UPDF Act 7, 2005)

8. a. There shall be a Court Martial Appeal Court for the Defence Forces which shall
hear and determine all appeals referred to it from decisions of the General Court Martial.

b. The Court Martial Appeal Court shall consist of:

(1) A Chairperson who shall be an Advocate qualified for appointment as a judge of the High
Court of Uganda.

(2) Two senior officers of the Defence Forces.

(3) Two Advocates who are members of the Defence Forces.

(4) The Quorum of the Court Martial Appeal Court shall be:

(a) When considering an Appeal against a judgment involving a

sentence of death five members and

(b) In any other case, three members including the Chairperson.

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FIELD COURT MARTIAL (See 200 UPDF Act)

9. a. There shall be Field Court Martial which shall consist of the Field Commander of
the operation as the Chairperson and eight other members appointed in writing by the
deploying authority before departure.

b. A Field Court Martial shall only operate in circumstances where it is

impracticable for the offender to be tried by a Unit Disciplinary Committee of Division
Court Martial.

SUMMARY TRIAL AUTHORITY

See 191 UPDF Act

10. a. A commanding officer or an officer commanding may try an accused person by

Summary Trial.

b. An accused person may be tried by a commanding officer or officer commanding

only if;

(a) The accused is a junior officer or a militant.

(b) The offence is one that the commanding officer or officer commanding is
by this Act or regulations authorized to try.

POWERS OF SUMMARY TRIAL AUTHORITY (See 191(3) UPDF Act)

11. A commanding officer or officer commanding at a Summary Trial may pass any one or
more of the following sentences.

a. Detention for a period not exceeding six months.

b. Forfeiture of seniority.

c. Severe reprimand.

d. Reprimand.

e. A fine not exceeding basic pay for one month.

f. Minor punishment as may be prescribed.

TRIAL BY SUPERIOR AUTHORITY (See 192 UPDF Act)

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12. a. A Superior Authority may try a senior Army officer by summary trial.

b. A Superior Authority may try a senior Army officer only if the following
conditions are satisfied;

(1) The Superior Authority is equal to or higher in rank than the accused.

(2) The offence is one that the Superior Authority is by law authorized to try.

(3) The Superior Authority is not precluded from trying the accused person by reason of his
or her election to be tried by Court Martial.

OFFENCES TRIABLE BY A SUMMARY TRIAL AUTHORITY (See 192(i) UPDF Act)

13. a. Failure to appear before Board or produce document.

b. False information to Board.

c. Unauthorized disclosure.

d. Offences relating to guard duties.

e. Disobeying lawful orders in circumstances not involving a sentence of death.

f. Failure to execute ones duties in circumstances not involving a sentence of death.

g. Violence to a superior officer.

h. Malingering or maiming.

j. Insubordinate behaviors.

k. Drunkenness.

l. Abuse of and violence to inferiors.

m. False accusation.

n. Quarrels and disturbances.

o. Disorders.

p. Scandalous conduct by officers.

q. Connivance at desertion.

r. Absence without leave.

s. False statement in respect of leave.

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t. Unauthorized use of vehicles.

u. Improper driving of vehicles.

v. Destruction, loss or improper disposal of property.

w. Selling or pawing of decorations.

x. Causing fire.

y. Neglecting or willful interference.

z. Escape from custody.

aa. Obstruction of arresting officers.

bb. Unlawful detention of person.

cc. Disturbance in billets etc.
JURISDICTION OF CIVIL COURT (See 204 UDPF Act)

14. Nothing in the UPDF Act shall affect the Jurisdiction of any civil court to try a person for
any offence tribal by that court.

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE DEFENCE FORCES (SEVENTH SCHEDULE)

UPDF Act 7, of 2005

15. a. Helping members of the public:

(1) Offer help to members of the public when he or she finds them engaged in
productive work if he or she has time.

(2) Offer emergency medical treatment to members of the public who are in
the territory of his or her unit.

b. Relationship with the public. A member of the Defence Forces shall not:

(1) Abuse, assault, beat or in any way provoke any member of the public.

(2) Steal any property or obtain goods by false pretenses.

(3) Take anything from a person without paying for it.

(4) Retain anything he or she borrows from any member of the public.

(5) Develop any illegitimate or irresponsible relationship that is contrary to

public morality with any person.

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(6) Consume alcohol in a public drinking place while he or she is on duty or

in uniform or in possession of a weapon.

(7) Take drugs or be found in possession of drugs.

(8) A member of the Defence Forces shall not kill any person who is not an
enemy.

(9) Trespass on any person’s property.

(10) Make public statement to Journalists without proper authorization.

(11) Attend diplomatic parties or deal with a foreign mission without proper
authorization.

(12) Give public speeches or broad cast public statements without permission
from the appropriate authorities.

c. Higher and lower ranks to the Defence Forces. The lower ranks of the Defence
Forces shall obey the higher ranks and the higher ranks shall respect the lower ranks.

d. Administration of units.

(1) By holding regular meetings by which officers and militants can air their
views and grievances.

(2) Allowing open criticism of mistakes so as to avoid subterranean

grumbling.

e. Tendencies injurious to the cohesion of the Defence Forces. The following

tendencies are injurious to the cohesion of Defence Forces and are prohibited.

(1) Quest for cheap popularity by tolerating wrongs in order to be popular

with soldiers.

(2) Failure to stand on the side of right by the leader well knowing the
difference.

(3) Intrigue and double talk.

(4) Tribalism, nepotism or any other form of sectarianism.

(5) Formation of cliques in the Defence Forces.

(6) Any form of corruption.

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CHAPTER NINE

THE UGANDA DEFENCE DOCTRINE

INTRODUCTION
1. In his contribution to the Uganda Defence Doctrine (UDD), HE GEN YK Museveni the
president of the republic of Uganda and C-I-C of UPDF, defined doctrine as a body of beliefs
that a given group holds to be true and to be the only way of doing things such as, performing a
vital function like national security which may be legitimate or illegitimate. The imperialists for
instance have aims that are illegitimate which they regard as vital for their way of life-affluence
at the expense of other people. They accordingly evolve doctrines to further those illegitimate
aims. The National liberation movements on the other hand in search of freedom, evolved their
own doctrines that enable them to defeat the imperialists either peacefully or by military means.
Some of the more successful anti-colonial movements such as TANU (Tanganyika African
National Union) and ANC, evolved doctrines of mass political movements galvanized by the
ideology of anti-sectarianism that enabled them to force the colonial regimes or the minority
settler regimes to yield power to the people.
2. Using a medical analogy, doctrine can be seen to be shaped by three factors:
a. Diagnosis.
b. Prescription.
c. And the available medicine and techniques (Capacity) in other words, stating
the problems, providing answers for them and creating the capacity to have the answers
constitutes the doctrine of a people or a country.
3. Military doctrine therefore by Webster’s dictionary, is defined as the fundamental
principles by which military forces guide their actions in support of national objectives. It
provides the frame work within which the planning and execution of military operations are
conducted, the guidance for the training and preparation of the forces, their positioning,
employment in the battle field and the understanding of what is to be achieved, why and how. It
is descriptive but not prescriptive and the detailed application is left to the field commanders.
EVOLUTION OF THE UPDF
4. The first organisation in this struggle for freedom and good governance in Uganda was
the Front for National Salvation (FRONASA). The organisation was formed in 1971 to fight
against Iddi Amin’s brutal military dictatorship, which ruled Uganda from 1971 until 1979.
FRONASA recruited and trained a cadre of freedom fighters with a code of conduct and ethos
that were developed at Montepuez in Mozambique, as well as at Nachingweya and Kaboya
(Bukoba) in Tanzania. This code of conduct emphasized the value of the people as strategic
partners and not enemies; a pro-people approach to military operations; treating the enemy
humanely; fighting for the cause and not against an individual; and ensuring that no individual
interests ever superseded those of the organisation.

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5. In December 1978, FRONASA became part of the Uganda National Liberation Front
(UNLF) that overthrew Iddi Amin in April 1979. The disputed elections of December 1980
sparked off the bush war of 1981-86, when the Popular Resistance Army (PRA) and then the
National Resistance Army (NRA) were formed to fight the dictatorial regime of Milton Obote.
The code of conduct and ethos of FRONASA were passed on to the PRA and later to the NRA
by some of the original cadres trained in Montepuez who formed the nucleus of military
leadership during the bush war till the present day; and these form the cornerstones for the
Uganda Defence Doctrine.
6. The PRA was a guerrilla force whose doctrine emphasized survival and developing a
political-military front that would mobilize the population towards the cause of liberating the
country. Between February and June 1981, the force conducted some military operations with
the twin goals of acquiring arms for the nascent guerrilla force and publicizing the existence of
the struggle. In June 1981 the PRA led by Yoweri Kaguta Museveni merged with the Uganda
Freedom Fighters (UFF) led by Yusuf Kironde Lule to form the National Resistance Army
(NRA).
7. The NRA adopted the strategy of a protracted peoples’ war that combined the political
aspects of a national-democratic movement with the military aspects of guerrilla warfare. This
was aimed at gradually turning the short-term relative weakness of the revolutionary forces into
long-term strategic superiority. The NRA avoided attacking entrenched enemy positions and
instead concentrated on the gradual erosion of enemy strength through attacks on their weak
points; while building up their strength through political mobilization and recruitment. As
Yoweri Museveni the military commander of both the PRA and the NRA said, We therefore had
to adopt a strategy that would allow us to marshal our forces slowly, using people from the old
army (the UNLA), and the civilian population, at the same time as the enemy was being
weakened. In other words, we had to opt for a strategy of a protracted people’s war.
8. As the bush war progressed, the NRA field commanders were provided with the
principles in waging this protracted war. These were: to fight short, and sharp battles; to avoid
battles they were not sure of winning; to attack the enemy on the move rather than in
encampment; to utilize the principles of surprise and concealment; utilize the element of
mobility; not to attach importance to the seizure of territory but to attribute greater importance to
the preservation and expansion of own forces while destroying the enemy’s means of making
war, e.g., economy, weaponry, personnel, morale, international credibility; and to treat personnel
as primary and weapons as secondary.
9. The above principles enabled the NRA to transform its initial weaknesses in personnel
and materiel into strategic, operational and tactical superiority, helping it to eventually launch
conventional operations against the UNLA that finally led to victory in January 1986.
HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINE IN THE UPDF
10. Below is the hierarchy of doctrine in UPDF, and how the various levels relate to each
other and how they are mutually reinforcing.
a. The Strategic Level Doctrine. This is the capstone military doctrine in Uganda,
which is encapsulated in the UDD. It is from this level that the lower level doctrines are
derived. It conveys understanding but not instructions, and is based on government policy.

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It addresses the questions of why the UPDF is raised, under what circumstances the force
will be employed; and how it will succeed in differing circumstances.
b. Operational Level Doctrine. At the second level are the Service Doctrines
written to guide the different Services of the UPDF that are the pillars of the force and are
obliged under this capstone doctrine to work together in various operations. These
doctrines are sponsored by particular service or theatre commander and derive
authority from the UDD. Their purpose is to direct the operations of the formations and
units.
c. Tactical Level Doctrine. These form the bulk of doctrine and are generated from
both the strategic and operational level doctrines. They provide guidance to tactical
commanders when planning and executing their missions. The various Field and Training
Manuals, as well as Standing Operating Procedures provide the core of this doctrine.
UPDF VISION AND MISSION

11. a. Vision. The vision of the UPDF is to transform into a modern, professional,
efficient and accountable Force, anchored on a strong civil-military partnership capable
of effectively and efficiently undertaking its missions.

b. Mission. The UPDF’s overarching mission is to defend and protect the people
and their properties; the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Uganda; and to ensure the
inviolability of people’s rights, rule of law, and good governance.

THE UPDF COMMAND AND CONTROL STRUCTURE, ORGANIZATION AND

ROLES OF THE DEFENCE FORCES

12. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) supports the UPDF in the fulfilment of its defence
missions by providing political direction, policy guidance, budget management and
accountability.
13. The organization of the forces and their deployment depends on the nature and scope of
the operation, the resources available, and the interests involved.
14. The defence forces are organized as follows:
a. Land Forces. Land Forces are those forces that are organized and equipped to
operate in a predominantly land environment. They include the foot soldiers, the
motorized infantry, the armoured forces, artillery and other related arms.
b. Air Force. The Air Force operates in a predominantly air environment. It
employs air power to provide reconnaissance, close air support, interdiction, interception,
search and rescue, and strategic and tactical airlift capabilities during operations.
c. Special Forces. Special Forces are capable of conducting special operations in
hostile, denied or sensitive environments to achieve military, informational or even
diplomatic objectives. They can be used in situations where there is no requirement for
large conventional forces. Their missions include VVIP protection, counter-terrorism,
direct action, special reconnaissance and unconventional warfare. They are organized and

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equipped to support the Defence Forces in campaigns and engagements across the
spectrum of operations. They also act as a strategic reserve for the UPDF.
e. Marines. The UPDF Marines operate predominantly in Uganda’s inland water
environment, to counter threats, conduct search and rescue, move troops and protect
Uganda’s lacustrine borders. They also reinforce law enforcement organizations to counter
crimes such as smuggling, environmental degradation, trafficking in arms, drugs and
humans.
h. Reserve Forces. Reserve Forces are raised from personnel seconded from the
regular forces, retired officers and discharged militants and auxiliary forces, state security
organizations, and such other citizens of Uganda that have undergone military training.
Their missions include providing support to the Defence forces; mobilizing and
sensitizing the population in the theatre of operations against the enemy and in support of
the war effort; and carrying out any other duties assigned to them by the national
command authority.
j. Auxiliary Forces. Auxiliary forces are comprised of the Local Defence Units
(LDU) and other elements of the security forces that might be assigned under the
Command of the Defence Forces when needed. They are comprised of civilians who have
had military training. They are used in support of internal security operations.
POLICY ORGANS IN THE UPDF
15. The Defence Forces policy organs provide fora for making decisions and provide an
administrative framework that runs from the strategic to the tactical level. These include:
16. Defence Forces Council. The Council is the highest policy-making organ of the Defence
Forces and is chaired by the Commander-in-Chief. The roles of the council are as follows:

a. Advises the President and Commander -in- Chief on all matters connected with
the Control and Administration of the Defence Forces.
b. Is responsible for giving professional advice on military defence policy generally.
c. Performs any other duties as may be conferred upon it by law.

17. The High Command. The High Command is a subcommittee of the Defence Forces
Council, which is chaired by the Commander-in-Chief. The roles of the High Command
are as follows:
a. Advises the president in emergency situations and on matters relating to national
security and all the deployment of the Defence Forces
b. Advises the President on war matters.
c. Performs other duties as may be conferred upon it by law.
d. Performs other functions as the President may direct.
.

18. The Command and Staff is chaired by the CDF. Its roles are the following:
a. Formulates policy for consideration and approval by the High Command and the

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Defence Force Councils.

b. Performs other function as the Chief of Defence Forces may direct.

19. Implementation Committee. The implementation committee of the Defence Forces is

responsible for supervising and ensuring the implementation of the decisions of the Staff and
Command Meeting, the High Command and the Defence Forces Council.

20. The Commissions Board. The Commissions Board is chaired by the CDF. Its functions
are to advise the President in respect of appointment of persons to commissions; to select officers
to undergo courses; to recommend officers to undertake promotion examinations; to give advice
on promotion of officers; to receive officers’ grievances relating to promotions; and to monitor
retirement and determine any termination of service.

21. It clarifies how its members view their responsibilities, apply their expertise, and express
their unique military identity. It is the essence of those qualities that personnel are expected to
uphold on behalf of the Ugandan society. It affirms fundamental beliefs and expectations
regarding the military function; and arises from an understanding of the political and social
environment within which the forces operate.

THE OUTLINES OF THE UPDF ETHOS ARE:

22. a. The UPDF Soldier. The ideal UPDF soldier is an ideologically clear individual,
who understands why he/she fights; is aware of the consequences of any military
action on the civilian population; and is therefore conscious of the strategic relationship
with the population. He/ she is an embodiment of national honour who associates freely
with the people and is always at their service; and should never be seen to be their enemy.
This strategic relationship with the people determines all aspects of military conduct in
peace and war.

b. Protection and Assistance to Civilians. The success of UPDF rests on the ability
to anticipate, mitigate, and halt violence targeted at the civilian population. During the
conduct of its operations, the UPDF gives due consideration to civilians in a conflict zone
as part of its aim, including offering protection, emergency medical treatment and any
other form of assistance.

c. Subordination to civilian control. All actions of the UPDF are set out from
missions that are assigned and controlled by the democratically elected civilian political
authority. These actions are carried out in accordance with the core political values that
are inherent in Uganda’s strategic national interests. The force is also accountable to this
civilian authority.

d. Fighting spirit. Fighting spirit provides the UPDF with the moral and intellectual
qualities that allow its personnel to endure hardship, prevent panic, and function in

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conditions of extreme danger. It enables them to approach their assigned missions with
confidence, tenacity and the will to succeed.

e. Offensive Spirit. Clausewitz argued that ‘defence is the stronger form of war’
for a number of reasons, however even he stated ‘If defence is the stronger form of war,
yet has a negative object, it follows that it should be used only so long as weakness
compels, and be abandoned as soon as we are strong enough to pursue a positive object.
When one has used defensive measures successfully, a more favourable balance of
strength is usually created; thus, the natural course in war is to begin defensively and end
by attacking. It would therefore contradict the very idea of war to regard defence as its
final purpose.’ Therefore, the UPDF should maintain an offensive spirit even in defensive
operations for it has a positive effect and it leads to victory.

f. Use of revolutionary methods of work. The UPDF employs methods of work

that uphold the need to go beyond the administrative responses when dealing with
problems. These include providing advice, as well as open and constructive criticism of
errant personnel; the use of appropriate fora to discuss and resolve problems; the
identification and countering of behaviour which undermines the cohesion of the army, for
example intrigue, formation of cliques, love of soft life and subterranean grumbling; and
the identification of errors arising from indiscipline,corruption and subversion. These
methods also include the practice of ‘democratic centralism’, meaning organs and
committees of the UPDF debate constructively and freely on policy options and direction
but once a decision is taken it is upheld and supported by all.

UPDF VALUES
23. UPDF values have been shaped by experience in operations; and reflect the personal
qualities that military personnel must possess to be successful. These core military values
include:

a. Conscious Discipline. The UPDF strives to instil ‘conscious discipline’ above

‘mechanical discipline’. By conscious discipline we mean that the individual is educated
and informed enough to know the rationale for different decisions and courses of action.
This is facilitated through political education, and understanding of the mission of the
force.

b. Teamwork. The UPDF constitutes cohesive teams that enhance synergy and
creativity necessary in executing assigned missions and tasks.

c. Duty. All UPDF personnel are obliged to adhere to the laws of the country and
the policies of government at all times while executing assigned missions. They are also
required to place the demands of their mission above personal considerations, and to
perform to the highest standards in all their endeavours.

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d. Loyalty. Every officer and militant of the UPDF pays allegiance to the Republic
of Uganda, the Constitution, and the Commander-in-Chief; and is faithful to the comrades
in arms. Loyalty is based on mutual trust and requires all members of the UPDF to support
the intentions of superiors and to obey their lawful orders and directions.

e. Integrity. UPDF personnel are expected to commit to and act with honesty,
uprightness of character, and the adherence to ethical standards. Integrity demands that the
actions of members of the UPDF are consistent with the institutional [Link] also charges
all commanders to ensure that all their subordinates are treated fairly and in accordance
with established standards of performance and conduct.

f. Honour. In the UPDF, honour provides the moral compass for character and
personal conduct. It is a value that denotes upholding or living up to the oath taken at
enlistment or commissioning. It defines the obligations of military personnel to put the
values of the UPDF above self-interest, career and personal comfort.

g. Courage. UPDF personnel act with resolve and determination to accomplish

tasks, including communicating truthfully, even in the face of personal risk.

h. Frugality. The UPDF emphasizes operating within its means, and the efficient
use of resources in accomplishing its missions.
j. Obligation and duties. It is the obligation of all subordinates in the UPDF to
obey lawful orders from superiors. At the same time, it is the duty of the superior officers
to treat their subordinates with fairness and respect.

l. Sacrifice and Service before self. Sacrifice is the fundamental attribute, which
all members of the UPDF share. They are required to accept, without reservation, that they
must carry out their missions and tasks regardless of personal discomfort, fear, or danger.
Their professional duties must always take precedence over personal desire.

PRINCIPLES OF UPDF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

24. The UPDF recognizes that its personnel are the single most important resource. The
Force therefore places a high premium on personnel management. The UPDF Personnel
Management system is based on the efficient and effective handling of the individual
personnel in order to derive maximum productivity from them.

PRINCIPLES OF THE UPDF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

25. The UPDF upholds the following principles:

a. Selection. The UPDF selects and places personnel using a scientific system to
ensure the right personnel are deployed for the various tasks. This is based
on mission requirements, character and health of the personnel, and assessment of
personal abilities and aptitude.

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b. Individual Development. The UPDF recognizes the individual ability of each

member of the force, and provides refresher as well as promotion courses for its personnel
to improve the performance of the organization.

c. Maintenance of morale. The UPDF will strive to maintain the morale of

personnel at high levels through remuneration incentives, good welfare schemes and
Siasa.

d. Effective Communication. The UPDF maintains clear channels of

communication between the various levels of the force. This is done through the
establishment of various forums for constructive discourse, including barazas and Policy
and Administration Committees (PAC).

e. Dignity of Service. The UPDF is an honourable institution, which should be

served with dignity and honour. It is imperative therefore that all personnel behave in a
manner commensurate with this status.
f. Team Spirit. The UPDF emphasizes espirit de corps as a necessary condition for
the effective accomplishment of force missions.

g. Consistence and Fairness. The UPDF strives to have consistency in rewarding

excellence in service and fairness in the administration of punishment, practiced through
an objective and transparent system.
h. Utilization of Human Resources. The UPDF utilizes the available human
resources optimally, and consistent with the objectives of the force.

j. Proper Ideological Orientation. The UPDF deliberately follows an ideology that

emphasizes Patriotism, Pan-Africanism, Democracy and the Socio-economic
transformation of country. All UPDF personnel are trained to recognize that their efforts
can contribute to the success of the force and of the country.

k. Discipline. Every member of the UPDF is expected to demonstrate the highest

level of conscious discipline at all times which is reinforced by the judicious application
of reprimands and penalties. The force uses an elaborate code of conduct as an
administrative guide, and a leadership/ ideological training program to impart conscious
discipline.

l. Democratic Centralism. The UPDF employs democratic centralism, where the

overall interests of the organization are paramount, but the needs and views of the
individual personnel are taken into account.
SCOPE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT
26. The UPDF personnel management is guided by key elements to harness the talents and
efforts of every officer and militant. These include the following:

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a. Recruitment. Recruitment is carried out in accordance with Article 208 of the

Constitution of Uganda (1995) and Section 51 of the UPDF Act (2005). The main element
is that the force must have a national character and that only Ugandans aged 18 years and
above of good moral standing can become members.
b. Training. This is undertaken to cover a prescribed duration of time and produce
high calibre soldiers, airmen, Special Forces operators and marines. All personnel joining
the force are required to undergo the appropriate training course, and to upgrade their
capabilities regularly by means of career progression courses. Only personnel who
undergo basic entry courses can become members of the force.
c. Identification of personnel. The institution allots a service number to each
person who completes basic military training successfully. This number can never be re-
used and is the basic identification method of every UPDF soldier. It is not transferable to
any other person during and after a soldier’s period of service or if the soldier dies or
retires.
d. Deployment and Placement. This is the usual practice of stationing personnel in
particular units after which they become organic to those units. Deployment of personnel
is a natural practice of the UPDF and can take place at any point in a soldiers or officers
career. Placements on the other hand are about assigning specific duties based on the
assessment of the needs of the force and the skills and capabilities of the individual.
e. Career progression. In the UPDF, career progression is carried out on the basis
of vacancies within the establishment. Other factors to consider are education, overall
performance and seniority. It also depends on performance in various career courses,
discipline, loyalty to the Constitution; and the successful completion of promotion exams.
Additionally, combat experience or commendable administration/staff work and
ideological clarity are all drivers of career progression.

f. Remuneration. Funds are drawn from the national treasury as provided for by the
law. Consistent with this, the UPDF strives to maintain remuneration levels that are
attractive and competitive.

g. Exit. This is a normal personnel management practice of the force, which is

managed in conjunction with the Ministry of Public Service. The UPDF Act 2005 and the
Pensions Act (CAP 295) provide the legal framework for the process.

CONSTITUTION OF UGANDA (1995)

27. Article 208 establishes the UPDF, as a non-partisan force, which is national in character,
patriotic, professional, disciplined, productive and subordinate to civilian authority; and whose
members shall be the citizens of Uganda of good character.

a. Article 209 of the Constitution of Uganda spells out the primary functions of the
UPDF. These are:
(1) To preserve and defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Uganda;

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(2) To co-operate with civil authority in emergency situations and in case of

natural disasters;

(3) To foster harmony and understanding between the defence forces and
civilians; and
(4) To engage in productive activities for the development of Uganda.

b. Article 221 of the Constitutions states that it shall be the duty of the UPDF to
observe and respect human rights and freedoms in the performance of its functions.
NATIONAL VALUES AND INTERESTS
28. National Values. These are the guiding principles, or standards of behaviour that are
considered as desirable, important, and held in high esteem. They instil a sense of national good
and define the character of the Ugandan State. Uganda’s core values include:

a. Patriotism – Based on the love for self, family, culture, and Uganda. It denotes a
love for the country to the extent that one is willing to sacrifice and if necessary die for the
country.
b. Pan-Africanism – The recognition that Africans share a common destiny
predicated upon freedom and socio-economic transformation.

c. Freedom– from exploitation and oppression. This means the liberty of citizens to
make their own choices; the ability to carry out lawful endeavours of their choice without
hindrance, to associate without interference, and to believe without hindrance.

d. Democracy – This means a government of the people, by the people and for the
people that must be transparent and accountable.
e. Spirituality –In Uganda, the first value is reflected in our National Motto: “For
God and My Country”.
f. Morality – Based on honesty and ethical behaviour.
g. Private Enterprise: The belief that the primary drivers of economic prosperity
are private entrepreneurs and the role of the state is to facilitate them in their legal
endeavours.

NATIONAL INTERESTS
29. National Interests. Article 8A (1) of the Constitution states that Uganda shall be
governed on principles of national interest and common good enshrined in the national
objectives and directive principles of state policy. Uganda’s national interests may be defined by
the need for:

a. A stable, strong, economically prosperous and united states that will guarantee the
freedom, safety, and wellbeing of the individual Ugandan.
b. The need to guarantee Uganda’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
c. Regional and international peace, security and stability.

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CHAPTER TEN

UPDF ESTABLISHMENT ORGANISATION OF THE UGANDA PEOPLES’ DEFENCE

FORCES

Reference:

A. UPDF Establishment as per UPDF Act 2005.

NB: The UPDF establishment Committee is still ongoing to harmonize the new
establishment. It will be incorporated as soon as the proposed establishment is approved.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

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CADRE SHIP, REVOLUTIONARY DISCIPLINE AND METHODS OF WORK

“All our actions, utterances, and attitudes should be directed… Nobody should promote
sectarianism, parochialism, chauvinism or work for foreign interests. We survived by luck in the
past; we must insure our future.”
(H.E YK Museveni 17 Apr 10)

INTRODUCTION

1. Ever since the founding of NRA/UPDF revolutionary methods of work have been the
guiding principle which has seen the forces grow from strength to strength. It’s this which has
made the force popular among the public as the people’s Defence forces in the region. World
over and in history, all struggles are manned by those who espouse a revolutionary character. In
building such character, emphasis is laid on discipline and methods of work. We should know
that a cadre observes the tested mode of behavior and conduct. Ugandan society is
underdeveloped and the task of our generation is to work towards changing this bad situation. In
order to do so, there is need for a strong force of cadres/patriots equipped with the necessary
values and leadership skills to inspire others towards socio-economic transformation. These
cadres must be disciplined, should have internalized the ideas, principles, values and methods of
a revolutionary struggle.

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

2. A cadre/Revolutionary is a person who understands the ideology of a given struggle and

is committed to work for its success. He is a committed agent of transformation. They are
change agents that are completely convinced about the cause and very ready and committed to
promote that cause with in society and very ready to give everything including their own lives to
achieve it. There are 2types of Cadres:

a. Political Cadres: These are people who carryout political mobilization. They are
in fact political mobilizers.

b. Technical Cadres: These are groups of technically qualified people involved in

different aspects of the society. For example, Doctors, Engineers, Economists, Lawyers,
etc. These should master the needs and programs of the organization or movement to
which they belong.

c. Revolution. This refers to total change; turn over from quantitative to qualitative
state. It is an irreversible fundamental change that affects all aspects of a being.

d. Discipline. This refers to tireless training for self-control and exercising habits of
obedience. It can also mean controlled behavior.

QUALITIES OF A CADRE

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3. Qualities of a cadre refer to very high quality discipline that must be exhibited by cadres
while executing tasks of transformation. It is behavior, norms, values and ability to exercise self-
control acquired through deliberate learning and training of one’s mind and body. Some of the
tested revolutionary discipline qualities (which are also qualities of a good cadre) include:

a. Love and respect for knowledge. It is important that a revolutionary is

knowledgeable and this can be achieved through continuous reading and training which
entails all-round knowledge. Constant ideological guidance enables a revolutionary/ a
cadre to avoid tendencies that may be injurious to him or the society. Members should
learn from others, both superior and subordinates. Little knowledge is very dangerous.

b. Love and respect for duty and work. Revolutionary discipline entails the
complete commitment to hard work, shunning of idleness and laziness.

c. Selflessness and self-sacrifice. There is need to put society interests above selfish
considerations and hence being happy to make sacrifices. It involves being able to set
aside what would be in one’s individual interest for the sake of the common good.

d. Exemplary. This is the quality of ensuring that you are showing the way, you
remain the torch bearer; a constant source of inspiration to others.

e. Humility. This is a trait of being simple enough to be in touch with those you lead
or work with. It is a quality of being simple but not weak. Humility entails being humble
enough to be approachable but strong enough to oppose the wrong.

f. Frugality and Modesty. This is a quality of being judicious and down to earth.
Avoiding extravagance and lavish spending, being able to adjust when need arises.
When you exercise modesty, you will most likely avoid corrupt tendencies.

g. Honesty and trustworthiness. Is a quality of being upright, desisting from deceit,

corruption, .i.e. being incorruptible

h. Revolutionary Shame. A revolutionary ought to have police of the mind. Shame

is a quality of being able to stop and ask whether what you are doing is right or not; what
society thinks and says. It refers to being ashamed of doing mistakes; feeling guilt,
embarrassment or regret upon doing something wrong or stupid.

j. Respect. A quality of respecting, starting with yourself, others, lawful authority

and entire humanity. Respect means polite behavior towards others and caring for them
as being important.

k. Practicing a democratic culture. This includes:

(1) Patience

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(2) Listening to and tolerating different opinions

(3) Respecting majority decisions

(4) Using the right forum

(5) Accountability

(6) Openness and transparency

HOW TO DETECT AND COUNTER SUBVERSION IN AN ORGANISATION

4. Subversion refers to any plan, action or inaction that undermines the interests of the
country, community or individual. To subvert is to turn away from the right way, away from the
intended goal, or planned mission. Subversion can be active or passive. Passive Subversion is an
attempt to divert the thinking of others from a common objective or vision. It is intended to
mislead others. When not detected and dealt with early enough, these subversive tendencies can
be harmful to organizational harmony and cohesion. The following are some of the subversive
tendencies that are injurious to the cohesion of an organization:

a. Cheap Popularity: Favor or admiration which one falsely earns not from good
works but through blind folding and hoodwinking others. Liberalism: A person in
authority knows what is right and what is wrong but due to his weakness in leadership he
does not stand firmly on the side of the right. They may not be bad themselves but are too
weak to take action against wrong doers. They tolerate wrong for the sake of peace.

b. Intrigue and double-talk: Some elements feed wrong information to others in

order to cause confusion. They normally tell different stories to different people about the
same event and insist that what they are telling the respective parties should be treated
confidentially. Intrigue manifests in belittling others, sub-terranean talk, plotting and
counter plotting against fellow comrades. Intrigue detracts people from their set
objectives.
c. Tribalism and other forms of sectarianism: Sectarianism is strong support for one
particular group. Especially when it leads to violence between different groups.
d. Formation of Cliques: These are selfish groups to promote private interests to the
detriment of the general good. These are formed around erroneous positions pushed by
certain, shallow and narrow interests and do not allow others to join them.
e. Love for soft life: Indulgence in easy life in most cases beyond one’s means of
living. Such life style leads to corruption and negligence hence undermining the degree of
dedication to a national cause.
f. Corruption: Corrupt people are potentially subversive because of their attempt to
cover up their practices. They can get black mailed by people with bad motives politically
or can be bought by the enemy.

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g. Opportunism: Entails exploiting every chance or situation for personal gains.

Sacrificing the interests of the majority at the altar of narrow selfish designs. A person
uses situations unfairly to gain advantage for himself without thinking about how his
actions will affect other people.
h. Over ambition: Ambition is a strong desire for success. Over ambition is
negative and subversive. He will use wrong methods to attain the level he wants. By
hook or crook he will want to achieve things higher than himself.
i. Dictatorial tendencies and fear of criticism: These entail:
(1) Lack of tolerance to views and opinion of others

(2) Inability to accept criticism

(3) Members are denied freedom and the right forum to air their views and
express their opinions.

(4) It gives way to rumors and subterranean talk hence undermining the
cohesion of the organization.

k. Cynicism: State of seeing little or no good in anything. It manifests in making

unkind and unfair remarks. It demoralizes and kills revolutionary spirit. Person does not
believe that something important or good will happen.
l. Glorification of ignorance: Making ignorance more important.
m. Stifling talents: Kills or fails to advance people’s talents. However the above
subversive tendencies can be corrected by the use of revolutionary methods of work.
REVOLUTIONARY METHODS OF WORK
5. These are progressive ways and means aimed at turning bad acts so that order prevails and
the institution maintains its motivation and cohesiveness to fulfill its constitutional role.
Methods of work are the reasons behind doing something. Why do you conduct yourself the
way you do. They are the following:
a. Democratic methods of work: These are methods that basically ensure that there
is participation of as many actors and stakeholders as possible. Democratic methods of
work involves the following elements; Listening, Tolerance, Patience, Accountability, Use
and respect of the right forum, Respect and propagating a majority decision and Principle
of the need to know.
b. Non-Sectarianism: These methods are exercised to ensure team building,
maintenance of a united front and avoiding unnecessary divisions.

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c. Open methods of work: Openness and transparency are important to maintain

cohesion, correcting the mistakes that occur along the path of struggle and duty.
Openness removes suspicion and subterranean actions in an organization.
d. Meetings: A cadre must encourage and respect meetings. The principle is
meetings, meeting and meetings.
e. Criticism: A cadre must always allow open criticism including self-criticism.
f. Education: A cadre should encourage education especially political education so
that fellow cadres can know issues pertaining their country and organization. This can be
through; Exposure, Delegation, Regular reporting, etc.
g. Zero tolerance to corruption: This method entails non-tolerance to corruption and
not abating any degree of corruption by those you work with.
h. Vigilance in detecting and guarding against subversive tendencies: This is a
method of ensuring that you become responsible to guard the revolution against both
negative forces and counter revolutionary forces.
i. Cadres must not only avoid the above tendencies but also identify those who
exhibit such tendencies because they are the enemies of the people and they must be fought
wherever they appear.
ROLES OF A PC IN A UNIT

6. A political commissar is a staff officer in a unit who is carefully selected and trained to
advise the commander on various issues of political, social, economic, cultural and religious
nature that either directly or indirectly affect the functions of command and control of a unit.
Some of his roles are; a Political mobilization and monitoring within the unit and the
neighboring community.

a. Monitoring the welfare of officers and men in a unit by taking kin interest in the
welfare efforts put in place both at unit and institutional level.

b. Oversee the ideological development of officers and men by encouraging political

education courses among others.

c. A political commissar ensures that officers and militants use available

opportunities in education to go for further studies.

d. He also monitors hygiene and public health in a unit.

e. A political commissar is a defender of human rights in a unit.

f. He ensures that procedures and regulations in the unit and Army policies are
followed to avoid favoritism and other evils which lead to low morale of the unit members
among others.

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g. It’s also among the roles of a pc, like any other head of department/staff officer,
to file end of month reports to their superiors.

h. The reports must be brief, precise but not shallow. They cover issues that came up
during the time covered by the report.

CONCLUSION

7. Cadre ship is a quality and not merely a rank, title or profession. It’s a commitment in
oneself that is displayed by what one does and the results attained. It’s a skill developed through
continuous training, study and practice. Most important to a cadre is to note that the methods of
work are broadly political. If they fail, then administrative methods will be applied in accordance
with the laws of the organization/country and these will be punitive. Therefore, it is our cardinal
duty as cadres to identify friend, enemy or ally within government, movement, Army, District,
Community, etc using those benchmarks. Apply revolutionary methods of work to correct,
rectify the vices. We should give up a pessimistic approach; as Gen Elly Tumwiine normally
remarks, “It is never too late to begin doing the right thing!” Alluta Continua.

CHAPTER TWELVE

RICH BUT POOR: A SURVEY OF UGANDA’S ECONOMIC POTENTIALS, RESOURCES

AND WEALTH

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INTRODUCTION

1. Before Colonialism, there was no country called Uganda. The name Uganda came into
existence as a result of foreign intrusion. Uganda was demarcated and code named in 1894 after
the Berlin conference in Germany which declared her a British protectorate. It lies in East Africa
block Time Zone GMT +3. The economic and political geography of Uganda attempts to define
the potentiality of the country’s resources, the extent to which the resources have either been
utilized towards her development or keeping her to the state of under development hence the
concept of rich but poor as Uganda has always been referred to.

AIM

2. To examine Uganda’s natural resources and their potentiality.

WHY STUDY THE GEOGRAPHY OF UGANDA.

3. Appreciating that Uganda has high potential and needs the delicate care to cater for her
people can be understood by studying her content. The study of Uganda’s geography among
others makes it possible to:

a. Examine the geography of Uganda.

b. Identify resources.

c. Appreciate that some of the resources are shared with other countries and there is
need for cooperative exploitation of these resources.

LOCATION

4. Uganda can be described as that mass of land that lies between 1 0 S& 40 N; 310 E & 350
E. Uganda’s being landlocked is what makes it different in prices compared to its neighboring
countries. Uganda is a land locked country which fact greatly affects her political and economic
relationship with neighboring countries.

SIZE

5. a. Uganda’s total surface area is 236,040 sq km, of which;

b. Land surface is 199,710 sq km.
c. Open water is 36,330 sq km.
d. Total link of Uganda border is 2,698 km commencing in Kisoro district at the highest
point of Mt. Sabinyo marked by border boundary pillars.
NEIGHBOURS

6. Uganda lies more or less at the heart of the continent of Africa, though said to be land
locked, it is in reality land connected to her neighbors. Her neighbors are; South Sudan in the

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North, DRC in the west, Kenya to the East, Rwanda to the West and Tanzania in the south. All
these neighbors except Rwanda are much larger than Uganda.

BORDERLINES

7. Uganda’s borderline stretches as follows;

a. DRC - 765 KM
b. Kenya - 933 km
c. Rwanda - 169 km
d. South Sudan - 435 km
e. Tanzania - 396 km
NATURAL RESOURCES

8. Uganda is endowed with many natural resources, which makes it a pearl of Africa, as
former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill said when he visited her (Uganda) in 1908.

CLIMATE

9. Uganda has a good climate/ the best weather with two seasons- unlike in some European
countries which have four. There is plenty of rain where plants grow easily. Most of our food is
organic with less need of applying artificial fertilizers as most countries do. The average
temperature ranges from 150c to300c and rainfall ranges from 500mm to 2000mm. The economic
importance of a good climate includes: Favoring agriculture, Solar energy generation, Attraction
of tourists, etc.

DRAINAGE/WATER BODIES

10. Whereas Uganda boasts of numerous fresh water bodies, other countries have few like
Israel has only River Jordan and only one lake (Sea of Galilee). Libya and Mauritania neither
have lakes or rivers. Uganda has lakes; Victoria, George, Albert, Edward, Kioga and rivers; Nile,
Mayanja, Kafu. The economic importance of water bodies include: Generating hydro electricity
power, Fishing activities, Industrial use, Mode of transport, Tourism, Domestic use, Irrigation,
etc.

MOUNTAINS

11. Uganda has mountains like; Rwenzori, Elgon, Moroto and Muhavura. Their economic
importance include:- Ground of tactical importance, Tourism, Regulate climate, Study purposes,
Fertile soils, Irrigation (slopes are a point for gravitational irrigation), Attract relief rainfall, etc.

VEGETATION

12. These include; Forests, Game reserves, Grasslands. Examples of vegetations include:
Imaramagambo forest, Budongo, Mabira, Busitema, Mt Elgon game reserve, Bwindi and

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Bamboo forests. Their economic importance include: - Preserve wild life, Catchment areas for
rain, Medicinal, Tourism, Timber, Attract rainfall, Control soil erosion, Wind breakers, etc.

MINERALS

13. Uganda is a country which is well endowed with mineral deposits. Some of these
include;

a. Copper in Karamoja, Mbarara and Kasese.

b. Gold in Bushenyi, Kabale, Kisoro, Busia, Mubende, Moyo and Karamoja etc.
c. Iron Ore in Kabale (95% pure), Tororo mixed with Titanium for rubber
and painting.
d. Cement in Tororo and Hima.
e. Salt in Kasese (Katwe), Hoima.
f. Diatomite for insecticides in Pakwach, vermiculites used for insulators
found in Manafwa.
g. Oil in Semuliki, Amuru, Rukungiri, Kanungu (Albertine areas) and west
Nile, therefore making Uganda a member of OPEC.
h. Uranium in Karamoja, Kabale, Mubende and Amuru.
i. Diamonds in Karamoja, Tin in Ntungamo and Cobalt in Kasese.

SOIL AS A NATURAL RESOURCE

14. They are generally fertile hence suitable for crop farming, Sand for construction industry,
water purification plants and glass manufacturing industry, Clay for making of ceramics and
tiles, etc.

SECURITY IMPLICATIONS

15. The security implications of Uganda’s geographical location and natural resources are
based on;

a. Land lockedness
(1) Inadequate national secrecy.
(2) High prices of imported goods due to transport costs.
(3) Weaknesses with in coastal states undermine Uganda’s developments.
(4) High influx of refugees from neighboring countries strains Uganda’s
natural resources.
(5) Limitations in earning foreign exchange.

b. Size
(1) Shallow strategic depth.
(2) Uganda is crossable within 12 hours.

