Important Conversions

1 KM = 1000 meters

1 Mile = 1.6 KM

1 Yard = 3 feet ~100 cm

1 foot = 12 inches

100 cm = 3.280 feet

1 meter = 100 centimeters

$1 = 100 cents

1 quarter = 25 cents

1 dime = 10 cents

1 nickel = 5 cents

1 dozen = 12 units

1 gross = 12 dozens = 144 unit

1 Year = 52 weeks

1 gallon = 4 quarts

1 Kg = 1000 grams

1 ton = 1000 Kgs

1 Kg = 2.2 pounds

1 ton ~ 2000 pounds

1 Litre = 34 Fluid ounces

1 pint = 16 fluid ounces = 473 ml

1 Pound = 16 ounces in weight (Do not mix up or confuse with ‘fluid ounce’ which is a different measure,
it’s a measure of volume, see clarification below)

Important Clarification

Ounce is also a unit of weight and a unit of volume. If you are talking about the volume of something,
technically you should refer to the measure as "fluid ounces" and if you are weighing something then
you can say just "ounces."
Ingredients such as beans, sugar or flour can be conveniently measured by volume in cups, pints,
quarts, liters and all of the other units that are used to calculate volume, including fluid ounces. They
can also be weighed in pounds, kilograms and ounces.

Depending on what ingredient you are measuring, the weight in ounces and the volume in fluid
ounces may be close to the same or vastly different. Sixteen fluid ounces of water weigh very close
to 16 ounces (1 pound).

According to an estimate for a particular honey type, 1 kg - kilo ( kilogram ) unit in a European
bee honey measure equals = into 695.85 ml ( milliliter ) as per the equivalent measure
and for the same European bee honey type. A very common misconception is 1 Kg
honey and 1 litre honey is the same.

Zero is never a factor of another integer, as dividing by zero is not defined.

Zero is neither a positive nor a negative integer, but it is an EVEN INTEGER

The numbers –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are consecutive integers. Consecutive

integers can be represented by n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, . . . , where n is an
integer. The numbers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 are consecutive even
integers, and 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 are consecutive odd integers. Consecutive even
integers can be represented by 2n, 2n + 2, 2n + 4, . . . , and consecutive odd
integers can be represented by 2n + 1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5, . . . , where n is an
integer.

Divisibility Rules for Numbers 1-11

1. For 2: A number is divisible by 2 if that number is even (and a number is even if it’s
divisible by 2). That means that if an integer ends in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8, you know that it’s
divisible by 2. And here’s a somewhat-surprising fact: the number 0 is even! 0 is divisible by
2 with no remainder (0/2 = 0), so although 0 is neither positive nor negative it fits the
definition of even and should therefore be something you keep in mind because 0 is such a
unique number.

2. For 3: If you sum the digits of an integer and that sum is divisible by 3, then that integer is
divisible by 3.

3. For 4: Take the last two digits of an integer and treat them as a two-digit number, and if
that’s divisible by 4 so is the whole number.
4. For 5: You already know

5. For 6: If a number meets the divisibility rules for both 2 (it’s even) and 3 (the sum of the
digits is divisible by 3) it’s divisible by 6.

6. For 7: To test whether a large number, such as 231, is divisible by 7, find an obvious
multiple of 7 nearby and then add or subtract multiples of 7 to see whether doing so will land
on that number. For 231, you should recognize that a nearby multiple of 7 is 210 (you know
21 is 7 x 3, so putting a 0 on the end of it just means that 210 is 7 x 30). Then as you add 7s
to get there, you go to 217, then to 224, then to 231. So in your head you can see that 231 is
3 more 7s than 7 x 30 (which you know is 210), so 231 = 7 x 33.

More intuitive method for divisibility by 7

To find out if a number is divisible by seven, take the last digit, double it, and subtract it from
the rest of the number.
If you get an answer divisible by 7 (including zero), then the original number is divisible by
seven. If you don't know the new number's divisibility, you can apply the rule again.
Example: Check to see if 203 is divisible by 7.
double the last digit: 3 x 2 = 6
subtract that from the rest of the number: 20 - 6 = 14.
check to see if the difference is divisible by 7: 14 is divisible by 7, therefore 203 is also
divisible by 7.

Example: Check to see if 2147852 is divisible by 7.

double the last digit: 2 x 2 = 4
subtract that from the rest of the number: 214785 - 4 = 214781
check to see if the difference is divisible by 7: 214781 is too large, we can apply the rule
again
double the last digit: 1 x 2 = 2
subtract that from the rest of the number: 21478 - 2 = 21476
check to see if the difference is divisible by 7: 21476 is divisible by 7

7. For 8: Numbers are divisible by 8 if the number formed by the last three individual
digits is evenly divisible by 8. For example, the last three digits of the number 3624 is
624, which is evenly divisible by 8 so 3624 is evenly divisible by 8.

8. For 9: (the 3 divisibility rules also applies here) If you sum the digits of an integer and that
sum is a multiple of 9, the integer is also divisible by 9. So, for example, with the number
729, because 7 + 2 + 9 = 18, you know that 729 is divisible by 9 (it’s 81 x 9, which actually is
9 to the 3rd power).

9. For 11:

More intuitive method for divisibility by 11

The (sum of the odd numbered digits) - (sum of the even numbered digits) is divisible by 11.

Example:

34871903
3+8+1+0=12
4+7+9+3=23
23-12=11
Is divisible by 11

Important Concept:

To make N above a perfect square, the powers of a, b and c must be even; to make N a perfect
cube, the powers must be multiples of 3; to make N a perfect fifth power, they must be
multiples of 5.

Important concept:
Consecutive exponents like 9^13, 9^12, 9^11 are NOT evenly spaced on a number line. For
example think about 9, 81, and 243, the first three powers of 9...they're not evenly spaced at
all.

Have you ever seen the directions, round to the nearest cent? These directions are actually asking
you to round to the nearest hundredth. Remember that the hundredths place is two moves from
the right of the decimal point.

How round to the nearest hundred (not hundredth!) ?

 When rounding to the nearest hundred, look at the TENS DIGIT of the number.

 If that digit is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, you will round down to the previous hundred.

 If that digit is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, you will round up to the next hundred.

728 ≈ ? The tens digit is 2, 471 ≈ ? The tens digitis 956 ≈ ? The tens digit is
so round down: 7, so round up: 5, so round up:

728 ≈ 700 471 ≈ 500 956 ≈ 1000

When we round to the nearest hundred, the numbers “residing” in the red areas (up to 850) on
the number line are rounded to 800. The numbers in the blue areas are rounded to 900.

Again, distance matters. Numbers from 801 to 849 are closer to 800 than to 900.
Numbers from 851 to 899 are closer to 900 than to 800. And the “middle guy,” 850, is rounded
up to 900: 850 ≈ 900.

When the sum is rounded to the nearest tenth of a cent, tenth of a cent is to three decimal places $0.001
(one tenth of a cent) So if you are rounding to the nearest tenth of a cent round to the third decimal place.
Round up if the fourth decimal place is 5 or higher and round down if it is 4 or lower.

Rule for rounding to the nearest 10

Look at the number in the one's place and...

Rounding to the Nearest 10th

After you locate the tenths place, you will look to the right. If the number to the right is
5 or greater, you will round the tenths place up to the next digit. If the number to the
right is 4 or less, you will leave the tenths place alone.

Here are some examples of rounding numbers to tenth place. Round each number to
the nearest tenth.
#1.

Step 1: Locate the tenths place.

Step 2: Look to the right of the tenths place and use the number to determine if you
will round up or stay the same.

Notice that the number to the right is less than 5. This means that the 1 will not round
up to a 2. Instead, it will stay the same.

Step 3: Write the final answer that ends at the tenths place.

#2.

Step 1: Locate the tenths place.

Step 2: Look to the right of the tenths place and use the number to determine if you
will round up or stay the same.

Here, we have a 9 to the right of the tenths place. This is above 5, so we will round up
from 2 to 3.

Step 3: Write the final answer that ends at the tenths place.
#3.

Step 1: Locate the tenths place.

Step 2: Look to the right of the tenths place and use the number to determine if you
will round up or stay the same.

This is an interesting example. The 7 tells us to round up. However, when we round up
the nine becomes a ten. When this happens the nine becomes a zero and the place to
the left is one bigger. Here is a look at the 9 becoming a 10. Notice that the 1 in the ten
is under the next place value to the left.

We can think of this as the 29 rounding up to a 30.

Step 3: Write the final answer that ends at the tenths place.

Rounding to the Nearest Hundredth

To round to the nearest cent, nearest penny, or nearest hundredth, you will need to
locate the hundredths place. Then look at the digit to the right. If it is 5 or above, the
number in the hundredths place will be increased by 1 and all the rest of the numbers
after it are dropped. If the number is 4 or below, you leave the digit in the hundredths
place alone and drop all the rest of the numbers after.

When the sum is rounded to the nearest tenth of a cent, tenth of a cent is to three decimal places
$0.001 (one tenth of a cent) So if you are rounding to the nearest tenth of a cent round to the third
decimal place. Round up if the fourth decimal place is 5 or higher and round down if it is 4 or lower.
When a decimal is rounded to the nearest percentage point, that means it should be rounded to the
nearest cent or nearest hundredth. For example rounding 0.75n9 to the nearest percentage point means
converting it into percentage i.e. 75.n9% and now converting 75.n9% to the nearest percentage point i.e.
if 5<n<9 then 75.n9% will be converted to 76% and if 0<n<4 then 75.n9% will be converted to 75%. All of
this indirectly means converting 0.75n9 to the nearest hundredth.

Here are some examples.

1.) 0.3493
- Underline the hundredths place 0.3493
- Look to the right. 0.3493
If it is 5 or above, we give it a shove.
If it is 4 or below, we let it go.
- Round up to 0.35

2.) 15.921978
- Underline the hundredths place 15.921978
- Look to the right. 15.921975
If it is 5 or above, we give it a shove.
If it is 4 or below, we let it go.
- Round to 15.92

3.) 4,812.39812
- Underline the hundredths place4,812.39812
- Look to the right. 4,812.39812
If it is 5 or above, we give it a shove.
If it is 4 or below, we let it go.

In this example, it might be helpful to think of it as 39 rounding up to 40 instead of

9 rounding up to 10.

- Round to 4,812.40

Zero is neither a positive nor a negative integer, but it is an EVEN INTEGER

A prime number has NO factors other than 1 and itself. PRIME NUMBERS CAN NEVER BE NEGATIVE.

If two numbers have NO primes in common, then their GCF is 1 and their LCM is simply their product

Since prime numbers are divisible only by themselves and 1, any two primes will
only have a G.C.D of 1. However, note that the reverse isn't necessarily true: The
fact that two integers have a G.C.D of 1 does not necessarily indicate that they
are Primes. This is a common misconception, easily disproved by example: 8 and
9 have a G.C.D of 1, even though neither of them is Prime.
The numbers –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are consecutive integers. Consecutive integers
can be represented
by n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, . . . , where n is an integer. The numbers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 are
consecutive even
integers, and 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 are consecutive odd integers. Consecutive even integers
can be represented
by 2n, 2n + 2, 2n + 4, . . . , and consecutive odd integers can be represented by 2n
+ 1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5, . . . , where n is an integer.

