BIDING, JHEZA MAE S.
3532
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DECEMBER 9, 2023
STRUCTURAL ANAL
YSIS
1. Explain in detail the procedure of performing a structural
analysis.
The structural design creates a safe and functional structure under
any load it may experience. The structural engineer will determine
the structure's stability, strength, and stiffness (rigidity) during this
process. The basic objective in structural design and analysis is to
produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without
failure during its intended life.
There are mainly 5 essential steps to be followed to design any
structure. (1) modeling, (2) load analysis, (3) structural
analysis, (4) structural design and (5) detailing.
a) Modelling
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The first step is to model the structure’s mechanical skeleton,
including its foundations, columns, beams, frames, trusses, and
other elements. The starting point is the architectural model. An
architectural model shows what the structure will look like, but it is
unsuitable for calculations due to the high level of detailing. The
architectural model needs to be stripped until only the load-bearing
structure remains. The load-bearing structure will transfer the
applied loads to the ground.
Translating the load-bearing structure to a model ready for
calculations is called schematization or creating the wireframe
model, the mechanical model, or the plan of the model.
Schematization is a very important step: it is essential that the
mechanical model anticipates loads since it would be the basis for
the whole process.
The most used structural elements which can be included in the
structural model are:
• Beams
• Columns
• Struts and ties
• Slabs
• Shear walls
• Membranes
Furthermore, modeling involves determining the structure’s material,
whether it would be “structural steel,” “reinforced or prestressed
concrete, “timber,” or any material. The choice depends mostly upon
the economy and safety of a structure. Much of the structure consists
of steel, concrete, and timber elements.
Modeling also involves assuming dimensions for each element, which is
the basis for self-weight computation for the load analysis. Estimating
the member size includes the element width, depth, or thickness. Rules
of thumb can be used for the choice of the initial dimensions.
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b) Load analysis
Next, the structural engineer must identify all possible loads the
structure may experience during its lifetime. Examples of loads on
structures are:
• Dead loads, meaning the self-weight of the structure
• Live loads: occupancy of people in buildings, moving equipment,
and the movement of cars on bridges.
• Wind loads: any horizontal, uplift, or shear pressures or forces that
the wind exerts on a building.
• Snow loads: only applicable for structures expected to receive
snowfall.
• Earthquake loads: when the structure is in a seismic region.
• Earth pressure: to be applied for tunnels, retaining walls, and
cellars.
• Water and ice: for some structures such as bridges, offshore
platforms, and coastal structures.
• Thermal loads: Unequal heating or cooling of parts of the structure
creates high stresses.
• Dynamic loads: for example, induced by machinery.
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So, depending on where your
structure is, you must consider the various kinds of loads. The values of
these loads can be identified using appropriate structural design codes
and references.
In real life, different loads act simultaneously with the structure. The
combination of the various loads should be evaluated. For instance, a
load combination can be a simultaneous action between dead load
(weight of the structure) and live load (use of the building by people).
But dead loads and wind loads can also be a combination. Finding the
worst load combination for your structure is a part of the load analysis
process. Usually, structural engineering software will automatically
create a set with all possible load combinations.
c) Structural analysis
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In
this step, we perform the analysis of the structural members. The goal
is to investigate how the structural model behaves with the different
load combinations. The analysis of a whole structure is also known as
the global analysis. The analysis results include the internal forces
diagrams (shear, bending moment, normal, torsion, and stresses),
reactions, and deformations/ deflections produced by the different load
combinations.
For simple structures, like a single beam or column, this analysis can
be done by hand. However, for 2D or 3D structures, the analysis
requires many detailed computations, mostly in matrices, in which
errors are quickly made in the case of hand calculations. Computer
Structural Design Software has now replaced manual computation.
d) Structural design
Structural design is the most crucial step in the process. It involves
dimensioning the different parts of the building based on the results of
the analysis. Structural design is material-related. The initially
estimated dimensions are verified for the design requirements in
stability, strength, and stiffness (rigidity/deflection). These
requirements can be found in the design code. If these design
requirements are satisfied, the chosen dimensions are ok. One can
consider playing with the element sizes for a more economical design.