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(3) Small population.

(4) There is a small market.
c. Shared resources such as; Game parks, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers and Oil. These
are potential areas for future wars.
d. Uncontrolled resource utilization such as illegal fishing, poaching etc.
e. Failure to dominate all the grounds of tactical importance.
f. Illegal occupation e.g. Rukwanzi and Mijingo islands.
g. Porous borders which is a security threat.

DEMOGRAPHY

16. It is the study of size, density and statistics regarding marriages, diseases, deaths, births,
etc- over time. Below are some demographic figures on Uganda (facts about Uganda’s
economy).

a. Total population = 35 million (2014 Census)

b. Proportion of population in rural areas = 82%

c. Population below 15 years of age = 52%

d. Total number of households = 7.3 million

e. Average household size = 5 persons

f. Total GDP (at current prices) = UGX 67 trillion/$25 billion

g. GDP Per Capita (at current US$) = 1.7million/$628

h. % below poverty line = 19.7% (7 million persons)

i. Regional distribution of poverty = North 44%; East 25%; West 9%; and Central 4.7%

j. Poverty gap ratio = 6% (meaning???)

k. Gini-coefficient = 0.39 (highest in Central = 0.38; lowest in Eastern = 0.32)

l. % of sole proprietor businesses = 94%

[Link] force = 14 million

n. Self employed (% of total employed) = 82%

o. % employed in agriculture = 76% (in manufacturing only 5%)

Source: World Bank (Country data), UBOS (UNHS 2012/13), MoFPED

HUMAN RESOURCE

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17. The Human Resource is the most important resource Uganda is endowed with. Much as
Uganda may have all the potentials as earlier on discussed, they will live to waste unless this
important resource they are meant to benefit is in position to transform the other resources into
usable forms. Otherwise it is MAN and for this matter QUALITY MAN whose LABOUR will
turn the other resources into the required form for his use. Therefore, Uganda has taken the
following measures to develop its human resource;

a. Introduction of UPE, USE, UPPET.

b. Encouraged science biased subjects.
c. Strategic professional training such as petroleum production and processing
courses.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

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INTRODUCTION
1. In human society, development is a many sided process. It starts from individual, to
community, national and international levels. Development at individual level implies increased
skills and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self discipline, responsibility and material well-
being. Development at community level refers to increased capacity to guard independence of
society or struggle to harness and tame natures to enable man survive amidst hostilities of nature
(hazards). It is also a struggle against real and imagined human enemies.

2. Development at national and international levels is when Nations have increased their
capacity to deal with nature (Environment) through increased masterly of the laws of nature
(science) and the extent to which they apply the science to make tools (technology) and the
extent of organizing production.

3. Therefore every advance from era of tools to another era of tools is defined in terms of
Economic progress/development e.g. from stone tools to metal tools.
Economic development has been going on since early man; Man developed from hunting and
gathering to domestication of animals and crops. Man improved in organization of work from
individualism to participation of many (communalism).

Aim
4. The aim of the presentation is for the students understand the causes of
underdevelopment in Uganda and the rest of Africa.

OBJECTIVES
5. At the end of the topic, students will be able to Identify Uganda’s/Africa’s fundamental
problem and Analyze the development challenges facing Uganda and how they are being
addressed.

SCOPE
6. The following will be the scope items:
a. Definitions of Key concepts and Back ground.
b. Indicators/manifestations of development in modern world.
c. Manifestations of Underdevelopment.
d. Causes of underdevelopment
d. Strategic bottlenecks.
e. Conclusion

DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS

7. Development is simply means the increased capacity to deal with nature (environment)
through increased masterly of the laws of nature (science) to earn a living. Or the process in

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which someone or something grows or changes and becomes more advanced (Oxford
dictionary).
8. After defining development, it is easy to comprehend the concept of underdevelopment.
Underdevelopment is not absence of development because every individual has developed in one
way or another and to a great or less extent.
Underdevelopment only makes sense if compared with development. The difference in wealth
between one country when compared with another shows that one is developed and the other is
underdeveloped.
9. Underdevelopment may mean exploitation of one country by another. All countries in
the world named underdeveloped are exploited by others in the ‘developed world’. The growth
rate of socialist and capitalist countries is higher than that of the ex-colonies in Africa, Asia and
Latin America which are trailing behind. The level of industrialization determines whether a
country is developed or underdeveloped. A large portion of the population of developed
countries is engaged in industry rather than agriculture. Even agriculture is mechanized in
developed countries and has become an industry of its own.
10. A Russian philosopher, Karl Marx looked at development in Europe through the
following stages;

a. Communalism. Collective ownership of the means of production. This involved

hunting in communities, work was done collectively and goods were shared equally by
the whole community.

b. Slavery was Marx’s second stage of development. Some groups were physically
overwhelmed by others. Slaves did a variety of tasks mainly food production.

c. Feudalism was yet another stage of development according to Karl Marx.

Agriculture was the principle means of production, but land needed for this purpose was
in the hands of a few feudal lords who took a lion’s share of the wealth produced. The
serfs were exploited by feudal lords through rent of the land given to them.

d. Then came another stage of development called capitalism. Here the greatest
wealth in society was not produced in agriculture, but by machines in factories and
mines. The Bourgeoisie who had originated from the early merchant and craftsmen of the
feudal practices became industrialists and financiers.

e. A further stage of socialism emerged after capitalism. Here the principle of

economic equality was restored as in communalism. Marx says that greater qualities and
quantities of goods were produced as each individual had the opportunity to exploit his
talent. Greater skills and inventions are collectively developed.

11. Different people however develop at different rates when left on their own due to
difference in environments coupled with superstructure that is social relations, forms of
government, patterns of behavior and systems of belief. Societies experienced development
equally but developed at different paces. Development differed from continent to continent.

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INDICATORS/MANIFESTATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT IN MODERN WORLD

12. The following are the indicators of Development:
a. Advancement in science and technology through industrialization.
b. Infrastructural development.
c. Increase in national income and per capita income.
d. High literacy levels and use of skilled personnel.
e. Self reliance (independence) or reduced dependence on others (developed world).
f. Increase in life expectancy and reduced infant mortality deaths.
g. Balanced trade in the international market.
h. Absence of political instabilities or wars and insurgencies.
i. Production and high consumption of high quality goods like steel.

INDICATORS OF AN UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRY

13. The following are indicators of an underdeveloped country:

a. High dependency on others mainly developed economies.
b. Dependence on one sector of production, mainly agriculture using primitive
methods like hand hoe.
c. Exportation of raw materials and semi-processed products.
d. High rate of population growth due to lack of family planning knowledge.
e. Low levels of production.
f. Debt trap.
g. High presence of redundant unexploited natural resources such as land, minerals.
h. Low national income and per capita income, due to dependence on taxes other
than exploitation of natural resources.
j. High dependence on unskilled labor due to high levels of illiteracy.
k. Low life expectancy coupled with high infant mortality deaths.
l. Political instabilities and civil strives and wars.
m. High consumption of imported goods and services.

SYMPTOMS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT
14. Some of the causes of underdevelopment include:
a. Lack of comparative advantage.
b. Low savings and investments.

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c. Low economic growth.

d. Market failure.
e. Unbalanced growth
f. Poor linkages.
g. Inability to reach the ‘take off stage’ for development as used by Rawstow in his
theory of development.
15. According to Marxist ( Lenin, Karl Marx and Angles), underdevelopment is caused by;
Exploitation by internal and external collaboration with negative impact for colonialism using
some of the institutions like World Bank and IMF, Stagnation and Incorporation of Africa into
world capitalism.
AFRICA’S STRATEGIC BOTTLENECKS (CHALLENGES)
16. It has been proved that Africa has not only stagnated but drastically declined since the
time of the early European explores on the coast of East Africa and the Cape of Good Hope. In
the 15th century, talking about Africa, you had to only talk about slave trade. The following are
some of the obstacles/bottlenecks believed to have led to such a situation:
a. The first obstacle in Africa's development has been that of small population.
Africa is a vast continent with a lot of natural resources but still with a small population.
Africa is 11million square miles and with 800 million people (original blacks). A small
population does not support production and exploitation of natural resources while a big
population provides market for the produce.
b. Africa's colonial interruption of its evolvement process and therefore failure to
sustain large pre-colonial kingdoms is yet another challenge. This worsened when we
faced more organized foreigners.
c. Usurpation of People’s sovereignty by Colonialism and later on by neo- colonial
regimes. Quote: No nation has a right to make decisions for another nation, no people for
other people – Julius Nyerere.
d. Another challenge has been that of producing and exporting raw materials, yet we
import finished and expensive goods.
e. Excessive Political Balkanization of the African Continent into 53 states mainly
sub- optimal political units. Rigid borders were drawn with the so-called ‘citizenship’.
Today Africa has got the biggest number of land locked countries in the world. This is a
challenge to Africa's development.
f. Underdeveloped human resource. People without education and in poor health.
Uneducated people are contented with traditional knowledge which is not enough in
modern times.

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g. Infrastructural underdevelopment. Lack of easy communication in the pre-

colonial era made it difficult for the spread of ideas (nationalism). The thick forests and
desert made it difficult to construct roads, railways and air lines.
h. Killing or suppressing of the private sector. African leaders developed a policy of
nationalizing private enterprises or disrupting private investors. In 1972, Indians were
expelled from Uganda and their investments nationalized or handed over to unskilled
individuals. South Korea and Singapore based on private sectors to develop.
i. Lack of personal freedoms and democracy especially in the pre-colonial and post
colonial dictatorship in Africa.
j. Ideological disorientation.
STRATEGIC PLAN FOR AFRICA
17. The question is, what should Africa do in order to transform from third world to first
world? Since we are dirty, should we roll in mad so that we become permanently dirty? These
are some of the strategic plans to address this problem:
a. Regional integration and federation, negotiation capacity, coordination, foreign
policy.
b. Marketing block.
c. Joint Defence Systems.
d. Pool intellectual resources for technological advancement.
e. Build infrastructure for easing and lowering costs of investment and doing
business.
f. Improve the health of the people.
g. Exploit known technologies.
h. Sanitation through immunization, maternal health to rise life expectancy to 60
years and above.
i. Ensure universal access to basic health services.
j. Tackle poverty. For the case of Uganda's prosperity for all (PAF), NAADS
programs.
k. Human resource development. Man power planning and development with
emphasis to skills development, training in strategic studies such as IT, ICT, Mineralogy,
Water science, military science etc.
l. Political balkanization of Africa could be solved by embracing regional economic
and political co-operations like EAC, ECOWAS, SADCC.

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m. Universal primary education, universal secondary education and free education in

tertiary and university which Uganda has invested in will solve the problem of
underdeveloped human resource.
n. Democracy in Africa.
o. Adding value to Africa's raw materials.
p. Removing obstacles from the private sector and attracting investors by giving
them incentives.
q. Exploiting the vast redundant natural resources like minerals effectively and
directing yields to development of the state.
r. Developing and equipping the health sector to reduce infant mortality death and
increase on the life expectance.
CONCLUSION
18. Uganda has most of the above characteristics of underdevelopment but a lot of efforts
have been made to make Uganda a middle income country as evidenced in vision 2040. There is
need to master the laws of nature (science) and apply technology in order to transform society
from primitivism to modernity. As man continues to master the laws of nature, his skills of
dealing with nature also increase in form of science and technology that leads to qualitative and
quantitative development.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

THE HISTORY OF UGANDA

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INTRODUCTION

1. History is defined as nothing but a record of events of man’s struggle to satisfy his basic
needs and his relationship with fellow man and nature. It is a product of mans activities; the
study of history shows us that man and nature are always involved in a struggle and this struggle
takes us to production and social organization. The history of Uganda is discussed in three parts.
Pre-colonial history of Uganda, colonial history and post colonial history.

PART ONE: PRECOLONIAL HISTORY OF UGANDA

2. Pre-colonial history aims at equipping officers on PELC with knowledge about the
Historical Movements and settlements of the various peoples of Uganda and how the resultant
historical linkages, kinship relations and intermarriages could be used as a basis for building and
enhancing National Consciousness and unity as opposed to colonial stereotypes that artificially
divided the Ugandan people.

3. Definition; Pre-colonial history of Uganda examines the way the ancestors of the present
day Ugandan peoples used to live, their methods of self-sustenance and self-perpetuation visa-
avis the environment in which they lived before the coming of colonial rule. It examines the
social patterns that arose as our ancestors struggled to earn a living, examines how they
constantly improved their tools, the material values they created and also the spiritual and
cultural values.
Pre-colonial history of Uganda is best understood as the history of the different communities that
were later to be brought together by the British under a single administrative unit that became the
state of Uganda.

NOTE that although it is presented independently as a single entity it is part and parcel of the
general history of Africa.

WHY STUDY PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY OF UGANDA

4. a. To trace our origins and beginning as a people i.e. how did we come to be where
we are?
b. Reconstruct the nature and patterns of social development of pre-colonial
societies.

c. To educate ourselves on the diverse methods of political administration pursued

by different groups in Uganda.

d. To appreciate the unique social diversity of the people of Uganda beyond

stereotypes. This will be by emphasizing our shared past despite our outward diversity
based on ethnic categories and languages we speak.

e. To assess the nature of contacts, relationships and interactions among the pre-
colonial societies. And how these contacts and relationships had created a sense of

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belonging, oneness, mutual help and understanding among all pre-colonial Ugandan
societies.

f. To use these Historical contacts, linkages and intermarriages as a basis for

enhancement of the much needed national consciousness and unity.

EARLY EVOLUTION IN AFRICA

5. a. From all the records available, Africa is known to be the place where the very first man
lived. It is also the origin of technological innovations developed in the early pre-history
(civilization along the Nile River). Material evidence for human existence in pre-history
of Africa looks at ancient bones, fossil, stone tools and other artifacts, including
radiocarbon dating.

b. Human beings belong to the family of primates called hominids (human-like creatures)
with ability to move upright on 2 legs and enlarged brains.

c. Between 5 – 10 million years BC, the earliest hominids moved from tropical
forests to open savanna grasslands and woodlands of East Africa.
d. Over millions of years, man was able to evolve from Austrapithecines (moving on
four limbs) then Homohabilis (clever, handy man), Homo-erectus (fully upright), Homo-
sapiens (Wise man) to the modern man (Homo-sapiens-sapiens). Originating from Africa,
they spread to all major regions of the world by 10,000 BC and adapted to the several
variations in climate and the environment.

IN EAST AFRICA

6. We refer to these people as the Stone Age men. There were wide spread stone age
hunting and gathering populations who were part and parcel of the evolution of Hominids. The
Stone Age period is divided into 3 periods i.e. early stone age, middle Stone Age and the late
Stone Age. This indicates the development in stone making technology from simple to complex
tools. The great majority of people living in East Africa by 10,000 – 1500 BC were the
Bushmen.

IN UGANDA

7. The closest relatives of the Stone Age people are the pygmoids (Batwa and Bambuti).
These people lived by hunting and gathering in the forested areas. They are related to the
pygmies of the Congo, Bushmen and Hottentots of southern Africa, Hehzapi and Sandawe of TZ
and the Baka pygmies of Cameroon.

MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT OF THE PEOPLES OF UGANDA

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8. New immigrants from outside present-day Uganda gradually replaced the Stone Age
people in the 1st millennium A.D. By the advent of colonial rule; there were over 30 ethnic
groups in the country, being driven away from their original homelands by the various factors of
migration.

REASONS FOR MIGRATION

9. a. Famine
b. Diseases

c. Wars-Inter-clan wars

d. Natural Calamites

e. Search for fertile soils/fresh grazing lands

f. Religious, political, economic and social persecution

g. Adventurism (Looking for new opportunities which nature could offer)

h. The new comers mixed with the people they found and through intermarriagesand
interaction gave rise to the people now living in Uganda today. These new immigrants
can be conveniently divided into four broad groups on the basis of immigration and
languages. These are the: Bantu, Luo, Nile-Hamites (Atekerin) and Sudanic people

(1) The Bantu. They were the earliest and largest community of new comers
said to have come from central Africa and spread rapidly into the eastern and
southern parts of Africa. In Uganda these include the Bakiga, Batoro, Baganda,
Bagisu, Banyankole and Banyoro. Though having great similarities, each group
has its peculiar cultures and other social arrangements.

NOTE: The Chwezi, a unique group of people who are said to have come from
Abyssinia (modern Somalia and Ethiopia). Are said to have been the forerunners
of Bunyoro-Kitara, Karagwe, Nkore Rwanda, Burundi. They are said to have
brought many great innovations into the areas in which they settled such as long
horned cattle, coffee cultivation, Iron smelting and ideas of the royal regalia.

(2) The Luo. The Luo are part of the river-lake Nilotes and are related to the
Nuer and Dinka of southern Sudan. From their cradle land in the Barh-el-Gazel
region in southern Sudan, a big group moved southwards along the Nile and
settled around Pubungu (present day Pakwach). One section crossed to west Nile
into the area inhabited by the Sudanic speaking people with whom they
intermarried and produced the Lendu, Okebu and Metu. Gradually, they
intermarried and established chieftaincies in the area as the Alur. Another small

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group known as the Babito moved further south to Bunyoro and beyond. These
established the Bito ruling dynasty in Bunyoro Kitara.

Luo speakers in North Bunyoro known as the Paluo migrated into Kaberamaido
area for some time before moving to Bukedi. These became known as the
Japhadhola. Some of them moved further south into southwestern Kenya and
became known as the Jaluo. The area of Bukedi was to become one of the major
areas of migration. The Luo interacted with the Nile-Hamites they found in the
eastern area and over generations developed a society known as Kumam, Labwor
and Langi. By 1650 – 1680, Luo speakers had occupied many parts of northern
and southeast Uganda.

Various Bantu groups, Nile-Hamites and the Luo criss-crossed the eastern area
thus the diversity of ethnic groups such as the Bakedi, Bagweri, Banyole,
Basamia, the Iteso, the japhadhola, Kumam and the Badama. These groups are a
reflection of the different migrations and interactions at different periods in this
area.

(3) The Nile-Hamites or Atekerin . These comprise of the Karamojong and

the Iteso and are related to the Masai and Turkana all of whom trace their origins
from south Ethiopia. As they proceeded on their movements, the Atekerin fused
with the Luo at mojor contact points and this gave birth to new peoples notably
the Langi, Kumam and Labwor

(4). The Sudanic. These came from southern Sudan. They are said to have been
the first inhabitants of most of Northern Uganda but were driven away at different
times at different places by Luo new comers. They include the Lugbara, Madi,
Kakwa and Metu.

NOTE: Two Historic Movements outweigh all the others in importance for the
greater part of Uganda i.e. the peopling of the central, western and southern
portion by Bantu peoples and the movement of the Luo into Northwest, North and
South East areas. Both Developments had a deep imprint on the political, social,
economic and cultural patterns in Uganda.

GOVERNANCE IN PRE-COLONIAL UGANDA

(THE POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ORGANISATION)

10. Before the advent of British colonialism, the Chwezi dynasty had controlled or
influenced parts of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, some parts of Eastern Congo and Northern
Tanzania between 1100AD and 1600 AD (having come from Ethiopia between 14 th and 15th
century). The Chwezi dynasty however collapsed around 1600AD (16 th C) and was replaced by
the Babito dynasty in the present day Bunyoro of which the separate Babito dynasty of Toro was
carved out in the late 19 th century. Other kingdoms which emerged after the collapsed of the

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chwezi dynasty were the kingdoms of Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro, Ankole and Busoga as well as
the chieftaincies that used to be in Northen Tanzania i.e. (Karagwe and Buhaya) and those in
Eastern Congo (i.e. Beni-Butembo). Therefore, before the advent of British colonialism, the
different societies of Uganda had developed different levels of political institutions. Here it is
important to note that whereas some societies were still at quite simple levels of political
organisation with elders as leaders and clan councils playing important political roles, some other
societies had developed advanced and elaborate systems of administration. For example, in
southern Uganda, there had developed highly centralized systems of government on a
monarchical model. At the head of these kingdoms were strong kings who mostly held office on
a hereditary basis and ruled through a hierarchy of chiefs below them. These Kingdoms had
developed courts sometimes with jurisdiction over civil and criminal offences although the kings
generally possessed all powers (executive, legislature and judicial). They also had developed
some semblance of legislative arms of government. It will also be important to note that the
leaders in centralized societies lived by appropriating the sweat of others and did not participate
directly in production like other members of society. They had thus emerged to be politically and
economically dominant with power to rule others. These societies had also developed standing
armies which conquered vassal states from where they exacted tributes. Sometimes
administrative officials were appointed to rule on behalf of the aristocrats. Examples of
centralized societies include: Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankole and Tooro . In these societies, the
Kings wielded absolute powers. Powers to declare war and sue for peace.

These societies had established laws that governed the relationship between the rulers and the
ruled. Initially, Bunyoro was the strongest kingdom only to be superseded by Buganda in the
second half of the 18th C. Toro broke away from Bunyoro as a separate kingdom in 1830 when
Prince Kaboyo rebelled against his father Kyebambe Nyamutukura. The Ankore kingdom was
loosely centralized but sustained a system that was close to those of Bunyoro and Buganda.
There also arose and fell, in the 18th C, the Bashambo kingdom of Mpororo in the present
Rukungiri and Ntungamo districts. In Busoga, there evolved many principalities, the majority of
which were connected with the Babito kingdom of Bunyoro – Kitara. However, during the 19 th
C, most of the southern Busoga states began to be dominated by Buganda. A different situation
existed in the North and East of Uganda. There, most of the peoples had not yet developed
centralized states. Theirs were what are generally referred to as segmentary (Decentralized)
societies. These societies had small segmentary groupings independent of one another. They
had collective leadership of elders as leaders. Sometimes clan heads and clan councils ruled. In
these societies, inherited traditional customs and norms guided the conduct of the people.
Examples of these decentralized societies include: Acholi, Langi, Iteso, The Karamojong,
Lugbara, Madi, Kakwa, Bakiga, Sebei, Alur, Bagisu, etc. The political leaders in these societies
were essentially leaders among equals. The ultimate decisions of these leaders were subject to
the decisions of the council of elders.

a. EASTERN. In the Eastern part of Uganda, in what was generally called Bukedea,
Bugisu and Teso, the people were organized in small polities which hardly extended

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beyond the village. This was also the case among the Samia-Bagwe where the Nalundiho
was little more than a village-head. Among the Iteso and the Karamojong, political and
military activity revolved around the age-set system and all political decisions were made
by a council of elders.

b. THE NORTH. In the North of Uganda, the people were politically organized in
small chiefdoms. Among the Alur and the Jonam, the political head was known as the
Rwoth or Unbimo, among the Acholi he was known as the Rwot. Among the Langi he
was known as the Won-Nyaci. Political organization among the Kakwa, the Lugbara and
the Madi were also on lineage basis. Among the Madi and Kakwa, the political head was
known as the Opi. In most Kakwa clans, he combined the functions of the rainmaker
with his chiefly duties both as king of the land and king of the rain. NOTE: The
Nalundiho among the Samia-Bagwe combined similar functions. In almost all the
societies, political leadership was hereditary. Therefore, from the foregoing, we notice
that pre-colonial Uganda consisted of many distinct regions, inhabited by people who
were not only ethically different but who were also at different stages of development.

SOCIAL-ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION

11. Generally speaking, all the societies in pre-colonial Uganda had similar social-economic
institutions. Ancestor worship was a common phenomenon and some societies in Southern
Uganda worshiped cults namely: Nyabingi and Emandwa also known as Balubaale in Buganda.
The extended family was a basic family unit in all societies. The main economic activities were
pastoralism and agriculture. Those were supplemented by hunting, fishing iron-smelting and
various arts of handcraft.

INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONSHIP/LINKAGES AND KINSHIP RELATIONS

12. Pre-Colonial Ugandan communities came to be closely related to one another through a
network of migration patterns, interactions and relationships. They found common identity in
language, culture and kinship relations through common ancestry. This means that the people of
Uganda have more in common. This should be explored as a means or a basis of enhancing
national consciousness and unity and common sense of purpose. The following kinship
relationships/interactions are particularly noted:

a. The oldest kingdom in pre-colonial times was Bunyoro-Kitara through which

virtually all the southern states came to relate. Her ruling dynasties i.e. the Tembuzi, the
Cwezi, the Babito made extensive use of marriage alliances with local clans and outlying
areas to cement relationships.

In Bunyoro you would find Batooro, Bahuma, Basongora, Batuku, Bakonzo, Bamba,
Alurs, Bachope, Baruli, Basoga etc. Babito dynasties were setup in Bumyoro, Tooro,
Buganda, parts of Busoga. Some of the Bantu speaking kingdoms had Luo-speaking
kings at certain times. For example, Bunyoro, Tooro and Buganda. Banyoro and Batooro

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were linked to the Luo through the Babito dynasty. Names like Olimi, Oyo, Winyi,
Nyimba, Achaki that are found among the Batooro and Banyoro are Luo words. Luo
equivalent names are: Olum, Oyo, Owiny and Acak. Banyoro and Batooro pet names
are called Empako the Acholi word for praise (Pako). The main entrance at the Kabaka’s
palace (LUBIRI) in Mengo is called WANKAKI, same word as WANGKAC which in
Luo means entrance or where one welcomes visitors from.

b. In Buganda one would find Baganda, Banyoro, Banasese, Bavuma, Banabuddu,

Batooro, Banyankole. Some cultural traits such as dances, circumcision cut across tribes.
The Acholi and Banyoro dancers have something in common. For example feathers on
their heads and jingling anklets. At the coronation ceremony of the kings of Buganda and
Bunyoro, Acholi cultural dancers normally open these functions signifying their
historical linkage and kinship relations.

c. In 1830 AD, Prince Kaboyo broke from his father Kyebambe Nyamutukura and
founded the Tooro kingdom under a Bito dynasty, so Banyoro and Batooro have a
relationship through this connection. Bunyoro and Ankole traditions trace these people’s
origins from the Cwezi rulers and their replacement by the Bito. Isaaza (The last king of
the Tembuzi) married Nyamata to produce Isimbwa who married Nyinamwiru and
produced Ndahura (First king of the Chwezi). By the time Isimbwa bequeathed Ankole
to his son Ndahura he (Ndahura) was already Omukama of Bunyoro. Isiimbwa also
produced another son Kyoomya who in turn married a luo woman Nyatworo-a daughter
of Labongo an Acholi. The marriage of Kyomya and Nyatworo resulted in the birth of
Nyarwa. In turn Nyarwa produced four sons namely: Rukidi Mpuga Isingoma, Kato
Kimera, Kiiza, Ochachi. These brothers and keens were then sent to administer all the
outlying counties (Masaaza called after the name of the first Batembuzi King-Isaaza) for
centuries of years. Isaaza, the last king of the Tembuzi had originally divided Bunyoro
Kitara-Kingdom into counties known as Masaaza. These Masaazas were administered as
follows:

(1) Rukidi Mpuga Isingoma - became the first Bito king of Bunyoro-Kitara

(2) Kato Kimera - Chief of Muhwahwa (Buganda County)

(3) Kiiza - Chief of Busoga counties

(4) Ruhinda - Chief of Kaarokarungi (Ankole and the outlying Haya states of
Karagwe)

(5) Nyarwa - Ruled over Rwanda

(6) Nyangoma - Chief of Urundi

(7) Mukwiri - Chief of Bwiru (The rest of present day Ankole)

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d. NOTE: Kato Kimera produced Ntege who replaced him as chief of Muhwahwa.
Ntege produced Kaganda who too replaced him as chief of Muhwahwa. Thus the name
Buganda originates from the name of its former Chief Kaganda from where their keen
brothers-the Banyoro referred to the people in Kaganda’s county (Isaaza) as Baganda,
thus the name Buganda. Similarly, Ndahura produced his son Wamala from a Woman
called Nyamata of the Bamooli clan of present day Mwenge County. In turn Wamala
produced Ruhinda, Nyangoma and Mukwiri.

e. The Bakiga are said to be part of the Bantu speakers from Bunyoro, Karagwe,
Rwanda and Eastern Zaire. Are said to have originated from Buganza in Rwanda and
relate to the Banyambo in TZ.

f. In the North, Luo-speaking River-Lake Nilotes had moved to virtually all areas in
northern Uganda by 1650. Therefore Acholi states came to have close linkages to one
another, with chief (Rwot) and his family performing political and religious functions
such as sacrificing to ancestral gods. The fusion of the Luo and Atekarin culture
produced blood relations of common people amongst the Kumam, Acholi, Karamojong
and lake Kyoga communities. Langi of Erute and Otuke for instance have high affinity to
their Acholi blood brothers in the North, while those around Kyoga have strong blood
links with the Baruli, Bakenyi, Banyara and Banyoro. Because of this dual interaction,
the Kumam and Labwor became bilingual. They share many common characteristics
with the Iteso and Langi with respect to rituals, social customs and hunting practices. As
the Paluo from Northern Bunyoro sought for other areas, they colonized Budama, Busoga
and western Kenya. These Luo groups share much in common with the Bantu groups in
those areas owing to their intermarriages and interactions. Clan names in Karamoja,
Teso and Lango communities are the same (similar) e.g. Alak in Lango, Irarak in
Karamojong, Atek in Lango, Alek in Karamoja. The interaction of Bantu, Atekerin and
Luo migrants in Bukedea region led to the development of blood affinity among the
Samia-Bagwe, Bagwere, Banyole, Japhadhola and Iteso of the area.

REGIONAL ETHNIC INTERACTION THROUGH PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE (PRE-

COLONIAL TRADE)

13. It was mainly through trade that the various pre-colonial Ugandan societies came to
interact with one another. Although all the societies were based on subsistence economies, non
of them was self-sufficient. Consequently, there developed trade and market centres through
which the people interacted in the exchange of goods from the different parts of Uganda. Given
her position as a link between the Northern Luo and the Southern Bantu, Bunyoro was a centre
of interaction for the different peoples of Uganda. Besides, her strategic location, Bunyoro had
deposits of the much-needed items such as salt and iron-ore. Add to this her ability to make
spears and red-hoes which were used as currency in Lango and Teso. Bunyoro did attract the
Southerners, Easterners, Northerners and West Nilers alike. Each society brought it’s own items
of trade to the central markets in Bunyoro.

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a. The Acholi brought goats, grains and handcrafts.

b. The Langi brought goats, grains, and handcrafts.

c. The West Nilers (the Parombo group) brought iron-ore and dried fish.

d. The Baganda brought dried bananas, white ants and bark cloth.

e. The Banyankole brought red-spears (Emitari), hides and ghee.

f. While the Iteso brought grains and goats.

g. The Banyoro brought salt, red-hoes, dried fish and red spears.

h. Trade relations inevitably led to social relations. Even blood brotherhood is said
to have often been concluded among people from different parts of Uganda.

j. There were two collecting centers on either shoes of lake Albert i.e. Panyimur and
Mugungu (Wanseko)

k. General northward direction……………trade involved principally the Alur,

Lendu, Okebu, Madi, Lugbara, exchanging agricultural, livestock and iron products for
salt, hoes and dried fish from Bunyoro.

l. Through trekking of long distances, these goods spread to Lango, Acholi and
Teso. Iteso acquired Iron hoes by bartering with the Langi who obtained them from
Bunyoro. They exchanged hides, skins, goats, and ivory, for backcloth, beads, iron
implements and cooking utensils from Bunyoro.

m. At Adaglango, on river Nile (near Karuma) the Langi used to cross coming to
Bunyoro and Buganda for potato leaves and salt.

n. Salt was a principal commodity around which trade evolved. Because salt was in
Bunyoro, Bunyoro became the principal link between the Nilotic north and southern
Bantu. In the south, Katwe and Kasenyi salt mines provided for Ankole, Kigezi,
Rwanda, Burundi, Karagwe and outlying areas.

o. NOTE: This trade was largely barter trade. The traders had the capacity for
autonomous goal setting and decision making in the trade. There was no exploitative
foreign influence.

Because of trade, there was mutual understanding and peace, as no community would
battle those who brought essential commodities to them or who traversed through their
land.

ECOLOGICAL AND EXTENRNAL INFLUENCE ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

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14. In pre-colonial Uganda, activities were in most cases determined by the physical
environment in which the people found themselves. The pace of economic activities was faster
in the south than in the North owing to climatic and historical factors. But even in the south,
levels of activities were not the same. In the North, there was high temperatures, single rainfall
maxima, irregular water supply and seasonal rivers, a long dry spell chunks of savannah
woodland. Owing to this, communities practiced transhumance, and families came to be away
from one another leading to segmentary social setup. Collective communalism and joint
ownership became the means of production. Main economic activities included simple
pastoralism, shifting cultivation, Livestock rearing and war. As war developed military power
became important with a hierarchy of chief such as Jogo-Rwot-Twon luak among the Acholi.
Between 14th C, 15th, 16th C activities involving slave raids existed in Northern Uganda by the
Arabs, from the North and Buganda. Southern Uganda; was more ecologically endowed with
double rainfall maxima and rich soils. It had numerous constantly flowing rivers and good
climate. People lived a settled life. They organized great Kingdoms and there was
differentiation, people were involved in crop and animal husbandry. Near Lake Victoria there
was crop husbandry whereas in the west and central, the group known as the Hima exclusively
herded cattle.

EXCEPTIONAL COMMUNITIES

15. Groups like the Bakonzo on the western side of Mt Rwenzori and the Bamba on
the Eastern side of Mt Rwenzori were small in number and had limited productive forces. They
were thus driven away from their homes by new invaders like the Batoro and Basongora in the
lower valleys. The Bagisu on the Eastern side of Mt Elgon and the Sebi were also driven away
from the plains by the Nandi and Masai warriors. The Bakenyi also run away from the plains on
to the shores of Lake Kyoga. Once isolated, the progress of these communities was slower.

By the advent of colonial rule, Buganda and Bunyoro were leading communities in terms of
social development. They had vassal states from which they exacted tributes. Their leaders also
forced their peasants to pay them tribute in terms of labor, service and produce. Toro and Ankole
suffered at the hands of Bunyoro and Buganda whom they paid tribute. This arrested their social
development.

SUMMARY OBSERVATIONS

16. From the foregoing, one notes that before colonialism, the various peoples of Uganda had
co-existed in relative peace and equality. Because of pre-colonial trade, there was mutual
understanding and peace, as no community would battle those who brought essential
commodities to them or who traversed through their land.

a. People treated each other as brothers and did not believe that they were more
developed or cultured than their neighbors. They knew that they were different but equal.
Even wars and conflicts took place among equals. NOTE: The British colonialists

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changed all this. They halted and froze the natural process of historical evolution. The
process of cultural diffusion through trade, inter-marriages and migration was disrupted.

b. The British instead emphasized the differences and prejudices rather than the
similarities between the peoples of Uganda. The British policy of divide and rule
enhanced the spirit of ethnic consciousness and tribal parochialism which became sources
of tension and conflicts in post-colonial Uganda. The European way of looking at African
social Institutions as being primitive, has elements of racism because African institutions
were evolving the very way western social institutions did.

c. Colonial rule came to Uganda at a time when the societies and communities that
constituted it were still in the process of strengthening their social and economic
organizations. But the colonialists disturbed these various forms of social development,
relationships and contacts that had not yet assumed permanent forms.

d. Tribalism in Uganda is misplaced; it creates the thinking that leads to exclusion

and intolerance. Conflict is based on false understanding of the country’s history. The
truth is that “Pan-Ugandan” (unity of Ugandans) existed in pre-colonial Uganda. Groups
of people were interacting, intermarrying, mixing, assimilating or being assimilated by
other groups to give rise to the new ones.

e. Colonial boundaries disrupted the free interaction of our people as the British
divided up the same countries or homogenous people with in a geographical area. For
example in the case of Uganda, the divided communities include the Alur, Lugbara,
Kakwa, Acholi, Pokot, Basamia, Banyarwanda and Bakonzo.

f. It is misleading to look at the various ethnic groups in Uganda as being separate,

tight, neat looking, pure or homogeneous identities because many of them such as the
Karamajong, Acholi, Basoga, Banyankole and Bakiga were colonial creations. The
Karamojong consisted of the Matheniko, Dodoth, Jie, Pain and up to now see themselves
as separate; the Bakiga had clans like Basigi, Bainika, Bamugwe. The Banyankole are
another amalgamation of Nkore sub-entities of both pastoral Bahiima and agriculturist
Bairu, Bahweju, Batagwenda, Banyaruguru, Bahororo. These people were always
intermarrying and intermixing to give way to new communities.

CONCLUSION

17. Understanding the small contradictions that existed within and between communities in
pre-colonial Uganda makes us understand how British colonialism was able to turn these
communities against each other. The policy of divide and rule came to be practiced successfully
where small divisions existed. These colonial artificial distortions brought about by their policy
of divide and rule artificially divided our people as if they did not have much in common. Un
fortunately, African politicians who assumed power at independence continued this practice
which completely ruined the country through the use of unprincipled politicking, treachery,

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conspiracy and sectarianism. It is therefore our role as leaders to change all this and re-invent
our shared past which will rejuvenate our hopes for renewed National consciousness and Unity.

PART TWO: COLONIAL HISTORY OF UGANDA-1844 – 1900

INTRODUCTION

18. In 1884, a Conference that partitioned Africa was held in the city of Berlin Germany. In
the Berlin conference, Africa was partitioned amongst the then World super powers namely:-
Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Portugal. By the end of the infamous Berlin conference in
1885, the whole of East Africa, Uganda inclusive had been made a Germany and British sphere
of influence.

AIM

19. The Aim of this presentation is to critically analyze the reasons for colonizing Uganda,
the role played by the colonial forerunners and the effects of colonialism on the sovereignty of
the People of Uganda.

DEFINITION OF COLONIALISM

20. Colonialism is defined as a practice by which strong developed nations assume control
and direct the social, political and economic affairs of the least developed and weak Countries.

REASONS FOR COLONIALISM

21. a. Search for Raw Materials

During the Industrial revolution that took place in Europe in 1770’s, machines took over
production from manual labor with increased production, raw materials were becoming
scarce and therefore there a rose a need to have new sources of raw materials hence
acquiring colonies that were virgin with resources.

b. Markets for finished products

As production increased with the invention of machines, there was an accumulation of
surplus manufactured products. In order to dispose off the surplus there was a need to get
new markets.

c. Search for employment

When machines took over production, manual labor was rendered redundant and there a
rose a need to look for employment opportunities elsewhere to a accommodate extra
labor

d. Search for cheap labor

There was also a need to get cheap labor to work on cash crop plantations which were
established in the new colonies.

e. American war of independence

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When America attained its independence from Britain, it ceased to be a source of raw
materials and a market for finished goods.

f. Marxism ideology
Between 1788 and 1884, Karl Marx predicted that there would be a crumble of capitalism
and an emergence of socialism, where the exploited workers could gain control over the
means of production. This prediction forced industrial capitalists to look for raw
materials and new markets to sustain capitalism.

g. Nationalism in Europe

New nations like Germany and Italy were rapidly emerging in Europe narrowing the
market base and widening the competition for raw materials.

COLONIAL FORE RUNNERS IN UGANDA

22. a. Early explorers.

These Europeans referred to as explorers came to explore new areas for British
expansion. They came to scout and establish where natural resources were in
abundance. In 1862 John Speke came and discovered the source of River Nile. He was
later joined by Grant at Kabaka Muteesa’s place. Speke and Grant were astonished by
the high level of organization and protocol in what was considered to be a dark continent.
Their initial aim was frustrated by the 10.000 men strong army commanded by the King.

a. Missionaries.
The first missionaries in Uganda came to recruit and train cadres for the colonial army
from their converts. Their main mission was to preach the gospel of love as way of
softening the hearts of the natives to give the colonialists a soft landing.

In 1879 the CMS arrived in Buganda from England led by Rev Smith and CT Wilson.
They started preaching the “GOOD NEWS” to the pages at Kabaka’s court.

In 1879 Father Lourdel and Brother Amans of the white Fathers arrived at Kabaka
Mutesa’s palace. With two different groups both teaching Christianity, the natives got
confused as to which was right and better. Therefore the first seeds of disunity based on
Religion were sowed.

b. IBEACO 1888 – 1893.

Commanded by Capt F Lugard, IBEACO was sent to establish authority over the
discovered territories, administer Uganda and conduct business on behalf of the British
Government.

c. Administrators.
When the IBEACO experienced wars, the colonialists had to send their agents to fully
annex Uganda to Britain and establish direct rule. In 1894 Sir Gerald Portal raised the

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British flag and declared Uganda a British protectorate. In 1900 Sir Harry Johnstone
signed the Buganda agreement on behalf of the Queen.

d. Baganda Agents.
In 1894 Colonel Colville commanded a 30.000 men strong combined force of Baganda,
Sudanes and British soldiers that fought Kabalega and annexed Bunyoro. In the same
year a 10.000 strong force under General Semei Kakungulu was recruited and tasked to
annex Busoga, Bugishu and Bukedi.

RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS IN BUGANDA

23. By 1869 Islam had taken root in Buganda, having been introduced by Arab traders
notable of them was Ahmed Bin Ibrahim who arrived in Buganda in1844.
In 1877 CMS arrived in Uganda and was later followed by White Fathers in 1879. Kabaka
Mutesa I died in 1884 and Mwanga was enthroned. During the reign of Kabaka Mwanga there
were four different religious groups. The traditionalists, the Protestants, the Catholics and the
Mohammedans. These Religious sects had turned into political parties competing for political
influence around the Kabaka. Warned by Moslems that Christians had an intention of taking his
land, Kabaka Mwanga ordered the killing of Bishop Hannington who was approaching Buganda
from Busoga. Subsequently Mwanga made effort to prevent Baganda from attending missionary
classes. However the People remained defiant undermining his authority. In 1886 Mwanga
ordered the burning of Christian converts at Namugongo. In 1888 Mwanga hatched a plan to
expel all foreign religious groups from Buganda. However the plot failed and this provoked an
open rebellion against him. The Moslems and Christians forged an alliance that fought and
deposed Mwanga. This was the first overthrow of a ruler by his subjects supported by the
foreigners.