Addition and Subtraction;

Add or subtract 2 odds or 2 evens. and the result is EVEN; 7 + 11= 18 and 8 + 6 = 14

Add or subtract an odd with an even, and the result is ODD. 7 + 8 = 15

Multiplication:

When you multiply integers, if ANY of the integers is even, the result is EVEN. 3 x 8 x 9 x 13 = 2,808
Likewise. if NONE of the integers is even, then the result is ODD. (This further means that all the factors
of an odd integer can only be odd numbers and thus the conclusion below:)

An odd number divided by any other odd integer CANNOT produce an even integer

The absolute value of any nonzero number is always positive

Some divisibility rules on odd and even numbers:

E / E = Odd or Even
O / O = O ALWAYS
E / O = E ALWAYS (Not necessarily divisible by an odd number, but where it is, the result will
ALWAYS be an even number)
O / E = NOT POSSIBLE and you will ALWAYS get a fraction

A sum of integers is odd if there is an odd number of odd integers. Similarly, a sum of integers
is even if there is an even number of odd integers.

A sum of any number of even numbers is even, and a sum of an even number of odd numbers
is also even.

The only way a sum of several numbers can be odd is if the sum includes an odd number of
odd numbers.

When you multiply or divide a group of nonzero negative numbers (i.e. all negative nos. other
than zero / do not confuse with non-negative numbers which include 0 and positive nos), the
result will be positive if you have an EVEN number of negative numbers. The result will be
negative if you have an ODD number of negative numbers

Very Good Question on Integers:

Is the integer 2b divisible by 6?

(1) 8b is divisible by 3.

(2) 9b is divisible by 12.

I made a classic GMAT mistake! I read "the integer 2b" and assumed that b itself was an
integer! However b can be equal to 3/2 and NOT necessarily an INTEGER !!!

Statement 1:
8b = 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24...

If we divide both sides by 8, we get:

b = 3/8, 3/4, 9/8, 3/2, 15/8, 9/4, 21/8, 3...
2b = 3/4, 3/2, 9/4, 3, 15/4, 9/2, 21/4, 6...

Of the resulting options for 2b, only the values in blue are integers.
The implication is that 2b must be a MULTIPLE OF 3:
3, 6, 9, 12...

If 2b = 3, then 2b is NOT divisible by 6.

If 2b = 6, then 2b IS divisible by 6.
INSUFFICIENT.

Statement 2:
9b = 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72...

If we divide both sides by 9, we get:

b = 4/3, 8/3, 4, 16/3, 20/3, 8
2b = 8/3, 16/3, 8, 32/3, 40/3, 16...

Of the resulting options for 2b, only the values in red are integers.
The implication is that 2b must be a MULTIPLE OF 8:
8, 16, 24, 32...

If 2b = 8, then 2b is NOT divisible by 6.

If 2b = 24, then 2b IS divisible by 6.
INSUFFICIENT.

Statements combined:
Since 2b must be a multiple of both 3 and 8, 2b must be a multiple of 24:
24, 48, 72, 96...
Thus, 2b must be divisible by 6.
SUFFICIENT.

The correct answer is C.

Rule to remember:

Explanation: When different bases (e.g. x and y) have the SAME power (e.g. n), then subtraction
of different bases with same power will ALWAYS be divisible by subtraction of those bases
without the same power (e.g. x-y). But subtraction of different bases with same power will
ALWAYS be divisible by addition of those bases without the same power (e.g. x + y) everytime
when that same power (e.g.) n is EVEN.

Rule to remember:
When can we write a number as difference of squares?
1 – When the number is odd
or
2 – When the number has 4 as a factor (Or the number is divisible by 4)

Further how to calculate the two numbers who are perfect squares:

Method for counting total number of factors of any number e.g. N

For Example a number like 264,600 can be written as 2³ X 3³ X 5² X 7²

Total number of factors therefore = (3+1) * (3+1) * (2+1) * (2+1) = 144

Method for separating out factors that are not divisible by a particular number, for instance 6
(explained by example below)

How many numbers that are not divisible by 6 divide evenly into 264,600?

(A) 9
(B) 36
(C) 51
(D) 63
(E) 72

First of all, we calculate the total number of factors through the method for counting total
number of factors:
264,600 = 2^3 X 3^3 X 5^2 X 7^2

= (3+1) X (3+1) X (2+1) X (2+1) = 4 x 4 x 3 x 3 =144

Now best way to determine numbers that are not divisible by 6, is to determine numbers that are
divisible by 6 and then subtract the result from the total number of factors of 264,600

We are looking for factors of 264,600 that are not multiples of 6. If you get why there are 144
total factors of 264600, all we have to do is find how many ARE multiples of 6 and subtract that
from total factors. If a number n is a factor of 264600 that is a multiple of 6, that means n times
6k will be 264600, where k is some integer. So we have n6k = 264600, which translates directly
to nk = 44100. Now all we have to find is how many n's there are such that nk = 44100. By
definition, this means we are looking for how many factors 44100 has..

Take the prime factorization of 44100: 2^2 X 3^2 X 5^2 X 7^2

add 1 to each exponent and multiply those new exponents: 3*3*3*3 = 81, so 81 of the 144 factors
ARE multiples of 6.

Subtract 81 from 144 to get 63 factors that are NOT multiples of 6. (Ans: 63)

Important Note: When comparing two numbers ALWAYS remember if one numbers
square is less than another numbers square, then the first numbers square root
will also be less than the other numbers square root !!

In Problem Solving Questions only ONE answer can be correct

If 2x=3y, we can solve it to get x/y = 3/2.. Can we conclude x>y, apparently yes..BUT NO !! If x
and y are both negative, then y>x, and if both x and y are positive, then x>y !! We can only
conclude from the given fact that x and y have same signs..i.e. either both positive or both
negative!!..

Properties of Evenly Spaced Sets

(1) The arithmetic mean (average) and median are equal to each other

(2) The mean and median of the set are equal to the average of the FIRST and LASTterms.

(3) The sum of the elements in the set equals the arithmetic mean (average) number in the set times the number of
items in the set. Integer counting formula (As covered by Mahmood in averages)

Median of set of consecutive integers = Mean of set of consecutive integers

Factorial Rules
Very Important: The product of k consecutive integers is always divisible by k factorial. (If you forget the logic
behind this rule, goto page 53 of booklet NOT program to revise)
 The PRODUCT of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!. .The SUM of n consecutive integers
is divisible by n if n is odd, but it is NOT divisible by n if n is even

For any set of consecutive integers with an ODD number of items, the sum of all the integers is ALWAYS a multiple
of the number of items. BUT For any set of consecutive integers with an EVEN number of items, the sum of all the
items is NEVER a multiple of the number of items.

RECAP of above:

The individual factors of an odd integer are ALWAYS ODD (of course including the odd integer
itself) . But the individual factors of an even number can include both odd and even integers
(E.g. Factors of Even Integer: 6 are 1,2,3 & 6)

THE EVEN EXPONENT IS DANGEROUS: IT HIDES THE SIGN OF THE BASE!

The GMAT follows the standard convention of mathematics. When we take an even root (a
square root, a 4th root, a 6th root, etc.), a radical sign means ONLY the nonnegative root of a
number. Thus, the number 2 is the only solution for x. -2 is NOT a solution for this problem.
When you see a square root symbol on the GMAT, think only the positive root. In contrast, when
you decide to unsquare an equation with even exponents, you must consider both positive and:
negative solutions

An expression under the square root can NEVER be negative. So for instance if it is given √x>y,
from this expression we can derive that x≥0 because an expression under the square root cannot
be negative (though it can be negative for odd roots like a cube root). Since we can't take the
square root of a negative (but we can take odd roots like cube root of a negative), the expression
√x>y implies that x≥0.

Why can’t we take square root of a negative number OR why can’t an expression under the
square root be negative?
To find the square root of a negative number you need to find a number that when
multiplied by itself is negative. Let's look at the options:

 2 (a positive number) times 2 (the same positive number) is 4 (a positive number

 -2 (a negative number) times -2 (the same negative number) is 4 (a positive number).
To get negative 4 you need to multiply -2 and 2 (or -1 and 4, or -4 and 1) a positive and
negative number which aren't the same.

It turns out that no real number times itself can result in -4 (or any other negative
number).

There is one interesting fact about cube roots that is not true of square roots. Negative numbers
can’t have real number square roots, but negative numbers can have real number cube roots!
What is the cube root of −8? ³-8 (i.e. cube root of -8) = -2 because -2.-2.-2 = -8. Remember,
when you are multiplying an odd number of negative numbers, the result is negative!

Negative numbers don't have real square roots since a square is either positive or 0.
The square roots of numbers that are not a perfect square are members of the
irrational numbers. This means that they can't be written as the quotient of two
integers.

A positive number has two square roots: a positive square root (also called principal square
root) and a negative square root. they are depicted as √x and √−x. So by
convention, √x implies we are talking about only the positive square root.

On the other hand, x^2=4 has two solutions: x = 2 or -2

Important NOTE: An expression under the square root cannot be negative. So if you are given
Vx (Square Root of x), this means x >= 0 because an expression under the square root cannot be
negative.

x = √ 49 = 7 (only the positive value)

x^2 = 49 gives two values x = 7 or -7

Even though the two equations are equivalent, their intention is different.

x=7
Squaring both sides, x^2 = 49 (which holds)

Now if you take the square root again, you don't get just x = 7. You get x = -7 too.
So you have to be careful when you take the square root.

Similarly e.g. if x=-2 then x^2=4 of course

Now if you take V4 (i.e. square root of 4), the answer will ALWAYS be 2 despite the fact that
you know x^2=4 and x=-2 (i.e. x was originally -2)!! BE VERY CAREFUL

One more question: Can you take square root of a negative number? (Be careful the
question is asking about taking SQUARE root of a negative number NOT taking a cube root)
The short answer: NO. There is no real number that you can multiply by itself to get a negative, so
there is no real solution. However, mathematicians have developed a system of imaginary numbers to
express square roots of negatives. The foundation for this system is that the square root of -1 is the
imaginary unit, i.

Negative numbers can't have real number square roots, but negative numbers
can have real number cube roots!

x²>9 = ±x>3, One answer will be of course x>3 but the other answer will be –x>3 or x<-3 (Sign of
inequality will change with one answer)

We must make a distinction between a root and a quadratic equation.

A quadratic equation such as x2=4 will usually have two solutions. In this case, both
x=2 and x=-2 will satisfy the equation. Which is why, if you encounter this quadratic
equation in a GMAT problem, x will indeed have two possible values: x=±2.

However, whenever you encounter an even root in the GMAT, it only represents
the positive solution. Which is why x in the above equation will equal ±2, but √4 will
equal 2 alone.

The square of any odd number when divided by 8 will always yield a remainder of 1!! (Of course
an odd number is NOT divisible by an even number without leaving a remainder !)

(1) If you add a multiple of N to another multiple of N, the result is also a multiple of N. (The same holds true for
subtraction.)

(2) If you add a multiple of N to a non-multiple of N, the result is a non-multiple of N. (The same holds true for
subtraction.)

(3) If you add two non-multiples of N, the result could be either a multiple of N or a non-multiple of N.

The exception to this rule is when N= 2. The sum of two non-multiples of 2 will always be a multiple of 2. (Two odds
always sum to an even.)