The engineer should repeat all these steps if the design requirements
are unsatisfied. The initial element dimensions should be increased,
and we loop again through the structure analysis and structural design
verifications. This is repeated until the design requirements are met.
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The result of the structural design represents the dimensions of each
element in the model, complying with the design requirements and
material-related details, such as the required reinforcement area for
concrete elements.
Many countries have structural design codes, codes of practice, or
technical documents. It is necessary for a structural designer to
become familiar with local requirements and recommendations
concerning correct practice.
Sample Design Calculation for Footing
Sample Design Calculation for Slab
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a) Detailing
The structural engineer can start detailing once the global analysis and
design are finished. Structural detailing consists of 2 parts:
Where should the details be placed, and where should structural
connections and overlaps be made? For example, beam or column
splices. The placement cannot be discussed for details like beam-
column or column base connections.
The reinforcement, bolts, and welds specifications are the number of
reinforcement bars, bolt grade, number of bolts, weld throat thickness,
end plates, etc. The detailing goes hand in hand with the ductility of
the structures. In the case of concrete, for example, if we provide the
reinforcement in a balanced way in beams and columns, we can
increase the ductility of a structure.
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If we plan steel connections strategically, the costs can be highly
reduced. The overlap between the 2 beam parts should not be at the
center of the beam but rather near the column edges, where the
bending moment is 0 (hinged joint). That way, only a shear connection
is required, which is easier to construct and more cost-effective.
2. How would you present a structural analysis in a structural
report? What data are necessary for producing a structural
design from its analysis?
General Information
It provides detailed information about a structure's condition,
integrity, and stability. This report is essential for various
purposes, including property assessment, renovation or
remodeling projects, property transactions, insurance claims, or
legal purposes.
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General Design Data
Encompass a wide range of information used as foundational
elements in engineering and design across various disciplines,
especially structural, mechanical, electrical, and civil
engineering. These parameters are fundamental inputs or
guidelines for designing and analyzing structures, systems, or
components.
General Design Parameters:
1) Design Codes:
ACI 318-99 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
UBC 1997 Standard for Seismic Load
ASCE 7-05 Standard for Wind Load
NSCP 6th EDITION National Structural Code of the Philippines 6th Edition
ASTM C33 Standard Specifications for Concrete Aggregates
PNS 16 Philippine National Standard for Concrete Hollow Blocks
AISC-LRFD93 Building Code Requirements for Steel Structure
ASTM C494 Standard Specifications for Chemical
Admixture for Concrete
2) Design Material Strength
f'c 20.70 mpa For Footing, Cistern Tank, and Slab on Grade
f'c 20.70 mpa For Columns, Beams, and Suspended Slab
qa 120 kpa Allowable Soil Bearing
fy 275 mpa For all deformed reinforcing bars applied for all Footings, Columns,
Beams, and Slabs.
fy 240 mpa For all Rolled Sections conforming to -------------------------
ASTM A36
fy 240 mpa Grade B Standard Galvanized Iron Pipe -------------------
ASTM A53
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fy 630 mpa For all bolts and nuts conforming to ----------------------- ASTM
A325
fy 275 mpa For all light Light Gauge Zinc Coated Cold Formed Steel Section
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ASTM
A653
E70xx 480 mpa Structural Steel Welding conforming to ---------------------
AWS D1.1
Note1: Material strength provided above shall be maintained in the construction.
Compression testing for concrete and tensile testing for rebars, including shear test if
required, shall be conducted for the purpose of checking the structural stability of the
design, with test results higher by at least 30% for Rebars and 15% for Concrete on the
above-specified material strength.
Note 2: Frame Analysis and Design results are purely Theoretical. Please refer to the
existing Local Code, Actual Site Condition, and the Actual Material Properties (e.g.,
Compressive and Tensile strength) for proper structural adjustment or redesign if needed.
Note 3: Duly qualified Civil/Structural Eng'r Regular supervision is highly recommended,
especially in the Structural Frame Construction Stage for the purpose of checking loads,
material strength, site condition, stability and making structural modification and or
adjustment if necessary.