OTHER EARLY RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS

24. After the defeat of Kabalega and Mwanga, the British had neutralized the most powerful
anti – colonial resistances but the mood of resistance remained wide spread in the protectorate.
a. Lamogi Rebellion:
In the North resistance erupted in Acholi and across Lango led by chief Awich of Acholi.
It was militarily crashed and the leader was deported to Kampala and isolated for a long
time on a hill named after him (Kololo)

b. In West Nile
Brutal force was applied to undermine the local artisans who were manufacturing metal
tools by cutting off their thumbs to subdue them and eventually make West Nile a labor
reserve.

c. In Karamoja
The British administrators found it completely difficult to establish themselves due to the
highly militarized and organized Karamajong society that had links with Abyssinia.
Many elders were abducted and deported and in the end the British decided to gazette the

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whole of Karamoja into a wild life reserve thus forcing the resilient Karamajongs into
concentration marginal lands.

d. In Ankole and Bunyoro

A new militant movement opposed to Buganda’s proxy sub colonialism emerged as
“Nyangire Abaganda”. In some cases the British used their brutal means especially in
Ankole where they introduced Biological weapons (Anthrax) to kill Cattle in order for
People to grow cotton. As a way of resistance the King of Igara committed suicide, the
King of Kajara took off to Tanganyika and the King of Buhweju was killed by the
colonialists.

e. In Kigezi
Resistance took trend of cults and armed struggle. Most of the movements had linkages
with the struggle in neighbouring Rwanda and Congo. Notable ones were Nyabingi cult,
then the armed rebellion which was led by princes Muhumuza and then Ntokibiri and
Nyindo.

f. The Moslem Christian alliance soon broke up and the Moslems turned against the
Christians, fought and chased them away. They then enthroned Kalema as the King of
Buganda. In 1889 the Christians rallied behind the deposed Mwanga and overthrew the
Islamic regime. In 1892 A catholic shot a protestant and Mwanga Acquitted him. This
enraged the Protestants who sought the support of Captain Lugard who armed them to
fight the Catholics and overthrow Mwanga. However Lugard sensed a danger of a
kingdom without a King he later made an agreement with Mwanga which led to his
reinstatement. The agreement divided the counties of Buganda among the religious
sects: - Catholics got 08 Counties, Protestants got 10 Counties and Moslems got 02
Counties. From then the Protestants took an upper hand in the politics of Buganda and
later Uganda. Catholics were deliberately denied active political participation. Therefore
religions became a divisive rather than a unifying factor since the advent of colonialism
in Uganda.

RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE

25. a. KABALEGA
From the onset of colonialism, Kabalega refused to be compromised and he opted to
militarily confront the British forces. Initially Kabalega was dislodged by the combined
forces of the British, Baganda and some Sudanese soldiers under the command of
Colonel Colville. He however did not surrender and he instead engaged the British in a
protracted guerilla struggle that covered Bunyoro, part of Lango and Acholi. For almost
eight years from 1890 Kabalega engaged the colonialists single handedly.

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b. MWANGA

Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda whose authority was initially undermined by a combined

force of religious converts (Muslims, Catholics and Protestants) realized that the only
way to re – establish his authority and save his kingdom was through armed struggle. In
1897 July Mwanga deserted his palace where he had remained as a stooge of colonialism
and he mobilized a big following through Sese Island into Buddu from where he recruited
his force from as far as Ankole, Busoga and later crossed Bunyoro to Lango where he
linked up with Kabalega. With the combined forces, the two Kings gallantly fought many
battles. However the British with reinforcement of Baganda forces under Semei
Kakungulu were able to defeat the two Kings a at battle of Kangai in Dokolo, where they
were forced to surrender and were later banished into exile in Seychelles Island of Indian
Ocean in 1899. Mwanga died in exile while kabalega died in Busoga on his way back.

LESSONS

26. The two Kings demonstrated that Africans actually were not willing to surrender their
Sovereignty
The mobilization of the two Kings across the borders of their Kingdoms kindled the spirit of
African brotherhood. The defeat of the two Kings could be attributed to the fragmented entities
that were over powered by outsiders and the greed and corruption of fellow blacks that enabled
colonialists to infiltrate divide and use them against their own People. The unity of Mwanga,
Kabalega and some Acholi chiefs came too late. After the defeat of Kabalega and Mwanga in
1899 and their subsequent exile into Seychelles islands. The colonialists then concentrated on
entrenching their colonial rule into Uganda hence the 1900 agreement.

27. THE BUGANDA AGREEMENT OF 1900

In 1899, Sir Harry Johnstone arrived in Kampala to effect a permanent solution of the affairs
Buganda and after lengthy negotiations a new treaty was signed on 10 th March 1900. Sir Harry
Johnstone signed on behalf of the Queen and on the other hand the leading Baganda chiefs
namely:- Sir Apollo Kagwa, Stanislaus Mugwanya, Zacharia Kisingiri, Prince Mbogo,
Kamuswaga of Kooki and Pokino of Buddu signed on behalf of a baby King Daudi Chwa.
Bishop Tucker and Walker of CMS played a double role of interpretation and reconciling the
two parties in the difficult negotiations. The agreement discussed the following issues:-

a. The Constitution of Buganda

b. The boundaries of Buganda were defined to include twenty counties including the
two taken from Bunyoro in 1896.
c. The title of the Kabaka. The Kabaka was to be referred to as “His Highness” and
he was to continue ruling Buganda but his decisions subject to approval by the British
Commissioner resident in Uganda.

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d. Buganda was to be a province of equal status with other provinces with which it
was to form the Country of Uganda.
e. Lukiiko was confirmed as Buganda’s legislative body and its membership fixed at
89.
[Link] land issue.
Article 1 Defines the Boundaries of Buganda Province

Article 2 States That; The Kabaka and chiefs of Buganda hereby agree henceforth
to Renounce in favour of her Majesty the Queen any claims to tribute they may
have had on the adjoining provinces of the Uganda Protectorate.

Article 3 States that; The Kingdom of Buganda in the Administration of the Uganda
Protectorate shall rank as a province of equal rank with any other provinces into
which the protectorate may be created. (In here the Kingdom lost its supremacy
and hegemony over other regions).

Article 4 States that; The revenue of the Kingdom of Buganda, collected by the
Buganda Administration, will be merged in the general revenue of the Uganda
Protectorate, as will that of the other provinces of this protectorate. (In here the
kingdom lost access to revenue collected as it was merged into the central coffer to
run the Administration of the Protectorate)
Article 5 The Laws made for the general governance of the Protectorate of Uganda
by Her Majesty’s Government will be equal applicable to the kingdom of
Buganda. (In here the Kabaka lost his executive, Legislative and Judicial powers)
Article 6 So long as the Kabaka, chiefs and people of Buganda shall conform to the
laws and regulations instituted for their governance by Her Majesty’s’
Government and shall cooperate loyally with Her Majesty’s’ Government in the
Administration of the said kingdom of Buganda, Her Majesty’s Government
agrees to recognize the Kabaka as the native ruler of the provinces of Buganda
and hence forth be styles His Highness the Kabaka of Buganda. The Kabaka of
Buganda shall be guaranteed by Her Majesty’s Government from out the local
revenue of the Uganda Protectorate a minimum yearly allowance of £ 500 a year.
(In this article an established kingdom ceded power and independence to foreign
authority. By paying him an allowance of £ 500 a year the Kabaka became
simply an employee or a prefect of the British Government).

Article 15 The land of the kingdom of Buganda shall be dealt with in the following
manner: Assuming the area of the kingdom of Buganda as comprised within the
limits cited in this agreement to amount to 19,600 sq miles, it shall be divided in
the following proportions:-

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(1). Forests to be brought under control of the Uganda Administration 1500 sq

miles.

(2) Waste and uncultivated land to be vested in the Majesty’s government and
to be controlled by the Uganda Administration 9000 sq miles.

(3) Plantation and other private property of * His Highness the Kabaka 350 sq
miles.

(4) Plantations and other private property of Namasole (Mother of Chwa II)
16 sq miles.

(5) Plantations and other private property of the Namasole (Mother of

Mwanga) 10 sq miles.

(6) To the Princes: Joseph, Augustine, Ramazan and Yusuf Suna 8 sq miles
each. In total 32 sq miles.

(7) For the Princesses Sisters and relations to the Kabaka 90 sq miles.

(8) To the 20 County chiefs 8 sq miles each (Private Property) 160 sq miles.

(9) Official estates attached to the office of Sub county chiefs 160 sq miles 8
sq miles each.

(10) The three regents will receive private property to the extent of 16 sq miles
each. In total 48 sq miles.

(11) Official property attached to the three regents office 16 sq miles each. In
total 48 sq miles.

(12) Mbogo (the Muhamadan chief) will receive 24 sq miles and his adherents.

(13) Kamuswaga (the chief of Kooki) will receive 20 sq miles.

(14) One thousand chiefs and private land owners private estates computed at
an acreage of 8 sq miles per individual making a total of 8000 sq miles.

(15) There will be allotted to the three missionary societies in existence in

Uganda as private property and in trust for the native churches as much as 92 sq
miles.

(16) Land taken up by the fifty Government stations prior to the agreement 50
sq miles.

TOTAL 19,600 sq miles.

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g. The aforesaid 9000 square miles of waste (cultivated) or Uncultivated or land

occupied without prior gift of the Kabaka or chiefs by Bakopi or strangers are hereby
vested in Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and England, Empress of india and
protectress of Uganda, on the understanding that the revenue derived from such lands
shall form part of the general revenue of the Uganda Protectorate.

h. The forests which will be reserved for Government control will be as a rule those
forests over which no private claim can be raised justifiably, and will be forests of
continuity which should be maintained as woodland in the general interests of the
Country. This clause was the most unfortunate and above all the most radical in the
sense that it affected the Kiganda society. It created a landed aristocratic class which
had never existed in Buganda and destroyed the Kabaka’s source of power, and pride.
Initially land belonged to the People and administered by the Kabaka the“Sabataka”
through clan leaders “Abataka” By this clause Kabaka ceased to be “Sabataka” and land
fell into two categories of Mailo and crown land . However Kabaka, chiefs and the
protectorate Government gained but the People and their clan leaders lost authority over
their land. Having established their hegemony over Buganda, the British moved quickly
and established their rule over Toro, Bunyoro, Ankole and Kigezi.

j. The task of annexing the east was done by Semei Kakungulu, a Muganda General
who had participated in the wars against Bunyoro and he played a big role in capturing
Mwanga and Kabalega. Having got hold of the central, west and eastern regions, the
British moved slowly by military expansion towards the North and by 1919 the process
of establishing effective control over Uganda had been completed.

BRITISH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION POLICIES IN UGANDA

INTODUCTION
28. a. Walter Rodney remarked: “The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism
and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power.
Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any
group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one’s interests and if necessary to
impose ones will by any means available. In relations between peoples, the question of power
determines maneuverability in bargaining, the extent to which one people respect the interests of
another, and eventually the extent to which a people survive as a physical and cultural entity.
When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is
a form of underdevelopment”.
b. One Tunisian Scholar and Pan-African, Albert Memmi remarked: “The most
serious blow suffered by the colonized is being removed from history and from the community &
social responsibility”. The removal from history follows logically from the loss of power which
colonialism represented. The power to act indecently is the guarantee to participate actively and
consciously in history. To be colonized is to be removed from history.

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AIM

29. To give highlights on how Uganda was administered during the colonial period and to
show how colonial policies pursued affected the socio economic and political life of our
Country.

THE LEGACY OF BRITISH COLONIALISM IN UGANDA 1890 – 1962

30. Colonialism. Is the practice by which a powerful country controls another or other
countries? Its functions were the following:

a. To protect British national interests against competition from other capitalists.

b. To arbitrate the conflicts between their own capitalists.
c. To guarantee optimum conditions under which private companies could exploit Uganda.
d. This last objective was the most crucial.
e. That is why the colonial government was repeatedly speaking about :
“The maintenance of law and order” by which it meant the maintenance of conditions more
favorable to the expansion of capitalism and the plunder of Uganda’s resources (i.e. land and
labor). This led the colonial state to impose taxes. One of the main purposes of British colonial
taxation system was to provide requisite funds for administering the protectorate as a field of
economic exploitation and to force the African peasant to get integrated into the colonial
monetary sector (economy).

THE BRITISH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

31. One of the major features of British colonial rule was that of divide and rule. They
affected this policy through the system of indirect rule. By introducing this system, they hoped to
rule trough traditional chiefs and institutions as much as possible.
a. The system of indirect rule was first operated in Buganda and later
extended to other areas of the protectorate. With the signing of Buganda agreement in
1900, Buganda was put under British rule but most of the administrative structures were
left under the native government of the Kabaka. The native chiefs headed by the Kabaka
ruled over their subjects. (i.e. the Kabaka ruled over his people with the help of a
hierarchy of chiefs).
b. Although the native chiefs ruled over their subjects, major policies were
made by the British and implemented by the Kabaka’s government. Collaborating chiefs
were allocated land which led to the creation of a collaborating owning elite.

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c. The Buganda agreement of 1900 was followed by the Uganda order in

council of 1902, which legalized the British administration in the protectorate. The order
provided for:
d. The implementation of English statutes (laws) of general application,
common law and equity.
e. African traditional laws and customs were allowed to operate provided
they were not repugnant to justice, morality and written law.
f. The kabaka’s right to raise the army and to take away human life was
removed, (as was done to other kingdom areas) and the right to license individuals to kill
was centralized in courts and her majesty’s representative acting according to the
established law.
g. Numerous ethnic groups were brought together into one viable
administrative unit that became the Uganda state.
h. Having got hold of the central region, west and east, the British moved
slowly in military expansions towards the north and in 1919, the process of establishing
effective control over Uganda was completed.
i. In areas of the protectorate (decentralized communities) where there was
lack of British personnel or loyal local staff, the British used (employed) Buganda agents
as chiefs to implement British rule in those areas. By employing baganda agents, the
British thought that the baganda knew more about organized administration than their
neighbors. In lango for instance, the Baganda were used because the British officials
thought the langi were still backward. One British official wrote: “The langi are raw
savages, the only system through which these people can be dealt with is through the use
of intelligent agents as had been done in bukedi”.

DUTIES OF BAGANDA AGENTS

32. Their duties were to:

a. Provide intelligence to the British officials
b. Enforce law and order (in most cases by violence)
c. Uphold the authority of the colonial state in the communities (i.e. implemented
colonial order and rule)
d. Mobilize labor for public work

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e. Supervise the storage of food reserves

f. Enforce the resolution of conflicts among people who had never acknowledged
their authority.
g. Collect tax and had to be obeyed by all.
h. The Baganda agents (chiefs) transplanted these practices to societies, which were
not centralized like Buganda. They introduced the kiganda administrative structure i.e. a
hierarchy of chiefs-quite unknown in those areas.

POWER STRUCTURE
33. a. The governor general at Entebbe

a. Provincial Commissioners

b. District Commissioners

c. District Officers

d. An Assembly of Chiefs (county chiefs)

e. Sub-County Chiefs

f. Parish Chiefs

g. Bakungu (village chiefs). This kiganda model introduced demands that the people
in non-centralized societies never had and liked, and because these chiefs were never
paid, they begun to extort pay from the unarmed population. They demanded for food,
beer, livestock, free labor and often-sexual partners. Many wanted to get rich quick,
others were soldiers of fortune.
(1) In lango, a British official TOSH reported that 163 villages were destroyed
and baganda chiefs tortured their victims. Because these agents meted out
violence to the people they ruled, the Baganda became unpopular and therefore
were targeted by Anti-Colonial violence. For example in may 1911, six (6)
Baganda agents were killed in lango at a place called bar.
(2) In bunyoro, the banyoro in 1907 refused the baganda agents and engaged
in the Nyangire-Abaganda rebellion which led to their withdraw in the area in the
1920’s.
(3) In south western Uganda, the Bakiga resisted against Rwandan and later
British rule (Ssebalija-a Muganda agent) in the period between 1900-19.
(4) Thus, part of the anti-Baganda sentiment in the rest of Uganda originates
from this injustice through retribution exacted later in 1966, and in 1980-85 was
excessive and inexcusable.

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(5) Note: As already noted, the Baganda were singled out for favours as
colonial agents while at the same time the Kabaka’s government remained intact
unlike other areas of the protectorate. This privileged status of Buganda soon or
later generated anti-Buganda sentiments in the rest of Uganda while at the same
time encouraged the Baganda to develop a high sense of ethnic nationalism.
Therefore, by treating Buganda as a state within a state, the British created the
problem of Buganda and planted seeds of ethnic tension and conflict in Uganda
which continued up to independence.
(6) This special treatment made the Baganda proud and arrogant in their
approach to major political problems. Up to until 1960’s they did not consider
their political destiny as part of the country as a whole.
(7) Resentment of Baganda agents as already noted was very high in Bunyoro
where it caused the Nyangire-Abaganda rebellion 1907, the Nyabingi cult in
Kigezi commanded by the spirit medium woman between 1900-1919, the Lamogi
rebellion of Lamogi in clam of Acholi and the multiple rebellions in lango
between (1898-1911) were all against the Baganda agents.
(8) In Ankole, the British sub commissioner Galt was killed at Ibanda.

Many people were rounded up for questioning and king Ntare v paid a thousand
heads of cattle as reparations.

(9) The Lugbara and Kakwa people of west Nile resisted colonial rule through
a religious cult known as the Yakan.
(10) Between 1898-1911 several Baganda agents were killed in Ocini area.
Their leader Bumbakali Kamya was killed. Consequently, the colonial
government responded by rounding up people in villages in which many langi
were killed along the Abalanga river and Namasale peninsular. In the process 163
villages were destroyed.
(11) In 1920’s these Baganda agents were withdraw from Bunyoro, Eastern
Uganda and Kigezi to neutralize the anti-Kianda feelings and agitation. All the
same anti Kiganda feelings or sentiment persisted throughout the colonial period.
Thus, on the eve of independence, the country was still politically polarized
between Buganda and the rest of Uganda and this did not augur well for the post
colonial future of the country.
(a) Negative legacy. The British policy of indirect rule was actually a
policy that did not favour co-operation among the different societies of
Uganda; neither did it encourage African participation in decision-making
process.
(b) For instance, there was no National Council (parliament) in which
people from different regions of Uganda could meet and discuss issues of
National importance (issues of common interest).

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(c) In 1921, a legislative council (LEGCO) was set up to the

“parliament” of Uganda but in real practice; it was a parliament of the
whites and Asians only.
(12) In 1945, three (03) Africa from the West and Eastern Uganda were
nominated to it. But in some other regions, there was no representation.
But even then, compared to the number of whites and Asians in Legco, African
representation was vague. In whose interest were these whites and Asian
Legislating? This process of democratization was too little too late. 15 years up to
independence was a short time to have prepared or produced experienced
politicians to deal with the intricate problems of the multi-tribal Uganda.

(13) The local government Ordinance of 1949 provided for democratization of

the local district Councils. But these local government units were based on tribal
entities with each Districts being treated as if were an independent state.
The District Councils of Langi knew little about the problems of Ankole Districts
council and vice-versa. All they had in common was the colonial governor at
Entebbe.

(14) In the second place, ethnic and regional royalties, which under the name of
tribalism, and could not be effectively resolved by the colonial state. Therefore,
the separation of Districts and localization of district issues due to lack of
unifying factors at the National level hindered the growth of national awareness
that would have encouraged national unity before and after independence. Instead
the colonial state sometimes saw the value of stimulating /promoting internal
tribal differences/jealousies so as to keep Ugandan’s polarized/divided no to deal
with colonial repression and exploitation.

THE SECURITY FORCES UNDER BRITISH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION

34. The security forces of independent Uganda had their origin in the KAR. The KAR had
its origin around 1890’s when Capt Lugard used it in Buganda during the Religious wars and
later against Kabalega in 1896. In East and Central Africa, the Kings African Rifles was the unit
which was formed to help suppress anti – colonial resistance movements. The soldiers were
Africans and the officers English. The Battalion of the KAR had by Nov 1918 0ver 35,000Men
whom (09) out of (10) were Africans.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COLONIAL FORCES (KAR)
35. The forces were used as an emergency to put down Nationalist uprisings in Uganda/East
Africa. These were Kabalega and Mwanga’s resistance, Mau in Kenya and John Kilembwe’s
resistance (1915) in Malawi. In effect, this force was a colonial oppressive force. The force was
also used to fight other Europeans inside Africa notably during the 1 st and 2nd world wars against
the Germans in Tanganyika. The force was to be used in any war theatre in both Europe and Asia
e.g. On the Asia front (Burma) in 1939 – 45 against the Japanese.
THE CHARACTER OF THE COLONIAL SECURITY FORCES
36. a. Sectarian in nature (a Tribal force from one region particularly from the North,
Northwest and East)

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(1) Oppressive and brutal

(2) Partisan
(3) Not patriotic
(4) Not productive
(5) Largely illiterate force
(6) Ideologically Bankrupt

THE COLONIAL MILITARY POLICIES

37. a. Once in initial colonial conquests had been achieved and colonial administration
firmly established; the soldiers and agents from Buganda were no longer required. Once
the Buganda had been disserved and exercise completed in 1905, they were told that they
were too short. In stature for the army and police. Recruitment was reserved for
Northerners and people from East who it was argued were naturally warlike and martial.

b. Troublesome and educated southerner were encouraged to join the civil service and
private business but the top echelons of the army, police and prisons were recruited from
societies in the north and east which were backward in education and economic
development.
a. Consequently, when Apolo Milton Obote took state power after independence, he
continued the recruiting practices of the colonial regime with the result that:- Uganda
emerged from colonialism with a sectarian defence force that became a problem to
Uganda.
This force Mutinied in 1964 and later overthrew Obote twice first in 1971 and later in
1985.
b. This colonial policy of dividing people through the military helped individual post
colonial leaders to use the institution of the military to settle their political differences
and to entrench their power and dictatorship in Uganda.
c. This policy also helped to fuel disunity and destroyed every opportunity that
would have enabled the Ugandan people to build national [Link] Panda gari, mass
killings in towns and villages.
What has the present government done to rectify this?
38. The 1995 Uganda constitution requires that for one to be recruited into the army, police
and prisons, he/she must be a citizen of Uganda, disciplined physically fit etc. Recruitment is
done proportionally in the whole country to avoid building sectarian defence forces.

BRITISH COLONIAL ECONOMIC POLICIES

39. (Development of Uganda’s Economy as an appendage)

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With the consolidation of Colonial administration, it became expensive for the British to
maintain the costs of administering the protectorate. Therefore, in order to cope up with the costs
of administration and to force the local peasants to work for the colonial economy, the British set
out to develop the local economy and impose taxes on the people. By using these two methods,
the British hoped to ensure that Uganda covers its own costs of administration.
IMPOSITION OF TAXES
40. In order to cope up with costs of administration, the colonial state imposed a tax regime.
It was structured as follows:
a. Hut Tax. This was imposed on each hut an individual owned. It was 03 rupees.
b. Poll Tax. This was paid by every adult male. This was 03 rupees.
c. Gun Tax. This was imposed on every gun an individual owned. It was also 03
rupees
d. Kasanvu. This was cheap labor payable at lower price (it was 2 ½ rupees or
one month’s labor)
e. Luwalo. This was unpaid labor. This was done mainly on public works e.g.
roads, schools and government buildings (Two months labor).
f. Busulu. This was rent to land lords who acquired land as per the 1900 Buganda
agreement. (It was 3 rupees).
g. Nvujjo. This was a tithe on the peasants’ produce of cotton, beer, and other
commodities. Note. Although these taxes were meant to cover administrative costs, the
real purpose was to force the local peasants to be integrated into the monetary sector of
the colonial economy and therefore the international monetary sector. For the peasants to
be able to pay these taxes he had to sale his labor or grows cash crops or he is arrested by
the colonial police.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRODUCTION SECTOR (DEVELOPMENT BY

CONTRADICTION)

41. Having set up the police, army, civil service and the judiciary on Uganda soil, the
colonial state was in position to intervene much more directly in the economic life of the people.
a. Development of the Production Sector. Therefore, in order to develop the
production sector, the colonial government introduced cash crops like cotton, tea, and
sugar. The attempt by the scientific and forestry department to involve masses in
production of cash crops achieved remarkable success. It’s experiments showed that
cotton could grow very in the country. A similar move was made by Kristen Borup, a
Danish Missionary and a manager of the Uganda Company. He imported 2 ½ tons of five
varieties of cotton seeds and distributed them to 27 chiefs in Buganda and Ankole. The
government then exerted pressure on the chiefs to make the people under their
jurisdiction to plant cotton seeds. In 1904, commercial cultivation of cotton was begun
and cotton soon became the major export crop. By 1906, the success of the exercise was
evident and exportation of cotton to England became reality. These cash crops were
augmented by foreign owned tea and sugar Plantations as well as trade and import
substitution industries in areas of Jinja and Lugazi. The Economy attracted few
permanent European and Asian settlers and cash crops were mostly produced by African
small landholders and not on plantations as in other colonials. Many Asians, (i.e. Indians,

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Pakistanis and Goans) settled in Uganda where they played a leading role in the
Country’s commerce. They thus facilitated the colonial economic exploitation
exploitation and plunder of Uganda’s resources (i.e. land and labor). Ref: Elkan W. “The
Economic Development of Uganda.

b. What was wrong with this Economic Structure? As already noted, this economic
success was quickly overturned by the colonial economic distortions. For instance, this
process was encouraged by the colonial authorities at the expense of economic interest of
other regions. For example, the colonial policy of labor recruitment was such that the
central region (i.e. Buganda and Busoga) was designated producing areas while the
outlying district of Kigezi, Ankole, West Nile and parts of Acholi were earmarked to
provide labor to central cultivation rather than production unit for the monitory sector of
the colonial economy. Acholi, Teso and to some extent West Nile became catchment area
for the armed forces. The British were happy to leave Karamoja as a “human Zoo” for
posterity.
c. Colonial Labor Recruitment Policy:
(1) West Nile, Acholi, supplied Labor to Bunyoro planters.
(2) Teso was elevated to producing status when cotton growing proved to be
economically viable or profitable.

(3) Consequently, Lango supplied labor to Teso until cotton stimulated in that
region (Lango).
(4) Busoga supplied most of its labor requirements but some laboreres came from
mainlythe Alur’s and Lugbarsa.

(5) West Nile and parts of Acholi were earmarked to provide to central cultivators
rather than production units for the monitory sector of the colonial economy.
Acholi, Teso and some extent Nile became catchment areas for the armed forces.
The British were happy to leave Karamoja as a “human Zoo” for posterity.
(6) Buganda received most of its labor from Ankole and Kigezi where in 1953, 2,
8000 workers entered Buganda form this areas. This further increased to 42,000 in
1954.
(7) The largest suppliers of Buganda’s labor from 1938 onwards were the
Rwandese and the Burundi. Workers came in thousands from these Countries. In
1944 came 86,232 workers.

NB: The negative legacy of this colonial Labor recruitment policy was that it designated
certain areas as production units while others as Labor recruited areas instead of
developing them as production units. Thus, this policy became one of the causes of

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regional economic inequality and underdevelopment- thus increasing both inequality and
the potential for social violence in the Country
(a) From the foregoing, one ably observe that ongoing disparity between the
central and the rest of the Country in terms of income and opportunity was as
shown, entrenched during the colonial period.

(b) Uganda’s economy was developed and natured to produce primary

products (raw- materials) especially cash crops like cotton, coffee, sugar rubber
and tea and in turn to import manufactured products e.g. hoes, bicycles, household
utensils etc. This in effect made Uganda a dependent economy but also to donate
wealth to Britain in form of exporting both real monetary wealth and jobs. This un
equal terms of trade or exchange became the major contributor to backwardness
and under development in Uganda.

(c) The colonial economy did not encourage the development of industries
that would have employed the skilled work force. (Reason to depend on them and
therefore remain backward) This became a major contributor to backwardness and
underdevelopment in Uganda.

(d) By introducing British manufactured products (hoes, clothes, beads, guns

e .t.c) the colonial state deliberately destroyed the artisan class that

(e) Would have metamorphosed (developed) into an industrial middle

working class had it not been destroyed. Consequently African technology that
had developed in Uganda was destroyed, making Ugandans use and consume
what they did not make or produce what they consume.

(f) This also became the major contributor to backwardness and

underdevelopment in Uganda.

(g) Also, the destruction of the artisan class affected the development and
emergence of the working class in Uganda (middle class).With it’s demise, there
was no any other or alternative of employment to the educated people to the
educated people outside traditional colonial service.
What is the government doing to change this?
a. (1) Encouraging foreign investment and building industries.
(2) Encouraging scientific research.
(3) Encourage science based education.
(4) As already noted the British colonial mission in Uganda was to develop
and orient Uganda’s economy as a permanent source of economic benefit to
Britain.

Analysis

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b. Thus, the obvious conclusion is that Uganda’s economy was founded and
maintained and appendage of the British economy. Uganda’s economy could not
have become a viable and self – sustaining entity after a century of being nurtured as
an appendage. Nevertheless, the post independence leaders could have used this used
this economy to prepare for economic take off especially since the last British
governor, sir Andrew Cohen had started some industries (especially textiles) in
addition to the other few industries which the progress Indian community had started.

COLONIAL BANKING SECTOR (BANKS IN EAST AFRICA)

c. (1) The first bank to be set up in East Africa in the 1890’s was the National and
Grind lays bank, which was an offshoot of a British Bank operating in India.

(2)The second British Bank to be established in East Africa was the standard bank
(established in 1895).

(3) The third was the Barclays bank established in 1957.

Altogether, nine (09) foreign banks were in existence in East Africa during the
colonial period out of which the big three (03) were National and Grind lays
Bank, the standard bank and Barclays bank,
EXPLOITATION UNDER COLONIAL BANKS
d. The financial institutions of colonial Uganda were more scandalously neglectful
of indigenous African interests than was the case for the interests of the white and Asian
minority groups in the country.
(1) The colonial Banks did very little lending locally. Credit to Africans here
in Uganda by Asian middlemen and to discourage African borrowing, the
colonial state through legislation enacted a law – called Credit Natives
(Restriction) Ordinance in 1931. (see) An ordinance means an order or a rule
made by a government or somebody in a position of authority.
(2) The law provided that for one to access a bank loan, must have collateral
and a permanent commercial building of a modern type and must have a fixed
residence. All these requirements worked against Ugandans access to loans and
to their own resources, for Africans. Ugandans had no collateral nor fixed
modern commercial building as the law provided.

(3) Therefore, East Africa particularly Uganda provides an interesting

example of how effectively foreign banks served to dispossess Africa of its
wealth. For example, when the decision to concede self-government to
Uganda/Kenya was taken by Britain in 1962/60 respectively, A sum amounting
to over 51/2 million dollars was immediately transferred to safety in London.
Analysis.
e. That Sum, like all other remittances by colonial banks represented the exploitation
of African/Ugandan land resources and labor. These European banks transferred the

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reserves of their African branches to the London head office to be invested in London
money market. This was the way in which colonial banks most rapidly expatriated
African surplus to their mother country.

THE COLONIAL CURRENCY BOARD AS AN ECONOMICAL EXPLOITER

f. Here in Uganda, coins and notes were first issued by private banks. After wards,
this function was taken over by the East African currency board established in 1919.
The currency issued by this board in the three East African colonies had to be backed
by “STERLING-RESERVES”, which money was earned by Africans in East
Africans and Uganda in particular.

The manner in which the system worked was as follows:

g. When a colony earned foreign exchange mainly through exports, these earnings
were held in Britain in pounds sterling. An equivalent amount of local East Africa
currency was issued for circulation in the respective colonies-while the sterling was
invested in British government stock, thereby earning even more profits for Britain.
The commercial banks worked hand with their home government and the currency
board to make the system work. Together, they established an intricate financial
network which served the common end of enriching Britain at Uganda’s (Africa’s)
EXPENSE. The contribution to sterling reserves by any colony was a gift to British
treasury for which the colony received little or no interest.
Analysis.
h. To sum up briefly, colonialism meant a great intensification of Uganda (Africa),
siphoning off its surplus wealth in form of land resources and labor.

INSURANCE SERVICES AS A COLONIAL ECONOMIC EXPLOITER

i. The major known insurance company was the Lloyds insurance company (backed
by Lloyds bank). Its funds have origins (Antecedents) in slave trading. In East Africa
particularly in Uganda, insurance companies catered almost exclusively to the
interests of the white and Asian minority Firms in the country. This institution also
served to export African surplus wealth to Britain. Other trading companies involved
the following: Uniliever company ltd. It was started by one called William H Lever
who owned soap factories in the swamps on the Mersey side near Liverpool. This
company the most notorious exploiter of Uganda’s’ wealth in the period beginning
from 1929 onwards (dealing in oils and fats, soap, margarine etc). It’s subsidiary
company-known as the United African company (UAC),-Dealing in East African
import trade. This company ruthlessly exploited and exported Uganda’s surplus
wealth to Britain and paid little to African farmers in Uganda.

COLONIAL COMPANIES AS EXPLOITER SECTION OF COLONIAL

ECONOMY

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j. Another firm was that of Gaily and Roberts, which was started by white settlers in
1904. All these companies represented British appropriation of surplus wealth from
East Africa while at the same time East Africa remained under developed. One of the
oldest companies was smith Mackenzie which was an offshoot of the Scottish
company of Mackinnon and Mackenzie who had spearheaded British colonization of
East Africa. These companies were responsible for expatriating a great proportion of
Africa’s wealth produced by peasant toil. These companies were most notorious in
siphoning off African surplus wealth in form of land resources and labor. Several of
the colonial trading companies already had blood on their hands from participation in
the slave trade. Thus after British Merchants made fortunes from European slave
trade; they transferred that capital to the trade in African imports in the middle of the
19th century.

THE COLONIAL PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AS AN EXPLOITER SECTION OF THE

COLONIAL ECONOMY

k. The colonial infrastructure includes: Roads, Railway, Hospitals, Electricity, etc.

(1) Roads, railways and hospitals during the colonial period had clear
geographical distribution according to the extent to which particular regions of
Uganda need to be opened up for colonial exploitation. Where export products
were not available roads and railways had no place. Thus the north-eastern region
of Uganda which had little to offer to the colonial economy such a region was
simply ignored with regard to roads, schools and hospitals. Consequently, such
regions or zones were left behind in terms of economic development and this led
to backwardness and under development.

(2) Also, during the colonial period, there were no roads connecting different
regions of Uganda at least in a manner that made sense in regard to Uganda’s
needs and development.

(3) Roads and railways led down to the sea. They were built to extract gold,
cotton, and coffee, copper for export to Britain and facilitate imperial capitalist
companies for exploitation and plunder.

(4) Therefore, any development if it appeared was an incidental by-product of

colonial exploitation. In other words, any catering to African interests was purely
coincidental. Yet, in Africa, labor rather than capital took the lions share in
getting things done. There is always a question posed. What did colonial
governments do in the interest of Africans? Supposedly, they built roads, schools,
hospitals and the like. Others say that colonialism brought many benefits to
Uganda. This brings us to a need to draw a balance sheet where economists place
both the credits and the debts.

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(5) Colonial apologists always conclude that although colonialism represented

oppression and exploitation, that the good which colonialism did for Uganda
outweigh the bad.

There is always a question posed. What did colonial governments do in the

interest of Africans? Supposedly, they built roads, school, hospitals and the like.

Other says that colonialism brought many benefits to Uganda. This brings us to a
need to draw a balance sheet where economists place both the credits and the
debts. Colonial apologists always conclude that although colonialism represented
oppression and exploitation, that for the good which colonialism did for Uganda
outweigh the bad. It is our contention that this is completely false. Colonialism
had only one hand; it was a one armed bandit. It is further our contention that for
the three decades of colonialism, hardly anything was done that could remotely be
termed a service to the African people here in Uganda. Any development if it
appeared was an incidental by-product of exploitation.

l. What is the government doing to overcome these distortions?

Massive road construction country wide, Road maintenance, Rural electrification. All
these measures are meant to overcome colonial economical distortions and propel the
economy forward.
NB: The limited social services within Africa during the colonial period were
distributed in a manner that reflected the pattern of domination and economic
exploitation. This therefore implies that the total amenities provided in Uganda during
the colonial epoch is no guide to what Uganda got out of colonialism. In Uganda
here, it was true that the bulk of the social services went to the white and Asian
minority groups who lived in towns.

(1) In practical terms, that meant that the medical, maternity and sanitation
services were all geared towards the well being of the white and Asian minority
groups in the country. The viciousness of the colonial system in Uganda with
respect to the provision of social services was most dramatically brought out in
the case of economic activities which made huge profits notably in the mining
sector and other rich agricultural areas.

(2) For example, roads and railways had a clear geographical distribution
according to the extent to which particular regions needed to be opened up to
import export activities, where export were not available, roads and railways had
no place. Thus, the North Eastern region of Uganda had little to offer the
colonialists and such a zone was simply ignored by the colonizing power with
regard to roads, schools, hospitals etc…..

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(3) At the level of a district of a given region, there would be discrimination

in providing special amenities on the basis of contribution to exportable surplus.
For instance plantations and companies might build hospitals for their workers
because some minimum maintenance of worker’s health was an economic
development. Usually, such a hospital was exclusively for workers of that
particular capitalist concerned. Those Africans living in the vicinity or under
subsistence conditions outside the colonial money economy were ignored
altogether.

(4) Many Africans trekked to towns because (bad as they were) they offered a
little more than the countryside. Modern sanitation, electricity, piped water, pave
roads, medical services and schools were as foreign at the end of the colonial
period as they were at the beginning as far as most of the rural Uganda was
concerned. Yet, it was the countryside that grew the cash crops and provided the
labor that kept the system going. The peasants in the villages knew very little of
the supposed “credits” on the colonial balance sheet. Because even the scanty
social services were meant only to facilitate colonial exploitation, they were not
given to any Ugandans (Africans) whose labor was not directly producing surplus
for export to the colonial power – Britain. Means of communication were not
constructed in the colonial period so that Africans here in Uganda could visit their
relatives or friends. They were not laid down to facilitate internal trade within
Uganda later on in African commodities.

(5) There were roads connecting different colonies and different parts of same
country – Uganda in a manner that made sense with regard to Africa’s needs and
development. All roads and railways led down to the sea.

(6) They built to extract gold or manganese or coffee or cotton. They were
built to make business possible for the trading companies and agricultural
concession firms. Any catering to Africans interests was purely coincidental.
Yet in Africa, rather than capital took the Lion’s share in getting things done.

(7) Salaries were paid to the police officers and officials and labor came into
existence because of the colonial law, the threat of force and the use of force.

COLONIAL EDUCATION AND SOCIAL POLICIES

m. (1) Here in Uganda, colonial education was championed by the

missionaries. All first schools in Uganda were religious founded the politics
of the country since the 1890s also affected the rest of society and the
education sector was not spared.
(2) The first schools in Uganda Built by the missionaries were: Gayaza
High School and Kings College Budo were the first to be established by the

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Protestants. St Mary’s College Kisubi by catholic while fathers and

Namilyango by the Mill Hill Mission from London.

(3) Religious and educational sectarianism began with this religious

founded school. Wherever there was a catholic school, there was also a
protestant one of the same level nearby and these institutions were hostile to
each other. Catholic children could not go to Anglican schools and vice –
versa. Muslim children could not be accepted in these schools as a result,
these mission schools became bleeding grounds of religious sectarianism
and perpetuated religious rivalries and animosities. Ref: Mutibwa P.
“Uganda since independence”, Fountain publishers ltd, Kampala, (1992)”.

(4) Muslim children were not able to receive education since both the
catholic and protestant founded school mostly refused to accept them and no
founding was available from the Muslim world to establish Muslim schools.
The Muslims therefore as a result of lack of Muslim schools and neglect by
the colonial government were not able even to find clerical job, join the civil
service or even work as office messengers.

(5) Colonial and later post – colonial education did not set out to teach
people to acquire productive skills. The great changes in science and
technology did not reach African classrooms here In Uganda for there were
few schools where science subjects were taught. Higher technical education
was never introduced in colonial Uganda. This lack of technical skills
affected the development of a middle class in Uganda. A skilled middleclass
would have been job creators rather job seekers. Genuine technical
education was ruled out because the fundamental purpose of the colonial
economy did not allow the development of industry and skills in Africa.

(6) The colonial education system was divisive. The new religions not
only divided population on who should go to which school but the people
stated discarding their cultural identities. The converts in these schools
stated describing each other: Si Muganda Musulamu, Mukatulika,
Mufalansa or Mungerez.

(7) As a result, the people lost their unity which had been based on
their cultural heritage. It is because of these religious factions that were later
to become political parties thereby exacerbating sectarianism based on
religious differences.

(8) During the colonial period, there was a great variation

(imbalances) in educational opportunity between different religions of

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Uganda. Most of the pioneer mission schools were founded in the South
particularly in Buganda.

(9) In Uganda, the urbanized region of Buganda monopolized western

education. By 1920, there were 328 elementary schools in Buganda alone
and practically none in the north. When Makerere College was founded in
Kampala in 1922, all the first students came from Buganda. This meant that
people outside Buganda did not enjoy equal access to western education.
Therefore, the net result of this education policy was further to divide the
people into the educated southerners and un educated who were mainly from
the north and east. This colonial imbalance in the education opportunities in
various religions of Uganda helped to accentuate the problems of
underdevelopment in Uganda.

(10) What is amazing is that a map showing the major cotton and coffee
growing areas virtually coincides with a map showing areas in which
colonial education was available. It therefore means that those whom the
colonialists could not really exploit were not offered even the crumbs of
colonial education.

(11) During the colonial period, no effort was deliberately put in place
to cater for the girl-child education and as a result most women in colonial
Uganda remained illiterate, poor and generally backward.

(12) Britain itself the champion of this education had failed to liberate
women, to offer them with responsible jobs at equal rates of pay with men.
Therefore that being the case, it was wishful thinking to imagine that the
colonial education system would take any serious interest in the education of
Uganda women (girl child).

(13) In many colonial schools in Uganda as it did to other African

colonial territories, the teachers received no agricultural education and
therefore could not teach anything scientific. Children in Uganda acquired
nothing but distaste for the manual labor of SHANBA WORK and in fact it
was used as a form of punishment. This therefore meant that colonial
education did not provide any meaningful scientific approach to agriculture
and thus produced an elite class of people who despised anything manual
corresponding to those Africa civilian elite who went to universities either in
Uganda or abroad.

What is the government doing to solve all these distortions?

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n. To overcome these distortions:

(1) Government established UPE to ensure that all Uganda’s children
access free primary education.

(2) Later established USE also to ensure that Uganda’s children

access free secondary education.

(3) Building a technical school per Sub County.

CONCLUSION:

42. The colonial school system was meant to produce an elite class who would become
colonial cadres (i.e. low level administrators, teachers, clerks and NCOs) to facilitate the illegal
exploitation and plunder of Uganda’s resources. The colonial education system was not designed
to give young people confidence and pride as Ugandans or Africans but one which sought to
install in them a sense of inferiority and liking everything European. Consequently, colonial
schooling was education for subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and the
development of under development.