Three general properties (plus one self constructed) of the GCF and LCM: (Important)

Multiples of x would be x and above, factors of x would be x and below (PROVIDED X is POSITIVE)

For example multiples of 3 are -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, etc but when it is given that only positive values are to be
considered then multiples of 3 would be 3, 6, 9, etc.
-3 and 0 would be excluded

Factors of 16 will be 1, 2, 4, 8 and of course 16 itself (BUT NOT zero)

Zero is a multiple of every number !

But zero IS NOT a factor of every number !

Note however any number like 6 is both a factor and a multiple of itself.

Zero is divisible by everything. Another way of thinking about divisibility is this: x is

evenly divisible by y if, when x is divided by y, there is no remainder. When 35 is
divided by 7, there is no remainder, so 35 is evenly divisible by 7. When dividing
zero by any number, the result is zero, with no remainder.

1. (GCF of m and n) x (LCM of m and n) = m x n. The reason for this is that the GCF is composed of the
SHARED prime factors of m and n. The LCM is composed of the SHARED prime factors of m and n PLUS all of the
other, or NON-SHARED, prime factors of m and n.

2. The GCF of m and n cannot be larger than the difference between m and n

3. Consecutive multiples of n have a GCF of n. (For this reason, the GCF of any two consecutive integers
is 1, because both integers are multiples of 1 and the numbers are 1 unit apart.)

(Self Constructed Rule) 4. GCF of two nos will be at least a factor of both the nos. (Self constructed rule,
not in the book) E.g. GCF of 3 and 7 is 1, 1 is a factor of both the nos. GCF of 2 & 6 is 2, 2 is a factor of
both the nos

4. The LCM of two or more integers is always AT LEAST as large as any of the integers.

Use the method of Prime Columns (explained in Manhattan Strategy guides) to calculate the GCF and
LCM of 2 or more integers quick and fast..

Important Question:

Three is the largest number that can be divided evenly into 27 and the positive integer
x, while 10 is the largest number that can be divided evenly into both 100 and x. Which
of the following is the largest possible number that could be divided into x and 2100

A. 30
B. 70
C. 210
D. 300
E. 700

This question can be dealt with in a couple of different ways, but it ultimately comes
down to Prime Factorization.

We're told that the largest number that divides into 27 and X is 3.

Since 27 = (3)(3)(3), that means that X's prime factorization can contain JUST ONE 3
(although it can contain other prime factors). If it contained more than one 3, then "3"
would NOT be the largest number that would divide into 27 and X.

So X could be 3, 6, 12, 15, 30, etc.

Next, we're told that the largest number that divides into 100 and X is 10.
Since 100 = (2)(2)(5)(5), that means that X's prime factorization can contain JUST ONE 2
AND JUST ONE 5 (although it can contain other prime factors).

So we know that X's prime factorization consists of ONE 2, ONE 3 and ONE 5 and
possibly some other primes.
What about 7? The questions doesn't tell us whether x has 7. But could it have 7? Sure.
We have no limiting condition on having other factors.

We're asked for the LARGEST number that could divide into X and 2100.

2100 = (3)(7)(2)(2)(5)(5). Using what we know about X, the LARGEST number that could
divide X AND 2100 would be (2)(3)(5)(7) = 210.

Final Answer:
Spoiler:
::

Perfect Squares

The prime factorization of a perfect square contains only even powers of primes. (e.g. 2^4 is
possible in a perfect square since 2^4 is 16 but 2^1 X 3^2 is not possible because even though 3
has an even power but 2 has an odd power. All primes must have even power)

The same logic used for perfect squares extends to perfect cubes and to other "perfect" powers. If a number is a
perfect cube, then it is formed from three identical sets of primes, so all the powers of primes are multiples of 3 in the
factorization of a perfect cube.

Tips about the perfect square:

1. The number of distinct factors of a perfect square is ALWAYS ODD. The reverse is also
true: if a number has the odd number of distinct factors then it's a perfect square;

2. The sum of distinct factors of a perfect square is ALWAYS ODD. The reverse is NOT
always true: a number may have the odd sum of its distinct factors and not be a perfect
square. For example: 2, 8, 18 or 50;

3. A perfect square ALWAYS has an ODD number of distinct Odd-factors, and EVEN
number of distinct Even-factors. The reverse is also true: if a number has an ODD
number of Odd-factors, and EVEN number of Even-factors then it's a perfect square. For
example: odd factors of 36 are 1, 3 and 9 (3 odd factor) and even factors are 2, 4, 6, 12, 18
and 36 (6 even factors);

4. Perfect square always has even powers of its prime factors. The reverse is also true:
if a number has even powers of its prime factors then it's a perfect square. For
example: 36= 2² x 3² powers of prime factors 2 and 3 are even.

How determine whether a number is Perfect Square ?

The following two methods CAN ONLY BE USED to eliminate numbers that are NOT perfect squares BUT they
cannot be used to say with certainty whether a number is perfect square…
1. A number which is a perfect square will NEVER end with following numbers: 2,3,7 & 8 (You can check manually for
a couple of numbers and taking their squares to ascertain that none of them ends in 2,3,7 & 8)

2. The digital root/sum of a perfect square will always be 0,1,4 or 7 (Tutorial on calculating Digital Root of any
number in the end, however in shortcut the Digital sum of a number is the single digit obtained by repeatedly adding
the number ignoring 9s (You can also add 9s but if you review the tutorial in the end, the number 9 and any numbers
which add upto 9 in a number can safely be ignored when calculating the digital root of any number). It is also called
the Digital Root of the number. It is just the sum of all the digits of the number.)

Now, how does the digital root of a number would help in determining if a number is a
perfect square or not. It turns out, a perfect square will always have a digital root of 0,
1, 4 or 7.

ALWAYS REMEMBER: Anything as power of an odd integer will always yield an odd
integer and anything as power of an even number will always be even integer EXCEPT
FOR ONE EXCEPTION: A zero (an even number) raised to the power of any number
will ALWAYS BE AN ODD INTEGER i.e. one.

Powers:
Bottom line, for powers with a positive integer exponent, the base rules. If the base is even, the result is
even. If the base is odd, the result is odd. EXCEPT FOR ONE EXCEPTION a zero (an even
base) raised to power of any number will ALWAYS BE AN ODD INTEGER i.e. one.

For example for even base: 2^Any Power = RESULT ALWAYS EVEN. Similarly 26^Any Power= RESULT
ALWAYS EVEN.
For example for odd base: 3^Any Power = RESULT ALWAYS ODD. Similarly 25^Any Power= RESULT
ALWAYS ODD.

Be very careful: (-2)^4 will result in a positive number BUT - 5^2 WILL NOT RESULT in a positive result.
WHY? Although the power in this case is even, it actually matters whether the minus sign is inside
parentheses! In this case, only the number 5 is being raised to the power of 2 and the negative sign is
unaffected by the exponent.

Imp. Question: The number of prime numbers with 7 as a factor: The only prime number that can have
7 as a factor is 7. If any other number has 7 as a factor, it isn't prime.

Important Note: Any positive integer root from a number more than 1 will be more
than 1. For example: 2^ ½ = 1.414, 5^ 1/7 = 1.25, 7^ 1/35 = 1.05, 7^
1/7000 = 1.0002 (Never less than 1)

Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are equations with one unknown and two defining components:

(1) a variable term raised to the second power

(2) a variable term raised to the first power

Beware of disguised quadratics / Be careful not to just divide both sides by x, This division improperly eliminates the
solution x = o.
If you have a quadratic expression equal to 0, and you can factor an x out of the expression, then x = 0 is a
solution of the equation •.

Not all quadratic equations have two solutions. Some have only one solution. One-solution quadratics are also called
perfect square quadratics, because both roots are the same.

Be careful not to assume that a quadratic equation always has two solutions. Always factor quadratic equations to
determine their solutions. In doing so, you will see whether a quadratic equation has one or two solutions.

ALWAYS CHECK BACK THE SOLUTIONS OF ANY QUADRATIC EQUATION WHEN YOU COMPUTE
THEM TO ENSURE THEY ARE TRUE SOLUTIONS TO THE QUADRATIC EQUATION

Relation between roots and coefficients of a quadratic

equation:
If the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are  and  then,

 Sum of the roots ( + ) = -b/a = (Coefficient of x / Coefficient of x2).

 Product of the roots ( * ) = c/a = (constant term / coefficient of x2).
Example - I:
Find the sum of the roots of x2 - x - 20 = 0.
Solution:
Given that x2 - x - 20 = 0.
Formula for sum of the roots ( + ) = -b/a
Here, a = 1 and b = -1
= -(-1)/1
=1
Example - II:
Find the product of the roots of x2 - x - 20 = 0
Solution:
Given that x2 - x - 20 = 0
Formula for product of the roots ( * ) = c/a
Here, a = 1 and c = -20
= -20/1
= -20

Important Data Sufficiency Question:

Does X = 3 ?

A: (x-3)(y-1) = 0.

This will be true when x = 3 or y = 1 OR x=3 and y=1.

So, we cannot be sure if x= 3 is always true . A is INSUFFICIENT

B: (x-3)^2 + (y-1)^2 = 0

A square is always positive. So, (x-3)^2 and (y-1)^2 is always positive.

So, B to be ZERO, both (x-3)^2 and (y-1)^2 should be ZERO.

So, x = 3. B is SUFFICIENT. (and also of course y=1)

A classic quadratic usually has two solutions. However, some quadratics have only
one solution, or even no solutions at all (i.e. no values of x that satisfy the
equation ax2+bx+c=0). Some GMAT questions will ask how many solutions does a
specific quadratic have, rather than what those solutions are. A quick way of finding the
number of solutions without going to trouble of finding the actual solutions is to focus on
the part under the square root (b2-4ac), which is called the discriminant.

The discriminant is what distinguishes x1 from x2:

If the discriminant is positive, (b2-4ac > 0) then x1 and x2 will have different values - 2
different solutions.

If the discriminant is equal to zero (b2-4ac = 0), then x1=x2 =-b / 2a.The quadratic has
only one solution.

If the discriminant is negative (b2-4ac < 0), then the quadratic has no real solutions,
since you can't take the square root of a negative number without resorting to imaginary
numbers (which are thankfully not tested on the GMAT).

Therefore, if a question asks for the number of solutions a quadratic has, plug in the
values of a, b and c into the discriminant b2-4ac and find out whether it is positive, zero
or negative.
Example:

How many solutions does the equation x2-4x+4=0 have?

1) Find out the coefficients: a=1, b=-4, c=4.

2) Plug into the discriminant b2-4ac = (-4)2 - 4⋅1⋅4 = 16-16 = 0.

3) Since the discriminant equals zero, the quadratic above has only one solution.

To sum up the solutions formula:

To find the solutions of any quadratic of the form ax2+bx+c=0:

1) Identify the coefficients a, b and c (write them down in your notebook for good
measure).

2) Plug the coefficients into The Solutions formula:

3) The two solutions are:

and

To find the number of solutions to a quadratic of the form ax2+bx+c=0, plug the
coefficients into b2-4ac (the discriminant):

b2-4ac > 0 - 2 different solutions.

b2-4ac = 0 - one solution.

b2-4ac < 0 - no (real) solutions.