Note 4: THE DESIGN CONSIDERS A MONOLITHIC POURING OF SLAB AND BEAM
WITH NO HONEYCOMB, WHICH SHOULD BE FOLLOWED STRICTLY BY THE
CIVIL/STRUCTURAL ENGINEER AND OR CONTRACTOR IN CHARGE OF CONSTRUCTION.
Special Note 1: 1.a) For all concrete sections honeycomb was not considered in
the design and shall not be tolerated during construction.
1.b) 40% by wt. water - cement ratio shall be strictly applied
for all Footings, Columns, Beams, and Slabs.
Special Note 2: 2.a) For Concrete mix, to attain the material strength required by
the design use an approved type of water reducing agent.
2.b) For proper concrete mixing procedure the presence of a
Civil/Structural Engineer consultant is required.
Special Note 3: 3.a) For proper structural detailing the presence of Civil/Structural
Engineer consultant is mandatory
Structural Loading Criteria
This refers to the various conditions and forces a structure, such
as a building, bridge, or any engineered system, must withstand
to ensure stability, safety, and functionality. These criteria are
crucial in designing structures to endure different loads without
failure.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS DEAD LOAD
ROOF
SLAB
150 mm Stone Concrete fill 3.54 kPa
(0.15*23.6)
Acoustic Fiberboard as Ceiling + Plaster on Cement 0.29 kPa
0.05+0.24 1.1 kPa
Solid flat tile on 25-mm mortar base 4. 93 kPa
TOTAL SLAB DEAD LOAD
BEAM 3.717 kPa
Beam 1: (23.6 kN/m3) (0.35m) (0.45m) 2.832 kPa
Beam 2: (23.6 kN/m3) (0.3m) (0.4m)
PARAPET WALL 2.59 kPa
3density, grout spacing full, plastered
150 mm CHB, 19.6 kN /m
both sides = (2.82 +2 (2.4)) *1m
SECOND FLOOR TO FIFTH FLOOR
SLAB
150 mm Stone Concrete fill 3.54 kPa
(0.15*23.6)
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Acoustic Fiberboard as Ceiling + Plaster on Cement 0.29kPa
0.05+0.24
Solid flat tile on 25-mm mortar base 1.1 kPa
TOTAL SLAB DEAD LOAD 4. 93 kPa
BEAM
Beam 1: (23.6 kN/m3) (0.35m) (0.45m) 3.717 kPa
Beam 2: (23.6 kN/m3) (0.3m) (0.4m) 2.832 kPa
3density, grout spacing full, plastered
PARTITION AND WALLS 21.2 kN /m
both sides.
Exterior wall: 200 mm CHB WALL 13.35 kPa
(3.97kN/m2+2(0.24kN/m2)) (3m)
Interior wall: 150 mm CHB WALL 10.35 kPa
(2.97kN/m2+2(0.24kN/m2)) (3m)
STAIRS
Assumed additional 40% for the total weight of the slab. 6.902 kPa
4.93 + 0.40(4.93)
Load Cases
Load combinations are essential in structural engineering as they
involve considering multiple loads a structure may experience
simultaneously. Structures are designed to withstand various
forces acting on them simultaneously or at different times. Load
combinations help engineers determine the most critical
conditions for which the structure needs to be designed.
Different codes and standards provide guidelines on combining
different types of loads to ensure the safety and integrity of a
structure.
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Analysis Output
The results are generated from various computational processes
and simulations used to assess the behavior, performance, and
characteristics of a system, structure, or design.
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Force Diagram
The internal forces and reactions provided by STAAD. Pro can be
considered the digital equivalent of force diagrams. By examining
these values, engineers can understand how forces are distributed
throughout the structure. For instance, examining member forces helps
determine which members are in tension or compression, allowing for
structural integrity assessment.
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Design of Members
It involves analyzing, evaluating, and specifying various structural
elements within a building or infrastructure to ensure their safety,
durability, and compliance with relevant codes and standards.
Sample Design Summary of Beam
Sample Design Summary of Column
Sample Design Summary of
Slab
Sample Design Summary of Footing
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