ANTI – COLONIAL STRUGGLES 1890 – 1945 AND UGANDA’S ROAD TO

INDEPENDENCE 1952 – 1962

INTRODUCTION

43. At the end of the European scramble for Africa, the British through both diplomatic
maneuvers and use of military force had entrenched their domination over British East Africa
and in 1893 declared Uganda a British protectorate.
In an attempt to entrench itself and in its introduction of a wide range of policies, colonialism
confronted formidable resistance both against the invasion and later against the various colonial
policies.

44. In this paper we highlight a number of prominent resistance struggles in Uganda which
though defeated, went along way to demonstrate the resilience of African peoples in the face of
domination and exploitation. The main objective will be to enable students appreciate that
colonialism and the colonial policies were not received by Uganda without resistance.

KABALEGA AND MWANGA’S RESISTANCE STRUGGLE AND

LESSONS LEARNT
45. These are important lessons from the Kabalega/Mwanga struggles:
a. The two Kings demonstrated that Africans actually were not willing to
b. Surrender their sovereignty on a silver plate.
c. The mobilization of the two guar ant kings across borders of their kingdoms
kindled the spirit of African brotherhood and unity though too late.
d. Their defeat is attributed to the internal weaknesses of the African struggle mainly
the fragmented entities that were easily overpowered by outsiders.

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e. The greed and corruption among our people that enabled the colonialist to
infiltrate divide and rule, using fellow blacks against their own people.

OTHER RESISTNACE MOVEMENTS.

46. After the defeat of Kabalega & Mwanga, the colonialists had neutralized the most Anti-
colonial resistance movements. However, the mood of resistance remained wide spread
throughout the protectorate.
a. In the North, there was the Lamogi rebellion of the Lamogi clan (Acholi – land and
Lango).
b. In West Nile, - brutal force was applied to undermine the Artisans by chopping off their
hands (thumbs).
c. In Karamoja – elders were abducted and deported.
d. Ankole and Bunyoro – 1907 Nyangire Abaganda rebellion.
e. In Kigezi – resistance took the trend of cults (Nyabingi cult) and armed struggle e.g.
Armed rebellion led successively by princess Muhumuza, then Ntokiibiri and Nyindo.
LESSONS LEARNT

47. Heavily dependent on unscientific means of mobilization (i.e. superstition and cults).
Lacked Nationwide appeal or Net work and remained localized. They nonetheless, revealed the
nature and manner of colonial employment of brutality and oppression.

PASSIVE RESISTANCE AGAINST COLONIAL POLICIES 1920 – 1945/49

48. a. The first organized resistance was the Bataka movement formed in the 1920’s.
this was a movement of the Baganda clan heads agitating against the Mengo establishment and
the 1900 agreement. It was a movement to regain control of their land and authority.

b. The native civil servants association of 1922 which was for the educated elite
agitating for better conditions of service.
c. There were other resistance groups, some mainly ethnically based. They
included:-
(1) The young Busoga Association.
(2) The young Acholi Association.
(3) The young Lango Association.
(4) The young Bagwere Association.
(5) The Bagisu Welfare Association.
NOTE: These were movements led by farmers whose major motivation was to
find markets for their products, the African traders who were against the

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domination of trade by Indians, the professionals and wage earners who wanted
improved welfare and terms of service.

(6) The Mubende – Bunyoro Association formed in 1921 and revived in 1931
by E. Kalisa to pressurize for the return of Bunyoro’s lost counties from Buganda.
(7) The Uganda Motor Drivers Association of 1938 was for the drivers of
lorries and buses.
(8) The Bana Ba Kintu (sons of Kintu) in 1938 which was against the
Buganda land – lords offering land to Makerere college and the Baganda old
leadership which according to the young generation had outlived it’s usefulness.
(9) The Uganda African Farmers’ Association was formed in early 1940’s
under the leadership of Ignatius Musazi. The organization agitated against the
Asian control of processing and marketing of their cash crops leading to riots and
strikes in 1945 and 1949.

They demanded representatives to the Lukiijo which was refused by the Kabaka.

NOTE: The organizers of this movement did not ally with other Ugandans such as
those in Busoga to form a big pressure group. As a result, the Mengo
establishment, together with the colonial administration suppressed them.

LESSONS LEARNT

49. The major weakness of these pre-Independence resistance movements was that most of
them operated only within their locality and thus lacked a country wide appeal. This made it easy
for the colonial state to suppress them either by force or concessions.
a. The highest concession was the enactment of the Busulu and Envujjo Laws of
1928.
b. Weak organization skills.
c. Lack of proper programme of action.
d. Lack of clear leadership structures.
e. Failure to forge a united front.
f. The tested colonial tactics of divide and rule and the ability by the colonial
government to use bribery and appeasement to weaken the liberation struggles.
THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE 1952 – 1962

50. a. After 1945, the global anti-colonial movement gained momentum with the
weakening of most the major colonial powers – Britain, France and Japan. On the world
scene there emerged two super powers, USSR and USA, both opposed to direct
colonialism, however with differing agendas. While USSR , Marxist -Leninist
philosophy opposed exploitation in all its forms, especially imperialism; the USA on the
other hand wanted limited de-Colonization, to allow its interests also to access the
markets and resources of the former British, French, Portuguese and Japanese areas of
influence.

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b. With these new global trends, the scene was set for de-colonization, however, in
the case of Uganda; the Road to Independence assumed a unique trend that impacted
heavily on the post –independence political and economic events. It can be noted that
Uganda’s’ Road to independence was largely influenced by three or so trends; The
revival of old rivalries that characterized the establishment of British rule, where the
French –Catholic fought bitter battles against the British –Anglicans ending in the
marginalization of the catholic/French interests, which however went underground for
more mobilization.

c. The imperialists fear of the global threat from the socialist forces – which ushered
in a communist boggy that largely was propagated by the church, inevitably drawing the
church in active policies. Unfortunately this degenerated in bitter rivalry between
Catholics on one hand and Anglicans on the other, the Moslems were largely
marginalized, and the Nationalists ended up being persecuted and marginalized.

d. Elitist visa-avis mass based politics that degenerated into wars of ego and ethnic
sectarianism. The Mengo establishment factor; Imperialist manipulation to retain firm
control. This was manifested in the key developments leading to independence where
British clearly paved way for a continuation of their influence, mainly through imposing
a Lancaster house constitution of 1962, and introduction of the World Bank and IMF
policies in 1961.

These trends explain the rise and character of the major pre-independence and post-
independence political organizations:

(1) The Uganda National Congress

Started by IK Musazi in 1952. It attempted to draw in other nationalists like
Yekosofati Engur from Lango; Peter Oola from Acholi, Abanya from West Nile,
Okwerede from Teso, John Kalekyezi from Kigezi (Kisoro), Barnabas Kunuuka
from Bunyoro. However UNC got confronted by various problems; It did not
attract Catholics mainly due to the communist boggy championed by the church,
especially the Roman Catholic one. Even at one time, there was a proposal to start
a democratic Christian party to counter the UNC. The only disagreement came
when Anglicans couldn’t agree with Catholics hence abandoning the Idea to be
continued by the Catholics alone. The Ethnic factor played against UNC, which
was seen to be more of a Buganda month piece. This was vivid when UNC joined
the agitation for the return of Kabaka Muteesa II who had been deported to
England by the colonial government. The Kabaka had threatened to secede from
Uganda in protest of the British proposal for a federation of East Africa in 1952.
While all Kingdoms rejected the proposal, Buganda and Muteesa in Particular
over-reacted and demanded for Buganda’s independence. This was clearly a
violation of 1900 agreement, and the British reacted by deporting the Kabaka. The
Deportation drew country-wide protests; however, it seemed to over-engage UNC

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which lost its country-wide nationalist agenda, never to regain it fully. Direct
persecution of Musaazi by the British who saw him as a radical Nationalist.

(2) The Democratic Party (DP)

Formed in 1956. Founded by Matayo Mugwanya a descendant of Stanislaus
Mugwanya himself an activist of the INGLEZA versus WAFRANSA rivalry;
Matayo Mugwanya was largely backed by the radical catholic action groups who
were protesting against long marginalization of Catholics, at the same time who
were mobilizing against the so-called communist threat. Mugwanya was further
motivated to form DP due to personal mistreatment received from the Mengo
establishment which sabotaged his bid to be a Katikkiro of Buganda, on account
of being a Catholic. Therefore DP is founded on a largely Catholic foundation
and an anti-communist orientation.

(3) The Uganda Peoples’ Union (UPU)

Founded in 1958, by members of the African members of theenlarged legislative
council. Led by William Rwetsiba. Others were Nadiope, John Babiiha, George
Magezi, etc… the party was an elitist group, largely protestant and without
Baganda, who had boycotted the Legco-elections of 1958.

(4) Uganda Peoples’ Congress (UPC)

Formed in 1960 as a merger between anti-Musaazi UNC faction led by Milton
Obote and a group of the Uganda peoples’ union. UPC largely mobilized non-
Baganda Anglicans, although initially it also attracted radical young nationalists
like John Kakonge, Wadada Rusani, J. Ssali, Kintu Musoke all graduates from
Indian Universities and Pakistani, which had very progressive leaders.

(5) Uganda National Movement (UNM)

This was a short lived movement which was founded by Augustine Kamya a
Cobbler. It was largely Buganda centered and mainly mobilized against
dominance of Asians in commerce. UNM declared a trade boycott of non African
goods. The boycott was very violent. Due to its violent character and its clear
threat against imperialist interests, the colonial government proscribed it and all
its leaders were arrested. It had no supporters outside Buganda.

(6) 1961 Election

The British Government organized the 1 st general elections on a multi-party basis
in 1961. The two main parties then were democratic party and the Uganda
People’s Congress. These elections were not supported by Mengo, which feared
the win by DP that would threaten their old privileged position. As a result the
Lukiiko called for a boycott in Buganda. Despite the largely violent boycott, DP
went ahead and fielded candidates who won all major seats in Buganda (19),
outside Buganda it was a stiff competition with UPC, and DP still got 24 seats
while UPC got only 35 seats outside Buganda. This enabled DP to form the first

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Self-Government with 43 seats against 35 of UPC, and DP’s Benedicto Kiwanuka

became the 1st African Chief Minister of Uganda’s self Government. This election
had various implications: A big portion of Baganda had not freely participated
despite DP winning all 19 seats. It was very clear that there was no clear popular
National leader given the small margin between DP and UPC, which divided the
population along religious sectarian lines. The British and Mengo interests were
under a threat with a catholic assuming mantle of leadership. National issues and
mass interest were no longer in the limelight.

(7) Kabaka Yekka (KY)

Formed in the same year 1961, after DP won the elections. The Mengo
establishment realized that they needed a political platform to protect and enhance
the interests and position the Kabaka and his protestant following in Mengo. It
was also formed to form a platform to use in the London constitutional conference
which the British convened soon after the 1961 elections for self rule.

(8) The London Constitutional Conference

This was organized to consider some recommendations of a commission that had
been set-up in 1959, headed by a one Justice Wylde. The conference was
attended by a collection of a few Ugandans from the main political parties – DP,
UPC and KY; representatives of Kingdoms and district councils. Clearly this was
not a representative constituent assembly. After months of deliberations, the 1962
independence constitution was agreed on, despite a lot of protests mainly from the
DP.

(a) It is on the basis of the 1962 constitution that fresh elections were
conducted. According to that constitution, Buganda was given exception
not to hold direct parliamentary elections, but rather choose its
representatives to the Lukiiko, and later the Kabaka would nominate 21
members from the Lukiiko members to the National Parliament. Arising
out of the constitutional talks UPC had found a common ground with KY,
both being largely protestant and therefore against the catholic dominated
DP. During elections UPC reached a gentlemen’s agreement with KY not
to antagonize them in Lukiiko elections. So UPC did not field any
candidates, and left the battle between DP and KY in Buganda.
(b) KY being a party for the Kabaka won almost all seats in Lukiiko
(65) against 3 of DP, this meant that all 21 MPs for Buganda were to be
KY. In the National General Elections, the battle was between DP and
UPC outside Buganda. In the end, UPC won 37 while DP won only 24.
To form a government a party needed over 50%, so UPC allied with KY
and Milton Obote became 1st Executive Prime Minister and received
instruments of independence on 9th October 1962. Later, as per the
constitution and agreement between UPC and KY, Sir Edward Mutesa
was elected by parliament to become Head of State, and Uganda’s’ 1 st
President, while Sir William Wilberforce Nadiope became Vice President.

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(c) Clearly Uganda’s’ Road to independence showed a deviance from

popular Nationalist politics instead became largely Elitist and sectarian.
Because of the deviations, Uganda attained independence with leadership
heavily contested, population largely divided and the masses not fully
empowered as was the case in Buganda. Indeed this became a precursor
for political Turmoil.

PART THREE: NEO-COLONIALISM

INTRODUCTION

51. Uganda which was under the British colonial rule for over 68 years was granted political
independence on 9th October 1962. Political independence worldwide means a state of
nationhood, which a country or territory enjoys. Self-determination means that a people have
relative authority in matters of their governance economic policies, culture, foreign policy, only
working with other autonomous nations on mutual basis and benefit. Since 1962, Uganda as an
independent nation does not look to be enjoying full independence and freedom.

AIM

52. To be able to understand the key developments and trends that characterized Uganda’s
post – independence history. Also to enable the reader appreciate Uganda as a Neo-colony by
highlighting the main characteristics of Neo-colonialism.

MEANING OF NEO-COLONIALISM

53. a. NEO refers to any new form of phenomena.

b. Colonialism. Is the direct imposition of foreign domination over a weaker

territory for purpose of directing the affairs of and exploiting economic resources of such
a territory by the foreign power.

c. Neo-colonialism means colonialism in a NEW FORM. Imperialism operates

through Neo- colonialism. It is the same imperialist system which adjusts on its way of
domination, taking on a more subtle (destructive) or disguised domination.

d. A Neo-colony is a country which has outward signs of independence e.g. local

leaders, flag and other symbols. But in actual sense, its economic, political, technological
and cultural affairs are directed by the powerful former colonial powers.

MANIFESTATIONS OF NEO-COLONIALISM

54. Neo-colonialism is characterized by several political, economic and cultural distortions as

seen below;

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a. Politically a neo-colony enjoys limited political freedom. A small political elite act
as agents for foreign domination of the political life. This leads to;
(1) Corruption.
(2) Conflicts and persistent political instabilities.
(3) Ideological dependence and inferiority complex.
(4) Continued political balkanization.
(5) Direct foreign interference, etc.
b. Economically a neo-colony is characterized by the following;
(1) Direct domination by multinational companies like Total, Shell, Pepsi,
Coca-Cola, standard chartered bank etc.
(2) Export of raw materials and high importation of manufactured goods.
(3) Heavy large debts paid with high interest rates.
(4) Lack of skilled human work force.
(5) Poor infrastructures like roads, railways etc.
c. A neo-colony is culturally attached to its former colonial masters and heavily
dominated by other foreign influences like;
(1) Language remains foreign.
(2) Education remains foreign.
(3) Religious domination.
(4) There is indoctrination through mass media, films, sports, literature,
drama, dance, food, etc.

UGANDA AS A NEO-COLONY (1962 TO DATE)

55. Manifestations of neo-colonialism prominently feature as will be illustrated by milestone

political and economic events and trends since 1962. Below are a few highlights;

a. Road to independence. Political intrigue started on 01 Mar 1962 when internal

self rule was granted to Uganda. Benedict Kiwanuka was sworn in as the first chief prime
minister to preside over a 14 man cabinet comprising of 12 Ugandans, 01 Asian and 01
White. There was a sharp division between UPC, DP and KY.

b. Intrigue within UPC. After independence, Dr AM Obote betrayed his own party
secretary general John Kakonge by excluding him from the special nominees to
parliament. Kakonge concentrated on party work and was promised a special nomination
to parliament, which never happened. Out of disappointment, Kakonge flee to exile.

c. Confusion in Buganda UPC branches. Prime Minister Obote interfered with

efforts by Bidandi Saali and Binaisa to increase party membership branches in Buganda.
Obote opposed this proposal because Bidandi and Binaisa were very strong mobilizers
who could use this chance to over throw him.

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d. The 1963 election of Edward Mutesa as president and Wilberforce Nadiope as the
vice president caused confusion in the church. The Arch Bishop Eric Sabiiti crossed to
UPC and even built a new Kampala diocese which annoid the Baganda as a wrong way to
join UPC that belonged to a non Muganda – Obote.

e. The 1964 controversy over the referendum between Obote and Muteesa who had
a UPC/KY Alliance. The referendum about the lost counties to decide where they want to
belong. Of all the lost counties, Bugangaizi, Buyaga, and Buwekula voted to return to
Bunyoro. This controversy dissolved the UPC/KY alliance when the president Muteesa
refused to sign the results, but the prime minister used constitutional powers and
hurriedly signed which annoid Muteesa.

f. Still in 1964, there was an army mutiny by soldiers in Jinja barracks who
demanded pay rise. The defense minister Felix Onama was sent to handle the matter but
was held hostage by the soldiers until their demands were met. Obote asked for 450
maceneries that were flown in Entebbe airport from Britain to come and control the
situation. The parliament of Uganda honored the claim of mutineers and signed a pay rise
and they were also promoted.

g. Nakulabye incident. There was a case of state agents killing a civilian. The special
force unit of Uganda Police shot at a crowd killing six and injuring others. Also at Suzana
Night club, some Congolese fought a Ugandan over a woman and the special force fired
bullets again.

h. Banning of UPC youth league. After a conference in Gulu, Obote banned UPC
Youth league, manipulated the party constitution and replaced Kakonge with Ibingira as
secretary general of the party. Kakonge’s supporters were also expelled from the party
leading to development of factions (pro-east Kakonge, pro-West Ibingira and Pro-
Nkrumah Obote). This weakened the party. The expelled members include; Chango
Macho, Wadada Musani and Kivejinja.

i. Collapse of opposition parties. DP and KY started to collapse as many supporters

crossed to UPC. Basil Bataringaya the leader of DP and opposition in parliament with
five others crossed to UPC and Basil was made minister of internal affairs.

j. In 1966, Daudi Ochieng, the secretary general of KY stated in parliament that 03

UPC officials including Obote received large sums of money on their accounts and were
planning a coup de’tat. Col Idi Amin the second in command of the army at the time was
being involved. A copy of the account was produced to parliament as evidence and a
motion to suspend Amin and make investigations was passed. The other officials were

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Adoko Necicyon, Felix Onama Amin and Obote himself. Five Bantu ministers were
arrested over the allegations; Obote promoted Amin to Maj Gen and appointed him Army
commander, sidelining Brig Shaban Opolot. The ministers were; Grace Ibingira, Balaka
Kiirya, Dr SB Lumu, Mathias Ngobi and George Magezi. The Prime Minister accussed
the president of trying to overthrow the government.

k. Constitutional crisis. Obote abrogated the 1962 constitution and approved a new
one (pigeon hole constitution) which gave him more powers. He used these powers to
dismiss the parliament, the president was dismissed, 1962 constitution was suspended,
more powers were given to the prime minister, kingship was dismissed, mailo land was
abolished, an act known as state house disconnection when the president was locked out
of state house by the prime minister and he went to Bulange, etc. consequently the
Buganda Lukiiko passed a resolution for the central government to shift from Buganda.
Because of this the prime minister deployed soldiers commanded by Amin to attack the
Lubiri which forced the Kabaka Muteesa into exile in London where he died in 1969.

l. The 1967 republican constitution. A new constitution was put in place by

members of parliament. In this constitution the prime minister besides being head of
state, was also the commander in chief of the army not bound to follow any advice of any
person or authority. He abolished kingdoms, divided the country into 18 districts with
Buganda region into 04 districts – West Mengo, East Mengo, Mubende and Masaka. This
constitution gave birth to the republic of Uganda (a state with elected president, a
constitution and observing constitutionalism).

m. The move to the left. Also known as the common man’s charter of 1969. Obotes’
strategy to move to the left would change the country into socialist oriented. This was the
first step of interfering with the private sector and getting government/public sector into
command of the economy. He wanted to unite the country and parliament under one
leader for the benefit of the common man. Obote read his famous document No. 5 which
intended to introduce true national leaders. The Nakivubo pronouncement where Obote
nationalized large firms, industries, factories, banks etc operating in Uganda and also take
over Import and export businesses.

n. Signing of the East African Treaty in 1967. This treaty was signed in Kampala in
efforts to integrate the East African countries which started during colonialism. However
it was short lived and collapsed in 1977.

o. Attempted assassination. In 1969, there was an attempt to assassinate Obote on

his way from a party delegate’s conference in Lugogo. This caused the death of Brig
Okoya for calling Amin a coward. Obote demoted Amin from a commander to an
administrator. This accelerated into the 1971 military coup by Amin.

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AMIN’S COUP OF 1971

56. Amin organized a coup de’tat when AM Obote had gone to attend CHOGM in
Singapore. The coup was welcomed by many people in Kampala especially the Baganda. Amin
gave eighteen reasons for his takeover.

a. Amin’s leadership was characterized by the following;

(1) The defence council was serving as the president’s advisory organ.
(2) He ruled by decree.
(3) Parliament and other organs were simply abolished.
(4) No political organ of any kind was allowed and political opponents were
killed.
(5) No single election was organized in his period of leadership.
(6) The civil service became dysfunctional and most appointments were being
taken up by the uniformed men.
(7) High profile murders of people like Bishop Luwumu.
(8) State sponsored massacres by militants to kill people from selected tribes
like Acholi and Langi officers and men were killed because of coming from
Obote’s area.
b. Expulsion of Asians in 1972.
(1) Amin dreamed when Asians of India and Pakistan origin were exploiting
the economy of Uganda. He then went ahead and decided to expel them out of the
country within only 90 days. They were allowed to carry small luggage of less
than 30 kgs. He claimed that these Asians were milking the cow without feeding
it.
(2) He then distributed the Asian property among the royals to his
government.
(3) He created a state of emergency.
c. Amin ruled Uganda for 08 years because of the support he got from the Islamic
countries, he used brutality and fear, inherited a divided society, society was still
politically immature, he used cheap popularity like return of Kabaka’s body from exile.

FORCES THAT FOUGHT AMIN AT KAGERA SALIENT

57. a. Kikosi maalumu by Tito Okello.

b FRONASA by YK Museveni.
c Save Uganda movement by Ayalu.
d. University professors.
e. Old politicians.
f. Groups inside Uganda and international allies like TPDF.

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UNLF – 1979-1980
58. The forces that liberated the country were brought together under one umbrella and
formed the Uganda National Liberation Front/ Army. There are 03 developments that took place
between 1979 and 1980;

(1) The 68 days of Professor Yusuf Lule. The national consultative council
composed of 130 members was the parliament during this time. Lule’s leadership was
very weak and was largely influenced by elites who carried out sectarian and politics
full of intrigue. Yusuf Lule was voted out of power by the NCC for failing to gain
control over the country as fighting continued in different parts of the country.

(2) Godfrey Lukongwa Binaisa was appointed president after the failure of Yusuf
Lule. His regime too was pulled out of power for being maneuvered by elites.

(3) YJHTHRThe military commission. This was headed by Paul Muwanga who
took over from Binaisa. He was a known UPC sympathizer right from the 1960s. He
organized politics and arrangements were made for elections to take place. This
government ended with organizing the 1980 controversial elections.

THE 1980 ELECTIONS

59. The political parties that participated in elections included;

a. UPC led by Obote.

b. DP led by Paul Kawanga Ssemwogere.
c. UPM led by YK Museveni
d. Paul Muwanga’s government organized the elections and at the same time
planned to rig them. Subsequently elections were rigged in favour of UPC.
e. Elections were rigged in the following ways;
(1) Dismissal of returning officers(District Commissioners)
(2) Sectarian army that supported the rigging.
(3) Disfranchisement – taking away ones power to vote e.g. in west Nile some
Ugandans were not allowed to vote.
(4) Registration of contestants in just two hours.
(5) Use of different balot boxes for each political party.
(6) Gerrymandering of constituencies (manipulating constituencies by changing
boarders.
(7) Muwanga’s declaration that was later published as legal Notice Number1of 1980.
f. UPM leadership under YK Museveni had earlier anticipated that if the 1980
elections were rigged, they would have no option other than to go to the bush and fight a
guerrilla war. Because of cumulative state inspired violence, mismanagement of the
economy, politics and other social affairs of the state forced a group of freedom fighters
to launch a peoples’ protracted war on 06 Feb 1981.

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NRA/NRM LIBERATION STRUGGLE

60. The National Resistance Movement (NRM) struggle is not an isolated incident in the
history of Uganda. It is part and parcel of a long struggle by the people of Uganda, in their fight
against colonial rule. There were earlier organizations, which tried to mobilize for social,
political and economic emancipation.

61. However, all those earlier organizations were characterized by short – term, and usually,
localized sectarian interests. This prevented the struggle from being supported countrywide.
Examples: The mass protests of the 1940s were mainly in Buganda and were seen as concerning
only Buganda farmers. The Uganda National Congress (UNC), formed in 1952, which was
headed by Ignatius Musaazi, tried to nationalize the struggle by recruiting people from various
parts of the country; but failed to attract the support of Catholics and Moslems. Political Parties
that followed were built along religious and / or tribal lines. Catholics formed the Democratic
Party (DP) in 1956, to agitate for catholic interests, having been marginalized previously, in all
national issues. The UNC, which was predominantly protestant disintegrated due to its own
internal contradictions. One of the breakaway factions, led by Milton Obote, joined Uganda
Peoples Union (UPU), a workers’ union to form the Uganda People’s Congress (UPC). Kabaka
Yekka, whose main concern was Buganda issues, was naturally a party for Baganda.

62. The Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF), which overthrew Amin, in 1978, had a
national character, but leaders of the old sectarian parties dominated it. When the National
consultative Council (NCC), which was the Legislative body of the UNLF, organized general
elections to take place in December 1980, they decide that those elections be carried out on
individual merit basis under the UNLF umbrella, to avoid opening up political wounds of old
parties, which had not yet healed. Leaders of UPC and DP defied the decision and insisted that
elections be conducted under the multi party system. Members of the NCC who did not want to
go back to the old political parties, to compete for power in the elections of December 1980,
hurriedly formed the Uganda Patriotic Movement (UPM), which participated in the elections.
They elected Y. K. Museveni to be the Party leader. However, UPM was ill prepared to compete
in those elections, which were badly rigged by UPC.

63. Museveni with a few political leaders of the UPM and some soldiers of the Uganda
National Liberation Army (UNLA) decided to continue the struggle under a Peoples’ Protracted
War. They formed a new army called the Popular Resistance Army (PRA), which later combined
with other forces to form the National Resistance Movement (NRM) and the National Resistance
Army (NRA). The birth of NRM/NRA provided the people of Uganda with a vehicle for a
nationwide liberation struggle. Although the NRM struggle was for a long time concentrated in a
small geographical area of Buganda, the NRM policies ensured that all activities were done in
the name and interest of all the people in Uganda.

CAUSES OF THE 1981 – 86 LIBERATION WAR

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64. In spite of massive rigging, UPC lost the 1980 elections to DP, but used the Uganda
National Liberation Army (UNLA) to stage an immediate coup de’ tat, DP legitimized the UPC
government by accepting to participate in Parliament as official opposition. The country was
thrown into a rebellious mood and a number of rebel fighting groups emerged. In February 1981
many members of Front for National Salvation (FRONASA), one of the organizations that
formed UNLF/UNLA, under their leader, Y.K. Museveni, quit the UNLA and organized
themselves into a fighting group, which they named, the Popular Resistance Army (PRA). As
will be shown later, PRA merged with the Uganda Freedom fighters (UFF), under the leadership
of the late Professor Yusuf Kironde Lule, to form the National Resistance Movement (NRM) and
the National Resistance Army (NRA). Although UPC provoked people’s anger and resistance,
the NRM military struggle was not solely against the UPC government. The war had two sets of
causes: an immediate cause, and a more fundamental and long-term one.

a. The immediate cause was the gross violation of human and democratic rights of
the people by the Obote/Amin clique, which had been going on for almost twenty years.
Human rights are such rights as the right to a secure life, the right to live with no undue
interference in one’s family, the right to enjoy secure ownership of the fruits of one’s
labour, the right to travel in dignity without being stripped naked by soldiers at
roadblocks etc. Democratic rights are such rights as the freedom to express one’s
political opinion, equal access to means of news dissemination, the right to vote etc.

b. The more basic and long-term cause of the NRM struggle was the under-
development of productive forces (science, technology and managerial skills) of our
society. This came about as a result of the unequal and parasitic relationship that existed
between Africa and the colonial countries from the 15th century to date.

PREPARATION FOR THE WAR

65. Before quitting the UNLA to launch an armed struggle that overthrew the Obote/Okello
governments, FRONASA leaders had to make very careful and meticulous preparations. Serious
decisions regarding the fighting strategy, tactics and political ideology had to be taken. The issue
of Tanzanian military presence of 11,000 soldiers in Uganda had to be seriously considered,
especially since President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania was, at that time, fully behind Milton
Obote. In addition to the Tanzanian soldiers, Kikosi Malum (KM), another group in the
UNLF/UNLA, had over 3000 men in the army. That put the 9000 – strong FRONASA at a
serious disadvantage. Any attempt to start a war against Obote, at that time, would require
careful consultations and planning. PRA talked to various groups, like the Uganda Freedom
Movement (UFM), led by Dr Andrew Kayiira, in an effort to have a united front against Obote.
However, although both PRA and UFM wanted to overthrow the UPC government, they had
very different appreciation of the problem and could not agree on the strategy and tactics of the
war or the political ideology to follow. While UFM wanted to stage a coup de tat and carry out
some assassinations, the PRA preferred a protracted people’s war. The two groups agreed to
fight separately.

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66. Strategy- means the methodology of solving a problem in its entirety (from A-Z); while
Tactics means the methods used to solve parts of a problem. For example from (D-E) or (X-Y).
There are four basic alternative strategies for removing a government i.e. options to choose from.
These are: Conventional Warfare, Insurrection, Coup de’ tat or Protracted People’s War. Some
people have tried terrorism as an alternative strategy, but it has not been known to succeed,
although it causes a lot of turmoil and suffering to the population. The most common tactics used
by terrorists are: assassinations, genocide, arson, bombs, amputations and the like. Such tactics
were completely rejected by the PRA, whose ideological background could only support the use
of a Peoples protracted struggle, in the circumstances that prevailed. Let us briefly discuss the
four military strategies:

a. Conventional Warfare. Large formation of armies, Definable and identifiable

frontlines, large pieces of modern, sophisticated equipment. Examples – 1 st and 2nd
imperialist wars; the Tanzania People’s Defense Forces v/s Amin.

b. Insurrection. Main weapon is numbers – large population e.g. students, soldiers,

workers. Always involves lots of people, normally short time – couple of days or so,
needs good communication – radio, telecommunication, pamphlets, needs literate society
and fairly awakened population. Examples: The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia;
The breaking of the Berlin Wall in Germany.

c. Coup de’ tat. Elements of the army seize key installations, Short duration –
sometimes just hours “ a day or two “ creeping i.e. a week or two. It has been very
commonly used in Africa, Examples: Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, Congo, Uganda (Amin v/s
Obote in 1971)

d. Protracted People’s War: Masses v/s Regime in power. The cause must be
popular i.e. supported by majority of the population. It can only succeed against a highly
oppressive regime, with all avenues of communication closed. A very tired population,
frustrated, production disrupted, insecure, economic stagnation. Masses start in weak
position i.e. equipped only with potential rather than actual strength. No weapons, low
organizational capability, small military units. Biggest weapon is people’s anger, which
turns into support for the struggle. A vanguard – nucleus – very clear, visionary with
high organizational capability – disciplined leadership. The appreciation of international
situation, historical factors, political economy of that particular society and Military
expertise.

CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATED THE NRM LIBERATION STRUGGLE

67. There are OBJECTIVE and SUBJECTIVE conditions for a successful liberation struggle
to take place. These are conditions that must obtain within a given community at a particular
point in time.

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a. Objective conditions. Existence of contradictions within the ruling camp,

manifesting as greed, ego, power struggle, etc. When oppression has been so entrenched
and institutionalized that government officials are completely oblivious to the suffering
of the people. When social imbalances begin to be interpreted by the ruling class as God-
ordained; When the suffering and deprivation of the people has become so acute and
intolerable that they are willing to try anything that might result into a change of the
status quo, for they have nothing more to lose but their misery; When there is absolutely
no forum for peaceful interaction between the government and the governed; When a
good number of the population has been exposed to conditions in other countries or have
been somehow awakened to their rights and the vulnerability of an unpopular government

b. Subjective conditions; Popular Movement – The mood of the population must be

such that they are ready for struggle. The more spontaneously the masses are drawn into
the struggle, the better. The vanguard should not have to go out of their way to persuade
or coerce the masses to join the struggle.

(1) Organization – There must be organizational capacity. It is not enough to

have visionaries. They must be able to mobilize, organize and run a cohesive and
growing entity.

(2) Revolutionary army – There must be people who are capable of, and
prepared to join, train and make a revolutionary, disciplined and pro-people army.

(3) Ideology – Any National Liberation Struggle worth the name must have
theories that justify the sacrifice that the masses are putting in. An organization
devoid of ideology will fall prey to selfish, individualistic policies, and
opportunism, since there will be no guiding principles for the mind to follow. This
is particularly important for Africa, because it is only ideological clarity that can
counteract the mental distortions inculcated in the African colonized mind.

WAR COMMENCES AT KABAMBA

68. After careful preparation, which included reconnaissance of various military installations,
PRA commenced military operations on 6 th February 1981, at Kabamba. The decision to fight a
people’s protracted war had been made; and Kabamba military training school was chosen
because it would be easier to acquire some arms from there than from many other military
installations at that time. Operations were to concentrate in an area that came to be known as the
Luwero Triangle. The choice of this place was due to various factors. First, the population in
Buganda was very angry with Obote. He had destroyed their Kingdom and was thought to have
caused the death of Kabaka Muteesa. A sizable number of Baganda had been killed during
Obote’s previous regime, when Buganda lived under a state of emergency for many years. Other
reasons were that this region had forests that would provide shelter and firewood; rivers and

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swamps to provide water; food to feed a big army; and it was in convenient proximity of
Kampala, the seat power.

69. A group of 34 people set out for the first operation, with only 27 of them armed. The
mission was successful in that the PRA managed to launch the armed struggle, capture a few
guns and make an organized withdraw without losses. Only two fighters, namely, Julius Kihanda
and Francis Ddeku were injured.

70. The first operations were commanded by Museveni himself to endure constant and
continuous training of commanders and minimize mistakes that might arise out of inexperienced
command. The PRA concentrated on strict guerrilla war tactics i.e. accurate reconnaissance,
surprise attack, short battle duration, proper use of terrain to gain cover, and concealment both in
camps and in operations. Training, discipline and congenial relations with the public were of
utmost importance.

71. As the army grew in size, experience and equipment, it was broken into small units, with
each unit commanded by one of the more experienced fighters, under the overall command of
Museveni. The first six units were: Kabalega, commanded by Elly Tumwine, Mwanga,
commanded by Matayo Kyaligonza; Lutta, commanded by Hannington Mugabi; Abdel Nasser,
commanded by Jack Mucunguzi; Nkrumah, commanded by Fred Mwesigye; and Mondlane,
commanded by Fred Rwigyema.

CIVILIAN COMMITTEES

72. When the PRA carried out its first assault against the Obote administration, by attacking
Kabamba School of Infantry on 6th February 1981, a few civilian supporters started organizing
themselves into committees to assist the new army. The following committees were formed:-

a. The Finance and Supplies Committee: Members: Ivan Mujjukwa (Chairman),

Yafesi Sabiti, Samuel Male and Roger Collins Seeguya.

b. The Political and Diplomatic Committee: Members: Eriya Kategaya (Chairman),

and Kasujja.

c. The Publicity and Propaganda Committee: Members:- Bakulu Mpagi Wamala

(Chairman), Kirunda Kivejjinja, Israel Kayonde and Jack Sengero Luyombya.

d. The committees elected Moses Kigongo and Mawalo as their overall

chairman and secretary, respectively, on the criteria that they were not conspicuous in
government circles. Secondly, that Moses Kigongo was known to moot PRA supporters
and had a car; therefore he could move around quickly and liaise clandestinely with
different members without having to convene meetings.

NATIONAL RESISTANCE COUNCIL OF PRA

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73. In April 1981, some of the committee members mentioned above sought audience with
Museveni. A meeting was duly arranged during which the committee members asked Museveni
how the committees could assist PRA. Museveni subsequently advised them to form a
‘Resistance Council’. The idea at the time was not necessarily to establish a supreme, policy-
making organ of PRA, but some kind of working organ to mobilize more support among the
people and organize suppliers for the PRA. Following Museveni’s advice, a meeting was
convened at Rubaga, in Kampala, in the same month. All members of the committees, plus their
chairman and secretary, constituted themselves into the National Resistance Council (NRC).
They adopted Kigongo and Mawalo as the chairman and secretary of the NRC, respectively. In a
meeting held a few days later, the NRC co-opted Stephen Ssemugenyi and Gertrude N. Njuba to
the NRC. In all these initial meetings the functions and powers of the NRC were never explicitly
spelt out. It was however understood by everyone in the group that they were organizing
themselves to support the PRA.

74. The NRC membership that was constituted in Kampala, in 1981 was as follows:

a. Moses Kigongo g. Jack S Luyombya

b. Eriya Kategaya h. Isreal Kayonde

c. Gertrude N. Njuba j. Sam Male

d. Yafesi Sabiiti k. Steven Ssemugenya

e. Kirunda Kivejjinja l. Colins Seguya

f. Bakulu – Mpagi Wamala m. Mujjukwa

75. Immediately after the first few meetings that constituted the NRC, Kasujja and Mawalo
defected from NRM back to UFM where they had belonged in the first place. They had
apparently joined PRA opportunistically, thinking that it was likely to seize power sooner than
the UFM. Mujjukwa and Seguya defected when UFM attacked Malire Barracks in February
1982. On discovering that it was going to be a protracted war, they both defected from UFM and
joined the enemy side. As the armed struggle progressed, it became necessary to intensify
political mobilization to match the military activities. The following 12 persons were co-opted on
the NRC to support the political effort:

a. Katenta Apuli g. Amanya

Mushega

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b Juuko Walugembe h. Tom Butime

.

c. Oliver Zizinga j. L. Kateregga

d Rev. Fr. Seguya k. David Kibirango

.

e. Abby Mukwaya l. Rev. Draza

f. Sempebwa m. Mukiibi

The above members were co-opted at various times as political work in the NRAs – controlled
areas became more and more demanding. Nobody was ever appointed member of NRC outside
Kampala until the merger of PRA and UFF that formed the National Resistance Movement.

MUSEVENI SNEAKS OUT OF UGANDA

76. On 6th June 1981 Museveni sneaked out of Uganda to go and explain to the world what
was happening in Uganda. He talked to Ugandans in exile first, briefed them on the state of the
war, and told them how they could support the PRA. The direct result of this trip was the
formation of the NRM/NRA and acquisition of arms from Libya.

THE NATIONAL RESISTANCE MOVEMENT

The National Resistance Movement was formed on 8 th June 1981, when Yoweri K. Museveni,
chairman of the (PRA) High command and Yusufu K. Lule, leader of the Uganda Freedom
Fighters (UFF), signed a Declaration of Unity, in Nairobi, Kenya.
The relevant paragraph of the declaration reads: “….NOW THEREFORE WE SOLEMNLY
RESOLVE AND DECLARE AS FOLLOWS”. “That a movement to be known as the NATIONAL
RESISTANCE MOVEMENT is hereby formed….”. The two groups merged whatever military
resources they had into one army, the National Resistance army (NRA).

NATIONAL RESISTANCE COUNCIL OF NRA

78. The merger meeting appointed Prof. Yusuf Kironde Lule to be the chairman of NRM,
and Yoweri K. Museveni and Moses Kigongo, the first and second Vice Chairman, respectively.
The National Resistance Council of PRA and its committees were adopted and elevated to the
level of supreme policy – making organ of the new organization. UFF was to nominate a number
not exceeding 16 members to join the NRC. The Army High Command of PRA was also
adopted as the NRA High command. The NRA was to be represented in the NRC by a number
equal to 40% of the total NRC. The above issues and a few others are clearly stated in the
declaration of 8th June 1981.

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EXTERNAL COMMITTEE OF THE NRM

79. An External Committee, based in Nairobi, Kenya, was established to take care of the
external operations of the Movement. Various movement members, in exile, served on the
committee. Its membership was very fluid, as people in exile had to move from country to
country in search of employment. The following people did, at one time or another, serve on the
External Committee; Rukikaire Chairman, Sam K Njuba (Prof Y. Ssajjabi) Secretary, Frank
Nabwiso Secretary, Shem Bagaine Treasurer, Ernest Kakwano, Elly Rwakakoko, Amama
Mbabazi (Dr. Karyaburo), Crispus Kiyonga, Israel Mayengo, Ruhakana Rugunda, Zack Kaheru,
Charles Katungi, Justin Saabiiti, Matiya Kasaija, James Katabarwa Lt, Kweronda Ruhemba, Sam
Ruteega, Apolo Muhwezi, Obina, Besweri Mulondo and Samsoni Kisekka. The External
Committee was charged with the mobilization and organization of Ugandans and non-Ugandans
outside the country to support the struggle. Sub committees, corresponding to the NRC
committees were formed to mobilize resources and support for the war effort. Members of the
external committee did not automatically become members of the NRC.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF NRM

80. It was decided in the merger meeting that the Chairman of the new Movement, the 1 st
VC, the 2nd VC and all the Chairmen of the various committees of the NRC were to form the
NRM executive committee. By virtue of these appointments and decisions, Lule, Museveni,
Kigongo, Kategaya, Rukikaire, Bakulu Mpagi and Mujukwa became the first members of the
executive committee of NRM. Following the demise of the Chairman, Y.K. Lule, the first Vice
chairman, Y.K. Museveni, automatically became the interim chairman pending the election of a
new chairman. Since Museveni was tied up inside Uganda with the execution of the war, and
Moses Kigongo, the second vice chairman, was also residing in Uganda, it became necessary for
someone else to co-ordinate the Movements’ activities outside the country. Dr. Samson B.M.
Kisekka was therefore appointed the coordinator of External Operations. This appointment made
him the Acting Chairman of the Executive committee outside Uganda, and therefore
automatically, member of NRC. The last addition to the NRC, before the NRM took power, was
Zack Kaheru. The Executive Committee appointed him in June 1985, to head the Finance and
supplies committee of NRC, replacing Mujjukwa, who had earlier defected to UFM. This
appointment automatically made him member of the NRC and member of the NRM Executive
Committee.