The solutions formula is an all-purpose method - it will always tell you what the solutions
of an equation are (provided it has solutions). However, it is also a long and
cumbersome method to use, and many GMAT quadratics problems can be solved
without it. Furthermore, it is a "brute force" technique, and does not help when dealing
with questions that test for the subtle understanding of the reasoning behind quadratics.
which is why we'll take a look at the second method of finding the solutions of a
quadratic equation: Factoring the equation.

Remainders

When you divide an integer by a positive integer N, the possible remainders range from 0 to (N - 1). (The
remainder MUST ALWAYS be smaller than the divisor)

CONCEPT: Remainder Theorem states that Remainders can be calculated for each
term multiplied or added together in Numerator and then the operation
(multiplication or addition) can be performed on remainders thereafter and finally
remainder can be calculated

Two useful tips for arithmetic with remainders, if you have the same divisor throughout:
(1) You can add and subtract remainders directly, as long as you correct excess or negative
remainders.

(2) You can multiply remainders, as long as you correct excess remainders at the end.

Example for above 2 rules:

The remainder when x (e.g.) is divided by 7 is 2, and the remainder when y (e.g. 13) is
divided by 7 is 6.

Therefore what is the remainder when

1. x + y is divided by 7 ?

2. x – y is divided by 7 ?

3. x * y is divided by 7 ?

In case of 1, we can add remainders directly since the operation being performed on
numerators is addition and we will get an answer of 8 when we add the respective
remainders but since we need to correct for excess, we will subtract 7 once from 8 to get an
answer of 1

In case of 2, we can add subtract remainders directly since the operation being performed
on numerators is subtraction and we will get an answer of -4 when we subtract the
respective remainders but since we need to correct for negative remainder, we will add 7
once to -4 to get an answer of 3

In case of 3, we can multiply remainders directly since the operation being performed on
numerators is multiplication and we will get an answer of 12 when we multiply the
respective remainders but since we need to correct for excess, we will subtract 7 once from
12 to get an answer of 5

(The above answers can be directly cross checked since we have the values of x and y)

Another Example: What is the remainder when 47*49 is divided by 8?

i.e. Remainder when 47*49 is divided by 8 = Remainder [47/8] * Remainder [49/8]

i.e. Remainder when 47*49 is divided by 8 = 7 * 1 = 7

7B = 20R, we important rule hidden in this equation which you didn’t know, if there is 7 on the LHS of the
equation, that means the RHS will be a multiple of 7, in the answer choices only 14 is the only choice
which is a multiple of 7 and therefore the answer

Q26 on Page 134 (Very good question on remainder basics) For 15 divided by ‘y’, the remainder as told
in problem is ‘y-3’, your starting value for possible values of y should not start from 2y-3 = 15 (adding
remainder to divisor = y-3 + y = 15), but start right from equating remainder to 15 i.e. y-3=15, which will
yield 18, you initially started with 2y-3 = 15 which in this case you lost one value of y i.e. 18. Next value
can start from 2y-3=15 of course. Another thing: as you keep going up taking values of y, keep note that a
remainder cannot be negative, e.g. y cannot equal 2, because that will make the remainder negative
Very Important formula when one positive integer is given (i.e. the same dividend) and it is
divided by different integers(i.e. divisors) to give different remainders: (Do not confuse it with
the other situation where there are different dividends but the divisor is the same)

Q. When positive integer n is divided by 5, the remainder is 1. When n is divided by 7, the

remainder is 3. What is the smallest positive integer K such that K + N is a multiple of 35?

Important clarification on above example: You started with m=1,2,3… BUT m can also be 0 such that n =
35 (0) + 31 = 31, therefore for k+n to be multiple of 35, the smallest value of k will be 4 such that k + n =
31 + 4 = 35 is a multiple of 35

More on above:

Above theory on remainder problems can be applied to remainder problems AND THE LIKE.. For
instance

Students in a class are arranged to form groups of 4 members each. After forming the groups, 3 students
are left. If the students had been arranged in groups of 9 members each, however, 4 students would be
left. What is the total number of students in the class?

If the students had been arranged in groups of 4 members each, however, 3 students would be left --> x
= 4q + 3 --> x could be 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31, ...
If the students had been arranged in groups of 9 members each, however, 4 students would be left --> x
= 9p + 4 --> x could be 4, 13, 22, 31, ...

From above general formula would be: x = 36n + 31 --> x could be 31, 67, 103, 139, ...

(1) The number of students is a two-digit number less than 70 --> x could be 31 or 67. Not sufficient,

(2) The number of students is a two-digit number greater than 50 --> x could only be 67. Sufficient. (Why
couldn’t we have a larger value than 67, this is because Statement 2 states that number of students is a
two-digit number greater than 50, there is only one number greater than 50 which is a two digit number
and that also satisfies x = 36n + 31)

Answer: B.
_________________

Be very careful when applying the conventional rules of addition/subtraction and

multiplication/divisibility, because they apply ONLY to integers but NOT on decimals/fractions

Without calculating, we cannot say whether 6!-1 or 6!+41 will be prime.

But, I can say that 6!+21 will not be prime. The reason is that 6!+21 = 3(1*2*4*5*6 + 7)
(taking 3 common). This means that whatever, the value of 6!+21, it can be written as the product of
two numbers: 3 and something else. Hence, this number, 6!+21, definitely has 3 as a factor and hence
it cannot be prime.

Formula for No. of numbers = (Last Term – First Term) / difference +1

Mode = Most repeated item; a list can also have two modes

Range = Highest No – Lowest No

Median = Middle Term after arrangement in ascending order (Median is not affected by
increasing the largest term or decreasing the smallest term)

A quick way to know which is the middle number: count how many numbers, add 1 then
divide by 2

Example(In case the no of numbers is odd): There are 45 numbers

45 plus 1 is 46, then divide by 2 and you get 23

So the median is the 23rd number in the sorted list.

Example(In case the no of numbers is even): There are 66 numbers

66 plus 1 is 67, then divide by 2 and you get 33.5

33 and a half? That means that the 33rd and 34th numbers in the sorted list are the two middle
numbers.

So to find the median: add the 33rd and 34th numbers together and divide by 2.

Standard Deviation =

Variance = (SD)²

Sequences: ( You may also encounter sequences other than Arithmetic and Geometric
Sequences)

For arithmetic (linear) sequence

To find any term:

To find the sum of a certain no of terms in an arithmetic sequence:

1. S subscript n = n (a subscript 1 + a subscript n) / 2 - If you realise, this formula is the

same as Mahmoods formula below: Sum = No of Nos X Average(here (a subscript 1 + a
subscript n) / 2 )
Notes on Weighted Averages

QuarterWit,QuarterWisdom:HeavilyWeightedWeightedAverages
March 28, 2011
Today, I will delve into one of the most important topics (ubiquitous application) that are
tested on GMAT. It is also one of the topics that will appear time and again during MBA e.g.
in Corporate finance, you might be taught how to find ‘Weighted Average Cost of Capital’.
So it will be highly beneficial if you have a feel for weighted average concepts.
The first question is – What is Weighted Average? Let me explain with an example.

A boy’s age is 17 years and a girl’s age is 20 years. What is their average age?

Simple enough, isn’t it? Average age = (17 + 20)/2 = 18.5

It is the number that lies in the middle of 17 and 20. (Another method of arriving at this
number would be to find the difference between them, 3, and divide it into 2 equal parts, 1.5
each. Now add 1.5 to the smaller number, 17, to get the average age of 18.5 years. Or
subtract 1.5 from the greater number, 20, to get the average age of 18.5 years. But I
digress. I will take averages later since it is just a special case of weighted averages.)
Now let me change the question a little.

There are 10 boys and 20 girls in a group. Average age of boys is 17 years and average
age of girls is 20 years. What is the average age of the group?

Many people will be able to arrive at the following:

Average Age = (17*10 + 20*20)/(10 + 20) = 19 years

Average age will be total number of years in the age of everyone in the group divided by
total number of people in the group. Since the average age of boys is 17, so total number of
years in the 10 boys’ ages is 17*10. Since the average age of girls is 20, the total number of
years in the 20 girls’ ages is 20*20. The total number of boys and girls is 10 + 20. Hence you
use the expression given above to find the average age. I hope we are good up till now.

To establish a general formula, let me restate this question using variables and then we will
just plug in the variables in place of the actual numbers above (Yes, it is opposite of what
you would normally do when you have the formula and you plug in numbers. Our aim here
is to deduce a generic formula from a specific example because the calculation above is
intuitive to many of you but the formula is a little intimidating.)

There are w1 boys and w2 girls in a group. Average age of boys is A1 years and average
age of girls is A2 years. What is the average age of the group?

Average Age = (A1*w1 + A2*w2)/(w1 + w2)

This is weighted average. Here we are not finding the average age of 1 boy and 1 girl.
Instead we are finding the average age of 10 boys and 20 girls so their average age will not
be 18.5 years. Boys have been given less weightage in the calculation of average because
there are only 10 boys as compared to 20 girls. So the average has been found after
accounting for the weightage (or ‘importance’ in regular English) given to boys and girls
depending on how many boys and how many girls there are. Notice that the weighted
average is 19 years which is closer to the average age of girls than to the average age of
boys. This is because there are more girls so they ‘pull’ the average towards their own age
i.e. 20 years.

Now that you know what weighted average is and also that you always knew the weighted
average formula intuitively, let’s move on to making things easier for you (Tougher, you say?
Actually, once people know the scale method that I am going to discuss right now (It has
been discussed in our Statistics and Problem Solving book too), they just love it!)

So, Average Age, Aavg = (A1*w1 + A2+w2) / (w1 + w2)

Now if we re-arrange this formula, we get, w1/w2 = (A2 – Aavg)/(Aavg – A1)

So we have got the ratio of weights w1 and w2 (the number of boys and the number of
girls). How does it help us? Knowing this ratio, we can directly get the answer. Another
example will make this clear.

John pays 30% tax and Ingrid pays 40% tax. Their combined tax rate is 37%. If John’s gross
salary is $54000, what is Ingrid’s gross salary?

Here, we have the tax rate of John and Ingrid and their average tax rate. A1 = 30%, A2 =
40% and Aavg = 37%. The weights are their gross salaries – $54,000 for John and w2 for
Ingrid. From here on, there are two ways to find the answer. Either plug in the values in the
formula above or use the scale method. We will take a look at both.

1. Plug in the formula

w1/w2 = (A2 – Aavg)/(Aavg – A1) = (40 – 37)/(37 – 30) = 3/7

Since A1 is John’s tax rate and A2 is Ingrid’s tax rate, w1 is John’s salary and w2 is Ingrid’s
salary

w1/w2 = John’s Salary/Ingrid’s Salary = 3/7 = 54,000/Ingrid’s Salary

So Ingrid’s Salary = $126,000

It should be obvious that either John or Ingrid could be A1 (and the other would be A2). For
ease, it a good idea to denote the larger number as A2 and the smaller as A1 (even if you
do the other way around, you will still get the same answer)

2. Scale Method

On the number line, put the smaller number on the left side and the greater number on the
right side (since it is intuitive that way). Put the average in the middle.

The distance between 30 and 37 is 7 and the distance between 37 and 40 is 3 so w1:w2 =
3:7 (As seen by the formula, the ratio is flipped).

Since w1 = 54,000, w2 will be 126,000

So Ingrid’s salary is $126,000.

This method is especially useful when you have the average and need to find the ratio of
weights. Check out next week’s post for some 700 level examples of weighted average.