STRUCTURES, CODES OF CONDUCT AND THE 7 POINT PROGRAMME

81. Museveni returned to the bush on 9 th December 1981. In his absence quarrels and
mistrust between fighters had erupted. It became obvious to him that the administrative
structures in place were not good enough. A new administrative hierarchy was put in place to
show who does what and who takes orders from who. Political education was intensified and a
seven-point programme was drawn to guide the struggle. Two codes of conduct were established

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to enhance discipline in the camps and during operations. Both codes of conduct have since been
integrated into the laws of Uganda.

STAGES OF A PEOPLES PROTRACTED WAR

82. A People’s Protracted War has three stages: Guerrilla Warfare; Mobile Warfare; and
Conventional warfare. The activities described so far were executed under the tactics of guerrilla
warfare, whose characteristics are as below: Small units i.e. section, platoon, at most company,
Short and sharp attacks on weak targets e.g. police posts, property guards, road blocks, lay
ambushes, Fluid i.e. very highly mobile, Movement at night, Building capacity /combat
experience, Preserve forces – avoid unnecessary causalities, Demoralize enemy soldiers, No
attachment to territory, Intensify political education.

83. As the NRA grew stronger in numbers, materials and intellectual capability, the peoples’
struggle entered the second stage of Mobile warfare. The characteristics of Mobile Warfare are:
Bigger units i.e. companies, battalions, brigades, Still highly mobile, Movements – both day and
night, Building capacity so that balance of forces shift to the popular army, Intensify propaganda
– local and international, Not much attachment to territory, Intensify political education, military
training and acquisition of arms, Encourage food production.

84. After a number of successful attacks against the government, especially the ones on
Hoima and Masindi Army barracks, the UNLA became demoralized and decided to overthrow
their government. The war entered the final stage of conventional warfare, whose characteristics
are: Guard territory – frontlines, sophisticated weapons, Move in big groups, Fight to uproot the
enemy. A Peoples’ Protracted War must always ensure population support. To achieve that, the
leadership must ensure the following, among other things: high discipline, excellent public
relations, inform the population about the progress of the war, provide services for example,
education, and medical, provide ready market, learn the culture, join in local activities.

RELATIONSHIP WITH UFM.

85. As mentioned before, the PRA and UFM had failed to agree on a common
strategy, and had decided to fight separately. Unfortunately they found themselves occupying the
same forests of Buganda. As may be expected in such circumstances, quarrels arose. UFM was
particularly angered when NRM rescued and retained 200 guns that had been abandoned by
UFM.

After a three-day conference at Kikunyu, the two agreed to divide territory and operate in
separate areas as follows:

a. THE EXODUS. In 1983 Obote deployed 75% of the National Army against the
NRM. The UNLA surrounded what Obote thought to be the operational area of the NRM.
The NRM reacted by taking all civilians in those areas, to government controlled areas,

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or to Rukoora (Bush) areas, together with the larger part of the NRA. Only a small
fighting group was left in the area for strategic reasons.

b. PROF. YUSUFU LULE DIES. In 1984 the NRM Chairman Prof. Y.K. Lule died.
His death caused tribal sentiments among some Baganda member of NRM. Dr Samson
Kisekka, who eventually became coordinator of external operations, ably handled the
crisis. Yoweri K. Museveni and Moses Kigongo took over as chairman and vice
chairman respectively.

c. FRONT IN THE RWENZORI MOUNTAINS. As the NRA grew bigger and

stronger, the struggle moved into the third and final stage of conventional war fair.
During the second half of 1985 the peoples’ Army moved its head quarters to the
Rwenzori Mountains to prepare itself for the final part of the armed struggle.

PEACE TALKS IN NAIROBI

86. In the meantime Obote’s army overthrew him and invited Gen. Tito Okello to be
President of Uganda. Tito Okello and the International Community called upon all fighting
groups to stop fighting since Obote had been overthrown. Most fighting groups joined the new
government unconditionally. However, NRM, not seeing any qualitative change in the takeover,
refused to join that government. Under great international pressure, the NRM agreed to go into
peace talks, which resulted into a very difficult agreement for Okello to implement.

NRA TAKES KAMPALA – 26TH JANUARY 1986

87. Seeing no progress on the implementation of the agreement, NRM went ahead and took
over power on 26th of January 1986. As stated by the Proclamation in Legal Notice No. 1 of
1986, the National Resistance army took over the powers of government of the republic of
Uganda, on the 26th day of January 1986. The powers were vested in the National Resistance
Council (NRC), the supreme organ of the NRM, whose chairman was Y.K. Museveni. A broad –
based government was formed and the NRC was expanded through appointments and elections,
to allow more Ugandans participate in the governance of the country. The expanded NRC played
the role of the Legislature. A hierarchy of Resistance Councils and committees was elected, to
protect the political interests of the NRM and play the role of Local Government.

WHAT IS A MOVEMENT?

88. My own understanding of the word “Movement”, as used in the management of society,
is that it is a spontaneous awakening of people, to certain important aspects of their lives, which
they feel must be immediately attend to. It is an energy, which spontaneously compels
individuals towards causing change. The momentum is usually instigated by a high degree of
dissatisfaction within a given society, at a particular point in time. When such a situation exists,
various organizations will emerge with the objective of effecting the necessary change. The
majority of such organizations will usually run for a short time and wither away due to lack of

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clear-headed leadership. Where the wave meets with a clear-headed visionary, then an effective
organization will emerge to provide people with an appropriate vessel for change. This is what
happened in the case of NRM. A spontaneous urge to liberate Uganda from tyranny existed,
manifesting itself in the various rebel groups that mushroomed, both inside and outside the
country. One group, which was lucky to have clear leadership, attracted lots of potential freedom
fighters in the country and organized them into one mass political organization called NRM.

89. As evidenced in the NRM situation, a movement political organization emerges out of
the spontaneous awakening of a people, who get attracted to the skills and qualities of a
particular leader, and rally behind that leader, in anticipation that he/she will be a perfect pilot for
their vessel, in pursuit of their cause. Once the leader presents himself, potential freedom fighters
will come to him, of their own individual free will, and will there after accept his leadership and
guidance. The leader does not have to woo people to follow him. Due to the spontaneity and
mass nature of a movement, the organization that emerges to support it must inevitably be multi
ideological and therefore broad based. The organization accepts people on their own individual
merit, irrespective of ideological background, gander or social status. If the organization should
lack in this quality, it will alienate many people and will fail to attain the necessary strength to
effect change. It is on this truth that the strategy, tactics and form of democracy of the NRM are
founded. The following are some of the cardinal principles of the philosophy:

a. All inclusive: As seen from the above definition of “Movement”, getting into a
movement is a spontaneous action. Therefore there is no question of membership.
Anybody who gets the urge to participate will do so at the level that suites them. The
Movement belongs to all irrespective of gender, ideology, tribe, creed or social status; or
whether they choose to be active or not. In fact, every adult living in Uganda has some
leadership role to play. It is NRM policy to encourage everybody to participate. That is
why, all previously disadvantaged groups, i.e. women, youth, people with disabilities, are
given special attention through affirmative action, especially, in matters related to
competing for elective positions.

b. Broad-based (Multi-Ideology): The NRM Philosophy has, in addition to its own

indigenous and basic ideas, borrowed quite a lot from various other ideologies, both
ancient and modern. This is so because all ideologies and philosophies have some good
and bad elements, in relation to the Ugandan situation. The NRM is, therefore tolerant
and welcomes the participation and contribution of people from all sorts of ideological
backgrounds.

c. Mass – Based (Grassroots – Based): The NRM is a brainchild of the peoples’

struggle and has therefore a special relationship with the grassroots people. It s a
philosophy that treasures the individual within the whole. (That is, individual merit as
opposed to group merit). It believes that power belongs to the masses or grassroots
people, rather than groups. In point number one of the NRM minimum programme, the

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issue of participatory/popular democracy is emphasized. On this principle, stood the

whole system of the Resistance Committees and councils, and the Local government act
1997. The NRM did not consider the term “Decentralization”, recently popularized by
our development partners, as yet another conditionality for receiving aid. The practice of
decentralization so perfectly fits in with the practice of Resistance Councils that you
would think both terms were coined in the bush. Both are policy instruments aimed at
improving local democracy, accountability, efficiency, equity, effectiveness and
sustainability in the provision of social services countrywide. This same principle is
reflected many times in the constitution e.g. Article 1. (1) All power belongs to the
people who shall exercise their sovereignty in accordance with this Constitution. The
most fundamental ideals of the people that found their way into the constitution, were
entrenched, and therefore can only be amended after referendum.

d. Transparency

Operations of the NRM are so transparent that many Movementists say that this has been
the single biggest contributor to the tribulations of the Movement Political System. They
say that a system that allows everybody, including its detractors, not only to share all
information, but also fully participate and enjoy all available benefits, will sooner or later
self annihilate. It is true, this principle has made implementation of programmes slower
and more difficult, but the principle has helped the Movement Political System to carry
the majority of Ugandans with it.

e. Individual Merit

Individual Merit is one of the fundamental differences between the multiparty mode of
democracy and the movement mode of democracy. It has two components:

(1) A principal whereby individuals, rather than groups, offer themselves for
elective offices and the electorate determine which, of all the candidates, has the
best qualities. This principle has liberalized politics to the individual level, the
lowest possible level, it has enabled the individual to participate in his/her own
right, not being required to belong to a group. The outcry to “liberalize the politics
of Uganda”, to which the Movement has been forced to budge astonishingly. This
sort of call would make sense if it were meant to call for more people to
participate in the leadership of the country. However, these calls are tantamount to
saying “close the doors a bit so that only political groups can enter”. Individual
merit allows as many as would wish to present themselves for elective leadership
positions to do so. It has helped Uganda identify leadership talent that would
otherwise have never been detected; and it satisfies people’s ambition for
leadership roles. Opponents of the Movement political system and some
movementists think that Movement leaders grossly violated this principle, when
they (the leaders) openly preferred one candidate to another. My own opinion is

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different, because the leaders intervened by way of persuasion and advice.

Nobody was coerced in any election to stand down for another candidate.

(2) The second component of the principle is whereby individual issues are
considered and debated on their own individual merit; allowing an individual to
take any position on an issue, in the right forum. There is what one would call,
Pendulum Opposition. This allows every issue to be exhaustively debated freely
without having automatic support or opposition. Some people have argued that
the Movement caucus in Parliament goes against this principle. This however is
not true. All that the caucus does is to provide a more relaxed atmosphere, without
the encumbrances of the parliamentary rules of procedure, so that each member
can freely argue out their points of view. It allows more time for an issue to be
discussed and differences to be thrashed out, thereby creating consensus. When
the country reverted to the multi party system of democracy, the NRM was forced
to shelve this principle in order to fit in the working methods of the multi party
system.

f. Consensus Building

In pursuit of what is best for the common good, every effort is taken to curry everybody
on board. Anybody who feels frustrated by the slow speed, at which this system
implements programmes, needs to understand that building consensus is a slow process.
People of different backgrounds have different needs and aspirations and will therefore,
at any one time, have different priorities.

THE VISION, MISSION, PHILOSOPHY AND FORM OF DEMOCRACY OF THE NRM

90. a. VISION – A vision is the desired state of affairs. The NRM vision is the existence
of a Free Democratic, secure, United, industrialized, developed and prosperous Uganda; a
modern industrial society, existing within a prosperous Africa, in which unity and
freedom coexist harmoniously.

b. MISSION – The mission of every organization is to achieve certain goals for the
benefit of its owners, in this case, the people of Uganda. The mission of NRM, therefore,
is to transform and develop Uganda into a democratic, secure, united, industrialized and
modern nation, for the common good of all Ugandans. The people of Uganda must be
transformed from a subsistence pre industrial society to a developed and industrialized
society. The NRM must embrace and nurture Pan Africanism. This is to be achieved by:
Resisting forces of tyranny, oppression and exploitation; Ensuring that state Power does
not slip away from the masses and revert to the hands of reactionary regimes; Ensure
security of person and property; Design socio-political programmes that will ensure that
the people use their power to achieve their vision; Eradicate unemployment by
formulating and implementing economic programmes that will lead to the

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industrialization of the Ugandan economy, within an independent, integrated and self

sustaining national economy. We must support; Private Sector – led economic growth,
integrating the African market and accessing the lucrative, more organized external
markets, Political Pan-Africanism aimed at ending the balkanization of the continent,
developing the human resource; and Preserving and modernizing our cultural heritage
including rationalizing and promoting our languages as well as developing Swahili as the
lingua franca.

c. THE PHILOSOPHY. The Name: The name, “National Resistance Movement”

came at the 1981 PRA/UFF merger, but the spirit behind the name is reflected in the
earlier organizations, i.e. Front for National Salvation and Popular Resistance army.
Every word of the name has a specific and deliberate meaning.

(1) WHY “NATIONAL?”. First this was an indigenous initiative, by

Ugandans themselves. The struggle had no external political influence or agenda
at all. Secondly, many previous attempts to fight oppression had been done along
sectarian lines and had had narrow-minded objectives. This organization was
poised to take care of the needs of the whole country, irrespective of gender, tribe,
creed or social status. Although operations were still confined to a small part of
the country, all policy decisions were to be made in the long-term interest of the
whole country.

(2) WHAT IS “RESISTANCE?” The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

interprets “Resistance” to mean: The action of using force to oppose something or
somebody; Dislike of or opposition to a plan, an idea, etc; the power to endure
something without damage or harm; a force that stops the progress of something.
First, Ugandans were sick and tired of tyrannical regimes; and therefore they
disliked, and were ready to use force to oppose the ideas of dictators and stop the
progress of their sinister plans. They wanted a revolution that would completely
overturn the status quo and create a new type of leadership, under a new political
arrangement. In addition, the leaders were ready to build organs that would have
the power to endure any kind of hardships, and stand the test of time. They knew
that overthrowing a dictatorship was not the end of the story. The dictators were
not likely to take it lying down. They would definitely try to force their way back
to power. The revolution would, therefore, have to have the capacity to resist any
counter-revolution; and to protect, preserve and consolidate all its gains. Indeed,
the Movement form of democracy has had to show its stamina under pressure of
the various political forces, both local and international, since 1986.

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THE MOVEMENT FORM OF DEMOCRACY (POLITICAL SYSTEM)

91. One of the main products of the NRM Peoples’ Protracted War was a form of democracy
that, by default, came to be known as the Movement Political System. The term, Movement
Political System, was intended to mean the sum total of the teachings of the NRM Philosophy;
plus its practices, procedures; its organs and the structures designed to operationalize the
philosophy. It is important to emphasize, what was mentioned before, that this is an alternative
form of democracy, rather than a different political system.

THE 15 POINT – PROGRAMME OF NRM

92. The Programme of the NRM had, at first, 7 points. In 1984 it was increased to 10 points
and then to 15 points, in 1998. This was a minimum programme for socio economic
transformation. There is a belief among politicians that this program was the minimum agenda
on which the multi partists agreed to cooperate with the NRM, in 1986. I wish to emphasize that
the minimumness of the programme refers to that minimum required to stop and reverse the
backward trend that Uganda was taking; and then rehabilitate the economy and start on the
forward movement to prosperity. It is noteworthy, that all issues mentioned in the NRM 10 point
programme found their way into the 1995 Uganda Constitution; and of course, they form a large
part of the ‘Aims and Objectives of NRM’ in the constitution of the NRM.

92. THE NRM ACHIEVEMENTS

NRM has made tremendous achievements since 1981. It would be futile to try to discuss all of
them. I will only mention those achievements which most people do not usually talk about as
below:

a. Continuation of the Peoples’ Struggle.

b. Holding the vision.

c. Identification of the mission.

d. Identification of Strategy and tactics.

e. Development of a philosophy.

f. Creation of a Peoples’ Army.

g. Winning the war.

h. Ugandans embraced the philosophy and the administrative structures of the NRM.

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FUNDAMENTAL LESSONS

93. The fundamental lessons from the NRM struggle are to be found in Chapt. 11 “cause of
the 1981 – 86 Liberation war” and Ch. 1V, “conditions that facilitated the NRM Liberation
Struggle.” The saying goes, “United we stand, divided we fall”. Unity and clear – headed
leadership can turn a very weak force into a formidable one.

CONCLUSION

94. The success by NRM/A to militarily defeat the regimes of tyranny with all the other
armies, attracted opportunists who looked at the use of arms as an alternative to achieve their
interests. But as seen above, unlike the NRA which had a clear political agenda, a military
strategy guided by clear political ideology, all other groups lacked any of these and this explains
the reason for their failure. “An army without ideology is a mercenary force”. The NRM/A has
overtime demonstrated its resolve to defeat several opportunistic and destructive groups together
with their cronies and supporters within and without and build institutions which will ensure the
rule of law and constitutionalism and promote progress and development in the country.

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CHAPTER FIFTEEN

UNDERSTANDING REALITY

“Acknowledge the complexity of the world and resist the impression that you easily understand
it. People are too quick to accept conventional wisdom, because it sounds basically true and it
tends to be reinforced by both their peers and opinion leaders, many of whom have never looked
at whether the facts support the received wisdom. It's a basic fact of life that many things
"everybody knows" turn out to be wrong.” Jim Rogers

“Knowledge is for a purpose; it is not aimless. Some used knowledge to enslave others; some
used knowledge to contribute to the welfare of man.”
H.E YK Museveni (2009)

INTRODUCTION

1. In society (country, ministries, departments, Army, formations, units, families…) we are

faced with common problems but different people have different interpretation and
understanding, and consequently different ways of addressing issues and problems. Sometimes
these varied approaches are unnecessarily opposed and irreconcilable. Whereas our thinking
should be shaped by a common ground as a starting point to reach consensus, our understanding
differs and the individual knowledge tends to dictate how each person will approach issues. A
pastor may see sinners, a police officer may see potential criminals, a shopkeeper may see
customers, a teacher may a pupil and a doctor may see patients…etc. A scientist will tend to
approach issues from an analytical point of view, measuring and testing in order to find an
answer or solution. A historian will tend to look for the background to the issue in order to
explain it.

2. Therefore, the amount of knowledge (understanding) determines the way that individual
will approach/interpret the world. It shapes the individual's world outlook i.e. the way one looks
at, thinks and interprets the world in general. Because of such differences in thinking, we have
had situations where serious disagreements occur that eventually delay decisions to be taken or
projects to be abandoned. E.g. whether we need dams or not; whether we should go multiparty or
not; whether we should deploy to Congo, Somalia, Sudan or Central Africa, whether we need a
strong army or not; whether to save or to spend…the list is endless.

KEY CONCEPTS

4. a. Reality. The situation as it exists at any one moment in time (Oxford dictionary).
Also called “Objective reality” referring to everything/situation as it happens/exists.

b. Understand. To know why, or realize how, something happens;

c. Cognition. The process by which knowledge & understanding are developed in

the mind.

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THINKING AND ORIGIN OF IDEAS

5. Before understanding the varied approaches to issues and problems in society, it is

important to know that we all think differently. However, the following questions need be
answered: Where do ideas come from? Can man correctly develop ideas about the reality
surrounding him? What influences man’s ideas? What comes first; ideas or material conditions
of existence? Can man’s understanding correctly reflect reality? Is this world real or imagined?
Can ideas accumulate as one gains more knowledge and experience?

6. Man is the only creature that uses the brain to think and act rationally, while the rest of
the animals only act instinctively. Therefore, thinking makes man a rational animal able to think,
plan and act responsibly. Man tames nature in the process of trying to satisfy his needs.
Therefore, ideas come from the material conditions of living. Man’s way of life determines his
thinking (social being determines social consciousness). That is why some societies may be
thinking how to go to the moon, while others are thinking how to eliminate jiggers! Thoughts
cannot be touched or felt but end up in actions…and sometimes even bad actions. Therefore
guard your thoughts! (Read James…)

THE BASIC QUESTION IN THINKING

7. Throughout the history of human thinking, man has always debated the meaning of the
world. The meaning helps the person to determine the appropriate method to use in identifying
and solving the problems of society. The basic question has always been “what is reality?” Is
this world real or imagined? This question has two aspects:

a. What is primary, basic or what comes first? Matter or Consciousness?

Thinking or Being? Idea or Existence? This aspect of the question seeks to find out
whether thoughts, ideas, consciousness are independent of material form and whether
they exist on their own and may even determine the existence of matter. Does
something explain its own existence, or does consciousness have to be aware of it in
order for it to exist? Do things come into existence when they are found? If you don’t see
and know something, can it exist?

b. Is the world knowable?

Is it possible for a person to know the world or not? Can a person's consciousness
correctly reflect objective reality? Can one’s senses rightly make him understand reality?
Does man have the ability to solve problems that confront him or only supernatural forces
assist?

8. Therefore, there are 3 categories of people in society:

a. The first category are those who believe that ideas come first, then things exist.
They further believe that the world is mysterious, full of wonders and cannot be

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understood by man and therefore cannot be changed. These end up going to church,
mosque or shrine as a first remedy to their problems. They never put in effort even to
address the basic problems of society. (Idealism)

b. The second category are those who believe that even if you don’t have ideas about
something, it can still exist; that only the human brain can think and reason. Therefore,
you can only have ideas of things that exist or you imagine. They further believe that
depending on the level of knowledge, you can study the word and know it, and even
change it for the better. These emphasize hard work, education, science and logic to solve
problems. (Materialism)

c. The third and last category are those who believe in both. They may end up going
to both the witch doctor and medical doctor to get cured from Malaria. (Philosophical
Dualism).

9. The duty of leaders is to organize society towards this goal of understanding, changing
and conquering nature and put it to the service of human beings. It is important that any leader
embraces scientific thinking because it is essentially a practical approach to problem solving and
is consistent with the revolutionary theory. The government seeks to transform Uganda from a
backward to a developed country, and therefore cannot hold an outlook that says that the world
cannot be changed. The world is made up of material things, which can be studied, understood
and, if need be, changed. It is the mastery and directional control of these complex processes that
should pre-occupy leaders of society, all in the quest to domesticate nature to serve mankind.

HOW DOES REALITY EXIST?

10. Whereas man get to know reality using his senses, different individuals can misinterpret
reality differently depending on their level of understanding. Whether you interpret the same
thing or situation differently, it remains the way it is. It doesn’t happen because you thought it
exists. Therefore, reality exists independently and outside man’s knowledge and understanding
(consciousness). For example; just because someone doesn’t know that you are here for a course
cannot remove the fact that you are present and that the course is going on. Reality undergoes
change in state overtime but cannot be destroyed completely: because what used to be thought as
true can also change.

PRINCIPLES GOVERNING REALITY

11. There are 3 major principles you need to know if you are to understand reality:

a. Always avoid bias (objectivity) when interpreting situations so that you interpret
it as it is, but not as you wish it to be. You have heard people say, “This soldier/officer
would be good but…he’s of a certain tribe…” This blinds your judgment and
misinterpretation.

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b. Always establish the historical background of situations (Concrete historical

analysis). Do not rush to conclusions. Always try to understand how
things/issues/situations began. “There’s nothing new under the sun”…goes the adage.
Everything has causes and also antecedents.

c. Always focus on what concerns you (The main link in a chain of historical
events). Situations are as a result many causes and are also related and connected with
other issues and situations. Therefore, try to deliberately focus on only those that are
crucial to your purpose or else you risk getting lost in the myriad of distinct parts/aspects
that constitute any situation in the world (complexity). The saying goes, ‘if you try to
chase every dog that barks at you, you will never reach where you are going.’

UNIVERSAL LAWS GOVERNING REALITY

12. The laws help us to know what causes change in society and therefore learn how to
manage it. They further help us to know why things happen the way they do. These are:

a. In life, all processes and situations undergo transformation/change. These

changes first accumulate until a point where we get a quality out of a quantity e.g.
brewing/distillation. (Transformation of quantity to quality and of vice versa). These
changes can take a long time (evolution) while others can take a short time (revolution).
For example, in order to have doctors/engineers for science innovation, then we must
have systematic education policy like UPE & USE (quantity) which will eventually lead
to more student doctors/engineers (quality). Therefore, we must embrace change in order
to develop society. Nothing is static.

b. Contradictions lead to development (Unity and struggle of opposites).

Everything in nature is a combination of opposite but inseparable tendencies, which
constantly struggle against one another. For example: positive & negative charges
of a complete circuit of electricity, north pole vs south pole, man & woman, heaven &
hell, God & Satan, left & right, etc. It is this unity and struggle that is called
contradiction. Contradictions are the basis of development; they emerge, develop and
mature, leading to a crisis and are resolved. The resolution leads to the emergence
of new contradictions and the process is repeated over and over again. Thus this process
of emergence, growth and resolution of contradictions leads to development.

c. New systems replace old ones (Negation of the negation). This law states that
the new system replaces the old by a gradual sequence of piecemeal replacements, but
retains what is useful/progressive in the old system. However, all
archaic/outdated/obsolete elements are discarded. This ensures continuity and stability in
the system. In short, quantity is transformed into quality through a process of dialectical
negation arising out of the emergence, development, maturation and resolution of

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contradictions. E.g. NRA being UPDF but retaining RO/…RA/… and other
characteristics like a pro-people ideology.

ISSUES IN UNDERSTANDING REALITY

13. If we are to understand reality in this world, we must always think correctly, study issues,
and be able to discern the manifestations of situations or events. For example; we all joined the
forces at some time with friends when we were almost at the same level, how come that some are
prosperous while others are indebted? It is because we all think and plan differently. Therefore,
the following should be observed:

a. Always love and respect knowledge. Knowledge leads to transformation. No

man has been wealthier than Solomon because he was wise. (II Samuel )

b. Avoid generalizations, try to understand circumstances of different situations.

b. Exploit opportunities when they arrive, Avoid complacency.

c. Understand that the whole is bigger than the individual parts. You can never be
more important than the system.

c. Always anticipate situations. Forecast likely occurrences and prepare for the
consequences.

d. Everything has a cause; understand causes and effects (symptoms). But endeavor
to avoid mistaking coincidences for a cause-effect relationship. Some events take place
coincidentally.

e. Always search for the inner truth/meaning/intentions. Scratch below the surface.
Things are not necessarily what they may seem. ‘Never judge a book by its cover’.

f. Always work hard and smart to achieve success.

CONCLUSION

14. Reality exists whether we are aware of it or not. The limitations of an individual to
understand this reality is the level of knowledge he/she possesses. Therefore we should always
strive to know as much as possible. Moreover, as a society, we need to harmonize our views &
develop an objective approach towards identifying and solving our problems. Some people seek
for wealth through witchcraft, fasting, seclusion, yet others through handwork first. Uganda’s
Vision is Socio-Economic Transformation, which cannot be achieved without a harmonized
approach and hard work through conscious & practical participation in production, exchange,
distribution & consumption of material wealth. Therefore, WE MUST ALWAYS DO OUR
BEST, AND THEN GOD WILL TAKE CARE OF THE REST. We cannot afford to wait
for God to do our part!

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CHAPTER SIXTEEN

POLTICAL ECONOMY

INTRODUCTION

1. Society has historically developed from one stage to another in accordance with definite
laws- a knowledge of which helps to correctly understand the past, evaluate the present and to
some extent anticipate the future. Human society has traversed a long way from the primitive
society in which man used arrows and spears to hunt wild animals, to the present day where man
is in space, is using robots and electronic computers. The best minds strove to gain insight into
the laws that govern the development of society and many philosophers, economists, political
analysts, religious leaders pondered on the course of history. In his contribution to the critique of
political economy and capital, Marx shows that the human society exists only by producing and
reproducing material goods. As they produce these goods, human beings enter into definite
relations which are part of a wider range of relations that they enter in-in the process of social
production because social production is a wider concept than the production of material goods.

AIM

2. The aim of the presentation is to enable students understand the laws that govern the
development of society.

DEFINITION OF POLITICAL ECONOMY

3. Political economy is the study of the laws that govern the development of society from
one stage to another. It can also be defined as the study of the social laws governing the
production and distribution of material means of satisfying human needs.

WHY DO WE STUDY POLITICAL ECONOMY?

4. a. To enable students understand the complex nature of society.

b. To enable the trainee understand that society has developed from primitive
communalism to a modern industrial society and that their transformation has not been
accidental but law governed.

c. Also through Political Economy, students will be able to understand that the
development of science and technology or productive forces is the major factor in the
progress of a society. Societies that cannot improve their level of productive forces are
subdued by other human races and can eventually perish.

d. It also enables students to objectively look at problems of society by objective

analysis of concrete conditions in society rather than leave in a state of confusion or not
being in position to define their own destiny.

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DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS

5. a. Society. It is a group of human beings living together in a particular area for

purposes of production to satisfy needs.

b. Science. This is the knowledge of the laws that govern the development of
society.

c. Technology- The knowledge of making the tools to tame nature.

d. Development of society. It can be measured by the extent to which a particular

society is able to provide the needs for human survival-for example; Shelter, Food,
Clothing, Education, Medical care, Infrastructure etc.

TOOLS OF ANALYSIS IN POLITICAL ECONOMY

6. Political economy rotates around the production, distribution and consumption of

material goods and services. To understand this process, there is need to know the critical tools
and relationships that drive it.

a. Labour. It’s the conscious and Purposeful activity carried out by man to produce
material wealth.

b. Production. This is the process of man using his labour to produce his needs.

c. Objects of labour. Things upon which man applies his labour power e.g. land,
water etc. They can be primary or secondary:

(1) Primary objects of labour. These are found in their raw form as they are
found in nature.

(2) Secondary objects of labour. This stage requires further application of

means of labour to add value.

d. Means of labour. Tools man applies on objects of labour.

e. Means of production. Means of labour together with objects of labour.

f. Productive forces. This is the accumulated knowledge of natural laws (science),

knowledge of tool making (technology) and managerial skills.

g. Production relations. These are relations between man and man and man and
nature.

h. Economic base or mode of production. It is the sum total of productive forces and
production relations. It entails;

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(1) How production of material requirements is organized in society.

(2) What type of implements are used.

(3) What has been produced among members of society?

(4) How it is consumed.

i. Superstructure. It is the sum total of the political, legal, religions, ideas, and
views, philosophy that can directly or indirectly ensure a smooth production process.

SUPERSTRUCTU
RE

Sta
te

Ideol La Religi
ogy ws Cultu
on re
ECONOMIC
BASE
SOCIAL
PRODUCTION CLASSES
a. Man. PRODUCTION
FORCES a. Who owns the
RELATIONS
b. Science. means of production?
c. b. How is the product
Technology. of labour distributed?
PRODUCTION
d.
Managerial
Skills
THE TWO LAWS OF NECESSARY CONFORMITY

7. a. 1st law of necessary conformity. When the productive forces change production
relations will conform of necessity.

b. 2nd law of necessary conformity. When the economic base changes the
superstructure conforms of necessity.

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Note: Taken together as a single entity, the economic base and superstructure constitute what is
known as a socio-economic formation.

The socio-economic formation is nothing but society at a particular stage of

historical development.

It’s therefore synonymous with what are normally referred to as SOCIAL

SYSTEMS.

THE HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN SOCIETY FROM PRIMITIVE

COMMUNALISM TO SOCIALISM (THE FIVE SOCIAL SYSTEMS)

8. This presentation is going to look at the history of the development of human society
from primitive communalism, slave holding society, feudalism, capitalism and its highest stage
of imperialism, socialism and communism as the last stage of society development. Before we go
into the discussion of how the primitive man lived, let us first briefly examine the History of how
man came about:

a. Man evolved from living creatures known as the hominids.

b. Hominids had four limbs all used in locomotion.

c. The struggle to obtain the basic needs of life enabled the Hominids to develop the
capacity to become up right being – Homo erectus which marked the first stage in the
evolution of man.

d. However after a long time, the fore limbs were fully freed from locomotion which
facilitated the struggle against nature - to plunk, pull, grasp etc.

e. The Homo erectus became handy being – Homo habilis.

f. Due to continued usage of the hands, Homo habilis assumed a hand with a
developed thumb to facilitate grasping and shaping of tools i.e using a hand to do what is
required – Doing.

g. In the process of doing things, changes occurred in the brains of Homo habilis
which enabled them to start thinking, reasoning, make logical arguments and judgments.
They then became a thinking being – Homo sapiens.

h. Thinking plus doing makes labour and labour is only in man ie thinking + doing =
labour (Man). Therefore man is a product of labour.

Man Brain Ideas (Thinking) Labour Language.

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9. What distinguishes man from other animals is;

a. Articulate speech.

b. Ability to labour.

c. Highly developed brain faculty.

10. Having examined the evolution of man, let us now examine the social economic systems
that have existed in the history of the development of man in the last 10,000 years. These social
systems correspond to certain periods in the historical development of mankind. Between these
periods there are transitional stages when two or more different social economic systems exist
side by side but the point of productive forces has to be emphasized as the major primer that
ignites the transformation from one social system to another.

PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM

11. This is the oldest known social economic formation when man had just evolved from
Ape. Its characterized by the following:

a. Man lived in hordes’ the same way animals lived in herds.

b. The means of labour were chipped stones.

c. The means of production were held in common.

d. The main economic activity was herding and gathering.

e. There was no family or settled life.

f. No private ownership of property and life was egalitarian.

g. Production relations were harmonious and no social systems.

h. Man depended on nature.

i. No laws, governments, clans and institutions.

j. Production was for subsistence.

k. Labour was collective.

l. Man lived in caves and trees.

m. There was low development of productive forces.

n. No social classes.

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o. There was equality of members of society in respect to the means of production.

NB. There were only rules of how to share the killed animals and the gathered food.

12. It was during this stage, that man discovered fire which revolutionalised life in the
following ways;

a. Man roasted meat and cooked food.

b. Lived in caves.

c. Warmed himself around fire.

d. Had settled life with settlements.

e. Could live in cold climate.

f. Roots, fruits, leaves, became edible to him.

g. The range of food amounts increased and became available.

h. Metal implements of labor were made e.g. axes, hoes, pangas- hence, production
of surplus.

j. Weapons were used to scare dangerous animals which threatened man’s life.

k. Means of clearing forests and bushes for agriculture.

l. Means to make more advanced tools out of iron ore.

NB:

By now man was also able to domesticate plants and animals which were able to sustain him for
centuries. Also as seen above production was for use value or sustainment, but with change in
technological base of society, differences started; Society was no longer homogeneous,
Production relations became contradictory, the haves who had accumulated surplus devised the
means of protecting it.

13. Effects of surplus due to technological improvement.

Surplus led to the emergency of classes and clashes hence the following effects:

a. Emergency of state.
b. Exploitation of man by fellow man.
c. Natural calamities which increased problems where people lost their crops,
animals and poverty escalated hence others ending up being used by others to produce
surplus.

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d. Those that were producing tools began to produce weapons for self defense,
equality disappeared.

e. The breakup of primitive communalism emerged and gave rise to another class.
The establishment of private property and means of production. The growing exchange of
the products of labor, property inequality and man’s exploitation by fellow man led to the
disintegration of primitive system to the master slave holding society.

f. The economic law under primitive communalism was production and

consumption for the entire community.

MASTER SLAVE OWNING SOCIETY

14. Production in master slave society was carried out for the master. The haves who had
owned the means of production sat back and enjoyed the sweat of the have-nots. The master and
his family remained with the responsibility of only to supervise. Later slaves were meant to
supervise their fellow slaves as slave master looked on. There were field slaves and house slaves.
Slaves were beaten, chained to each other, others chained to the piece of work to stop them from
escaping. Whoever attempted to escape for the first time was frog jumped, for the second time
was branded, for the third time the ear was cut off, fourth time another ear was cut off, the fifth
time isolated.

NB: There were a lot of injustices but society managed to continue and advanced. Food
increased abnormally than before due to productivity. Science and technology advanced, better
tools were invented from the process of labor.

By this time, wonderful advanced architecture was attained e.g. in Egypt pyramids and Artec
temples of Mexico were built, quality of life had changed compared to primitive communalism,
governments were now in place, kings and emperors came up, wars of conquest were fought,
more poor people were enslaved to sustain the Emperor class of rulers.

15. Examples of slave societies include;

a. The Roman empire, the Greek nation states, African empires like in Mali,
Songhai, Ghana, Kanem Bon, Buganda, Bunyoro, America in plantations, The children
of Israel in Egypt who were saved by Moses from Pharaoh.

b. Slaves produced as masters enjoyed their labor.

c. Slaves were owned by the means/tools of labor.

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NB: As the slaves labored to produce, it allowed other sections of the community free time to
pursue non productive ventures like Art, Music and Science. Greece the birth place of Western
civilization attained its glory in art, politics and philosophy during the slavery mode of
production.

16. Factors which led to the disintegration of slave owning system

a. Arrogance and self confidence of masters that their luck was God given and not
questionable.

b. Conditions on ground opened eyes of slaves who realized that they were creators
of wealth, so they could either withdraw their wealth or rise up a rebellion and could pull
down the society of their masters.

c. Slaves revolted and attacked their masters.

d. Burnt plantations in America and ill treatments of slaves became a threat to

master slave society.

e. Mistreatments and injustices of human beings could not go on, therefore the
system started eating itself.

f. Contradictions between mental and physical labor led to the disintegration of

slave society. Those using physical labor had no stake in the products of labor which
hindered the development of the productive forces.

g. Towns grew with high populations as the country side maintained back ward
primitive communal social system and towns exploited the country side. Class struggles
led to decrease in production which made the system unprofitable.

NB: THE BASIC LAW under slave owning was satisfaction of the parasitic demands of the
slave master by brutal exploitation through direct and physical coercion. The disintegration of
slave owning society led to the establishment of feudal mode of production.

FUEDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION

17. This economic system arose when the hereditary nobility owned land which attracted the
famous enclosure law i.e. Kings, Prices, Princesses owned all the land. Their dependant peasants
were given small pieces of land by feudal lords and were using rudimentary tools of labor. In this
system the slaves were allowed concessions and were freed to become serfs and their master
become lords. But those freed slaves remained tied on the same land where they formally
worked. They were allowed to work on two conditions for the master; either to share products
with him, spend some of their working time to the master’s land or pay the master in cash.
Which method again produced and yielded more dividends to the master with good surplus

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results. A slave who is now a serf was allowed freedom to own a family but belonged to his
master’s clan. This gave serfs a stake in developing the productive forces again and owned them.
The feudal lords exploited the serfs through the appropriation of the surplus products in form of
the land rent. There were three forms of rent throughout this social system;

a. Labor rent. A serf could use three days on his portion and four days on his
master’s land.

b. Rent in kind. Three quarters of the products harvested could go to the masters and
balance to the serf.

c. Money rent. Three quarters of the sales could go to the master and the balance to
the serf. Later serfs were free to raise their families and belong to different clans as a
concession.

NB: In this system, production relations were antagonistic.

18. Why This Feudal System Collapse:

a. Antagonistic contradictions emerged between the developing productive forces

and the dominant feudal relations of production (mental skills, science and technology)
hence implements of labor improved.

b. The growth of productive forces was the main factor for the decline of the feudal
lords and the formation of capitalist relations which manifested between the growing
commodity production and existence of subsistence improvement.

NB: Any increase of rent, increased the commodity price because serfs were many while
lords were few.

c. Feudalism was distinguished by extravagancy and wasteful consumption by the

ruling class. The consequence was that the economies became stack in simple production
i.e. production for consumption which stagnation created obstacles in the way and the
dynamic new class of Bourgeoisie and the successful crafts men. Serfs became too rich
and freed the lords’ land to towns and were liberated.

d. The emergency of the Bourgeoisie revolutions which abolished the feudal order
enabled the Bourgeoisie to assert its political domination and began to control the affairs
of the state.

e. Those who had saved before wanted to invest in scientific discoveries and
business all over the world. People like Marco pole, Christopher Columbus and
Bartholomew Diaz were products of this class. Philosophers started to advocate for the
pulling down of the feudal system especially in Europe.

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f. They were concerned with issues like over taxation without representation. They
started a campaign for a new society built on the modern democratic principles of
separation of powers i.e. religion from government, men’s freedom, liberty and
brotherhood, equality before the law.

g. The disintegration of feudalism did not go without struggle, in Britain, King John
IV was beheaded, in France King Luis XV and his Queen were glotined for resisting a
new change and this marked the end of feudalism in Europe.

NB: The Basic Economic Law. Exploitation of the serf by the feudal lords through the payment
of rent.

CAPITALIST MODE OF PRODUCTION

19. The principle force driving the world and another war is the morally between imperialist
powers particularly the superpowers. Capitalism at its very emergence from the womb of feudal
society was characterized by a long period of unbridled plunder at home and abroad. The
premise of this was the forcible divorce of producers from their means of production. The
starting point was the result of a process that created and brought face to face the owners of
money means of production and means of subsistence on one hand, and free laborers because
they now neither were part and parcel of the means of production e.g. Slaves and serfs, nor
possessed any means of production (MOP) of their own as with peasants and proprietors. Since
its birth in the 16th C Capitalism has been a globally expansive system - one that is
hierarchically divided between metropole and satellite, centre and periphery. The objective of
imperialism system of today as in the past is to open up peripheral economies to investment for
the core Capitalist Countries, thus ensuring both a continued supply of raw materials at low
prices , and a net outflow of economic surplus from the periphery to the centre of the world
system.

In England the original home of capitalism production the new landed nobility and bourgeoisie
wield the baton for three long centuries from the 16th to early 19th century.

a. Peasants were forcibly driven off their lands.

b. Their houses were burnt down.

c. Their farmlands were enclosed into sheep pastures or big farms.

d. Brutal laws were enacted to compel them to become wage slaves of the capitalist
class e.g. The England’s enclosure movement.

20. Brandishing fire and sword also US expanded westwards, dispensing and killing the
Indian population. Karl Marx said “Capital, comes dripping from head to foot, from every pore,
with blood and dirt.”

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21. General Foundations. Based on private ownership of the means of production and
exploitation of wage labor. Society is divided into two main antagonistic classes: The class of
Capitalists (Bourgeoisie), who own the means of production and exploit the toiling people, and
the class of proletarians.(the proletariat), who are denied of the means of production of
substance, and are so complied constantly to sell their labor to the Capitalists.

a. The course of bourgeoisie revolutions, the motive force behind was the working
people.

b. Feudal order was abolished under the slogans of “Freedom. Equality and
Fraternity”

c. Capitalist Society passes through two stages of development:

d. Pre-Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Capitalism called Imperialism.

e. Both have one and the same economic basis to make as much profit as possible on
the basis of exploitation of wage labor.

f. Capitalism is the last exploitative system in the history of Man Kind, while
Imperialism is the last stage of Capitalism when its contradictions reach their extreme

22. Distinguishing Features. Commodity Production. Commodity production is the

production not for personal consumption, but for sale and exchange or an organization of Social
Economy in which goods are produced by separate, Isolated producers each specializing in the
making of someone product, so that to satisfy the needs of the society it is necessary to buy and
sell products.