QuarterWit,QuarterWisdom:ZaptheWeightedAverageBrutes
April 4, 2011

Let me start today’s discussion with a question from our Arithmetic

book. I love this question because it is very crafty (much like actual GMAT questions, I
assure you!) It looks like a calculation intensive question and makes you spend 3-4 minutes
(scribbling furiously) but is actually pretty straight forward when understood from the
‘weighted average’ perspective. We looked at an easier version of this question in the last
post.
John and Ingrid pay 30% and 40% tax annually, respectively. If John makes
$56000 and Ingrid makes $72000, what is their combined tax rate?
a. 32%
b. 34.4%
c. 35%
d. 35.6%
e. 36.4%
If we do not use weighted averages concept, this question would involve a tricky calculation.
Something on the lines of:

Total Tax = (30/100)*56000 + (40/100)*72000

Tax Rate = Total Tax / (56000 + 72000)

But we know better! The big numbers – 56000 and 72000 are just a smokescreen. I could
have as well given you $86380 and $111060 as their salaries; I would have still obtained the
same average tax rate! What is important is not the actual values of the salaries but the
relation between the values i.e. the ratio of their salaries. Let me show you.

We need to find their average tax rate. Since their salaries are different, the average tax rate
is not (30 + 40)/ 2. We need to find the ‘weighted average of their tax rates’. In the last
post, we discussed
w1/w2 = (A2 – Aavg) / (Aavg – A1)
The ratio of their salaries w1/w2 = 56000 / 72000 = 7/9

7/9 = (40 – Tavg) / (Tavg – 30)

Tavg = 35.6%
Imagine that! No long calculations! In the last post, when we wanted to find the average age
of boys and girls – 10 boys with an average age of 17 yrs and 20 girls with an average age
of 20 yrs, all we needed was the relative weights (relative number of people) in the two
groups i.e. 1:2. It didn’t matter whether there were 10 boys and 20 girls or 100 boys and 200
girls. It’s exactly the same concept here. It doesn’t matter what the actual salaries are. We
just need to find the ratio of the salaries.

Also notice that the two tax rates are 30% and 40%. The average tax rate is 35.6% i.e.
closer to 40% than to 30%. Doesn’t it make sense? Since the salary of Ingrid is $72,000,
that is, more than salary of John, her tax rate of 40% ‘pulls’ the average toward itself. In
other words, Ingrid’s tax rate has more ‘weight’ than John’s. Hence the average shifts from
35% to 35.6% i.e. toward Ingrid’s tax rate of 40%.

Let’s now look at PS question no. 148 from the Official Guide which is a beautiful example of
the use of weighted averages.

If a, b and c are positive numbers such that [a/(a+b)]*20 + [b/(a+b)]*40 = c

and if a < b, which of the following could be the value of c?
(A) 20
(B) 24
(C) 30
(D) 36
(E) 40
Let me tell you, it isn’t an easy question (and the explanation given in the OG makes my
head spin).

First of all, notice that the question says: ‘could be the value of c’ not ‘is the value of c’ which
means there isn’t a unique value of c. ‘c’ could take multiple values and one of those is given
in the options. Secondly, we are given that a < b. Now how does that figure in our scheme of
things? It is not an equation so we certainly cannot use it to solve for c. If you look closely,
you will notice that the given equation is

(20*a + 40*b) / (a + b) = c
Does it remind you of something? It should, considering that we are doing weighted
averages right now! Isn’t it very similar to the weighted average formula we saw in the last
post?

(A1*w1 + A2*w2) / (w1 + w2) = Weighted Average

So basically, c is just the weighted average of 20 and 40 with a and b as weights. Since a <
b, weightage given to 20 is less than the weightage given to 40 which implies that the
average will be pulled closer to 40 than to 20. So the average will most certainly be greater
than 30, which is right in the middle of 40 and 20, but will be less than 40. There is only one
such number, 36, in the options. ‘c’ can take the value ‘36’ and hence, (D) will be the
answer. Elementary, isn’t it? Not really! If you do not consider it from the weighted average
perspective, this question can torture you for hours.

Weighted Averages finish here ---

For geometric sequence

To find any term:

1. a subscript n = a subscript 1 X r power (n-1)

To find the sum of a certain no of terms in an geometric sequence:

2. S subscript n = a subscript 1 X ( 1 - r power n) / (1 - r )

Be very careful with the Geometric Series formula (i.e. an = a1 X rn-1)
a1 = 4000
a2 = 8000
a3 = 16000
a4 = 32000
a5 = 64000
a6 = 128000
a7 = 256000
For instance we want to find the 7th term, first term is 4000, common
ratio 4 = 8000/4000=2

Now a7 = 4000 X 2 7-1 = 4000 X 64 = 256000

On some gmat forums you will also find this formula an = a1 X rn i.e.
without -1

a7 = 4000 X 2 7 = 512000 (Now as verified from above, 512000 IS

NOT the 7th term. Its in fact the 8th term.
Two formulas of Mahmood that need to be remembered regarding sequences:

Sum = Average X No. of nos

No. no nos= ( L - F / d ) + 1 L = last term, F=first term and d = difference between two
consecutive integers in a sequence

I also found the following formula in OG16 Official Solutions to Problem Solving Q.180

the formula for the sum of the first n positive integers is

Interest Rates (Annual and Compound)

Remember the distinction between simple interest rates and compound interest rates and how
they are applied!!
For example, a $10,000 investment compounded semiannually at a nominal rate of 10 percent
is $11,025 at the end of a year, while the simple interest account only ends with $11,000, the
balance of $10,000 plus two interest payments of $500 each.
Important clarification on Compounding of Interest:
You had confusion regarding OG 12 Problem Solving Question No 128, If 5000 is invested
compounded annually and it doubles in 8 years then what would be its value in 16 years, you
initially thought it should be 15000, but you are wrong, it will be 20,000. For instance, you can
try yourself and see above, take 100 and invest compounded annually at 8% for 9 years and 18
years, the value of 100 will be approx 400, and not 300..
1.08^9
1.08^18
Note regarding constant growth rate OR compound growth rate:
If Principal or base is 100 and growth rate is 10% then Cumulative Sum after two years will be
100 X 100*10% = 110
110 * 110*10% = 121
The same can also be obtained as
100 * (1.1)^2 = 121
If you do not know the rate of 10%, then the same will be written as
100 * (1 + Rate) ^ 2 (That is the the cumulative sum after two years)

We recognize two different kinds of interest - Simple interest,

and Compound interest. Look for the following three pieces of the puzzle in
the question:

1) Interest rate - usually given as a %

2) Time - How long the interest is calculated for.

3) Compounded - Annually, semi-annually (every six months), quarterly,

monthly.
Simple interest is calculated on the principal only. The formula for
calculating simple interest is Principal × Rate × Time.

Use Simple interest in these two cases:

1) The question explicitly use the phrase "simple interest"

2) The calculation time for the interest is shorter than the stated interest
period. e.g. 12% annual interest calculated after a 6-month time period.

Example:
John takes out a $10,000 loan at an annual interest of 12%. How much
interest will the loan incur after six months?

Notice the following:

1) Interest rate = 12% annual

2) Time - six months. Since the interest is an annual interest, we'll use time as
a fraction 6 months / 12 months = ½ a year. Since the calculation period is
shorter than the interest stated period, this is an indicator to
use Simpleinterest.

3) Compound - not given - another reason to use the simple interest formula.

Solving: use the simple Interest formula = $10000 × 12% × ½ = 1200 × ½ =

$600.

John's loan will have incurred $600 after a six-month period.

to Sum up:

For interest questions, Notice the following three pieces of the puzzle:

1) Interest rate - usually given as a %

2) Time - How long the interest is calculated for.

3) Compounded - Annually, semi-annually (every six months), quarterly,

monthly.

Simple Interest formula = Principal × Rate × Time

Use simple interest in the following cases:

1) The question explicitly uses the phrase "simple interest"

2) The calculation time for the interest is shorter than the stated interest
period. e.g. 12% annual interest calculated after a 6-month time period.

Compound interest is calculated on the principal, as well as on any interest

already earned. Use compound interest when the question explicitly uses
the term "Compound".
Example:

John takes out a $10,000 loan at an annual interest of 12%, compounded

semiannually. what will be the balance of the loan at the end of the year?

Notice the following:

1) Interest rate = 12% annual

2) Time - 1 year

3) Compound - semiannually. Interest is calculated after six months, then

again at the end of the year.
Solution: After six months, John's loan will have incurred half of the annual
interest, or 6%.

The balance of the loan after six months would be : $10,000 + 10,000·6% =
10,600.

At the end of the year, this balance incurs the remainder of the interest -
another 6%.

The balance at the end of the year: 10,600 + 10,600·6% = $11,236.

Notice that the interest rate for every 6-month period is 6% - half of the 12%
annual rate.

Modeling the problem over a timeline might be useful.

The compound interest formula is :

, where

P = Principal, r = Interest rate (in %), n = number of times per year, t = number
of years.

In the case of the above example, the balance of the loan will be 10,000
(1+12% / 2)2 = 10,000 (1+6%)2 =$11,236.

You're right. That's no way to spend a sunny afternoon.

Once you've identified a compound interest question, look at the answer

choices and distinguish between two cases:

1) Expressions of the form of P(1+something)something (e.g. 10,000·1.062) - plug

in the values into the compound interest formula and choose the right
answer. Model the question over a timeline if you need a reminder of the
formula.

2) Numbers in the answer choices - the numerical value of the compound

interest formula can be easilyballparked: Calculate the simple interest under
the same conditions, then add a little - choose an answer choice that is a
slightly higher. No calculations needed - trust us, it works.
Inequalities

When you multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number, the inequality sign flips! A corollary of this
is that you cannot multiply or divide an inequality by a variable, unless you know the sign of the number
that the variable stands for. The reason is that you would not know whether to flip the inequality sign.

In order to add inequalities, we must make sure the inequality signs are facing the same
direction. Adding inequalities together is a powerful technique on the GMAT. However, note
that we should NEVER subtract or divide two inequalities. Moreover, you can ONLY multiply
inequalities together under certain circumstances ( ONLY multiply inequalities together if both sides of both
inequalities are positive .)

Multiplication and Division Properties of Inequality

If a > b, then ac > bc, if c > 0

If a > b, then ac < bc, if c < 0

If a > b, then , if c > 0

If a > b, then , if c < 0

RULE TO LEARN: |expression| = +expression whenever expression is

positive and |expression| = -expression whenever expression is negative

|y − x| = y − x if and only if y − x ≥ 0
|y − x| = -(y – x) OR x - y if and only
if y − x ≤ 0
For instance y=4 and x=7, y-x=4-7= -3. |-3|
= 3 which is equal to x - y
 Rationale for above rule (Not for remembering
but only for learning the rationale for above
rule)

RECAP:

In inequality questions always plug in numbers using DOZEN F

1. Different (eg even vs. odds, prime vs. multiple, fractions vs. integers, positive versus negative, etc.)
2. One
3. zero
4. Equal numbers for different variables
5. negative
6. fractions
Different:
 Even => try odd
 A multiple of x => try a prime
 Small (eg x = 3) => huge numbers (eg x = 10,000)
O ne: special case often overlooked.
Z ero: ditto.
E qual: ditto
N egatives: The average test taker automatically thinks of variable X and Y as positive integers.
F ractions: The average test taker prefers integers over fractions or decimals

For Plugging In numbers:

"Bad numbers" can make several answer choices match your goal
value and waste your time. When Plugging In for multiple-choice
questions, follow these rules:

 Don't use 0 or 1.
 Don't use numbers that appear in the problem or the answer
choices.
  Don't use the same numbers for different variables.
 Don't use conversion numbers—that is, numbers used to
convert between units (e.g., 60 is the conversion number for
minutes and hours).