23. Types of Commodity Production:

a. Simple commodity production – production by small private producers.

b. Capitalist commodity production – the owner of the production – the Capitalist –

exploits the labor of wage laborers.

c. Both share economic basis, lack organization, anarchy of Social production and
competition.

d. Fundamental difference

24. The Commodity And The Labor That Creates It

a. A Commodity is a product of labor produced for exchange, properties include:

(1) It has the ability to satisfy a given human request (use value)

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(2) Must be exchanged for other things. Use value forms the material content
of the wealth of any society e.g.

(a) Food- bread, oil and meat etc

(b) Clothing – dress, coat, suit, underwear etc.

(c) Fuel – gas, wood etc

b. The Law of Value is the Economic Law of Commodity Production.

(1) The Law of Value: The law operated even in primitive- communal
system as long as there are commodity relations. The law states that commodities
are exchanged for one another at a value i.e. the commodities exchanged contains
equal amount of socially necessary labor.

(2) The importance of the Law

(a) Determine Quantity SS in the markets.

(b) Determine Demand in the market

(c) Acts as a spontaneous regulator of commodity production.

(d) Promotes the development of productive forces.

(e) Leads to the emergence and development of Capitalism and

proletariat relations.

CAPITAL AND SURPLUS VALUE: WAGE UNDER CAPITALISM

25. Capital and Surplus Value reveal the essence of the Capitalist mode of productive, the
secret of capitalist exploitation. Under simple commodity production C- M-C ie. Money is
acting as an intermediary in the exchange of commodities and is spent once and for all. Under
commodity, general formula: M-C-M (money commodity money) M-C-M (where M = M +
ΔM). There will only be a point if the Capitalist receives a large sum of money than he
advanced. Sum plus a certain which is surplus value. M-C-M (where M1 is M+ DM). Money
grows, acquiring the ability to “lay the golden eggs”; bring a surplus value and then become
Capital. This is also called Capital; self growing value or value bringing in surplus value.

26. Surplus Value. The Source of Surplus value is the labor of wage workers, which is
appropriated without recompose by the Capitalist who purchase more labor. This commodity is
Labor Power. (Labor power has elasticity). In the production of surplus value, the labor process
under capitalism has the following: The worker works under control of the Capitalist and the
labor powers is carried out for the Capitalist. The Capitalist decides what is to be produced both
Quantity and Method.

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27. Capitalist Time. Necessary working time is the time to create necessary product for the
Capitalist ie; the product = value terms = labor power. Surplus working time – time to create
surplus product for the Capitalist i.e; excess above the value of their labor power; which forms
the surplus value. The basic Economic Law of Capitalism: The basic Economic Law of
Capitalism: “Is the production and appropriation by Capitalist of the Surplus Value.” The
law has the following effects: It makes the Secrets of the Capitalist exploitation makes it
possible to understand and explain all profound processes and phenomena inherent in Capitalist
Society. Workers are no more than human material, suitable for exploitation. “The law
expresses the relations of exploitation or wage workers by Capitalist” These relations are
between:- Labor and Capital’ Workers and bourgeoisie. The operation of the law of Surplus
value is responsible for:-

a. Growing competition and anarchy under Capitalism.

b. Deteriorating conditions of the toiling masses.

c. Increase in the unemployment.

d. Deepening and exacerbating of all contradictions of Capitalism

e. The rate and mass Surplus Value.

f. The rate of surplus value shows how free, Unpaid labor the worker gives to the
Capitalist for each of Unit necessary labor. This is also called the rate of exploitation of
labor power by Capitalist.

g. The mass of Surplus value depends on the number of workers exploited and the
degree of their exploitation.

h. Ways of increasing the degree of exploitation of the working people. Absolute

Surplus Value – Is the extension of the working day in excess of the necessary working
time.

(1) Lengthening of the working day

I IIIIIII

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Necessary Surplus working time

Working time (4 hrs )

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Degree of exploitation = M = hrs x 100 % = 100%. Also is working time is extend by

2hrs (making 6hrs) length of the working day.

Necessary working hrs - Surplus working time.

(4hrs) (6hrs)

a. Length of the working day

I IIIIIIIIII

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

necessary working hours surplus working time

(4hrs) (6hrs)

This will be M =6hrs x 100% = 150%

4hrs

By extending 2hrs, the rate of surplus value has risen by 50%

(2) Raising the intensity of labor. This means that one the same working
time, the worker spends more until energy and therefore, creates value and more
surplus value.

Relative surplus value (the surplus value received by increasing the surplus
working time through a cut in the necessary working time.

(1) cut the necessary working time.

I IIIIIIII

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

necessary working surplus working time

time (3hrs) (5hrs)

M = 5 X 100 = 166% one hr cut means 66% increase in degree of exploitation.

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ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL AND THE DETERIORATION OF THE POSITION OF

THE PROLETARIAT

28. Capital accumulate is of extreme importance, for it explains how surplus value is
transformed into capital and how capital accumulation affects the conditions of the workers and
leads to a deterioration in their lives. Simple – Reproduction process is repeated from one year to
next on a constant scale, with all the surplus value produced by the wage worker is spent on the
Capitalist “personal consumption”) There is no re-Capitalization into the project. Extended:
Presupposes the return of part of the surplus value into production through the purchase if
additional means of production and labor power ie part of the surplus value is used as Capital.
Thirst for appropriating surplus value results into the capitalist expanding the scale of his
production. Also competition from fellow Capitalist spell ruin for him if he doesn’t extend
production (ever changing technology). Increase in mass of surplus value spent on Capitalist
personal consumption (Luxury wealth). Extended Capitalist production requires the following;-
Additional means of production and Additional means of existence for the workers newly
drawn into production.

a. Factors affecting capital accumulation

(1) Degree of exploitation of the working class.

(2) Growth of labor productivity.

(3) The total amount of Capital advanced given a constant degree of

exploitation.

b. How capital accumulation affects the working class

(1) As a rule, change in the technical composition of capital (the ratio of the
mass of means of production used in production and the number of workers
required to operate the mass means of forward) that occurs as a result of advances
in technology, leads to a change in the value composition of capital.

(2) The presence of an industrial reserve army of labor is an inalienable

feature of Capitalism. It “is an indispensable attribute of the Capitalist Economy
“, which could neither exist nor develop without it”.

(3) At stage of Imperialism, The Industrial Reserve Army of labor becomes a

constant, chronic army of unemployed labor.

(4) The formation and growth of the Industrial Reserve Army of labor is a
specific law of production inherent in the Capitalist mode of production. This law
states, “the working population, by producing the accumulation of capital,
produces growing quantities of means that make it relatively surplus population “

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c. Three main forms of unemployment under Capitalism are:

(1) Floating –

(2) Latent/agrarian – peasant employed in Agriculture. .

(3) Stagnant over population

HALLMARK OF CAPITALISM

29. During early stages of primitive accumulation of capital the hall mark policy was loot and
plunder of the merchant bourgeoisie. e.g. between 1500 – 1650, the population of the S. America
continent declined from 40M to 12M; between 1650 – 1850, the population of Europe increased
from 103M to 274M, that of Africa stagnated at 100m. Marx says; “The discovery of gold and
silver in America, the extirpation, enslavement and entombment in mines of the aboriginal
population, the beginning of the conquest and looting of the East Indies, the turning of Africa
into a warren for the commercial hunting of black skins signaled the rosy dawn of the era of
capital production”

STAGES OF CAPITALISM DEVELOPMENT

30. a. Primitive Accumulation. The overseas policy for merchant bourgeoisies of a

mixture of trade and raid. This amounted to virtual plunder of the three continents – Latin
America, Africa and Asia. To understand the foreign policy of a state, it is necessary to
grasp concretely its internal basis and organization. Two effects:

(1) A large part of the loot went to fuel the oncoming industrial revolution.

(2) There was thorough destruction of productive forces in plundered

continents. The dividing line is the rich aggressors and oppressor countries and
the Majority conquered and oppressed countries and peoples.

b. Industrial Capital. The overseas policy was the export of commodities. The
difference between mercantile exploitation and industrial bourgeoisie. Exploitation was
based on practice of unequal exchange – interested in production. Merchants bought
cheap and sold dearly _ interested in industrial profit. It mattered little whether traded
in raw or manufactured goods- wanted markets.

c. Monopoly Capital. The transition from industrial (competitive) to monopoly

capitalism led to the hegemony of finance capital – the extraction of surplus value based
on the export of capital. The bourgeoisie “created more massive and more colossal
productive forces than have all preceding generations together: As a result
“free/competitive capitalism was transformed into monopoly capitalism.

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ECONOMIC CRISES OF CAPITALISM: THE ESSENCE OF AND MAIN REASONS FOR

CRISIS

31. An Economic Crisis refers to a sharp violation of the reproduction of Social

Capital, all economic relations and links in Capitalist Society, reflected in the developed
industrial production and a substantial increase in the industrial Reserve Army of labor.
There are far more commodities than the population can handle.

a. Causes for Economic Crisis

(1) The Economic Crisis are inevitable because of the main contradiction of
Capitalism: that between the social character of production process, and the private
Capitalist form of appropriation.
(2) Other derivative contradictions emanating from the above Include:
(a). That between relatively organized nature of production in Individual enterprises
and the anarchy of production on the scale of society as a whole.

(b). The anarchy nature of Capitalist Economy engenders misappropriation in all

spheres of social production, and this leads directly to crisis.

(c). That between production and consumption. The conditions of production under
Capitalism do not coincide with the conditions of realization of the masses of use value.

b. Why? Workers effective demand is lower, limited by their value of labor power.
Capitalism strives to reduce the broad population consumption to the minimum, to a
range of the most vital essentials.

c. Effect. Consists/leads in National wealth growing while poverty increases. The

productive forces of society growing faster than the people’s consumption.

All contradictions derive from the chief contradiction of Capitalist economy : the
contradiction between social character of production and the private Capitalist form
of disappropriation.

Lenin. “The ultimate reason for all real crises always remain the poverty and restricted
consumption of the messes” This chief contradiction accompany Capitalism from its
cradle to its grave; serves as the basis for economic crisis, making the inevitable”.

The Capitalist Cycle and its phases

b. Capitalist crisis of over production used to occur every 8-10 yrs but now comes every
4 to 5 yrs. The first industrial crisis developed in England in 1825, followed by
1847/1848 crisis which developed in USA and other number of European
countries. The period of time from the beginning of one economic cycle to the

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beginning of the next is called the industrial cycle. The cycle consists of four phases:
Crisis, Recovery and Boom.
IMPERIALISM – MONOPOLY CAPITALISM

32. At the end of 19th Century and beginning of 20th Century, new phenomena
emerged in the capitalist mode of production. The Impact of Scientific and technical progress of
this period saw a rapid growth of Industry. Metallurgy, Combustion Engines became wide
spread, steam turbines, electric motors, oil, Industries, chemical, electric engineering, New
modes of transport and common etc. Tremendous growth of productive forces changed
substantially the conditions of competitive struggle between Capitalists emerged swallowing
small and medium businessmen. 1860 – 1870. This decade represented the “climax of
development of free competition”. The internal combustion engine, which was to revolutionize
transport in the next century, was developed. Monopoly was in the “barely discernible
embryonic stage”. The crisis of 1873 unleashed acute competition among enterprises, leading to
the closure of many and consolidation of a few. On contrary monopoly aided the development of
science and gave it direction e.g. By 1879, it became possible to use low grade ore to produce
cheap steal for means of transport and agricultural machinery.

By 1881 a power station was innovated and electricity serving network set repairing gas and
water and (1889) steam turbine developed electricity industry. 1889 1st integrated motor vehicle
built and 1892 diesel engine invented. Artificial dye invented giving a basis of the Germany
chemical combines. The loom at the end of the 19th Century and the crisis of the years 1900 –
1903 greatly accelerated capital accumulation and its centralization in fewer and fewer herds.**
In US, between 1880 – 1890, due to intense industrial centralization, over 5000 companies were
centralized into about 300 trusts e.g. US steel, international harvester etc. Lenin indentified five
main features of Imperialism

a. Concentration of production and Capital take to such a high degree that it created
Monopoles, which played decisive role in the Economy.
b. A merging of banking Capital with Industrial and the creation on this basis, of
finance capital and a financial oligarchy
c. The export of Capital, in contrast to that of commodities acquired a particular
significance. International Monopolistic Unions of Capitalists are formed and these
divide up the world among themselves.
d. The territorial division of the world by the biggest capitalist powers is completed.
Imperialism is the continuation of all the chief features of capitalism viz.
(1). The private ownership by capitalists of the MOP. The relations of
exploitation of wage workers by Capitalist.

(2). The form of distribution under which the wealth of a handful

exploiting monopolist increases and the conditions of the enormous
overwhelming majority of oppressed working people deteriorates.
(3). The basic economic –law –the law of surplus value continues.

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(4). The general law of capitalist accumulative continues.

(5). The law of competitive and anarchy of production.

Lenin: “Imperialism is the final stage of in the development of Capitalism, decaying and
moribund Capitalism, with the entire objective and subjective pre-conditions for its
replacement by socialism reach maturity”

Chief Economic Features of Imperialism

33. a. Concentration of Production and Monopolies. This is the first chief feature of
imperialism. Competition inevitably led to Concentration of production of big enterprises
that triumphed in the competitive struggle. Concentration for super profits involves such
forms as: Short term price agreements, Cartels, Syndicates and Trust or consortia.
b. Logic of Imperialism. A global system with a structure of inequality variously
described as:
(1) Centre – Periphery
(2) Metropolis – Satellite
(3) Developed – Underdeveloped
(4) North South, all which point to the wide gap that exist between states at
the Centre and those in the Periphery of the system.
Lenin– “The rise of Monopolies, as the result of the Concentration of production,
is a general and fundamental law of the present stage of development of
Capitalism”.

The mechanism used by capital monopoly to secure this extra profit is three fold:
Through monopolizing technical innovations, through paying labor power (in LDCs)
wages lower than its value and through a system of non-equivalent exchanges.

c. Financial capital and financial oligarchy: the Conc. of capital and banking
monopolies.
(1) Conc. of capital in banking and the creation of banking monopolies, and
the part played by the banks.
(2) The conc. of production in industry, commercial transport, and other
enterprises along with banks system in unison.
(3) Centralization of banks- to increase in the size through mergers of the
capital of banks: either by force of the bigger ones or voluntary into one joint-
stock bank.
d. The export of capital: The economic and territorial division of the world.
The movement of capital belonging to the monopolies and financial oligarchy of one
country to other countries, for the purpose of raising monopoly profits, strengthening the
economic and political positions of the monopolies in the struggle for foreign markets,
and expanding the sphere of Imperialist exploitation. Takes two forms.

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(1) Export of productive capital (FDI) (Profits)

(2) Loan Capital (Interests). This can be done in two types.
(a). Private export of Capital (Big monopolies – IBRD, USAID etc)
(b). State – (Governments – USA, Britain)

34. The territorial division of the world and the struggle for re-division

From 1876 -1914, the great powers seized about 25m Km of Colonial territory. Made by
Britain, and France; about 85% of Colonial territory and 84% of Colonial population came under
the control of these two countries.

Colonialism system of monopoly Capitalism was a vast system of colonial slavery, embracing a
large part of the world population. It combined exploitation based on direct coercion with forms
of Economic Neo – colonialism – replaced colonialism with former colonial states replaced by
private enterprises of extractive, oil, food stuffs and banking international monopolies.

STAGES FOR DEVELOPMENT FROM COMPETITION TO MONOPOLY

35. a. STAGE ONE

1860 – 1870. This decade represented the “climax of development of free competition”.
The internal combustion engine, which was to revolutionize transport in the next century,
was developed. Monopoly was in the “barely discernible embryonic stage”.

b. STAGE TWO
The crisis of 1873 that Unleashed acute competition among enterprises, leading to the
closure of many and consolidation of a few. Colossal new productive forces came into
being, increasing the relative weight of heavy in relation to light industries. The
development of science spurred on the process of monopolization, requiring large capital
outlay for each production unit. The development of science gave it direction:-

(1) By 1881 a power station was innovated and electricity serving network set
repairing gas and water and (1889) steam turbine developed electricity industry.
(2) 1889 1st integrated motor vehicle built and 1892 diesel engine invented.
(3) Artificial dye invented giving a basis of the Germany chemical combines.
Note: All industries founded mainly/entirely on science such as electrical,
chemical, automobile etc were monopolistic from the onset.

c. STAGE THREE
The boom at the end of the 19 th Century and the crisis of the years 1900 – 1903 greatly
accelerated capital accumulation and its centralization in fewer and fewer herds.
Capitalism was transformed into imperialism. From then on, monopoly has been
predominant in economic life.

Lenin said: “ The deepest economic foundation of imperialism is monopoly”

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Lenin further summed up the Basic features of this new stage of capitalism thus:-

“Imperialism is capitalism at the state of development at which the dominance of

monopolies and finance capital is established; in which the export of the capital has
acquired pronounced importance; in which the division of the world among the
international trust has begun; in which the division of all territories of the globe among
the biggest capitalist powers has been completed”.

THREE FORMS OF MONOPOLY CAPITALISM

36. a. FINANCE CAPITAL

Monopoly forms characterizes all branches of production. The bank capital

merged/coalesced with industrial capital either under leadership of bankers (as Germany)
or industrialists (USA). On this basis of financial capital arose the financed oligarchy,
controlling the commanding heights of the economy ,exacting “ ever – increasing profits
from the floating of companies, issue of companies, issue of stock, state loans etc

b. STATE MONOPOLY CAPITALISM

The beginning of state monopoly capitalism is to be found in the early crisis of monopoly
capitalism, particularly the first imperialist world wars and great depressions. After the
2nd world wars, the western state either purchased private enterprises through so called:
Nationalization” or established new state enterprises. They also organized various so –
called “philanthropic” foundations (e.g. the Ford, Rockefeller and the Carnegie)
Philanthropists (ism) – became the strategy to occupy nations, the means of material
production and means of ideological production were concentrated in the hands of the
few.

Lenin said: A monopoly once it’s formed and controls thousands of millions, Inevitably
perpetrates into every sphere of public life, regardless of the Form of government and all
other details.

State monopoly is observed in: The degree of state monopoly link-ups in the production
process expressed in Financial, Credit, Monetary and budgetary policies of the state
which are in the direct Interest of the monopolies. Direct state subsidies to private
monopolies oil depletion allowances, agriculture subsidies etc. Placing state orders with
private monopolies, the state becoming their principle buyer, assuring them of the
guaranteed market (e.g. the military-industrial complex in US) - In 1968, state monopoly
share enterprises of total assets were 35.5% France; 22.7% West Germany; 28% Italy
and 17% UK.

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c. EXPORT CAPITAL

In the pursuit of the super profits the monopolists do not confine their activities at home
markets; they thump the whole world. In 1967, the commodity exports by US –led camp
were 130bn dollars. 1966, US capital invested abroad produced dollars 110bn worth of
commodities in one year. US share of capital export to western world (UK, Germany,
Netherlands, Sweden) increased from 6% (1914), 35% (1930) to 59% (1960) by 1955,
the top 200 monopolies in US were deriving ¼ of their incomes from capital export.

d. YEARS BETWEEN 1898and 1948:US IMPERIALISM BECOMES A

HEGEMONY.
(1) The underlying vital actions of that period include:-

(a) The movement to the concentration and centralization of capital

with monopoly becoming dominant on the economic plane, on its basis the
export of capital and imperial expansion in 2othCentury.

(b) US overseas expansion, with US-British rivalry moving to the

forefront after the first imperialist WWI and Germany and Japan emerging
as arch rivals with 1930’s.

(c) The development of state-monopoly capitalism as a constant factor

in US economic life by WWI is a result of generalist crisis of capitalism
and sharp inter-imperialist struggles.

(d) The defeat of Germany and Japan imperialism in WWI. The war
that led Briton’s position as a leading world imperialist power decisively
undermined and the hegemonic position of US imperialism firmly
established.

(e) A change in the form of imperialism after WWI, from colonial to

the neo-colonial form, in the context of sharp inter-imperialist rivalries
above and powerful anti-imperialist struggle from below.

(f) The exercise of US –hegemony through a framework designed to

contain the inter-imperialist rivals “the multilateral cooperation”.

(2) The Us-expansion was at the expense of its neighbors, as:-

(a) 1846, went to war against Mexico and annexed half of Mexico
including present states of Texas, California, Colorado Arizona, New
Mexico, Nevada and Utah.

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(b) 1898, US fought Spanish-American war, the first war in history to

re-divide Colonies. The fruits it plucked were the colonies of Puerto Rico,
Philippines and Cuba. It also annexed Hawaii.

(c) 1903, when Colombia refused to sign a treaty ceding the Canal
Zone to US; the US supported a revolution that created panama. Fifteen
days later, Colombia agreed.

(d) 1820 US made the Monroe Doctrine; a proclamation to the effect

that any European interference in the affairs of Latin America would be
considered “the manifestation of unfriendly disposition towards the US”.

(e) In the 30 Yrs after it entered the imperialist stage in 1898, the US
carried out 30 Military interventions in Latin America. With the barrel of
the gun, it stood guard over oil (Venezuela), Copper (Chile), Coffee
(Brazil, El-Salvador, Costa Rica, Haiti, Colombia, Guatemala) and other
products of the peoples labor.

(f) By 1929 – US FDI in Latin America stood at 3.5bn.

(g) For the next decade trade agreements were signed. Roosevelt Good
Neighbor policy which established the dollar trade Area.

(h) 1947 RIO treaty, a Military treaty, signed in peacetime with the
purpose of undermining the Latin America sovereignty. The RIO treaty
became the basis for the formation in Bogota 1948 the OAS (Organization
of American States) with a pan – American Union in Washington serving
as its permanent secretariat. One effect of the OAS was to withdraw inter-
American relation from the UN framework and to directly subordinate
these to the dictate of US imperialism.

e. BETWEEN WORLD WARS

(1) Accounted for 95% of all foreign investment in Latin America.

(2) Made inroads into the vast wealth of Middle East oilfields
(3) Signed a reparation plan against Europe
(4) Conc. of state monopoly , esp. after Parl Harbour
(5) On Middle East In Jan 1980, President Jimmy Carter issued what came to
be known as the “Carter Doctrine”
“An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf will be
regarded as an assault on the vital interest of US, and as such an assault will be
repelled by any means necessary including Military Force”.

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f. YEARS BETWEEN 1950-1965

(1) Dollars 14.9bn export to Europe & Canada & 11.4bn profit realized.
(2) $ 9bn. Export to AFRICA and Latin America and $25.6bn realized.
(3) 1967. Profit realization of US in Europe was 7.4%, 12.3 Latin America;
14% Asia and 19.7% in Africa.
(4) 1970 – US –DOS estimated US oil monopolies in Middle East as $ 1.5bn
and profits yielded was $ 1.2% are turn on net assets of 79%.

g. AFRICA REGION
Areas of capital monopoly targets of export were:-

(1) The central – Southern complex focusing on South Africa, Zambia,

Zimbabwe and Zaire where ¾ of Africans mineral resource are.
(2) Major resource supplies include gold, diamond, copper, cobalt,
manganese. Uranium, chrome ore, vanadium and asbestos.
(3) The North – West Africa where capital flows to oil fields of (Libya,
Nigeria, Algeria), Iron ore mines (LIBERIA, Gabon, Mauritania) and bauxite
deposits (Ghana, Guinea, Sierra Leone).
(4) Outside S. Africa, the most vital concentration of capital in Africa was
Nigeria, with 17% (1967) t0 22% (1971) OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT.
(5) In 1971 foreign investment in Nigeria were $ 2.1bn, making it the world
th
5 leading exporter of oil, with BP/Shell forming 7% of total stock zone foreign
investment in Africa. The focus on Africa zone is due to:- Lucrative mineral
deposits (Cheap raw materials). Cheap labor (low wages). Exorbitant monopoly
super profits (capital is scarce, price of land is cheap).

h. AID- THE STATE CAPITAL

(1) By 1966, USAID reported that “Aid” has at least contributed 20% of the total
investments in the developing countries. Through “Aid” flows, imperialist states seek
first of all to corner sales markets for their own monopolies. This “aid comes “tied” to a
pledge to purchase commodities from the capital exporting country. In 1947, the US
secretary of treasury wrote to the US President.
“My objectives was to move the financial centre of the world from London to
wall street and the US treasury and to create a new Concept between nations in
international finance”

(2) On June 5 1947 Secretary of State Marshall proposed a European recovery

plan; “the restoration of Europe involves the restoration of Germany”.
(3) And the $ 17.5bn loan that the President Truman presented to congress
was channeled through the US export-import-Bank. The money was used for

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purchase of US goods and services and their use required the liberalization of
restrictions on dollar imports.
(4) In the sphere of inter-imperialist trade relations, the Marshall plan went
hand in hand with GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade).
(5) In Tunisia and Morocco, US moved in once the French left under the
pressure of Tunisian armed forces to evacuate Bizerte base. In 1961 July 20,
after a bloody retaliation, France left and cut off Aid. In 1964 US marched in
and gave Tunisian ruling class Aid to a tune of $ 500M by 1967.
(6) In Congo (Kinshasa) due to weak power, it was consortium of many
colonial powers.
(7) Katanga copper mines were mined by the union of companies-
25% held by Belgian and private hands of colonial Governments. Society general
de Belgium – 4.5%. 14.5% Britain and South Africa. 8% US.

(8) In colonies, US organized the local forces, strengthening the imperial

camp and weakening the pro-people camps. The nationalists of yesteryears now
stood in support of the bourgeoisie property in the neo-colony. A number of
tactics were devised to keep them tied, either to the golden chains of credit or
behind heavy iron bars should they develop ambitions. These tactics include:-

i. ECONOMIC. Exporting state capital as “aid”. Technical assistance to fill the gap
of qualified manpower such as French technical advisors and US Peace Corps
volunteers. Issue of loans to industrial development Banks.
j. MILITARY. Development and establishment of regional military Blocks of 1949,
NATO, 1954, SEATO and CENTO.
(1) Military bases- 1969 US passed a budget of $75bn to deploy its 3 .5
m troops abroad.
(2) It signed 80 treaties in 42 countries, established 302 major bases and
2,000 secondary military bases abroad.
(3) Devoted to training of army officer corps in imperial military academies.
(4) Provision of military “aid” to influence the development of new armies.
(5) America exercise of Imperialist role (overt and covert)
(a) -1898 – Spanish – American war over phliphnes .
(b) 1945 – China The Congo (1960 – 64)
(c) Greece (1947 – 49) Cuba (1961)
(d) Korea (1950-53) Indonesia (1965)
(e) Iran (1953) The Dominican Rep (1965 – 66)
(f) Guatemals (1954) Chile (1973)
(g) Indochina (1954 – 73)Angola (1976 – 92)
(h) Lebanon (1958) Labanon (1982 – 84)
(i) Grenada (1983 – 84) Afghanistan (1979 – 89)

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(j) El Salvador (1981 – 92) Nicaragua (1981- 90)

(k) Panama (1989 – 90) Iraq (1991)
(l) Somalia (1992 -94) Haiti (1994)
(m) Bosnia (1995) Yugoslavia (1999)
(n) Afghanistan (2001 present)Iraq (2003 present day )
(o) Libya 2011.
(6) “…the special forces aren’t social workers. They are an imperial deft
advancing American power and interests in Central Asia or Africa. Call it
peacekeeping or nation building, call it what you like, imperial policing is what is
going on in Mazar. In fact American’s entire war on terror is an exercise in
Imperialism. This may come as a shock to Americans who don’t like to think of
their country as an empire. But what else can you call America’s legions of
soldiers, spooks and Special Forces straddling the globe?”
k. POLITICALLY
(1) US fuelling the local forces using the prestige of supra-National bodies it
controlled indirectly in form of “international” operation e.g. UN thus the
independence of the new states being compromised.
(2) The independence of new states politically depended to some degree.
(3) The strength of the local bourgeoisie and the organization of the
democratic forces internally. The intensity of inter-imperialist rivalry in the
region. The level of support from the socialist countries to consolidate the
national independence.

l. IDEOLOGICALLY

(1) Imperialist propaganda, public and private penetrated every aspect of the
cultural sphere in the newly independent states. There were notable ones-
(a) the US information service;
(b) The British council, (BBC)
(c) L’ Alliance Francoise,
(d) The Goethe institute-proliferated throughout the ex-colonial world
controlling the films, and magazines, of books and TV programmes.
(e) Foundations controlled by imperialist super monopolies such as Rockefeller,
Ford, Fried rich-Ebert, Carnegie-financed and guided the development of the local
intelligential, from artists to scholars, in every field of their activities from the
most learned to the very popular.

m. MULTILATERALISM
Strengthening of neoliberal globalization agenda - the removal of barriers to capital
throughout the world in ways that directly enhanced the power of the rich Capitalist

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States at the centre of the world economy Vis-avis the poor countries of the periphery.
John Bellamy foster.

n. ( NAKED IMPERIALISM: THE US PURSUIT OF GLOBAL DOMINANCE:

2006 AAKER BOOKS FOR SOUTH ASIA)
This is an attempt by US hegemony worldwide to restructure inter-imperialist relations
and organize the imperialist interests through “multilateralism institutions. In recognition
of this hegemony, trade (GATT) and monetary (IMF) relations between imperialist
powers were reformed after the war. The role of the IBRD include among others:-

(1) Acts as a safe bridge for the movement of private capital into international
investment.
(2) Organizer of western imperialist “aid”
(3) An arbiter between creditor and debtor nations. This position allows it to have a far-
reaching access to the debtor economies, permitting valuable economic espionage.
(4) During the 1990s the US was engaged in major interventions in the Horn of
Africa, the Middle East, the Caribbean, and Eastern Europe (Bill Clinton Admin).
(5) This culminated into the 1999 War in Yugoslavia (Kosovo) in which the US,
leading NATO, bombed for eleven weeks, followed by insertion of NATO ground
troops.
(6) Purportedly carried out to stop “Ethnic cleansing” the war in Balkans was
geopolitically about the extension of US Imperial power in an area formerly within the
Soviet sphere of Influence.

SOCIALISM

INTRODUCTION

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37. Socialism started in USSR in Oct 1917 steered by Leninism, Marxism, Bolsheviks and
Menshevik Revolution that advocated for social equality and justice. According to Marxism and
Leninism, this is the first phase of the communist social Economic formation which is based on
public ownership of means of production and on the labor of equal members of society free from
exploitation.

a. Socialism began with Utopian (Equality/all perfect) Ideas which provided the
profound and convincing criticism of the bourgeois i.e. society that pointed out its
numerous internal contradictions, vices and raised the question of replacing capitalism
with a new just society. Utopian socialism described the principles of social justice,
freedom, equality and fraternity. Developing the Ideas of an Ideal future society utopian
socialism advanced far-reaching principles of eliminating the antithesis between mental
and manual labor and labor becoming Man’s vital necessity “No work no food”. Utopian
socialists were first to look for methods of building socialism. And this was one of their
great services to history.

b. The historical significance of utopian socialist is great because it served as a

powerful Ideological stimulus in the search for a scientific conception of history
becoming a direct predecessor of scientific socialism. The only weakness was that
Utopian socialism could not provide a guide to the revolutionary action.

It was Marx (1818 – 1883) who gave a scientific materialist interpretation of history and
gave a guide to the revolutionary action.

AIM

38. The aim of this presentation is to make a recap of all the five social economic systems
that society has under gone and examine what stage is expected should all factors in society
development continue at the current pace.

Features of Socialism

39. Under socialism, no individual, no social group can exploit other individuals or social
groups. No one can live at the expense of other people. Everybody is required to work.

40. There are three types of property, public property, cooperative property and personal
property. Large scale productive property belongs to the people with the state as the chief
custodian. The law of correspondence of production to the character and level of the
development of productive forces also applies under socialism.

The level of advancement of productive forces still determines the level of production like in
other systems. The world socialist community was made up of the following countries:
Beginning with the October 1917 socialist revolution in Russia which spread to encompass all
small surrounding republics to form the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

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These countries include Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, the peoples’ republic of North
Korea, Cuba, Laos, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia and Uganda’s Field Marshall John Okello
who captured Zanzibar in 1964, where he had gone as a casual laborer, was arrested, imprisoned
in Tanganyika and later brought back to Uganda.

Why socialism collapsed in the former Soviet Union

41. When the socialist changes swept the world, capitalism saw its downfall coming and
went on the offensive. Instead of concentrating on Economic development, the new young
socialist countries were diverted into the arms race. Manufacturing of war materials which
contributed less to the day to day life of the people. At least the west could afford it because
they had colonized the world and accumulated a lot of resources.

Other Countries especially in Africa had not experienced mature capitalism. At the time of
colonialism most of our societies like Uganda by 1861 were still at feudal stage. This alone
meant that socialism Evolution had been distorted and hence socialist changes could not take
place to support Soviet Union.

The law under socialism was that: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his
work”.

COMMUNIST MODE OF PRODUCTION

42. Though no society has reached this stage of development, but it is believed that in
due course, socialism will lead to its birth; where production will be automated, there will be
classless society, no democracy, no state and work will be the need.

NB; “The law will be: From each according to his ability and to each according to the need. It’s
the last anticipated social economic system, where life is expected to be lived in common,
production and consumption, is for the entire community as it was slightly under primitive
communalism.

CONCLUSION

43. a. From what has been discussed above, the development of society is an integrated
law governed process. Society develops in accordance with certain laws which are
independent of the wishes and desires of man. Independent of whether man knows their
existence or not. As soon as man gets to know these laws, he puts them to good use in his
own interests. This is why peoples’ activities influence the progressive development of
society.

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b. Political economy therefore is a science whose rules cannot be tested in a

laboratory but can be observed overtime and conclusions (scientific) be made. Man will
always strive to interact with nature to utilize it to his advantage.

c. It is inevitable to historical processes that when a political authority however

strong its repulsive powers-becomes a hindrance of normal cause of economical
development, it is brushed aside and the new forces representative progress takes over as it
happened in France in 1789.

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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

GLOBALIZATION: ORIGIN, CHARACTER AND IMPACT

INTRODUCTION

1. Globalization imply Strengthening of neoliberal globalization agenda by the removal of

barriers to capital throughout the world in ways that directly enhanced the power of the rich
Capitalist States at the centre of the world economy Vis-avis the poor countries of the periphery.

2. This is an attempt by US hegemony, and others worldwide to restructure inter-imperialist

relations and organize the imperialist interests through “multilateralism institutions.

3. In recognition of this hegemony, trade (GATT) and monetary (IMF) and AID relations
among imperialist powers were reformed after the war. The role of the IBRD include among
others:-

a. Acts as a safe bridge for the movement of private capital into international
investment.

b. Organizer of western imperialist “aid”

c. An arbiter between creditor and debtor nations. This position allows it to have a
far-reaching access to the debtor economies, permitting valuable economic espionage.

4. During the 1990s the US was engaged in major interventions in the Horn of Africa, the
Middle East, the Caribbean, and Eastern Europe (Bill Clinton Admin). This culminated into the
1999 with the War in Yugoslavia (Kosovo) in which the US, leading NATO, bombed for eleven
weeks, followed by insertion of NATO ground troops. Purportedly carried out to stop “Ethnic
cleansing” the war in Balkans was geopolitically about the extension of US Imperial power in an
area formerly within the Soviet sphere of Influence.

5. This presentation aims at discussing with Police students on course the Origin, Character
and the Impact of Globalization in the World.

UNDERSTANDING GLOBALISATION

6. a. By defining Globalization it implies an ICT-enhanced imperialist system that

enables/facilitates the worldwide domination & super-exploitation of the weak.
Globalization aims at (End State) coercing all nations of the world together into one
global (world-wide) neo-colony, Create a global socio-economic, political, cultural and
security system that facilitates the super-exploitation of the weak. Globalization herds
all former ‘scattered’/personalized neo-colonies into one condemned bunch for
maximum super-exploitation and subjugation.

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b. Logic of Globalization. The logic of globalization is directly linked with the logic
of Imperialism. The logic of capitalism is of a global system with a structure of inequality
variously described as: Centre – Periphery, Metropolis – Satellite, Developed –
Underdeveloped, North - South, all which point to the wide gap that exist between
states at the Centre and those in the Periphery of the system.

7. Capital accumulation is of extreme importance in understanding the emergence of

globalization phenomenon; for it explains how surplus value is transformed into capital and how
capital accumulation affects the conditions of the workers and leads to a deterioration in their
lives.

CHIEF ECONOMIC FEATURES OF IMPERIALISM: THE FOUNDATIONS OF

GLOBALISATION

8. a. Concentration of Production and Monopolies: Competition inevitably led to

Concentration of production of big enterprises that triumphed in the competitive
struggle. Concentration for super profits involves such forms as:

(1). Short term price agreements

(2) Cartels

(3) Syndicates

(4) Trust or consortia. The mechanism used by capital monopoly to secure this
extra profit is three fold:

(a). Through monopolizing technical innovations.

(b). Through paying labor power (in LDCs) wages lower than its value.

(c) Through a system of non-equivalent exchanges.

b. Financial capital and financial oligarchy: the concentration. of capital and

banking monopolies.

(1) Concentration of capital in banking and the creation of banking

monopolies, and the part played by the banks.

(2) The Concentration of production in industry, commercial transport, and

other enterprises along with banks system in unison.

(3) Centralisation of banks- to increase in the size through mergers of the

capital of the banks: either by force of the bigger ones or voluntary into one joint-
stock bank.

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c. The export of capital: The economic and territorial division of the world.
The movement of capital belonging to the monopolies and financial oligarchy of one
country to other countries, for the purpose of raising monopoly profits, strengthening the
economic and political positions of the monopolies in the struggle for foreign markets,
and expanding the sphere of Imperialist exploitation takes two forms.

(1) Export of productive capital (FDI) (Profits).

(2) Loan Capital (Interests). This can be done in two types.
(a) Private export of Capital (Big monopolies – IBRD, USAID etc).
(b) State – (Governments – USA, Britain).
d. The territorial division of the world and the struggle for re-division: From
1876 -1914, the great powers seized about 25m Km of Colonial territory. Made by
Britain, and France; about 85% of Colonial territory and 84% of Colonial population
came under the control of these two countries. Colonialism system of monopoly
Capitalism was a vast system of colonial slavery, embracing a large part of the
world population. It combined exploitation based on direct coercion with forms of
Economic. Neo – colonialism – replaced colonialism with former colonial states
replaced by private enterprises of extractive, oil, food stuffs and banking international
monopolies.

STAGES FOR DEVELOPMENT FROM COMPETITION TO MONOPOLY

9. a. STAGE ONE 1860 –1870. This decade represented the “climax of development
of free competition”. The internal combustion engine, which was to revolutionize
transport in the next century, was developed. Monopoly was in the “barely
discernible embryonic stage”.

b. STAGE TWO. The crisis of 1873 that Unleashed acute competition among
enterprises, led to the closure of many and consolidation of a few. Colossal new
productive forces came into being, increasing the relative weight of heavy in relation o
light industries. The development of science spurred on the process of
monopolization, requiring large capital outlay for each production unit. The
development of science gave it direction as by 1881 a power station was innovated
and electricity serving network set repairing gas and water and (1889) steam turbine
st
developed electricity industry. 1889 1 integrated motor vehicle built and 1892 diesel
engine invented. Artificial dye invented giving a basis of the Germany chemical
combines. Note that all industries founded mainly/entirely on science such as electrical,
chemical, automobile etc were monopolistic from the onset.

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c. STAGE THREE. The boom at the end of the 19 th Century and the crisis of
the years 1900 – 1903 greatly accelerated capital accumulation and its
centralization in fewer and fewer herds. Capitalism was transformed into
imperialism. From then on, monopoly has been predominant in economic life.

Lenin said: “The deepest economic foundation of imperialism is monopoly”. Lenin

further summed up the Basic features of this new stage of capitalism thus:-

“Imperialism is capitalism at the state of development at which the dominance of

monopolies and finance capital is established; in which the export of the capital has
acquired pronounced importance; in which the division of the world among the
international trust has begun; in which the division of all territories of the globe among
the biggest capitalist powers has been completed”.

THREE FORMS OF MONOPOLY CAPITALISM

10. a. FINANCE CAPITAL. Monopoly forms and characterizes all branches of

production. The bank capital merged/coalesced with industrial capital either under
leadership of bankers (as Germany) or industrialists (USA).On this basis of financial
capital arose the financed oligarchy, controlling the commanding heights of the
economy, exacting “ever – increasing profits from the floating of companies,
issue of companies, issue of stock, state loans

b. STATE MONOPOLY CAPITAL. The beginning of state monopoly

capitalism is to be found in the early crisis of monopoly capitalism, particularly
the first imperialist world wars and great depressions. After the 2 nd world wars, the
western state either purchased private enterprises through so called: Nationalization”
or established new state enterprises. They also organized various so – called
“philanthropic” foundations (e.g. the Ford, Rockefeller and the Carnegie). Philanthropists
(ism) – became the strategy to occupy nations, the means of material production and
means of ideological were concentrated in the hands of the few.

Lenin said: A monopoly once it’s formed and controls thousands of millions, inevitably
perpetrates into every sphere of public life, regardless of the Form of government
and all other details.

State monopoly is observed in The degree of state monopoly link-ups in the

production process expressed in Financial, Credit and Monetary and budgetary
policies of the state which are in the direct Interest of the monopolies, Direct state
subsidies to private monopolies oil depletion allowances, agriculture subsidies etc.
Placing state orders with private monopolies, the state becoming their principle buyer,
assuring them of the guaranteed market (e.g. the military- industrial complex in US).
e.g. In 1968, state monopoly share enterprises of total assets were 35.5% France;
22.7% West Germany; 28% Italy and 17% UK.

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c. EXPORT CAPITAL. In the pursuit of the super profits the monopolists do

not confine their activities at home markets; they thump the whole world. In
1967, the commodity exports by US –led camp were 130bn dollars. 1966,
US capital invested abroad produced dollars 110bn worth of commodities in one year. US
share of capital export to western world (UK, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden)
increased from 6% (1914), 35% (1930) to 59% (1960) by 1955, the top 200
monopolies in US were deriving ¼ of their incomes from capital export.

THE HISTORIC GROWTH OF HEGEMONIC POWER BLOCKS: THE EMERGENCE

AND GROWTH OF EASTERN BLOCK: USSR

11. a. Background: Rise of the Socialist Camp. This was after the October Socialist
Revolution in 1917, in Russia. Subsequently, it led to the formation of the USSR (Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics) and the Warsaw Pact (Eastern Block)

First Socialist Rev Brought Hope. Encouraged/motivated socialist revolutions in other

countries like China, Cuba, Korea Vietnam etc. Encouraged National Liberation struggles
by colonised peoples (e.g. India, Ghana, Algeria).The success of October Revolution
forced the Western capitalist world to form NATO (Western Bloc) as a military Counter-
Force against the further spread of socialism. Eastern Bloc Helped NONE –ALLIGNED
MOVEMENTS (NAM) Liberation Struggles and other many countries and Liberation
Movts to Defeat Colonialism, Fight Neo - Colonialism, Fight off Subsequent Imperialist
intervention/meddling, Provided Deterrence.

12. However not before long there was Betrayal AND REVISIONISM IN USSR,
immediately after the death of USSR leader Josef Stalin (1953), Nikita Khrushchev, a
revisionist / traitor, took over as Soviet leader. Khrushchev, and subsequent USSR leaders,
instead of building socialism, introduced State Bureaucratic Capitalism. These traitors in the
Kremlin (Moscow) kept on deceiving the world that they were building socialism. Actually, they
were dismantling it. The Western world looked at this betrayal with silent glee, much as the true
socialists, especially the Chinese cursed it. This explains the then USSR Vs China conflict. The
treacherous USSR leaders, finally, accomplished their job of dismantling socialism, in the USSR,
in 1991. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (born1931) and Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (both men
were born in 1931) supervised the final fall-apart of the great USSR, and Eastern Bloc.

BIRTH OF UNIPOLAR WORLD

13. The fall of the Eastern Bloc left the world with only one, the Western Bloc. Some people
call it the uni-polar World Order. The absence of the Eastern Bloc has created a dangerous
power vacuum.

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US IMPERIALISM JOURNEY FOR A HEGEMONIC POWER: YEARS BETWEEN

1898- 1948

14. The underlying vital actions of that period include:-

a. The movement to the concentration and centralization of capital with monopoly

becoming dominant on the economic plane, on its basis the export of capital and imperial
expansion in 2othCentury.

b. US overseas expansion, with US-British rivalry moving to the forefront after

the first imperialist WWI and Germany and Japan emerging as arch rivals with 1930’s.

c. The development of state-monopoly capitalism as a constant factor is US

economic life by WWI is a result of generalist crisis of capitalism and sharp inter-
imperialist struggles.

d. The defeat of Germany and Japan imperialism in WWI. The war that led Briton’s
position as a leading world imperialist power decisively undermined and the hegemonic
position of US imperialism firmly established.

e. A change in the form of imperialism after WWI, from colonial to the neo-colonial
form, in the context of sharp inter-imperialist rivalries above and powerful anti-
imperialist struggle from below.

f. The exercise of US –hegemony through a framework designed to contain the

inter-imperialist rivals “the multilateral cooperation”. The Us-expansion was at the
expense of its neighbors, as:-

(1) 1846, went to war against Mexico and annexed half of Mexico
including present states of Texas, California, Colorado Arizona, New
Mexico, Nevada and Utah.

(2) 1898, US fought Spanish-American war, the first war in history to re-
divide Colonies. The fruits it plucked were the colonies of Puerto Rico,
Philippines and Cuba. It also annexed Hawaii.

(3) 1903, when Colombia refused to sign a treaty ceding the Canal Zone to
US; the US supported a revolution that created panama. Fifteen days later,
Colombia agreed.

(4) 1820 US made the Monroe Doctrine; a proclamation to the effect that
any European interference in the affairs of Latin America would be considered
“the manifestation of unfriendly disposition towards the US”.

(5) In the 30 Yrs after it entered the imperialist stage in 1898, the US carried
out 30 Military interventions in Latin America. With the barrel of the gun, it

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stood guard over oil (Venezuela), Copper (Chile), Coffee (Brazil, El-Salvador,
Costa Rica, Haiti, Colombia, Guatemala) and other products of the peoples
labour. By 1929 – US DI in Latin America stood at 3.5bn. For the next decade
trade agreements were signed. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor policy which
established the dollar trade Area. 1947 RIO treaty, a Military treaty, signed in
peacetime with the purpose of undermining the Latin America sovereignty. The
RIO treaty became the basis for the formation in Bogota 1948 the OAS
(Organization of American States) with a pan – American Union in
Washington serving as its permanent secretariat. One effect of the OAS
was to withdraw inter- American relation from the UN framework and to
directly subordinate these to the dictate of US imperialism.

BETWEEN WORLD WARS

15. US alone Accounted for 95% of all foreign investment in Latin America, Made inroads
into the vast wealth of Middle East oilfields, Signed a reparation plan against Europe, Conc. of
state monopoly , esp. after Parl Harbour. On Middle East In Jan 1980, President Jimmy Carter
issued what came to be known as the “Carter Doctrine”
“An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf will be regarded as an
assault on the vital interest of US, and as such an assault will be repelled by any means
necessary including Military Force”.

YEARS BTN 1950-1965.

16. Dollars 14.9bn export to Europe & Canada & 11.4bn profit realized. $ 9bn. Export to
AFRICA and Latin America and $25.6bn realized 1967. Profit realization of US in Europe was
7.4%, 12.3 Latin America; 14% Asia and 19.7% in Africa 1970 – US –DOS estimated US oil
monopolies in Middle East as $ 1.5bn and profits yielded was $ 1.2% are turn on net assets of
79%.

AFRICA REGION
17. Areas of capital monopoly targets of export were:-
a. The central – Southern complex focusing on South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe
and Zaire where ¾ of Africans mineral resource are.

b. Major resource supplies include gold, diamond, copper, cobalt, manganese.

Uranium, chrome ore, vanadium and asbestos.

c. The North – West Africa where capital flows to oil fields of (Libya, Nigeria,
Algeria), Iron ore mines (LIBERIA, Gabon, Mauritania) and bauxite deposits (Ghana,
Guinea, Sierra Leone).

d. Outside S. Africa, the most vital concentration of capital in Africa was Nigeria,
with 17% (1967) t0 22% (1971) OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT. In 1971 foreign
investment in Nigeria were $ 2.1bn, making it the world 5 th leading exporter of oil, with

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BP/Shell forming 7% of total stock zone foreign investment in Africa. The focus on
Africa zone is due to:-

(1) Lucrative mineral deposits (heap raw materials)

(2) Cheap labor (low wages)
(3) Exorbitant monopoly super profits (capital is scarce, price of land is
cheap)
AID- THE STATE CAPITAL

18. By 1966, USAID reported that “Aid” has at least contributed 20% of the total
investments in the developing countries. Through “Aid” flows, imperialist states seek first of all
to corner sales markets for their own monopolies. This “aid comes “tied” to a pledge to purchase
commodities from the capital exporting country. In 1947, the US secretary of treasury wrote to
the US President. “My objectives was to move the financial centre of the world from London to
wall street and the US treasury and to create a new Concept between nations in international
finance”

19. On June 5 1947 Secretary of State Marshall proposed a European recovery plan; “the
restoration of Europe involves the restoration of Germany”. And the $ 17.5bn loan that the
President Truman presented to congress was channeled through the US export-import-Bank.
The money was used for purchase of US goods and services and their use required the
liberalization of restrictions on dollar imports. In the sphere of inter-imperialist trade relations,
the Marshall plan went hand in hand with GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade).

20. In Tunisia and Morocco, US moved in once the French left under the pressure of
Tunisian armed forces to evacuate Bizerte base. In 1961 July 20, after a bloody retaliation,
France left and cut off Aid. In 1964 US marched in and gave Tunisian ruling class Aid to a tune
of $ 500M by 1967. In Congo (Kinshasa) due to weak power, it was consortium of many
colonial powers. Katanga copper mines were mined by the union of companies.

a. 25% held by Belgian and private hands of colonial Governments

b. Society general de Belgium – 4.5%
c. 14.5% Britain and South Africa.
d. 8% US.
21. In colonies, US organized the local forces, strengthening the imperial camp and
weakening the pro-people camps. The nationalists of yesteryears now stood in support of the
bourgeoisie property in the neo-colony. A number of tactics were devised to keep them tied,
either to the golden chains of credit or behind heavy iron bars should they develop ambitions.
These tactics include:-

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a. ECONOMIC. Exporting state capital as “aid” and technical assistance to fill the
gap of qualified manpower such as French technical advisors and US Peace Corps
volunteers.

b. MILITARY Development and establishment of regional military Blocks of

1949, NATO, 1954, SEATO and CENTO. Military bases- 1969 US passed a budget of
$75bn to deploy its 3 .5 m troops abroad. It signed 80 treaties in 42 countries, established
302 major bases and 2,000 secondary military bases abroad. Devoted to training of
army officer corps in imperial military academies. Provision of military “aid” to
influence the development of new armies. America exercise of Imperialist role (overt
and covert) in the world is manifested by military success as:

(1) 1898 – Spanish – American war over Phlipines.

(2) 1945 – China, the Congo (1960 – 64).

(3) Greece (1947 – 49) Cuba (1961).

(4) Korea (1950-53) Indonesia (1965).

(5) Iran (1953) The Dominican Rep (1965 – 66).

(6) Guatemals (1954) Chile (1973).

(7) Indochina (1954 – 73)Angola (1976 – 92).

(8) Lebanon (1958) Labanon (1982 – 84).

(9) Grenada (1983 – 84) Afghanistan (1979 – 89).

(10) El Salvador (1981 – 92) Nicaragua (1981- 90).

(11) Panama (1989 – 90) Iraq (1991).

(12) Somalia (1992 -94) Haiti (1994).

(13) Bosnia (1995) Yugoslavia (1999).

(14) Afghanistan (2001 present) Iraq (2003 present day).

(15) Libya 2011.

(16) Bellamy Foster observes thus:

“ …the special forces aren’t social workers. They are an imperial deft advancing
American power and interests in Central Asia or Africa. Call it peacekeeping or
nation building, call it what you like, imperial policing is what is going on in
Mazar. In fact American’s entire war on terror is an exercise in Imperialism.

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This may come as a shock to Americans who don’t like to think of their country as
an empire. But what else can you call America’s legions of soldiers, spooks and
Special Forces straddling the globe?”

c. POLITICALLY. US fuelling the local forces using the prestige of supra-

National bodies it controlled indirectly in form of “international” operation e.g. UN, thus
the independence of the new states being compromised. The independence of new states
politically depended on the degree.

(1) The strength of the local bourgeoisie and the organization of the
democratic forces internally.

(2) The intensity of inter-imperialist rivalry in the region.

(3) The level of support from the socialist countries to consolidate the national
independence.

d. IDEOLOGICALLY. Imperialist propaganda, public and private penetrated

every aspect of the cultural sphere in the newly independent states. There were notable
ones-

(1) The US information service;

(2) The British council, (BBC)

(3) L’ Alliance Francoise,

the Goethe institute-proliferated throughout the ex-colonial world controlling the

films, and magazines, of books and TV programmes. Other include Foundations
controlled by imperialist super monopolies financed and guided the
development of the local intelligential, from artists to scholars, in every field of
their activities from the most learned to the very popular such as

(a) Rockefeller,
(b) Ford,

(c) Fried rich-Ebert,

(d) Carnegie-

BIRTH OF UNI-POLARITY AND CONSEQUENCES

22. The collapse of the USSR (SOVIET BLOCK) made the Imperialism take advantage of
power vacuum, becoming the un-restrained policeman of the world (taking over UN roles).
Imperialism made further opening-up of the world economies/resources for super exploitation,
the Militarily crashed all opposition to scramble for, and control of, world resources and there

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emerged Massively imposition of its decadent culture and ideology, on other peoples of the
world, through its control / dominance of the Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT)

23. Fighting the Eastern Bloc continued and the promise the West made of Peace in the
world, End of Arms Race and Nuclear proliferation, Development and prosperity (resulting from
end of Arms Race), good Rapport at UN, Scientific and Technological advancement, became
bliss. The Uni-Polar World became a Frightening Disappointment. Today, analysts say the
world is instead in a more dangerous situation than before. There is much more despair and
hopelessness, than was the case during the Cold War. It’s believed that some hopeless
desperadoes in collaboration with opportunists have resorted to terrorism. There is a frantic re-
arrangement of Alliances / Re-drawing of battles lines: The NATO Alliance is shaky. Some EU
countries are pulling different ways. Russia is doing re-orgs: wooing the Asian Tigers, took over
Crimea, divided Ukraine etc, NAM is in re-org but weak (Cuba- USA Relations ongoing, Hugo
Chavez-Iran under sanctions and Chevez is dead etc). The whole concept needs re-thinking!

CHARACTER OF GLOBALISATION
24. The character of Globalization is that of Imperialism taking full advantage of the
advances of the era of Hi-tech, especially the ICT Revolution. Indeed, many liberation strategists
think Globalization is the highest stage of Neo-Colonialism. It has created victims but also raised
Resistances by especially in NAM and LDCs (Least Developed Countries); Some former Eastern
Bloc countries, Some members of the European Union (EU), and Progressive political groups
and Movements worldwide etc because of what is seemingly like a hidden agenda of the
imperialists masked under Globalization.

UNCLEAR SIGNALS IN IMPERIALIST ( Agenda?)

25. There is seemingly observed agenda of Imperialism include fomenting treachery,
confusion and trouble within progressive / revolutionary governments; Alliances and groupings
with ambitious scheme to recruit, train, place and reward indigenous traitors, quislings and
puppets to infiltrate and counter revolution; Hire traitors to Sabotage progressive / pro-people
states, organizations and individuals; Sabotage of progressive attempts by neo-colonies toward
Economic & Political Union; Weakening or undermining progressive systems / policies; Using
Media, bribery, blackmail and infiltration of Ideological and cultural by hegemony; worsening
terms of trade / protectionism / IMF WORLD BANKs SAPs and liberalization; LDCS are more
than before trapped in raw materials production & export; debt trap is ever tightening;
imperialism is paradoxically fighting terrorism, while at the same time taking advantage of it, to
further its interventionist agenda to control world resources, and also keep the arms race going;
Imperialism keeps the Arms Race going in order (to shore-up fragile Western Economies, to
further weaken LDCs); promotes dependency (by robbing LCDs genetic materials, (GMOs)
whose End State is Drugs dependency, Food Dependency, Seed Dependency); Race to explore
outer space and scramble for its resources; Environmental super-crisis; NGO governance and
meddling

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26. The black race has not lost sight of a seemingly that has an intention to a annihilate them.
Its like a Master-Plan to Exterminate Blacks & Re-colonize Africa by Promoting Drug Abuse,
e.g. through wrong economic policies; Promoting Homosexuality / Lesbianism; Create
Genetically Engineered (Synthetic) pandemics (HIV, Evian Flu and Ebora); facilitate Abortion
and Birth control campaigns; popularizing Moral Decadency (inform of Perversion, Sex Orgies,
Bimansulo, Pornography, Big Brother, Cultural assimilation (skin bleaching, language and aping
other Western ways),etc

WAY FORWARD

27. A lot of package requirement should be put in place to cope up with the globalisation
wave. For many societies approach may differ but for the African people to whom a greater
impact is felt, the following could be the package, among others:
a. Africa must Unite!
b. Consolidate unity and independence.
c. Study Political Economy (SIASA)
d. Fast-track EAC, ECOWAS, COMESA etc as forerunners to political AU.
e. Promote popular participatory democracy
f. Wage massive counter-cultural imperialist struggle
g. Rush to fast-track bridging of the Digital Divide, invest resources and supervision
into ICT capacity-building

h. Acquire hi-tech using all resources (oil etc) to establish:

(1). Insist on a knowledge-led & ICT- backbone based economy/society

(2) Avail to our student, laptops

(3) Establish like Silicon Valley’s (micro-processor/chips making machine)

(4) Industrialize (machine building machines capacity, metallurgy, and

chemical industry

(5) Enhance self sustaining, integrated, independent national econ.

zealously train human resources by promoting: UPE USE, e-learning &

distance Kiswahili, study groups

(6) Go nuclear as soonest possible as can be, thermal & he won’t do,.

(7) Use the astonishingly vast potential/opportunities availed by the

ICT-revolution to defeat the imperialist evil agenda (i.e.: use the enemies’
means to defeat him).

CONCLUSION

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28. Comrades, understand the vitality of ideology for without good ideological grounding,
one can never fathom into the complex jig-saw problem of Africa. For many revolutionaries,
today, the issue is not whether we should take the Socialist or Capitalist road. These polemics
should be saved for a later day. The issue is how best we can confront and avert the looming
tragedy, how best to extricate ourselves from the strangle-hold of the blood-sucking fangs of
neo-colonialism (the highest stage of Imperialism). Our existence is overshadowed by
capitalism and its imperialism contradictions and shrewd practitioners, yet the technological and
knowledge gap is increasing every day. It is not enough to preach democracy but be able to close
the technological divide. Here the COA are clear, you either join the Resistance Struggle to avert
calamity OR cowardly join the enemy (as a local traitor) to re-colonise your motherland, and
enslave and exterminate your offspring.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
GEO-POLITICS
INTRODUCTION

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1. Geopolitics is the study of the effects of geography on international relations. It is a

method of studying foreign policy to understand, explain and predict international political
behavior through geographical variables. These include area studies, climate topography,
demography natural resources and applied science of the region being evaluated. Geopolitics
however focuses on political power in relation to geographic space. In particular, territorial
waters and land territory in correlation with diplomatic History. Geopolitics analyses history and
social science with reference to geography in relation to politics. Geopolitics includes relations
between the interests of international political actors, interests focused to an area, space,
geographical element or ways, relations which create a geopolitical system.
2. The following theories of international relations explain why countries relate with each
other (Bill Newman, Theory of International relations):
a. The Realism theory: this theory explains that States will merge as was the case in
the 1940s. States merges to maximize power as states are competing this creates
conflicts and the solution is balancing of power. There is natural fear for the strong
states, so other sates build capacity to be at par. The first and last Principle of sates is
survival, and above all decrease the power of its enemies. This sow the emergency of the
cold war between the USSR and US which ended and we now have a uni-pollar world
but other countries are building their respective capacities to balance the power of the
US which has 700 Military bases over 100 countries which is two thirds of the world.
US have a strongest and largest navy in the world let alone its Air power.
b. The Idealism theory: This explains that man is rooted in human nature as humans
leave together as a way of insurance thus cooperation. Avoid rivalry and make the world
a better place to live in as humans.
c. Dependence theory: That the world is divided into those who have and those that
do not have. Those that do not have depend on others thus international relations.
3. Depending on the geographical location and resources of any country, every country has
got interests to pursue as well as threats to protect against; Uganda is not exceptional in this case.
Former US president Bill Clinton while reacting to Russians semi dominations influence of
Eastern Europe Countries; explained how it will affect America’s special interests in Europe. He
summed it up by saying “America has got no permanent enemies or allies but has permanent
interests” means that at all costs the American interest have to be perused, and which interests
are purely economic. Strategic interests and threats to every Country exist and are largely
influenced by the geographical location of a Country which in turn influences its domestic and
foreign policies.
4. Strategic interests Refers to long term visible and invisible benefits a country or a state
will have arising out of either its geographical location or influence. It can also be defined as
objectives that are vital to the being of a nation. Strategic national interests are values that a
nation has to defend, protect and attain in order to remain as a nation. They can be vital, major,
minor or peripheral.
5. Threats are the possibility of trouble, dangers, ruin or disaster. Threats occur when
conditions or circumstances under which the country’s interest (benefits) may not materialize
due to prevailing conditions caused by certain factors. What a country wishes to achieve for the

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benefit of its people is a strategic interest, while any obstacle to achieve that interest is a threat
(Prof M Mamdani). In the pursuance of interests and protection against threat countries use
foreign policy tools such as Diplomacy, War and other threats and Economic sanctions
AIM
6. The Aim of this presentation is to make the police officers have a full grasp of the
Economic potentials of the Country Uganda and appreciate Uganda’s Geo-political position and
its impact on national security.
OBJECTIVES
7. The Students should be able to identify resources of Uganda, relate Geopolitics to
security in the region, understand the implications of sharing some resources and identify factors
that contribute to underdevelopment.
8. To achieve the above objective and Aim, the following shall be the scope: Location of
Uganda, Resources of Uganda, and Strategic Interests of Uganda, Threats of Uganda and
Strategic policies.
LOCATION OF UGANDA
9. Uganda as a nation was a making of the British protectorate in 1894 and assumed its
geographical location between 1904 and 1926 which was traced commencing at the highest
point of Mt. Sabinyo to North easterly direction to the southern extremity of Bungana ridge
marked by boundary pillar 1. (Article 5 constitution of the Republic of Uganda second schedule
1995).
10. Uganda is located astride the equator between latitude 1 Degree South and 4 degrees
North; longitude 31degrees East to 35 East of the Greenwich Meridian. Uganda is 236,040 sq
kms of which land surface is 199710 sq km and open water is 36,330 sq km and the total length
of Uganda’s border is 2,698 km.
11. Uganda is located in the heart of Africa along the equator (Land locked). Uganda is in
GMT time zone (+3hrs), its bordered by Kenya in the East which is twice its size, South Sudan
in the North which is 2½ times its size, DRC in the West which is 9 times its size, TZ in the
south which is 3 times its size and Rwanda in the South West which is 9 times smaller in size.
This has implications on Uganda’s size relative to her neighbors as is land locked which makes it
dependant on foreign sea port for export and imports with high transport costs and vulnerable to
the point of her neighbor. Uganda lies more or less at the heart of the continent of Africa though
said to be land locked, is in reality connected to her neighbors. This calls for proper positioning
herself to take advantage of these neighbors while minimizing threats to its self thus good
neighborliness to develop regional markets and collective security.
RESOURCES OF UGANDA
12. The resources of Uganda include the following:
a. Land. Uganda has a surface area of 236,040 sq Kms out of which 199,710sq km
is the land area. Uganda has the best soil in the world supporting over 87 crops as alluded
to by the famous speech Sir Winston Churchill the one time British Premier. All crops

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planted all over the world will suit in Uganda’s conditions. Uganda’s land is mainly used
for agriculture which is the main economic activity. Over 76.5% of the population
depends on agriculture. Out of 199,710 sq Kms of the total land in Uganda only 2/3
(66%) of Uganda is arable land (Is put to use) Why? And what are the implications?
b. Vegetation. Forests/Savannah grass land
Forest covers 14,900Kms squared e.g forest which include; Mabira, Budongo,
Imaramagambo, Bwindi and Elgon other types of grass land are crops like millet,
sorghum, maize etc looks like grass of cereal type so savannah grass land is rich in
tropical crops.
e. Water. It covers about 20% of the area and River Nile (Kiira) which is one of the
larges/longest in the world that covers 48,206.8Kms Supporting over 132 million people
mostly in Sudan and Egypt. Uganda has the largest fresh surface water in the world but
most of the Ugandans don’t have access to clean safe water! Why? Lake Nalubale
(victorai), Mitazige (Albert), Rusuro( Lake George) Lake Butumbi ( Lake Edward)
g. Mountains and Rocks. Mountains include, Elgon (Logoni), Rwenzori
(Rwenzura) and Muhavura (original Muhabura, Which means show me the way, the hill
of impala (Kampala-local Antelopes) etc. Good for:
(1) Tourism. Physical features like ridges rocks, hanging rocks, hot springs,
falls, flora and Fauna are source of tourism attraction.
(2) Agriculture. Mountainous areas are a associated with volcanic fertile soils
that are a potential in development of agriculture sector.
(3) Forests. Most mountains are covered with forests which are good
catchment area for relief rainfall.
(4) Quarries. Quarry mines with hardened grey rocks are good for road
construction.
(5) Sources of rivers. Given the fact that rivers have their origin in high lands,
they help in irrigation.
j. Mineral Resource. Modern mining in Uganda started around 1907 and
contributed greatly to the economy until 1970when political instability took its toll on
Uganda. The mineral resources in Uganda include: clay, Sand, Rocks, Marble from
Karamoja, Copper and Cobalt from Kasese, Lime stone from Tororo, Kasese, Gold from
Karamoja, Busia, Tororo, Tin from Kigezi; Iron Ore from Kigezi, Kabale; Uranium from
Amuru; Vermiculite from Manafwa; Marrum and Oil from Bunyoro area (Hoima) etc.
l. Climate resources. Equatorial type. Uganda is at the equator but not hot why?
Uganda is a plateau at an altitude of 630m-5110m at margarita above sea level. Uganda’s
climate is influenced by forests and water bodies.
n. Wild life resources and Tourism potential. The abundant wild life like
mountain guerrillas, leopards, Chimpanzees, Uganda Kob, Crested crane, with the
hospitality of her people make Uganda the darling of Africa’s visitors.

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q. The human resource. This is the most important resource Uganda is

endowed with. Uganda has a population of about 35 Million (2014 Estimate) growing at
around 3.4% p.a. Health has improved reducing deaths thus increases in population and
more demand for jobs and services. About 77% of population is in rural areas and 52%
are below 15 Years and below the poverty line 22%. About 70 % are in Agriculture 5%
in manufacturing (World Bank Data and UBOS 2013). What are implications of these
figures?
STRATEGIC INTERESTS OF UGANDA
13. Uganda's strategic interests and threats start when countries started territorial demarcation
purposely to protect their wealth and exploit weaker states for more wealth. As no state can stay
in a vacuum but has to depend on each other for survival. This dependence to some extent
became legitimized through treaties e.g. the Nile waters agreement between Egypt and Britain
who signed on behalf of her East African Colonies in 1929. This treaty forbids any projects that
could threaten the volume of water reaching Egypt; it also gives Cairo the right to inspect the
entire length of the Nile. Enjoying the Nile as a resource is our strategic interest but at the same
time a threat.
14. The Nile River is the longest in the world measuring 6,695kms (4160miles) from its
remotest head stream in Burundi to its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile proper rises at
Lake Victoria and flows North through Southern Sudan, Northern Sudan (via Khartoum) to the
Mediterranean Sea.
15. The Boundaries of Uganda is a paramount strategic interest of Uganda and this means
that every inch of our land (boundaries) must be secured and continuity of the existence of the
people of Uganda must not be tampered with. There must not be any one to seceding our
sovereignty by any means.
16. Accesses to markets Because of Uganda’s small population coupled with low purchasing
power, she has to rely on foreign markets both near and far for her goods and services. The
formation of the EAC (130 million People), COMESA, IGAD and AU are all a key step in
legitimizing our interests to expand our market base, markets accessibility is therefore our
strategic interest.
17. Uganda’s land lockedness but interconnected to other countries means she has to rely on
Kenya and Tanzania for her exit and entry routes to the outside world. As air transport is
expensive, Uganda has remained with only the option of road and railway networks to transport
her goods. This means that Uganda has permanent strategic interests in the neighboring coastal
countries and any disturbances in these countries will affect our development goals and as such
Uganda has to guard against such possibility from happening.
18. Uganda’s overall strategic plan is to have a conducive domestic atmosphere to attract
local and foreign tourists, investors and man power for stimulating economic progress. There
must be a stable government that is democratically elected and above all accommodates the
interests and aspirations of the people (pro people government)
19. Uganda has a small land area which is approximately 236,040sq kms and this reduces her
strategic military depth and her overall strategic interest to ensure that it’s secured despite this

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weakness. This can be achieved through technological development and scientific advancement
in all military and economic aspects.
20. The rule of law must prevail. There must be an independent judiciary and observance of
constitutionalism should not be compromised, human rights must be observed at all times and by
all citizens of Uganda regardless of their personalities.
21. Industrialization provides jobs, wealth and development of various infrastructures. The
growth of this sector is therefore our crucial strategic interest. This should be promoted in all
sectors and parts of the country in order for the above benefits to be realized, we must keep
closer to our customers and stay close to the competing world.
THREATS
22. Threats are categorized as follows:
a. political threats
b. Economic threats
c. Social threats
d. Environmental threats
23. Political threats include but are not limited to the following:
a. Territorial border disputes e.g. the Mijingo island between Uganda and Keya in Lake
Victoria, the Rikwanzi fishing area in Lake Albert clamored by DRC and Uganda leading
to skirmishes
b. Size.
c. Shallow depth.
d. Land lockedness denies Uganda secrecy.
e. Resource sharing e.g. sharing water resources like Victoria, Albert, Edward and River
Nile.
f. Air space.
g. Control of governments.
h. Terrorism (who is a terrorist?) what is the History of terrorism?
24. Economic threats include:
a. Production
b. processing not in place
c. Liberalisation
d. leveling the ground
e. Power supply
25. Social Threats include the following among others:
a. Ethnicity and lack of unity and yet we were one historically for example
(1) Amoti in Lutoro means I greet you in Luo.
(2) Abwoli in Lutoto means I deceive you in Luo.
(3) Atwoki is a cherished person in Luo.
(4) Arali is savoir in Luo
(5) Akiki is one who is jealously protected in Luo.
(6) Adyeeri means your friend in Luo.

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(7) Kukonyera (help) in Lutoro mean the some in Luo which is Kony.
(8) Oyo meaning a rat or one born by the road side.
(9) Rukidi in Luo is Rii kidi meaning long lasting like a rock
(10) In Buganda Kabaka means Kabake which is mean peoples meeting place to
mention but afew.
b. Religious threats from cults with cultic tendencies that undermine national goals.
c. Population.
d. Technological threats.
26. Cultural threats include Aids Migration and refugees to mention but a few.
STRATEGIC POLICIES
27. Alliances in the region have been encouraged these include on the continent and regional.
28. Vision 2040 looks at Industrialization which will bring about it benefits.
29. Increase of strategic depth by heavy deployments with intelligence led operations and the
strategic partnership of the community. Nairobi Embassy bombings and how Uganda was kept
safe are examples.
30. Preventive strikes just as Uganda preempted the ADF plans UPDF did not wait for
problems. Operation Iron fist against the LRA in Sudan. Operation safe heaven against the ADF
was conducted and political sanitization of stake holders, especially the community in the
Diaspora.
31. Democratic principle elections for people to exercise their rights to vote and encouraging
National unity stability and Restoration of national security.
32. Independent and economic security with a sound Human resource development
programmes as evidenced by the education ministry.
33. Promotion of regional, Pan African co-operation and Settlement of all international
disputes by peaceful means and opposition of all forms of domination while building adequate
and credible defence capacity to address internal and external threats but above all ensure the
adherence to and our international OBLIGATIONS.
CONCLUSION
34. Uganda as a nation was a making of the British protectorate in 1894 and assumed its
geographical location between 1904 and 1926 which was traced commencing at the highest
point of Mt. Sabinyo to North easterly direction. Uganda is endowed with vast resources that
even other countries cherish. One of those strategic interests of Uganda is access to the Sea ports.
These interests can only be safe guarded by crating alliances for co existence with other
countries that also have vested interests in world resources around the globe.

CHAPTER NINTEEN
REGIONAL INTERGRATION - EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY

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INTRODUCTION

1. A Region is a fairly large area of a country or world usually without exact limits.
Integration is coming together of two or more things so that they work effectively.

2. Regional integration is the coming together of states in order to enhance regional co-
operation. Economic integration is the unification of economic policies between different states
through the partial or full abolition of tariff and non-tariff restrictions on trade taking place
among them prior to their integration. This is meant in turn to lead to lower prices for distributors
and consumers with the goal of increasing the combined economic productivity of the states. The
trade stimulation effects intended by means of economic integration are part of the contemporary
economic Theory of the Second Best: where, in theory, the best option is free trade, with free
competition and no trade barriers whatsoever. Free trade is treated as an idealistic option, and
although realized within certain developed states, economic integration has been thought of as
the "second best" option for global trade where barriers to full free trade exist.

3. Countries world over have benefited from regional integration. British benefited from the
European Economic Community which was established in [Link] Union of South American
nations have given its members a lot of benefits.

4. Regional integration is facilitated by the sharing of boarders, similarity in the historical

back ground, common language, willingness to sacrifice national interests for the good of the
region and the awareness of the need to integrate. It is important to note that the critical factors
for the EAC is that East Africans are blessed with a common history, language culture and the
history of the cooperation is still fresh in their minds. The region is also endowed with natural
resources and geographical advantage and yet infrastructure net work images already exist.

5. African states continue to be marginalized and ignored in the present dynamic world due
to economically week unviable states. Regional integration is therefore a necessity in order to
create, viable, stable and economically sensible blocks to save the African people from poverty,
disease and perennial violent conflicts.

6. Regional Integration in Africa is reflected in the idea of Pan-Africanism which began

among US Blacks in the late 18 th C and 19th. This was specifically in 1850. This was the rise of

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Negro consciousness for the Back to Africa Movement Which was influenced by the nostalgia
for traditional African society. This associated with attempting to unite Black Africans behind a
consciousness of distinct political identity and Common political destiny.

7. These ideas of Negritude (black consciousness) lead to ideas of common destiny, struggle
against slavery, racism colonialism and economic domination; and socio-economic emancipation
of the black people. The Initial proponents were:

a. 1791- Quobna O Cugoano-Sons of Africa. In 1784, Stuart was employed as a

servant. He was among the educated Africans living in Britain; Stuart became active in
the Sons of Africa, an abolitionist group whose members wrote frequently to the
newspapers of the day, condemning the practice of slavery. Cugoano published an attack
on slavery entitled Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery
and Commerce of the Human Species (1787). By then a devout Christian, he wrote work
informed by that religion. His writing called for the abolition of slavery and immediate
emancipation of all slaves. It argues that the slave's duty is to escape from slavery, and
that force should be used to prevent further enslavemen. The narrative was sent to King
George III, the Prince of Wales and to Edmund Burke, a leading politician. George III,
along with much of the royal family, remained opposed to abolition of the slave trade.
Four years later, in 1791, Cugoano published a shorter version of his book, addressed to
the "Sons of Africa". In it, he expressed qualified support for the failed British efforts to
establish a colony in Sierra Leone for London’s Poor Blacks. (Mostly freed African-
American slaves who had been relocated to London after the American Revolutionary
War. Other early settlers were Black Loyalists, also former American slaves, from Nova
Scotia, who chose to move to Sierra Leone.) Cugoano called for the establishment of
schools in Britain especially for African students. Nothing is known of Cugoano after the
release of his book

b. 1887- African Association Henry Sylvester-Williams. A cultured man, he was

also qualified to teach singing and played the piano regularly. In January 1890 Williams
became a founding member of the Trinidad Elementary Teachers Union. The feature
address was given by Chief Justice Sir John Gorrie, was in favour of reform in
government and was constantly at odds with the white ruling class. Williams wrote to

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newspapers and journals on matters touching on Pan-African interests and during this
time earned some money through lecturing for the Church of England Temperance
Society. This took him to all parts of the British Isles speaking under the auspices of
parish churches. He also lectured on thrift for the National Thrift Society whose
chairman, Dr Greville Walpole, wrote that Williams's "heroic struggle to make ends meet
won his admiration because the little he was able to earn by his lectures simply defrayed
the cost of living. The then 29-year-old Williams became friendly with 32-year-old
Agnes Powell, who worked as a secretary with the Temperance Society. She was the
eldest of a family of three sons and four daughters of Captain Francis Powell of Kent,
who was prominent in local Masonic and Conservative political circles. Williams and
Agnes Powell married in 1898 in the face of the strongest opposition of her father, who
refused to give his consent and thereafter refused to receive Williams. They had five
children; the first, Henry Francis Sylvestre, was born the following year.

c. 19th -James Africanus Horton. James Horton, African surgeon, soldier and
nationalist, challenged prevailing views on the inferiority of Africans and proposed
ideologies for African self-government. His philosophies became the basis for future
African independence. Horton was born in British colonial Sierra Leone outside of
Freetown, the son of former Igbo slaves who were Recaptives. Horton lived in the village
of Gloucester until 1847 when he moved to Freetown to attend the local Church
Missionary Society School (CMS). In 1853 he was transferred to Freetown’s Fourah Bay
Institution to train for a ministry in the Church of England. His seminary studies were
cut short two years later when he was selected by the CMS to study medicine in
preparation for a medical officer position in the British army. Horton attended Kings
College in London for three years and then Edinburgh University for a fourth year to earn
an MD. In 1859 Horton was commissioned back to West Africa as staff-assistant surgeon
in the British army. During his career as a medical officer, Horton would be moved to
various posts throughout West Africa where he served in two Ashanti wars (1863 and
1873). His experiences led him to correlate topography and human health, developing
theories that eventually would earn him a reputation in the medical world and a
promotion to the army rank of surgeon-major. During his military service in West Africa,
Horton became more concerned with politics. In his book West African Countries and

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Peoples (1868), Horton challenged the prevalent notions of the racial inferiority of
Africans and also put forward several proposals for the self governance of different
African national and ethnic groups. However, Horton also saw himself as a loyal subject
of the British crown and envisioned Britain as having a strong cultural and technological
influence in the development of Africa. Thus his philosophies, radical at the time when
colonial powers were dominant, have acted as a basis for future development of African
independence and nationalist ideologies. At the age of 45, Horton retired and returned to
Freetown where he continued to promote African education as key to achieving self-
governance, and he further provided scholarships to hopeful young Africans. He also
took a keen interest in the technical and economic development of Africa, opening a bank
to finance local entrepreneurs and putting forward proposals for gold mining and railway
construction in Ghana. His business activities and gold mining investments made him
one of the wealthiest men in Africa by 1880.

d. 1930s and 40s-Marcus Garvey. Born in Jamaica, Marcus Garvey was an orator for
the Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements, to which end he founded the
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. Garvey
advanced a Pan-African philosophy which inspired a global mass movement, known as
Garveyism. Garveyism would eventually inspire others, from the Nation of Islam to the
Rastafari movement. Self-educated, Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement
Association, dedicated to promoting African-Americans and resettlement in Africa. In the
United States he launched several businesses to promote a separate black nation. After he
was convicted of mail fraud and deported back to Jamaica, he continued his work for
black repatriation to Africa. Inspired by these experiences, Marcus Garvey returned to
Jamaica in 1912 and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)
with the goal of uniting all of African diaspora to "establish a country and absolute
government of their own." After corresponding with Booker T. Washington, the
American educator who founded Tuskegee Institute, Garvey traveled to the United States
in 1916 to raise funds for a similar venture in Jamaica. He settled in New York City and
formed a UNIA chapter in Harlem to promote a separatist philosophy of social, political,
and economic freedom for blacks. In 1918, Garvey began publishing the widely
distributed newspaper Negro By 1919, Marcus Garvey and UNIA had launched the Black

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Star Line, a shipping company that would establish trade and commerce between
Africans in America, the Caribbean, South and Central America, Canada and Africa. At
the same time, Garvey started the Negros Factories Association, a series of companies
that would manufacture marketable commodities in every big industrial center in the
Western hemisphere and Africa. In August 1920, UNIA claimed 4 million members and
held its first International Convention at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
Before a crowd of 25,000 people from all over world, Marcus Garvey spoke of having
pride in African history and culture. Many found his words inspiring, but not all. Some
established black leaders found his separatist philosophy ill-conceived. W.E.B. Du Bois,
a prominent black leader and officer of the N.A.A.C.P. called Garvey, "the most
dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America." Garvey felt Du Bois was an agent of the
white elite. In 1922, Marcus Garvey and three other UNIA officials were charged with
mail fraud involving the Black Star Line. The trial records indicate several improprieties
occurred in the prosecution of the case. It didn't help that the shipping line's books
contained many accounting irregularities. On June 23, 1923, Garvey was convicted and
sentenced to prison for five years. Claiming to be a victim of a politically motivated
miscarriage of justice, Garvey appealed his conviction, but was denied. In 1927 he was
released from prison and deported to Jamaica. Garvey continued his political activism
and the work of UNIA in Jamaica, and then moved to London in 1935. But he did not
command the same influence he had earlier. Perhaps in desperation or maybe in delusion,
Garvey collaborated with outspoken segregationist and white supremacist Senator
Theodore Bilbo of Mississippi to promote a reparations scheme. The Greater Liberia Act
of 1939 would deport 12 million African-Americans to Liberia at federal expense to
relieve unemployment. The act failed in Congress, and Garvey lost even more support
among the black population. Marcus Garvey died in London in 1940 after several strokes.
Due to travel restrictions during World War II, his body was interred in London. In 1964,
his remains were exhumed and taken to Jamaica, where the government proclaimed him
Jamaica's first national hero and re-interred him at a shrine in the National Heroes Park.
But his memory and influence remain. His message of pride and dignity inspired many in
the early days of the Civil Rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. In tribute to his
many contributions, Garvey's bust has been displayed in the Organization of American
States' Hall of Heroes in Washington, D.C. The country of Ghana has named its shipping

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line the Black Star Line and its national soccer team the Black Stars, in honor of Garvey.

e. 20th C-Leopord Senghor, Senegalese poet and statesman, founder of the

Senegalese Democratic Bloc. Senghor was elected president of Senegal in the 1960s. He
retired from office in 1980. Senghor was one of the originators of the concept of
Négritude, defined as the literary and artistic expression of the black African experience.
In historical context the term has been seen as an ideological reaction against French
colonialism and a defense of African culture. It has deeply influenced the strengthening
of African identity in the French-speaking black world. Nasser, Gamal Abdel Nasser of
Egypt was born in 1918 and died in 1970. Nasser was a pivotal figure in the recent
history of the Middle East and played a highly prominent role in the 1956 Suez Crisis.
Nasser has been described as the first leader of an Arab nation who challenged what was
perceived as the western dominance of the Middle East. Nasser remains a highly revered
figure in both Egypt and the Arab world. Nasser was born in Alexandria in January 1918.
At the age of fifteen, he took part in anti-British demonstrations. Those who protested
also targeted some in the royal family who it was believed tacitly supported the power
Britain still maintained over Egypt by its joint-ownership of the Suez Canal. It was felt by
some that the Royal Family was willing to accept this as long as no attempt was made by
the British to weaken the family's power within Egypt itself. In 1935, Nasser was
wounded in the head by the British during an anti-British demonstration. In 1938, Nasser
graduated from the Royal Military Academy and joined the Egyptian Army. Within the
army, Nasser continued with his anti-British activities. In 1942, an incident occurred
which is said to have been the key turning point in Nasser's activities. In February 1942,
the British persuaded/forced the king of Egypt, King Farouq, to accept a government that
was to be headed by Nahas Pasha. At this time, Britain's power in North Africa was
reaching a peak with the defeat of the Afrika Korps and this power was especially felt in
Egypt. Nasser was appalled by what he considered to be the interference in the internal
affairs of one country by a colonial European power. For the next seven years, he used
his influence to persuade officers in the Egyptian Army that a) such interference was
unacceptable and b) that all vestiges of British rule/influence had to be removed from
Egypt. During this time, Nasser was stationed as an instructor in the Egyptian Army Staff
College. This gave him direct access to young officers who might be more prone to his

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views when compared to the older officers in the Egyptian Army. Nasser fought in the
1948 war against the newly formed Israel. During this war, Nasser held his first 'proper'
meeting with those officers who were willing to support his ideas for Egypt. The defeat
of the Arab nations in the 1948 war, gave an added impetus to their anger especially as
the Egyptian Army had to fight with faulty weapons which was linked to a supply
scandal that implicated some members of the Royal Family. Nasser was clear in his own
mind - the Royal family had to go and Egypt needed a new form of government. He
believed that the army had to take a lead in this. The defeat in 1948 strongly affected
Nasser. On top of the humiliation of losing the war, Nasser was angered by the apparent
corruption within certain sections of the Royal Family which it was thought hindered any
chance of victory. Nasser decided to basically plot against the king for the sake of
Egypt’s future.

f. Kwame Nkrumah, (21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was the leader of Ghana
and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1951 to 1966. Overseeing the nation's
independence from British colonization in 1957, Nkrumah was the first President of
Ghana and the first Prime Minister of Ghana. An influential 20th-century advocate of
Pan-Africanism, he was a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity and
was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963. He saw himself as an African Lenin.

g. Nyerere and Museveni Etc

8. Originally there was no concrete programme however in 1930, an International

Conference of Negro Workers was organized in Hamburg, Germany and what was at the centre
of this conference was identification of the enemy and the rights of the majority. Another Pan
Africanist Conference was organized in 1945 in Manchester, England and this Rejected notions
of territorial boundaries and nation-states in Africa imposed by colonialism.