Extreme Value Operations (i.e. LT,GT)

SAMPLE EXTREME
VALUES OPERATIONS
Operation Example Procedure
Addition 8 + LT2 Add just like regular nos
8 + LT2 = LTI0 (i.e., < 10)
Subtract and FLIP the extreme
Subtraction 8 - LT2 value
8 - LT2 = GT6 (i.e., > 6)
Multiplication a) 8 X LT2 a) Multiply just like regular nos
8 x LT2 = LT16 (i.e., < 16)
b) Multiply and FLIP the extreme
b) -7 X LT2 value
-7 x LT2 = GT(-14) (i.e., > -14)
Divide and FLIP the extreme
Division 8 / LT2 value

8 / LT2 = GT4 (i.e., > 4)

if we know that LT2 is positive
Multiply 2 extreme If we know both extreme values
values LT8 X LT2 are positive
then multiply just like regular
nos
LT8 x LT2 = LT16 (i.e., < 16)

Where we need to maximize or minimize when one of the variables has an even exponent-is to
recognize that the squared term will be minimized when it is set equal to zero. (For revision of
concept goto heading Optimization Problems on Page 170 of booklet 03 - The Equations,
Inequalities, and VICs Guide 4th edition)
Here are some common inequality statements on the GMAT, as well as what they imply. You should think of these
translations whenever you see one of these statements on the test:

Statement: xy > 0 This means x and y are both positive OR both negative
Statement: xy < 0 This means x and y have different signs (one positive, one negative)
Statement: x² - x < 0 This means x(x-1)< 0
Now either x<0 and x-1>0 OR x>0 and x-1< 0

Some explanation on the last statement from above:

Given: a*b < 0 (i.e. ab is negative)

What can you say about the sign of a and b?

Can you say that 'a' MUST be negative? or that 'b' MUST be negative?
No! All you can say is that one and only one of them must be negative and the other must
be positive ( -ve * +ve = -ve)

So how would you handle x(x-1) < 0?

Can you say x must be -ve? No!
Either x < 0 or (x-1) < 0 but not both.

Case 1: x < 0 and (x-1) > 0

x < 0 and x > 1
Is this possible? No since it is given x> 0 ! So no such values of x.

Case 2: x > 0 and (x - 1) < 0

x > 0 and x < 1
This gives us 0 < x < 1
So that is our solution.

Hope it makes sense now.

When you see inequalities with zero on one side of the inequality, you should consider using
positive/negative analysis to help solve the problem!

With Complex Absolute Value Equations you only need to consider two real cases:

1. one in which neither expression changes sign, and

2. another in which one expression changes sign.

BEWARE ON ABOVE CONCLUSION; ABOVE CONCLUSION APPLIES ONLY WHEN

WE HAVE COMPLEX ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS AND NOT COMPLEX
ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES, WHEN FACED WITH INEQUALITY ALWAYS
SOLVE FOR 4 CASES . (i.e. ++, +-, -+, --) In those 4 cases, select the two values that are
more limiting of the other two.

How determine roots in an inequality and determine valid ranges for that inequality? Check
the following question and its explanation provided by Bunuel:
Therefore answer = 0
The above explanation by Bunuel has forgotten to include the ‘=’ sign with the ‘<’ or ‘>’
sign, but you need to include these signs in any of the ranges above only once so that all the
transition points(or roots or critical points) are included once
Another Good Question(DS) on inequalities:

Clarification: x raised to any odd integer DOES NOT MEAN: (odd integer)^x. It means the vice
versa. i.e. x^(odd integer). Now this implies that x>0 because x raised to even power will always
be greater than zero but if x would have been negative, then raising it to an odd integer would
have been less than zero.

Strategy for plotting an inequality on the number line:

A standard formula for interpreting absolute value: When xI + b I= c, the center point of our graph is -b. The
I I
equation tells us that x must be EXACTLY c units away from -b. Similarly, for the inequality x + b < c, the center
point of the graph is -b, and the "less than" symbol tells us that x must be LESS THAN c units away from -b.
What is the graph of I x - 4 I < 3? Based on this formula, the center point of the graph is -(-4) = 4, and x must be
less than 3 units away from that point (4).

Important Rule: squaring a quantity, and then square-rooting, is equivalent to taking the
absolute value

A parabola has either a peak (a maximum value) or a valley (a minimum value). This "peak
point" or "valley point" is what you need to find. The key to deciphering the function is to make
the squared expression equal to 0. Whatever value of x makes the squared expression equal to 0
is the value of x that minimizes or maximizes the function. The resulting value of the function is
the minimum or the maximum of the function. (The function has a minimum if other values of
the square make the function bigger, whereas the function has a maximum if other values of the
square make the function smaller.)

How determine whether a quadratic equation

(which is of course a parabola) has a minimum
or maximum and how to determine the x
coordinate (the maximum or minimum point)
Determine whether the quadratic function given has a maximum or
minimum value: y = f(x) = 2x^2-8x+1
find the maximum or minimum value of the function

The second degree polynomial f(x) is of the form ax2+bx+c.

A rule of thumb, if a is positive, the function has a minimum. If a is negative, the function has a
maximum. The maximum/minimum are given by x = -b / (2a). Then, plug this value back into
the function. The output will be your maximum/minimum.

For our case, a=2, b=-8, and c=1.

Here a is positive, therefore we will have a minimum at x = - (-8) / 4 = 2 (Note that 2 is the
value of x coordinate)

Reciprocals of Inequalities

Taking reciprocals of inequalities is similar to multiplying/dividing by negative numbers ONLY

WHEN x and y are both positive OR both negative. However when x is negative and y is
positive, Do NOT flip the inequality. You need to consider the positive/negative cases of the
variables involved. Further If we do not know the sign of x or y, we CANNOT take reciprocals.

Squaring of Inequalities

You can only square inequalities when both sides have the same sign-and the sign
must be known to be positive or negative.

If both sides are known to be negative, then flip the inequality sign when you square.

If both sides are known to be positive, THEN DO NOT FLIP the inequality sign when you
square.

If one side is positive and one side is negative, then you cannot square

Important Clarification on Equations involving inequalities

Two sets of equations that involve an inequality sign (e.g. 9N + 3P <= 20) CANNOT be solved
simultaneously to yield values of the variables involved. Two sets of equations CAN ONLY
yield correct values of variables when the equations DO NOT involve an inequality sign ( for
example: x(x - 1) < 0 is not the same as x <0 and (x - 1)< 0) In fact this equation (x(x - 1) <
0) will have two possible solution sets: x<0 and x>1 OR x>0 and x<1

Important Clarification on Absolute Values

|x| = Can be both the positive and negative value of X. If |x| = 1 – 2 = -1, DO NOT ASSUME
that because we need the absolute value of x, we can consider -1 a +1….Reference Q236 Data
Sufficiency OG 10…. |1| is NOT EQUAL TO 2-3……
Important Rule: Whenever you see inequalities with zero on either side of the inequality, you should
consider testing positive and negative cases to help solve the problem. For example, if it is given (a-b) / c
< 0, then this means either the expression (a-b) is negative or c is negative 

Important Question on Inequalities

Work Problems

To find out work done in unit time by two people, then apply following formula if and only if
work in units is same

(At x Bt) / At + Bt

Following formula can also be applied in case time is same

Aw + Bw

To find out work done by one person from combined time by two people, then apply following
formula if and only if work in units is same

(At x Bt) / At – Bt

The above formulas also apply in case of pipes filling / emptying tank problems

The above formulas also apply for three persons / pipe with minor variation ONLY in
denominator (denominator will be in pairs)

For more than 3 people / pipes the best method is unitary method

Always apply changes on Work rather than time, chances of mistake are almost zero

Distance Speed Problems

Distance = Speed X Time

Formula for Average Speed when distance is same, Suppose a man covers a certain distance
at x km/hr and an equal distance at y km/hr. Then,

2xy
the average speed during the whole journey is x+ km/hr.
y

Speed Distance Time Formulas:

1. Speed Distance Formula: Distance = Speed X time
2. Average Speed = (x + y) / 2
Applicable when one travels at speed x for half the time and speed y for other half of the
time regardless of distance. In this case, average speed is the arithmetic mean of the two
speeds.

3a. Average Speed = 2xy/(x + y)

Applicable when one travels at speed x for half the distance and speed y for other half of the
distance regardless of time. In this case, average speed is the harmonic mean of the two
speeds. On similar lines, you can modify this formula for one-third distance.

3b. Average Speed = 3xyz / (xy + yz + xz)

Applicable when one travels at speed x for one-third of the distance, at speed y for another
one-third of the distance and speed z for rest of the one-third of the distance regardless of
time.

4. You can also use weighted averages. Note that in case of average speed, the weight is
always ‘time’. So in case you are given the average speed, you can find the ratio of time as
(if you recognize the formula below it is the same as for determining individual
fractions/ratios when we are given individual averages and a combined average)

t1/t2 = (y – Avg) / (Avg – x)

(The above formula is only a shortcut to calculate the ratio of speeds of two objects. The
ratio of speeds can also be worked out using just the traditional formula of Distance=Speed
X Time)

Demonstration of above weighted average speed formula:

Corollary from above:

Thing to learn: The proportion of each element (e.g 1st element and 2nd element) in
the mixture is equal to the distance between the percentage attributed to the 2nd
element in the mixture divided by distance between the percentage attributed to
the 1st element in the mixture. So for instance the question is

A survey of employers found that during 1993 employment costs rose 3.5 percent, where
employment costs consist of salary costs and fringe benefit costs. If salary costs rose 3
percent and fringe benefit costs rose 5.5 percent during 1993, then fringe benefit costs
represented what percent of employment costs at the beginning of 1993?
(A) 16.5%
(B) 20%
(C) 35%
(D) 55%
(E) 65%

Ans. Proportion of salary in the mixture = distance between fringe % and mixture % = |5.5 -
3.5| = 2
Proportion of fringe in the mixture = distance between salary % and mixture % = |3 - 3.5|
= .5

Ratio of salary:fringe in the mixture = (2) : (.5) = 4:1.

Since salary:fringe = 4:1, and 4+1 = 5, fringe/total = 1/5 = 20%.

The correct answer is B.

5. In distance speed problems, time taken by two objects is INVERSELY

proportional to their ratio of speeds. So for example if ratio of speed of
A and B is 3:2, the time taken to travel the same distance will be in the
ratio 2:3.

Overlapping Sets Strategy

There are three distinct ways of handling these questions:

 A Venn Diagram
 A table
 A formula

For GMAT problems involving only two categorizations or decisions, the most efficient tool is
the Double-Set Matrix: a table whose rows correspond to the options for one decision, and whose
columns correspond to the options for the other decision.

Very rarely, you might need to consider more than 2 options for one or both of the dimensions of
your chart. As long as each set of distinct options is complete and has no overlaps, you can
simply extend the chart.