9. Regional integration therefore should be understood in the context of the re-directing the
African identity to actualize these concepts of Pan Africanism. Common destiny of the Africans
regardless of ethnicity, struggle against foreign political and economic domination. The OAU
approach to integration had two thoughts, The Monrovia Group who preferred a gradual process
to OAU and the Casablanca Group the spearheaded for a Continental Government. The current

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AU new direction is Regional Economic Communities as building blocks of the African identity
which takes account of current realities.

10. Uganda Land locked that makes her dependent others for access to sea. Even before
independence open trade route to the Indian Ocean was primary foreign policy objective of all
governments through closer relations among the region as an important foreign policy objective.
The Primary focus Uganda’s foreign policy is regional integration through The EAC and AU.
11. Regional integration is a process which goes through the stages of Preferential Trade
Area (PTA) which is a trade pact between countries that reduces tariffs for certain products to
members however the tariffs are not necessarily eliminated, they are lower than countries not
party to the agreement. Free Trade Area is where all tariffs are abolished but each remains with
it’s against non members e.g. FTAA or NAFTA. Commerce in goods and services can be
conducted across their common borders, without tariffs or hindrances. Customs union abolishes
all but common tariff against nonmember it removes trade barriers, and reduce or eliminate
customs duty on mutual trade. A customs union generally imposes a common external-tariff on
imports from non-member countries and generally does not allow free movement of capital and
labor among member countries. Common markets free movement of factors of production Group
formed by countries within a geographical area to promote duty free trade and free movement of
labor and capital among its members. European community (as a legal entity within the
framework of European Union) is the best known example. Common markets impose common
external tariff (CET) on imports from non-member countries. Economic Union where economic
policies are with a single currency, or different currencies having a fixed mutual exchange rate
monitored and controlled by one central bank (or several central banks with closely coordinated
monetary policies). Other books however relate the degree of economic integration can to seven
stages Preferential trading area, Free trade area, Customs union, Common market, Economic
union, union and the Complete Economic Integration.

12. The East African Community is a regional integration block with five member states
which includes Uganda. Uganda has benefited from this arrangement since its inception. The
benefits range from security, Political, social, to Economic.

AIM

13. The text aims at analyzing the benefits of Integration with EAC as a case study.

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BRIEF BACKGROUND

14. The East African community (EAC) started as early as 1900, when Uganda and Kenya
operated a customs union. Tanzania and Tanganyika later joined the Union in 1922. Regional
integration arrangements in the East Africa have included the East Africa High commission
(1948-1961), the East Africa common service organization (1961-1967) and the former East
African community which lasted from 1967 until its collapse in 1977.

15. The collapsed of the community resulted into, Loss of employment, Loss of common
services, Loss of free movement of persons, goods and services, Unhealthy and wasteful
competition creating negative nationalism, Political destabilization and tensions, Suspicion and
mistrust among Partner States.

16. The causes of the collapse included, but are not limited, to Greed and short sightedness
on the part of some influential political leaders in East Africa at the time and inadequate
involvement of the people. Disagreements on the sharing of benefits arising from jointly owned
Common Services Organisations and lack of adequate policy to address the disagreements. The
partner states followed different political ideologies: Kenya was capitalist oriented; Tanzania
was socialist oriented while Uganda was non committal although it professed the common man
charter (leftist leaning). The influence of the US and Soviet Union cold war. The involvement of
the private sector and the Soviet Union was low in running of the community.

17. The experiences in the 1970 and 80, of low rates of economic growth, low living
standards, spurred the move to re-think centrally administered inward looking economic
regulatory systems all over the world. Even India with its huge domestic market where the idea
of import substitution was born, has switched to a more out ward looking market oriented
strategy, with positive results so far. The EAC was not an exception to this idea as it realized the
value of the integration, the Mediation Agreement of 1984 paved way for the re-
establishment of the collapsed cooperation. This later led to the signing of the treaty for the
establishment of the EAC on 30 November 1999, and was ratified on July 2000.

18. To avoid another collapse of the EAC, Safeguards in the new treaty drawing lessons
from the experience for the collapsed EAC, the treaty provides for:

a. A gradual approach to regional integration in four phases that is:

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(1). Phase 1-Customs union (at entry ports, Mombasa and Dar el Salaam).

(2). Phase 2-Common Market.

(3). Phase 3-Monetary union.

(4). Phase 4 -Political federation.

b. De-concentration of power from the summit.

c. People centered and private sector driven integration.

d. Involvement of the civil society as the key stake holder.

e. Withdrawal procedures have been made more stringent.

d. EAC is currently comprised of the Republics of Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda

Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. South Sudan, north Sudan and
Somalia are some of the countries which have also shown interest in joining the
EAC to benefit from the integration.

VISION, MISION OBJECTIVES AND ORGANS OF THE EAC

19. The Vision of EAC is to create a prosperous, competitive, secure (stable) and politically
united East Africa and the mission is to widen and deepen economic, political, social and cultural
integration in order to improve the quality of life of the people of East Africa.

20. The objectives of the EAC are:

a. To develop policies and programs aimed at widening and deepening cooperation
in political, economic, social, cultural, defense, security, research and technology,
legal and judiciary among partner states for their mutual benefits
b. The establishment of a Customs Union, a Common Market, a Monetary Union
and ultimately a Political Federation. The Organs for decision making of the EAC
include the following:
c. Summit of Heads of State. The Summit comprises of Heads of Government of
Partner States gives general direction towards the realisation of the goal and objectives
of the Community.

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d . Council Of Ministers. The Council of Ministers is the main decision-making

institution. It is made up of Ministers/ Cabinet Secretary from the Partner States
responsible for regional co-operation.
e. Coordination/Consultative Committees. The Co-coordinating Committee consists
of Permanent/ Principal Secretaries and reports to the Council. It is responsible for
regional co-operation and co-ordinates the activities of the sectoral committees
f. Sectoral Committees. The Sectoral Committees conceptualise programmes and
monitor their implementation. Council establishes the committees on recommendation
of the respective co-ordinating committee.
21. The operational ORGANS OF EAC include the following:
a. East African Court of Justice (EACJ) The East African Court of Justice ensures
that Community law is interpreted and implemented in line with the Treaty.
b. East Africa Legislative Assembly (EALA) This organ provides a democratic
forum for debate. It has a watchdog function and also plays a part in the legislative
process.
c. The Secretariat. This Secretariat is the executive organ of the Community. As the
guardian of the Treaty, it ensures that regulations and directives adopted by the
Council are properly implemented.
FUDAMNETAL PRICIPLES OF THE EAC

22. They include the following:

a. Mutual trust.
b. Political will and sovereign equality.
c. Peaceful coexistence and good neighborliness.
d. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
e. Good governance, the rule of law, accountability, transparency, social justice,
equal opportunities, gender equality, recognition and protection of Human Rights
and cultural heritage.
f. Equal distribution of benefits.
g. Cooperation and mutual benefits.

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BENEFITS OF THE EAC INTEGRATION

23. The benefits of the Integration includes the creation of employment opportunities,
creation of wider markets, joint infrastructural development and maintenance, increased
exploitation of the natural resources, economies of scale Joint bargain, Security and other
benefits as will be seen below.

24. Employment opportunities. These are created as more factories and companies
enter the market to produce. The existing companies and factories have also expanded to
meet the demands of the community; this increases the employment opportunities. The free
movement of the factors of production in the region has allowed members to move and get
employment the region which good for the region. The employment opportunities may not
be seen easily due to the fact that the constant increase in the population creates more
unemployment as the rates at which the industries are creating jobs may not be
commensurate with the population increase.

25. Creation of Wider Markets. The realisation of a large regional economic bloc
encompassing Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda with a combined population of
more than 130 million people (2010), land area of 1.82 million sq kilometers and a combined
Gross Domestic Product of $74.5 billion (2009), bears great strategic and geopolitical
significance and prospects of a renewed and reinvigorated East African Community. This
bigger market as opposed to 35,000,000 Ugandans has been an engine in the economic
development of the region. Industries that have been producing for a small market have
expanded production to meet the demands of the population of the community and thus
development. This wide market increases revenues to the respective governments and also
attracts more serious local and international investors to the region thus improving standards of
living through better incomes and easier access to cheaper and more abundant goods.

26. Joint infrastructural development and maintenance. The development

infrastructure like road and railways are usually expensive for developing countries like
Uganda; by integrating are pooled together for the benefit of all. The EAC agreed to
construct roads five corridors in the region. This was to cost USD 5 Bn. Uganda directly
benefited from corridor II which is the road from Mombasa via Malaba to Katuna. These
project works included rehabilitation, reconstruction, up grading. This was as a result of

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the tripartite agreement on joint road transport development in the region. Research and
development has been promoted jointly in the partner states in the economic integration.

27. Exploitation of the natural resources. Wide markets bring about full capacity
production which is as a result of utilization of resources. This ensures full employment
which also increases possibilities of specialization along lines of comparative states of the
union. This in the end reduces costs of national conflicts and possibilities of war and free
movement of population promotes peace. This peace is the major factor in attracting
investments in the region.

28. Economies of scale. It will also foster rapid economic advantage which may lead to
efficient use of scarce resources, increase in output, and drop in production costs and
commodity prices in the partner states. This increases economic welfare among partner
states.

29. Joint bargain. The summit held in Kampala in April 2002 the EAC heads of state
directed that the partner states should negotiate as a block on International issues
including World trade. The EAC is now marketed as a single tourist destination which is
good for not only the members but also the respective countries.

30. Security Benefits. The EAC treat Art 125 established an MOU of 2001 Areas of co-
operation and these included Military Training, Joint Operations Technical Assistance and Visits
and Exchange of Information. This was preceded by the 28 April 2012 EAC Protocol on Defense
Cooperation that widened cooperation. The Protocols have been ratified and Defense Pact to be
signed. Defense coordination offices have been established with Defense Liaison Office at EAC
Secretariat. EAC Desk Officers at Partner States’ Defense HQs has also been established.

31. Other Benefits. These include better shield against global economic shocks, reduced
localized scarcity of food and better regional food security, optimal utilization of existing
training and educational facilities at lower cost. Enhanced quality management through Common
Standards. Enhanced global influence of member states, improved social-services and better
synergetic development are also benefits of the integration. Social benefits include Conservation
of our cultural heritage, use of common language, cooperation of mutual benefits, peaceful
coexistence and good neighbourliness and peaceful settlement of disputes. Political benefits
include and are not limited to Cost effective political administration, good governance
democracy and political stability, enhanced democratic space devoid of nepotism and negative

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ethnicity and mutual trust and good will.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF THE EAC

32. As contained in Article 7 of the EAC treaty, the principles that shall govern the
practical achievements of the objectives of the community shall include:

a. People centered and marker driven cooperation.

b. Provision of adequate and appropriate enabling environment such as policies

and basic infrastructure.

c. Establishment of export oriented economy in which there shall be free

movement of goods, persons, labor, services, capital an information.

d. The principle of subsidiary at multilevel in the integration process.

e. The principle of variable geometry which allows for the community for wider
integration schemes in various fields and at different speeds.

f. Equitable distribution of benefits accruing from the operations to address

the imbalances in the region.

INSTITUTIONS OF THE EAC

33. These institutes include the following:

a. East African Development Bank (EADB), EADB has paid a €623m Kenyan wind energy
project it is co-financing will expand power distributed via that country’s national grid by one
fifth. The EADB said the loan signing for the ‘Lake Turkana Window Power Project’, which
took place last March, represented the “largest private investment in the country’s history”. The
project includes building 365 wind turbines and adding an estimated 42 kilometers of
transmission lines to connect and supply power to the national grid. The facility is expected to
start generating energy in early 2016 and add around 300 megawatts electric to Kenya’s overall
generating capacity. With long-term financing from the East African Development Bank,
Bluebay Hotels and Spa put up one of Zanzibar’s first five-star hotels. Known as Sultan Sands
Island Resort, the facility is a major attraction on the idyllic Indian Ocean Island that that has
always been a magnet for regional and international tourists. n 2004, a tea producer in rural
Uganda approached the East African Development Bank (EADB) for a loan so it could increase
production. The bank agreed to lend USD 700,000 to the Kayonza Tea Factory, located about
400 kilometers south west of the capital, Kampala, and lent a further USD 335,588 so the

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producer could buy more land. Ten years later, the £1 million investment has borne fruit in terms
of work, jobs and more tea for export. The factory, which is managed by the Uganda Tea
Development Agency, now has 5,000 farmers and 600 employees. Kayonza’s tea is regarded as
top quality, is compared favorably with tea from Kenya, and fetches consistently good prices at
auction. The EADB has also financially supported the Igara Growers Tea Factory in western
Uganda. Uganda is the second largest producer of tea in East Africa after Kenya. The value of
Uganda’s tea exports grew by almost 16% in 2013 to USD 85.5 million from USD 73.9 million
in 2012.

b. Inter-University Council Of East Africa (IUCEA) In East Africa regional higher

education interactions and cooperation originates from the pre-independence era when Makerere
University College was the only higher education institution in the region serving students from
Kenya, the then Tanganyika, and Zanzibar in East Africa as well as from the then Rhodesia and
Nyasaland in central and southern Africa, which now consist of Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Later in 1963, university colleges were formed in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam as constituent
colleges of the then University of East Africa that had been established during the era of
independence of the four countries (Uganda, Kenya, Zanzibar and Tanganyika). Makerere
College was the third constituent college of the University Of East Africa. In 1970, the
University of East Africa was dissolved and the University of Dar es Salaam, Makerere
University and the University of Nairobi were established as separate national universities for
Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya respectively. In the same year, due to the need to maintain
collaboration between these universities the Inter-University Committee (IUC) was established
under the auspices of the first EAC. The role of IUC was to facilitate contact and cooperation
among the three universities (University of Dar es Salaam, Makerere University and University
of Nairobi). IUC was hosted in Kampala, Uganda. In 1977, the former EAC collapsed and the
support that IUC was receiving from the Partner States declined. However, IUC continued to
coordinate cooperation between the three universities albeit with resource constraints that
severely limited its functions. In 1980, after consultations involving permanent/principal
secretaries responsible. This raised concern about institutional sustainability and hence prompted
a study by the Commonwealth Higher Education Management Services (CHEMS) between
November 1998 and March 1999 with a view to revitalizing IUCEA. The aim of the study was to
develop a viable strategy for expansion and sustainability of IUCEA. The Main Objectives are:

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(1). Facilitate networking among universities in East Africa, and with

universities outside the region;

(2). Provide a forum for discussion on a wide range of academic and other
matters relating to higher education in East Africa; and

(3). Facilitate maintenance of internationally comparable education standards

in East Africa so as to promote the region's competitiveness in higher
education.

c. Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO) The LVFO East African Community
Institution constituents are from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The Organizations aim is to
harmonize, develop and adopt conservation and management measures for the sustainable
utilization of living resources of Lake Victoria to optimize socio-economic benefits from the
basin for the three Partner States.

d. Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC) The East African Community has designated
Lake Victoria and its Basin as an "area of common economic interest" and a "regional economic
growth zone" to be developed jointly by the Partner States. And Lake Victoria is the focus of
new attention following the declaration by the East African Community Heads of State that a
joint programme be developed for the overall management and rational utilization of the shared
resources of the Lake. The East African Community established the Lake Victoria Basin
Commission formerly known as the Lake Victoria Development Programme in 2001, as a
mechanism for coordinating the various interventions on the Lake and its Basin; and serving as a
centre for promotion of investments and information sharing among the various stakeholders.
The programme is the driving force for turning the Lake Victoria Basin into a real economic
growth zone.

CENTRES OF EXCELLENCE FOR THE EAC

34. These include the following:

a. Dar-Es-Salaam Maritime Institute –Tanzania Dar es Salaam Maritime Institute is

the first maritime training institution of its kind to be set up in the country. The Ministry
of Communications and Transport established the Dar es Salaam Maritime Training Unit
(DMTU) in 1978 to fulfill the needs for well-trained seafarers for Tanzanian shipping
companies. It was initially a training section of the Tanzania Coastal Shipping Line

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(TACOSHILI), established in 1971. Previously all Shipping companies were forced to

send their cadets abroad to be trained as marine officers. The first group of candidates
started training at DMTU on 3rd July 1978.

b. Utali College – Kenya This Kenya based Utalii College (KUC) is Africa's leading
Hospitality and Tourism training institution. Established over 44 years ago the College
has trained over 50,000 graduates from around the world, majority of who have served in
the local and international Hospitality and Tourism industries. The College is an affiliate
member of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). Some of our
courses have acquired accreditation by the UNWTO Tourism Education Quality
(TEDQUAL) certification body. Further, KUC is an authorized International Air Travel
Agency (IATA) training center, as well as, the only Sub-Saharan Africa's Japanese
training center.

c. Soroti Flying Academy – Uganda. EACAA was established in September 1971 as

the East Africa Civil Aviation Flying School of excellence under the Directorate of Civil
Aviation (DCA) of the East African Community (EAC), with Government of Uganda,
EAC and the United Nations Development Program and the International Civil Aviation
Organisation UNDP/ICAO as the main contributors. While GoU upgraded the Soroti
Airfield runway from grass surface to asphalt, EAC financed the construction of the
school buildings, staff housing and navigation facilities as well as providing the
administration staff and some technical personnel like counterpart instructors, Air traffic
controllers and Meteorologists. Further, the UNDP/ICAO provided technical assistance
in three programs running from 1971 – 1985 in which these UN agencies supplied all
training equipment including aircraft, engineering workshop equipment, training aids and
project vehicles, among others. They also provided expatriate instructional staff as well
as training for counterpart technical staff. East African Airways provided the bulk of
counterpart flying and engineering instructors.

ORGANISATIONS WITH OBSERVER STATUS

35. These include:

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a. East African Business council (EABC)

b. East African Trade union(EATUC)

c. East African Centre for constitutional Development. (Kituo cha Katiba).

d. East African Development Association.

e. East African Law society.

f. East African Magistrates and Judges Association

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE INTEGRATION

36. One the achievements of integration was confidence building with good measures such
as:
a. The Treaty establishing the EAC.
b. Several Protocols developed and are operational.
c. Memoranda of Understanding.
37. There has also been policy harmonisation which has been in the following areas:
a. Easing of cross border movement of persons and goods no visa.
b. East African passports accepted as legal travel document within the community.
c. 7 days’ grace period for personal motor vehicles.
d. Immigration desks for East Africans at international airports.
e. Re-introduction of interstate passes.
f. Withdrawal of visa charges for students.
38. The EAC aims at widening and deepening co-operation among the Partner States in,
among others, political, economic and social fields for their mutual benefit.
39. To this extent the EAC countries established a Customs Union in 2005 which provide for
the following Tax regime in Commodity:
a. Products produced in the region move freely not taxed.
b. Raw materials at O tax.
c. 10 % for semi finished goods coming in the region.
d. 25 % for all the rest of the goods.
e. Sugar 80 % tax to protect our sugar industries.
f. Single tax territory instead of 5 old ones as all taxes is done in one point and
funds are remitted to the country which has speeded the movement of goods.
g. Single tourist visa in final stages.

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h. Removal of work permits.

40. The EAC also established Common Market in 2010 which deals with four freedoms
namely:
a. Persons and labuor
b. Services and service providers
c. Goods
d. Capital and right of establishing was launched in 2010.
41. The next phase of the integration will see the block enter into a Monetary Union and
ultimately become a Political Federation of the East African States. Just like other federations
like the USA, Nigeria, South Africa.
42. The members of the community are now negotiating as a block with European Union
and (EU) and the World Trade Organization. (WTO).
43. EAC Has almost complete. The East Africa Community now has a permanent place to
call home following 28 Nov 12 grand opening of an ultra-modern office complex in Arusha,
Tanzania. The apparent significance of the Euros 18.8m office complex fully funded by the
German government was also underlined by the attendance of other high ranking dignitaries
from the diplomatic community as well as those among the business and civil society
communities.
44. Peace and Security in the region as a result of EAC strategy on peace and security.
45. Protocol on Defense.
46. Joint Defense arrangements (exercises, operations, training, etc….)
47. Reduced tension in the region therefore better security.
48. More secure region (guarantee caused by size).
49. East African Passport for East Africans is now in Place.
50. 1 % of value of imports to run the EAC to reduce donors.

CHALLENGES

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51. a. The economies of the Partner States are growing at different speeds, and have
reached varied levels of progress. The fear among the faster growing economies is that
poor performers will slow them down whereas the slower growing economies fear
marginalization. No formula has been developed to address issues of equitability in sharing
the benefits accruing from integration without compromising the momentum of achievers.
The EAC is however strengthening the East African Development Bank (EADB) to address
some of these issues.
b. Reliance on donors for the most basic operations of the EAC is seen to
threaten steps towards further integration with however the EAC is strengthening.
c. Issues relating to sovereignty keep coming up.
d. Reluctance to negotiate as a bloc.
e. Multiple/overlapping membership of many regional organization with varying
objectives.
f. Inadequate information dissemination.
g. The changing global environment.
h. Inadequate private sector participation.
i. Managing distribution of costs and benefits.
j. Resource constraints.
FUTURE TRENDS
52. The new EAC is encouraging formation of regional level civil society.
It further intends to set up co-ordinated, harmonised, and complementary transport and
communication policies to improve existing links and to establish new ones.
The Development of East Africa will require the mobilisation of vast resources, from within and
outside the region which can be obtainable only through collective action. The East Africa
peoples consider themselves as one and believe that for this same reason, integration will be
facilitated. Monetary union will be aiming at eventual creating a single currency. 10 years road
map predicts that we shall have fully integrated However conditions set in place due to diff
economic performance are as follows:
a. Inflation sealing of 8 %.
b. Borrowing not more that 5 %.
c. Tax collection 25 %of GDP Uganda is currently at 12 %.

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53. For the smooth running of the monetary union the following measures are to be put in
place:
a. EAC central Bank where National Banks report to it.
b. Commission to deal with statistics
c. Commission to deal with surveillance, compliance and enforcement
d. Financial Institutions to deal with capital movement, pension.
CONCLUSION

54. The EAC region is emerging as a world power with increasing relevance on the world
stage. Integration is the only guarantee that we shall fight marginalization and increasing
irrelevance.

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CHAPTER TWENTY
PATRIOTISM: MEANING AND NECESSITY TO SECURITY FORCES

INTRODUCTION

1. Patriotism is an ideology and a deep sense of national consciousness that every citizen
and leader needs; it is a matter for all citizens in their individual or collective capacity,
depicting a citizens’ level of responsibility and national duty. Sacrifice is an extreme expression
of patriotism. More common expressions are a feeling of pride in belonging and a willingness to
act for the good of the overall community, sometimes at the cost of personal interest. Patriotism,
in conclusion, stems from a feeling - a feeling of loyalty and commitment to one’s country, and
pride in its history and accomplishments. The family-tribal feeling that is at the nucleus of
patriotism is what leads to a distinction between groups of humans and to the sense of
commonality among members of a specific political entity, generally based upon shared
language, culture, history and ethnic kinship. Patriotism in its classical and commonly accepted
sense is not universal but particular. It is defined by what brings together those who share it and
separates them from those who do not share it. Every citizen must perform such duties and
responsibilities by way of national service or engaging in gainful work to ensure personal
prosperity, which on aggregate translates in a nation’s development and prosperity.

2. Patriotism raises the usefulness of a citizen to his/her country, and therefore addresses an
individual’s sense of national responsibility. A patriotic spirit is a function of knowledge and
deep understanding of both the traditions and heritage of the country, and of the universal
principles of development. Therefore, development of patriotism entails sensitizing and
teaching citizens the aspects above. The argument that patriotism cannot be taught is not
accurate , because ordinarily human beings are not born with social behavior, emotions and
attitudes; these are gradually inculcated, systematically and consciously through schooling,
media campaigns, religious institutions, etc. The program mandate derives from chapter XXIX
of the national objectives and principles of state policy and Article 17 of the Constitution of
Uganda. They explain the current negative perceptions associated with patriotism program: that
it is NRM & HEX President Museveni’s indoctrination design to perpetuate their hold on to
power and that the program illegally militarizes children.

DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS

2. a. Patriotism -The deep love for ones’ country and willingness to defend and
sacrifice for it. In this definition, one demonstrates love, through care for, and service to
ones’ country. Love is demonstrated through a spirit of; deep pride in ones’ own identity,
Respect for national symbols such as the national emblem, motto, flag, and currency,
sacrifice and working for the well-being of the country. Patriotism may also be
graphically defined in form of the acronym – FON, where:
F = Future thinker (i.e. Thinking of the future)

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O = Others’ thinker (thinking about others)

N = Nation thinker (thinking about the nation)

b. Country: Any demarcated territory of Land with a people occupying it and bound
together by a recognized border.

c. Nation: Refers to a people who over a long period become bound together by a
common history, enabling them to develop a shared culture, aspirations, and interests. A
common language also often defines a nation. A nation may occupy one country or may
cut across different territories.
d. Nation-State: Refers to a country in which a nation is being forged or formed
under an independent and sovereign government. This is the case of most post-colonial
African nation-states.

e. A state: Is defined as the aggregate of all institutions of authority that enforce

governance over a territory. A state therefore is the totality of instruments of power. A
state has inter-related and complimentary organs as below;

(1) Head of state

(2) Cabinet
(3) Army
(4) Police
(5) Prisons Executive
(6) Intelligence
(7) Civil service
(8) Local government authorities
(9) Parliaments (Legislature)
(10) Courts of law (Judiciary)
(11) The Army is the chief component of state that guarantees the sovereignty
and territorial integrity of any country. The major functions of the state are;

(a) Governance i.e. implementing and executing government policies.

(b) Legislating laws for good governance.
(c) Dispensing justice through adjudicators (Judiciary).

DEFINING THE FUNDAMENTAL VALUES OF PATRIOTISM IN THE CONTEXT

OF UGANDA AND AFRICA

3. a. Love and loyalty to the country: starting with self- respect. Respect on the
whole means one must handle ones life carefully vis avis being reckless. Avoid
drunkness, promiscuity, dishonesty etc, so that you dont undermine the ability to

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positively contribute to developing Uganda and Africa in general. Respect knowledge by

being a serious student of societal issues. Never despise learning - it is unpatriotic.
Further respect duty and hard work in general. Love and loyalty are premised on the
assumption that there are fundamental interests common to all citizens that all citizens
ought to appreciate and pursue them as imperatives for national survival. Some of these
become a matter of common good and hence common values.

b. Sacrifice for the country by trying to be as selfless as possible. Selfishness itself

due to lack of political education breeds corruption and subversive tendencies against
the motherland, and end with suicidal activities that end up ruining individuals. When
you sacrifice you lead a modest lifestyle, you are humble and down to earth.

c. Prosperity as a value, every human being cherishes and is interested in living a

happy life with all necessities of life available to guarantee prosperous life. The question
then becomes, where does prosperity come from? The obvious answer is gainful work.
Therefore, this becomes the second value under responsibilities of a citizen.
d. Gainful work: should be cherished by all citizens as the only source of producing
the means of livelihood; goods and services. This calls for another common interest; that
is markets.
e. Market becomes an interest after realizing that no single person is an island and
therefore citizens ought to appreciate that they need bigger spaces beyond the limited
localities, a reality that brings the importance of national unity as opposed to
sectarianism.
f. Nationalism is a patriotic value on account of - Markets, humanity, and linkages
and common heritage.
g. The other patriotic value inevitably becomes Pan-Africanism for similar reasons
as of nationalism.
h. Socio-economic transformation is yet one patriotic value because it guarantees
both prosperity and is at the center of national survival and cohesion. Can love for the
country be taught? In his book, “The Long Walk to Freedom”, Nelson Mandela
observes that to hate is not natural to people, but is taught. If hate can be taught, it can
also be untaught, moreover to love is more natural and can therefore be promoted. This
analogy is indeed very relevant to the debate on whether a national spirit can be taught. In
Uganda, it is very true that sometimes individuals and the media do promote a hate
campaign; it is for this reason that in a bid to maintain National cohesion and responsible
citizenship, a deliberate sensitization program to promote patriotism becomes an
imperative.

IMPORTANCE OF PATRIOTISM IN NATION BUILDING

4. Uganda – despite of kinship relations is one country; for example, the king of Buganda
can only be crowned after the Bora dance as the first ritual but not the Bakisimba dance which is

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the most popular in Busoga, crowning of the king only takes place under the superintendent of
the king of Bunyoro. In Busoga again, the Abalamogi clan is part of lamogi clan in Acholi such
region who migrated south and lost their language and culture etc, etc. H.E The President of
Uganda has outlined the strategic bottlenecks that have constrained Uganda’s socio-economic
development since independence. Top most on this list is the problem of Ideological
disorientation. Others include;

a. A weak private sector,

b. An underdeveloped human resource
c. Inadequate infrastructure
d. Small markets,
e. Lack of industrialization,
f. An underdeveloped services sector,
g. An underdeveloped agricultural sector and
h. Poor governance,
5. Ideological disorientation and general underdevelopment are a legacy left behind by
colonialism whose mission could only be realized through denying indigenous Africans self-
determination, undermining the African identity - thus creating a colonial /slave mentality and
an inferiority complex. Ideological orientation of young Ugandans should be in the form of
knowledge whose purpose is to improve the ability of each Ugandan to appreciate these
bottlenecks and enable them to contribute effectively to the improvement of national welfare. It
must reveal the fundamental problems and help to distinguish the strategic (fundamental)
problem of society from its manifestations (symptoms). For Uganda and Africa, the fundamental
problem is Backwardness &Underdevelopment. This fundamental problem manifests itself
through certain social, economic, and political indicators such as poverty, disease, poor
infrastructure, political instability, corruption, sectarianism, etc. The spirit of patriotism is
inculcated by enabling leaders to appreciate this fundamental problem of Africa, the
cause/enemy, and get to know that in order to transform from this bad situation, patriotism
becomes an imperative. Be able to distinguish manifestations of the problem from the actual
fundamental problem.

6. Ideological development entails the study of society using the science of analytical
thinking; this ultimately builds ones capacity to appreciate why and how things happen. Patriots
as nation builders must have good leadership skills, founded on a progressive ideology. Skills of
leadership are quite different from mere talented leadership. While talent may be a born ability,
skill presupposes acquired ability through scientific training. Ideological training is not based on
guess work, but rather is a scientific study of both society and universal laws of development.

Appreciating Reality

7. Scientifically, society is looked at as part of reality, where everything in the world is

constantly undergoing change and development. All things in nature are connected and
interconnected, related and inter-related, linked and inter-linked, dependent and inter-dependent,

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penetrative and inter-penetrative. Additionally, all should pay attention to the following scientific
principles:-

a. Objectivity (as opposed to subjectivity).

To be objective means, you call a spade a spade i.e. appreciate things as they are, and
not as one wishes them to be. Interpreting things according to ones’ wishes
constitutes subjectivity. Subjectivity leads to failure to see situations as they really are
and, therefore, leads to incorrect judgments and actions.

b. Concrete Historical Analysis. This principle stresses the importance of sticking to

the facts of history while carrying out analysis. It enables a leader /decision maker to
take into account the fact that all processes have a history, and that the present can
only be fully understood by studying that history.

c. The Materialist approach. This is a scientific standpoint that recognizes all things in
the world (i.e. universe) to be material processes, where the existence of the world is
primary (i.e. comes first) and our awareness of it (consciousness) is secondary. It is
because the world exists that the human mind is able to become aware of (or reflect)
it. Thus, materialism is the opposite of idealism, which takes ideas to come first
(primary) before existence of the world.

d. Political Economy: Some Basic Concept. This is the branch of science that
specifically studies the laws that govern the development of society. In the natural
sciences like physics, biology and chemistry, we study how and why things happen
the way they do in nature. We discover the laws of motion (physics), the laws of how
chemicals are formed (chemistry), laws of life (biology) etc. Political economy on
the other hand studies how and why society changes and develops.

8. MEANING OF IDEOLOGY. Ideology is defined as a system of ideas and ideals that

form the basis of economic or political theory of a social or political movement. It is also defined
as a body of doctrine and beliefs that guide an individual. Ideology is crucial for a liberation
movement or, indeed, any political group that wants to manage society. It is a compass that
guides a political organization through a myriad of converging or diametrically opposed issues.
How do you correctly relate with different religious groups, traditional groups, business
community, peasants, landowners, landless peasants in such a manner that Uganda remains
united and becomes a modern country? How do we correctly handle the issue of external
relations in such a manner that a country benefits without becoming a tool of external parasitic
interests? So the question becomes what should Uganda or Africa as a whole take as the
imperatives of an appropriate ideology? It is important that leaders know and explain to the
people, the history of Uganda and Africa in order to correctly diagnose the real cause of Africa’s

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problem. There is need to appreciate that after formal colonialism ended, there set in a new
phenomenon of distortion called neo colonialism that has largely thrived on ideological
disorientation of the people and their leaders. All leaders should find time to read widely. For
example, the book by Dr. Walter Rodney’s entitled: “How Europe underdeveloped Africa.” In
this book, Rodney clearly explains the existence of two worlds (dual phenomena), showing that
how Europe, North America and Japan live an opulent life in houses built with cement and iron-
bars (mitayimbwa), drive cars, people in Africa, Asia and Latin America stay in straw or grass-
thatched huts and walked on foot. This meant that the raw-materials of the whole world were
being used to provide good life for only the people of Europe, who constitute a small group of
the population of the world. Hence, the raw materials were always cheap such as steel, cement,
oil and copper. The challenge for Europe is now that hundreds of millions of Chinese, Indians,
Brazilians and even Africans are now beginning to live a good life and, therefore, the demand for
the raw-materials have gone up. The price of a ton of steel used to be $200. It is now $900.
a. Sectarianism has no place in nation building. To go back to the issue of ideology, the
first principle is nationalism. For a long time Uganda experienced sectarian politics.
Prior to the emergence of NRM, all the political parties in Uganda were not nationalist;
they were sectarian on account of religion and [Link] was a party for Protestants, DP
a party for Catholics, and Kabaka Yekka (KY) was a party for Baganda Protestants.
These were bankrupt platforms. Before colonialism, there was trade between the East
African Coast and all parts of Uganda, Congo. There was also trade within Uganda in
bark-cloth from Kooki and Bukoba, hoes from Bunyoro, etc. Textiles and guns were
coming from the coast in exchange for ivory. Therefore, the stand of nationalism is not
based on mere rhetoric or emotionalism. It is based on the legitimate and core interests of
the people, who are producers or consumers. Therefore, those who push sectarianism are
enemies of the core interests of the people. There are also linkages between Luo and the
Bantu dialects; the Bantu dialects and Lugbara; the Bantu dialects and Ateso,
Karimojong, etc. A cow in Ateso is “akiteng” you notice the closeness with “ente” the
Bantu word for cow. In Luo the word for cow is dyang. In Runyankore the word
endyanga means a bag made out of animal skins. The Lugbara word for syphilis is:
“oya”. In Runyankore, the word for syphilis is ebihooya. In Runyoro-Rutooro, ebihooya
means sores or wounds. The word lubaala in Acholi means anthem. The word mubala in
Luganda means clan anthem. All the clans in this part of Africa are exogamous, they
marry outside the clan, never within the same clan, etc. Therefore, when we talk about
the oneness of the African people, it is a talk founded on historical, cultural and linguistic
facts in addition to the complementarities in the economy. Another advantage out of
integration is diversified talent. The wider the population catchment area the broader the
talent base. That is why a country like the US actually grabs scientists from all over the
world. Having seen that nationalism is superior to sectarianism and more beneficial for
the people, we need to advance to the second principle:- Pan-Africanism.

b. Pan-Africanism. This is nationalism on a bigger scale. Under nationalism, we saw how

economic inter-dependence among our communities and between individuals is the basis
of socio-economic prosperity. We also saw the historical linkages among the peoples of
Uganda. We also saw the efficiency nationalism brings into the organs of state such as in
the army, in scientific discoveries, etc. These advantages will be more amplified when it

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comes to Pan-Africanism, e.g; bigger markets, unity of more people of Africa who share
the same similarities and linkages, capturing more talents from a wider catchment,
rationalizing the African borders and guaranteeing our strategic security by building our
defence capacity on land, at sea, in the air and in space.
c. Socio-Economic Transformation. The third principle is socio-economic transformation
resulting into the formation of a middle class society with a skilled working class.
However, in order to recapitulate, in brief, you remember we pointed out then that the
stimuli for socio-economic transformation are the following: Peace and stability, at least
in some parts of the country, Correct macro-economic policies (control inflation, etc),
Industrialisation, Modernising services, Modernising agriculture, Developing the human
resource, Modernising infrastructure (roads, electricity, the railways, piped water,
information communication technology (ICT), etc; The social infrastructure needed is
schools as well as health units; and markets that are big enough to absorb our products.
d. Democracy. The final principle is democracy. A patriot is a democrat and believes in
tenets of democracy like; listening to other peoples’ views,being torelant and patient,
being accountable, and respecting and using the right fora. Democracy makes leaders
accountable to the people. Leaders in a democracy need to do two things; do what the
people want that is rationally correct and relevant; but - educate the people on how they
can improve their lives. For example, drinking un boiled milk or sharing “marwa” tubes
is a popular practice amongst some of our people. However, it is not acceptable to join
the populism of drinking un-boiled milk or sharing tubes simply because it is a popular
practice. To do so would be engaging in cheap populism which is subversive. As a leader,
you would be an enemy of the people if you do not guide them to change from bad habits
and behavior.

9. NECESSITY OF PATRIOTISM TO SECURITY FORCES.

a. The Security Forces’ checkered history. Uganda was born as a conquest state in
the late 19th century by imperial Britain, prior to this conquest, society regulated its self;
but with this conquest in 1894, the colonial state ruled the people of Uganda. The
creation of security forces to wit; the Kings African riffles, police and then prisons
necessitated this rule, as the repressive arm of the colonial state.
The orientation of these security forces was twofold; to fight for the interests of the
colonial masters and as a repressive force against the masses from whom they had been
drawn. The first of such forces was created by Capt. Fredrick Lugard in 1888/9 along
with F.J. Jackson. In 1892 Lugard assisted by Capt. William Mackinnon decisively
defeated Catholics in the battle of Mengo where it is conservatively estimated that over
100,000 lives were lost in this repressive fight. In 1894, Col Colville dispatched an army
composed of 30,000 Baganda soldiers, 4,000 Nubians and 18 European officers to attack
Mwanga and Kabalega until they were defeated at the battle of “Angai” in Lango. They
were both captured and taken to Kisimayu in 1899. Twoddle estimates that 2,000,000
lives were lost; which is disputed by those very repressive elements in the Colonial State.
Meanwhile, Gen. Semei Kakungulu who had already been incorporated into the Colonial

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forces led an army of about 20,000 Buganda soldiers to eastern Uganda and brought areas
of Busoga, Bukedi, Bugisu, Teso and Lango under colonial rule. By 1900, the kings
African riffles (KAR) had been established as a repressive force in the Country. It later
mutated into the Uganda army and later on UNLA albeit as not only repressive forces but
also as anti - people armies; they killed between 500,000 to 800,000 people until [Link]
1981, NRA/UPDF was born from contradictions of the prevailing socio-economic and
political situation. Through patriotic ideological orientation, it developed a pro-people
mindset with good discipline as the core value.

b. Civil Military Relations. Through Civil Military relations, the security forces
have embarked on a number of programs that have bridged the gap between themselves
and the civilian population. In cases of instability, civilians ran towards the barracks, not
away from the barracks for protection as it used to happen.
c. National Strength and Resilience. Beyond the traditional understanding of
“national security” is the undisputed fact that national security today transcends the
purely military/security aspect to include other dimensions of strength relevant to the
existence of the state. They include economic, political, international, social, and
governmental elements- the more intangible and abstract dimensions, like national
morale, a sense of national purpose, stamina, cohesion, and recognition of the justness
of the national path, which are no less essential to the country’s vitality. Napoleon said
that in war, spiritual/moral considerations are of greater importance than material ones.
Therefore, the level of the feeling and expression of patriotism by citizens determines the
country’s strength and resilience.

d. Geo-strategy. Uganda’s security forces have been consciously developed to

engage in national and regional defence and security frameworks for peace, security
and stability, alongside international stakeholders like AU, EU and UN.
e. Economic production. UPDF is earnestly engaged in OWC and other economic
ventures. It will participate in the SGR construction. Only a conscious and patriotic force
can do this. An army that is not patriotic will, of necessity be parasitic to its people.
CONCLUSION.
10. The four core principles which form an appropriate patriotic ideology are Nationalism,
Pan-Africanism, Socio-economic transformation and Democracy. Individual, community and
mass consciousness are precursors to the nurturing of the above principles. It is imperative that
all security forces undergo patriotism training to ensure high levels of discipline, for maintenance
of peace, prosperity and transformation of the country. The UPDF has defeated more than 20
insurgencies – a number bigger than all wars other regimes have fought since 1894 without
advertent killing of innocent civilians; has engaged in production as well as promoting peace
abroad (as opposed to all other forces in whose hands more than 1 million lives have been lost
since state formation in 1894).

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