Venn Diagram

A Venn Diagram should be used ONLY for problems that involve three sets that overlap.

Venn Diagrams are easy to work with, if you remember one simple rule: Work from the Inside
Out.
Formula

For 3 overlapping sets:

T = A + B + C - (AB + AC + BC) - 2(ABC) + N (Of course where values are not given
they can assumed to be zero)

The big idea with overlapping group problems is to SUBTRACT THE OVERLAPS. When we
add together everyone in A, everyone in B, and everyone in C: Those in exactly 2 of the
groups (AB+AC+BC) (i.e. the intersection of 2 sets DOES NOT contain the part that is
shared by all 3 sets ) are counted twice, so they need to be subtracted from the total ONCE.
Those in all 3 groups (ABC) are counted 3 times (how? once with A, then B and then C), so
they need to be subtracted from the total TWICE. By subtracting the overlaps, we ensure
that no one is over-counted.

However, as already said above, the above formula is to be used when we know that the
intersection of 2 sets DOES NOT contain the part that is shared by all 3 sets. But when we
know that intersection of 2 sets CONTAINS the part that is shared by all 3 sets, then the
above formula becomes:

Total = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A and B) – n(B and C) – n(C and A) + n(A and B and C) + n(No
Set)

This is because when the part shared by all 3 sets is already included in part shared by two
sets, we must add back the part shared by all 3 sets ONCE because now the part shared by
all 3 sets has been deducted thrice (– n(A and B) – n(B and C) – n(C and A)) whereas it
should have been deducted only twice, so we add back the part shared by all 3 sets once !!
Hope you understand this when you revise

One more formula that you need to know is:

Total = n(No Set) + n(Exactly one set) + n(Exactly two sets) + n(Exactly three sets)

Accordingly For 2 overlapping groups, it would be:

T = A + B – AB + N (If every element must be a member of A, B or both and if some

elements also belong to neither group)

If you are still confused about the working of above two formulas, then try working out the
above two formulas on Q14. Chapter 7 end (Overlapping Sets Solutions) Manhattan Work
Translations Guide 4, 4th edition

Overlapping Sets Formulas:

1) Total = n(No Set) + n(Exactly(Only) one set) + n(Exactly(Only) two sets) +

n(Exactly(Only) three sets)
Overlapping Sets:

2nd Formula: {Total} = {Buffet} + {Dinning room} + {Snack bar} - {Those who work in exactly 2
restaurants} - 2*{Those who work in exactly 3 restaurants}

i.e. Total = A + B + C – (Sum of all those who are members of exactly(only) two sets) – 2 (Those
who are members of exactly(only) 3 sets) + Niether (if applicable)

The second formula you are referring to is: Total=A+B+C − {Sum of Exactly 2 groups members}
−2∗(An B n C i.e. members belonging to exactly 3 groups) +Neither. This formula is often
written incorrectly on forums as Exactly 2 for example is the same as intersection of 2 and
cannot be written as BnC (BnC is sum of areas 2 and 4) . Members of exactly (only) A and B is
section 3 only (without section 4), so members of A and B only means members of A and B and
not C. This is the difference of exactly (only) A and B (which can be written, though not needed
for GMAT, as AnB − C) from A and B (which can be written as AnB)

FIRST FORMULA
Total = A + B + C − (sum of 2 group overlaps) + (all three) + Neither
Notice that EXACTLY (only) 2-group overlaps is not the same as 2 group overlaps
That’s it.
RECAP of above:
Direct and Indirect Proportionality Note:
Formula for Direct Proportionality

X= CY

Formula for Indirect Proportionality

X = C (1/Y)

Where C is a constant and actually represents the nature of the proportionality. For instance X
maybe proportional to Y and the nature of proportionality maybe 3, i.e. for any value of Y, X
shall increase by a multiple of 3

Geometry

The measure of exterior angle of a triangle is equals to the sum of measures of its
interior opposite angles

The sum of the interior angles of a polygon follows a specific pattern that depends on n, the
number of sides that the polygon has. This sum is always 180 times 2 less than n (the number of
sides) ( 180 X (n – 2) = Sum of Interior Angles), because the polygon can be cut into (n - 2)
triangles, each of which contains 180°.

The height of a triangle ALWAYS refers to a line that is perpendicular (at a 90° angle) to the
base. Stay clear on what is base and height.

An angle is acute if it measures less than 90°.

You can remember this term by thinking of a cute angle - a small, less than
90°, slightly furry angle. (Thanks, Buffy!)

The term acute is also used to describe someone that is quick to understand.

A right angle measures exactly 90°. If you see in a GMAT problem two lines
marked by a "box" (shown in the figure), you may assume the lines form a 90°
angle.

Two lines that intersect at a right angle are perpendicular to each other. It is a
relative term, marked by " ". For example, saying line segment AB is
perpendicular to line segment CD can be written as .
Parallel lines are straight lines that never meet. They are also
termed equidistant, because their distance is always the same. Parallelism is
marked by "||" (e.g., a||b)

When a third line intersects parallel lines, angles are formed. There are only
two kinds of angles: big and small. Remember the rules regarding these
angles;

 All the small angles equal each other.

 All the big angles equal each other.
 Any combination of Big angle+Small angle is always 180°.
BEWARE: All big angles and all small angles are equal to each other around a SINGLE
transversal cutting two parallel lines. For instance in below diagram, there are two transversals,
one from line l1 to line l3 and another from line l3 to line l2. Do not make the mistake of
comparing or equating angles around 2 transversals.

An angle is obtuse if it is greater than 90° and smaller than 180°.

The term obtuse is also used to describe someone who is slow to understand.
A vertex (plural: vertices) is the intersection point of at least two straight
lines, or rays (for angles).

The term vertex often refers to a figure (i.e., triangle, square etc.), or an
angle.

To bisect means to cut something exactly in half. A bisector is a line that

cuts the angle in half.

Note that when the GMAT uses 'bisector' to describe a line, it means just
'bisector of an angle'. Two lines (such as the diagonals of a rectangle)
may bisect each other, but they are not considered 'bisectors'.
To intersect means to divide something by lying or crossing over.
An intersection may refer to the common points of lines and areas, lying or
crossing over each other.

A diagonal is a line that joins two corners which aren't already connected by a
side.

The number of diagonals in a polygon (a figure with numerous sides) is given

in the formula: , where n is the number of sides.

(The number of angles in a polygon is given by (n-2).180 )

A rule of polygons is that the sum of the exterior angles always

equals 360 degrees
How many vertices does a polygon have, if each vertex is the intersection of
exactly three diagonals?
6
? Ask a tutor
You underestimated the time this question took you. You actually solved it in
01:18.
? Ask a tutor
Good!

A diagonal is a line that joins two corners which aren't already connected by a
side. In a polygon, each vertex is adjacent to two other vertices. If each vertex
is the originating point for three more diagonals, the polygon has three
additional vertices. The total sum of the vertices is 1 (the original vertex) + 2
(adjacent vertices) + 3 (non-adjacent vertices).

For example, focus on the vertex A. The three diagonals intersecting at vertex
A will lead to three vertices D, E and F - that's four vertices mandated by the
requirement set in the question. However, beyond these four vertices, vertex
A is also connected to adjacent vertices B and C with two sides of the
polygon, leading to a total number of vertices of 6.
The height or altitude, is the vertical distance between two points. It is
always perpendicular to a side or surface at one end, at least.

In any triangle there are three heights.

In an obtuse triangle the height may be found outside the triangle, so that it is
perpendicular to the extension of the side.

Two angles are supplementary if they add up to 180°, or to a straight angle.

However, the angles don't have to be adjacent, as long as they add up to
180°.

Two angles are complementary if they add up to 90°, or to a right angle.

However, the angles don't have to be adjacent, as long as they add up to 90°.

Very Important: A polygon which has all sides mutually congruent and all angles
mutually congruent is called a regular polygon or equilateral polygon. Most
polygons in GMAT Geometry problems will be regular.
Difference between congruent and similar polygons?
Similar triangles have the same shape, but the size may be different. Two triangles
are similar if: two pairs of corresponding angles are congruent (therefore the third pair
of corresponding angles are also congruent). the three pairs of corresponding sides
are proportional.
Similar figures and congruent figures both have the same shape. The difference
between similar figures and congruent figures is that congruent figures also have the
same size. So, corresponding sides and corresponding angles of congruentfigures
have the same measures.

Heron’s Formula (NOT IN GMAT Syllabus)

(IMPORTANT: Heron’s Formula is not in the syllabus of GMAT, so learning this formula and
knowing how to apply it can even be a detriment to your GMAT Score especially in Data
Sufficiency Questions where you can wrongly answer a question based on your knowledge
of Herons Formula. But still I am covering it here for knowledge and possible help in
Problem Solving Questions of GMAT. Heron’s Formula is useful where you do not know the
height in a triangle and you want to know the area of a triangle based on lengths of its 3
given sides.
END OF TOPIC: HERON’s FORMULA)

Similar Triangles: Triangles are defined as similar if all their corresponding angles are equal
and their corresponding sides are in proportion.

(Definition
Two triangles ABC and A'B'C' are similar if the three angles of the first triangle are
congruent (equal) to the corresponding three angles of the second triangle and the
lengths of their corresponding sides are proportional as follows.

AB / A'B' = BC / B'C' = CA / C'A'

Once you find that 2 triangles have 2 pairs of equal angles, you know that the triangles are
similar
In two similar triangles, the ratio of their areas is the square of the ratio of their sides.

In similar triangles, the perimeter, sides, altitudes and medians are all in the same ratio.
Therefore, the area ratio will be the square of any of these ratios too.

If two similar triangles have corresponding side lengths in ratio a:b, then their areas will be in
ratio a^2 (sq) : b^2 (sq)

If two similar triangles have sides in the ratio x/y, then their areas are in the ratio x^2/y^2

OR in another way: in two similar triangles, the ratio of their areas is the square of the ratio
of their sides: AREA/area = SIDE^2/side^2

We know that sides of similar triangles are in the same ratio. Say two triangles have sides a,
b, c and A, B, C respectively. Then, a/A = b/B = c/C = k

Note that the altitudes of the two triangles will also be in the same ratio, ‘k’, since all lengths
have the ratio ‘k’.

Then what is the relation between the areas of the two triangles? Since the ratio of the
bases is k and the ratio of the altitudes is also k, the ratio of the areas will be k*k = k^2.

So if there are two similar triangles such that their sides are in the ratio 1:2, their areas will
be in the ratio 1:4.

Two triangles are said to be similar if all the angles of one triangle are
equal to all the angles of the other. If we want to show that two triangles are
similar it is sufficient to show that two angles are equal. If two angles are
equal it is obvious that the third angle in each must be equal.
The triangles in the above diagram are similar. It follows that the ratios
between corresponding sides are the same.
In other words :

and

Calculating the Lengths of Corresponding Sides

It may be possible to calculate lengths we don't know yet. We need to:

 Step 1: Find the ratio of corresponding sides in pairs of similar triangles.

 Step 2: Use that ratio to find the unknown lengths.

Example: Find lengths a and b of Triangle S

Step 1: Find the ratio

We know all the sides in Triangle R, and

We know the side 6.4 in Triangle S

The 6.4 faces the angle marked with two arcs as does the side of length 8
in triangle R.

So we can match 6.4 with 8, and so the ratio of sides in triangle S to

triangle Ris:

6.4 to 8

Now we know that the lengths of sides in triangle S are all 6.4/8
times the lengths of sides in triangle R.

Step 2: Use the ratio

a faces the angle with one arc as does the side of length 7 in triangle R.

a = (6.4/8) × 7 = 5.6

b faces the angle with three arcs as does the side of length 6 in triangle R.

b = (6.4/8) × 6 = 4.8

Done!

SIMILAR TRIANGLES

We know that sides of similar triangles are in the same ratio. Say two triangles have sides a, b, c and A, B, C
respectively. Then, a/A = b/B = c/C = k
Note that the altitudes of the two similar triangles will also be in the same ratio, ‘k’, since all lengths have the
ratio ‘k’.

AREA AND PERIMETER OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES

If two similar triangles have sides in the ratio x/y, then their areas are in the ratio x^2/y^2 So for example, if
there are two similar triangles such that their sides are in the ratio 1:2, their areas will be in the ratio 1:4

OR in another way: in two similar triangles, the ratio of their areas is the square of the ratio of their sides:
AREA/area = SIDE^2/side^2

If two similar triangles have sides in the ratio x/y, then their perimeters are also in the same ratio x/y

GMAC recycles. Not for the sake of global environmentalism, but rather as a means to save time
and money. Recycled questions abound in the GMAT, and you can benefit from it.

Identifying similar triangles: Triangles are similar if all their angles are equal to each other.
The figure below presents two similar triangles, as their angles satisfy the above condition.

Practical Implications of similarity: Similar triangles are basically copies of the same triangle
on a different scale. If two triangles are similar, their respective sides maintain a constant ratio.

For example, if the base of one triangle in a similar duo is three times the base of the triangle
similar to it, then all other sides of the bigger triangle will also be three times the size of the
respective counterpart in the smaller triangle. The large triangle is effectively the same triangle
as the small triangle, only enlarged 3 times.

This concept can be expressed in the following equation:

Thus, if b=2 and e=6, then the similar triangles in the figure below maintain a ratio of 6/2=3 to 1
between their respective sides. Therefore, if a=4, then d must equal 4·3=12.

Or, in equation form:

Important note: Only compare sides opposite the same angle! In the figure above, sides a and d
can be compared because they are both opposite the 50° angle in their triangle. The ratio between
a and d will equal the ratio between b and its respective counterpart e (b must be compared to e,
as both of them are opposite the 30° in the respective triangles). YOU ARE DOING A BIG
MISTAKE IN COMPARING SIDES: COMPARE LONG LEG WITH LONG LEG AND
SHORT LEG WITH SHORT LEG OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES

The similar triangle data can be organized in a slightly modified Ratio Box, with the two
triangles taking up the first and third columns, and the constant ratio as the multiplier:

Small ∆ Multiplier Large ∆

side opposite 30° angle 2 ×3 6
side opposite 50° angle 4 ×3 12
side opposite 100° angle
Total
Common forms in the GMAT:

Similar triangles can appear in many forms, but three specific recycled figures are more popular.
If you encounter the following figures in a GMAT question, think "similarity" - check if the
concept of constant ratio between respective sides of the triangles can help you quickly solve the
problem:

1) "Triangle within a triangle", parallel bases:

If DE||AC, small triangle BDE and large triangle ABC are similar, as all their angles are equal to
each other:

∠B - common angle for both triangles.

∠D = ∠A - small angles formed by two parallel lines and a line AB intersecting them.

∠E = ∠C - small angles formed by two parallel lines and a line BC intersecting them.

2) "Hourglass" form:
If AB||CD, small triangle ABE and large triangle DCE are similar, as all their angles are equal to
each other:

∠AEB = ∠CED - opposite angles are equal to each other.

∠D = ∠A - small angles formed by two parallel lines and a line AD intersecting them.

∠B = ∠C - angles formed by two parallel lines and a line BC intersecting them.

3) Right triangle with height drawn to the hypotenuse

This figure actually presents three similar right triangles: small triangle BDC, medium triangle
ABD, and large triangle ABC. Proving that this is so will take too long here and is not that
important, but go ahead and try it on your own (Hint: Show that the small and medium triangles
have the same angles as the large triangle).

Important Question you did incorrectly

If in the figure above, AD=DB and DE=√2, what is the length of line segment AC?

(1) x=45

(2) DE||AC

The subject that is most recycled by GMAC is right triangles.

Memorize these simple recycled right triangles.

GMAC uses these triangles or their multiples (i.e., GMAC may use the 3:4:5 or 6:8:10 or
9:12:15 etc.)

To spot a simple recycled right triangle in a question you need two sides of the triangle to find
the third.

However, pay attention to the placing of the numbers, as they stand for the ratios of the sides.
The largest number represents the hypotenuse. (In the recycled right triangle 6:8:10 the number
10 represents the hypotenuse)

Whenever you see a right triangle check for a recycled ratio first. If the triangle does not fit one
of the recycled patterns, use the Pythagorean Theorem.
For any right triangle in the GMAT check for a recycled right triangle first. If there isn't any, use
the Pythagorean theorem.

Correct.

Always check for recycled right triangles first. Divide the sides by 4 to get 32:4=8, 60:4=15.
This triangle must be the recycled 8:15:17, Hence, the third side must be 17×4=68.

Two parts of a recycled triangle always reveal the third.

Important Question

If AB=20 and BC=25, what is the length of AD in the figure above?

12

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You grossly underestimated the time this question took you. You actually solved it in 06:14.
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Nice job!

The two sides of ABC are AB=20=4·5, BC=25=5·5. Use the recycled ratio 3:4:5 expanded times
5 to find the third side AC=3·5=15. Notice that AD is one of the heights of the triangle, which is
part of area of a triangle formula {AREA= ½×BASE×HEIGHT}.

To find AD, first find the area with the formula AREA= ½×BASE×HEIGHT. Use AC as the base
and AB as the height. Area=½×15×20=150.

To find AD, use the same formula with BC as the base and AD as the height:
 150=½×25×AD.

--> 300=25×AD

--> AD=12

Important DS Question

The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10 cm. What is the perimeter, in centimeters, of

the triangle?

(1) The area of the triangle is 25 square centimeters.

(2) The 2 legs of the triangle are of equal length.

For Stmt 2:

In a right triangle when two legs are of equal length, that means the two equal angles have to
be 45 degrees each as the third angle obviously is 90 degree. The length of hypotenuse is
already given, from this we can find the length of legs through the 45:45:90 right angle values
i.e. 1x:1x:xV2

Equilateral means equal-sided.

An equilateral triangle has three equal sides, and consequently three equal angles. Hence, the
angles in an equilateral are 60° each.
In an equilateral triangle any height is also the median and the bisector.

A bisector of an angle in a triangle is NOT ALWAYS the median !!

Remember: the height in an isosceles triangle is also the median and the bisector of the angle.

Circle = Angle between tangent and radius is 90⁰

diameter = 2r

Area of Circle = ∏r²

Circumference = 2∏r = ∏d (= 1 Revolution / 1 Spin = 360⁰ = distance travelled)

Area of sector =

Length of Arc =

In a cyclic quadrilateral ( ) opposite angles always have a sum of 90⁰

i.e. A+C and B+D both have sum 180⁰)

A cyclic quadrilateral or inscribed quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose vertices all lie on a

single circle.

Suppositions in circles questions should always be radius=10 and diameter=20

Important Clarification:
Do not mix up or confuse interior angles of any polygon
with the angles formed from the center of that polygon. If
the centre of any polygon is divided into multiple sectors
(or pizza pies) then the sum of all those sectors or pies
would equal 360 degree and NOT equal to the sum of the
interior angles of that polygon

Together with triangles, circles comprise most of the GMAT Geometry problems.

A circle is the set of all points on a plane at the same distance from a single point ("the center").

The boundary line of a circle is called the circumference.

There are 360° around the center point of a circle.

If you see a circular region on the GMAT you may assume it is a circle. Also, if a point in a
diagram seems inside, outside, or on the circumference of the circle, you may assume it is that
way.
However, do not assume that a point inside a circle is its center, unless the problem specifically
states so.

A radius is the distance from the center of the circle to its boundary line. All radii of the same
circle are equal to each other.

A chord is a line between any two points on the outer line of the circle.
A diameter is a chord that passes through the center. It is also the longest chord. The diameter
measures two radii.

A central angle in a circle originates from the center and is formed by two radii.
An inscribed angle is an angle with the vertex on the edge of the circle. Its rays are along chords
of the circle.

Important: An arc on a circle may be measured in angles, as a fraction of a circle.

An inscribed angle in a circle defines an arc.

The measure of an arc defined by an inscribed angle xº is 2xº.

All the inscribed angles that define the same arc of 2x° are equal to each other, and equal to x°.

Recall that the central angle defining an arc is equal to the measure of the arc. It follows that
when an inscribed angle and a central angle define the same arc, the central angle is double
the inscribed angle.
The circle above circumscribes square ABCD. What is the value of w°+x°+y°+z°?

90°

Correct.

The issue of the question is the relation of inscribed angles to the arcs they define. An arc that is
defined by an inscribed angle is double that angle, hence, the inscribed angle is half the arc it
defines.

The square divides the whole circumference into 4 equal arcs of 90° each. Inscribed angles w°
and y° define two arcs whose total measure is 90°. Therefore w°+y°=45°. Arcs x° and z° also
define two arcs whose total measure is 90°. Therefore x°+z°=45°. It follows that
w°+x°+y°+z°=45+45=90°.
Within a given circle, arcs of equal length are arcs of equal degrees.

The opposite is true as well: Within a given circle, arcs of equal degrees are arcs of equal length.

In particular:

Equal central angles define equal sections on the circumference of the circle.

And equal inscribed angles define equal sections on the circumference of the circle, and vice
versa.
A diameter is a central angle of 180°, therefore an inscribed angle on the same arc length
measures 90°.

In fact, all inscribed angles lying on a diameter equal 90°.

Another Very Important corollary:

For any right triangle inscribed in a circle, the hypotenuse ALWAYS coincides with a
diameter of the circle.

Very Important Question

If P is the center of the circle shown above, and BAC=30º, and the area of triangle ABC is 6,
what is the area of the circle?

Answer. 4√3)π

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Correct.
The diameter AC is also the triangle's hypotenuse. Its length is AC=2r. Thus, the little leg is
BC=r and AB=r√3. Therefore, the triangle's area is

--> A = ½×BASE×HEIGHT

--> = 1/2×AB×BC

--> = 1/2×r√3×r

--> = 1/2×√3×r2

--> = 6

Isolate r2: multiply by 2 and divide by √3:

--> r2 = 12/√3 = 4·3/√3 = 4√3

The area of the circle is

--> A = πr2 = (4√3)π

Let's exercise that a bit.

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If O is the center of the circle shown above, what is the measure of x?

40°

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Well done.
After you copy the figure to your noteboard, indicate the measure of every arc on the circle.
This is what your noteboard should look like:

The central 100° angle defines a 100° arc.

The inscribed angle x defines a 2x arc.

However, the total of the 2x arc and the 100° arc must be 180°. (The diameter divides the whole
circle to two semicircles of 180°.)

Now, solve for x: 100°+2x=180° --> x = 40º