PEE 13 - INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL THE CONTROL LOOP

●​ Three Tasks
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ●​ Control loops in the process control
●​ Control in process industries refers to the industry work in the same way, requiring
regulation of all aspects of the process. three tasks to occur:
Precise control of level, temperature, ○​ Measurement
pressure, and flow is important in many ○​ Comparison
process applications. ○​ Adjustment
●​ Process, as used in the terms process
control and process industry, refers to the
methods of changing or refining raw PROCESS CONTROL TERMS
materials to create end products.
●​ Process industries include the chemical PROCESS VARIABLE
industry, the oil and gas industry, the food ●​ A process variable is a condition of the
and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can
industry, the water treatment industry, change the manufacturing process in
and the power industry. some way.
●​ Process control refers to the methods
that are used to control process variables SETPOINT
when manufacturing a product. ●​ The setpoint is a value for a process
variable that is desired to be maintained.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL ●​ For example, if a process temperature
●​ Refining, combining, handling, and needs to keep within 5°C of 100°C, then
otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably the setpoint is 100°C. A temperature
produce end products can be a precise, sensor can be used to help maintain the
demanding, and potentially hazardous temperature at setpoint. The sensor is
process. inserted into the process, and a controller
●​ Variations in proportions, temperature, compares the temperature reading from
flow, turbulence, and many other factors the sensor to the setpoint.
must be carefully and consistently
controlled to produce the desired end MEASURED VARIABLES, PROCESS
product with a minimum of raw materials VARIABLES, AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES
and energy. ●​ In the temperature control loop example,
●​ Manufacturers control the production the measured variable is temperature,
process for three reasons: which must be held close to 100°C. In this
○​ Reduce variability example and in most instances, the
○​ Increase efficiency measured variable is also the process
○​ Ensure safety variable. The measured variable is the
condition of the process fluid that must be
●​ Reduce Variability kept at the designated setpoint.
○​ Process control can reduce ●​ Sometimes the measured variable is not
variability in the end product, the same as the process variable. For
which ensures a consistently example, a manufacturer may measure
high-quality product. flow into and out of a storage tank to
●​ Increase Efficiency determine tank level. In this scenario, flow
○​ Some processes need to be is the measured variable, and the process
maintained at a specific point to fluid level is the process variable. The
maximize efficiency. factor that is changed to keep the
○​ For example, a control point might measured variable at setpoint is called the
be the temperature at which a manipulated variable. In the example
chemical reaction takes place. described, the manipulated variable would
●​ Ensure Safety also be flow.
○​ A run-away process, such as an
out-of-control nuclear or chemical ●​ Measured Variable (MVr) - This is the quantity
that the system actually measures using sensors or
reaction, may result if
instruments. It provides the feedback signal to the
manufacturers do not maintain
controller.
precise control of all of the process ●​ Process Variable (PV) - This is the actual
variables. The consequences of a condition of the process fluid that needs to be
run-away process can be controlled. Often the same as the measured variable,
but not always.
catastrophic.
●​ Manipulated Variable (MVp) - This is the factor
○​ Precise process control may also be that the controller adjusts or manipulates to keep
required to ensure safety. the process variable near the setpoint. It’s the
"control action" applied to the system.
 CONTROL ALGORITHM
●​ A control algorithm is a mathematical
expression of a control function. Using the
temperature control loop example, V in
the equation below is the fuel valve
position, and e is the error. The
relationship in a control algorithm can be
ERROR expressed as: V=f(±e)
●​ Error is the difference between the
measured variable and the setpoint and ●​ A control algorithm is the mathematical rule or
can be either positive or negative. In the formula the controller follows to decide how to adjust
the manipulated variable. It links the error
temperature control loop example, the
(difference between setpoint and measured variable)
error is the difference between the 110°C to the controller’s action.
measured variable and the 100°C setpoint
– that is, the error is +10°C.
○​ MAGNITUDE – The magnitude of
the error is simply the deviation
between the values of the setpoint
and the process variable.
○​ DURATION – Duration refers to
the length of time that an error
condition has existed.
○​ RATE OF CHANGE – The rate of
change is shown by the slope of
the error plot.
●​ Control algorithms can be used to
calculate the requirements of much more
complex control loops than the one
described here. In more complex control
loops, questions such as “How far should
the valve be opened or closed in response
to a given change in setpoint?” and “How
long should the valve be held in the new
position after the process variable moves
back toward the setpoint?” need to be
answered.

MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL

●​ MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEMS – Control
operations that involve human action to
make an adjustment.
OFFSET
●​ AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS –
●​ Offset is a sustained deviation of the
Control operations in which no human
process variable from the setpoint. In the
intervention is required. For example, an
temperature control loop example, if the
automatic valve actuator that responds to
control system holds the process fluid at
a level controller.
100.5 °C consistently, even though the
setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5
CLOSED AND OPEN CONTROL LOOPS
°C exists.
●​ It means the system is stable (not oscillating), but it
●​ CLOSED CONTROL LOOP – Exists when
does not exactly reach the setpoint. a process variable is measured, compared
to a setpoint, and action is taken to
LOAD DISTURBANCE correct any deviation from setpoint.
●​ A load disturbance is an undesired change ●​ OPEN CONTROL LOOP – Exists when the
in one of the factors that can affect the process variable is not compared, and
process variable. In the temperature action is taken without regard to feedback
control loop example, adding cold process from the process variable conditions.
fluid to the vessel would be a load
disturbance because it would lower the
temperature of the process fluid.
ABSOLUTE AND SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS ●​ The phenomenon where the deflection of the pointer
is proportional to the magnitude of the current
passing through a coil.
DEFINITION OF INSTRUMENTS
●​ An instrument is a device in which we can
FORCE BETWEEN A PERMANENT MAGNET
determine the magnitude or value of the
AND A CURRENT-CARRYING COIL
quantity to be measured.
●​ When a current-carrying coil is placed
under the influence of a magnetic field
ABSOLUTE INSTRUMENT
produced by a permanent magnet, a force
●​ An absolute instrument determines the
is produced between them. This principle
magnitude of the quantity to be measured
is utilized in the moving coil type
in terms of the instrument parameter.
instrument.
●​ Example: Tangent galvanometer.
●​ Principle: When a coil carrying current is placed in
SECONDARY INSTRUMENT the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, a force
●​ This instrument determines the value of (torque) is produced on the coil.
●​ Effect: The coil rotates under this torque, moving the
the quantity to be measured directly.
pointer attached to it.
●​ Generally these instruments are calibrated
by comparing with another standard
FORCE BETWEEN TWO CURRENT-CARRYING
secondary instrument.
COILS
●​ Examples of such instruments are
●​ When two current carrying coils are placed
voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc.
closer to each other there will be a force
of repulsion between them. If one coil is
INDICATING INSTRUMENT
movable and the other is fixed, the
●​ This instrument uses a dial and pointer to
movable coil will move away from the
determine the value of measuring
fixed one. This principle is utilized in
quantity. The pointer indication gives the
electrodynamometer type instruments.
magnitude of measuring quantity.
CONTROLLING FORCE
RECORDING INSTRUMENT
●​ To make the measurement indicated by
●​ This type of instrument records the
the pointer definite (constant), a force is
magnitude of the quantity to be measured
necessary that will act in the opposite
continuously over a specified period of
direction to the deflecting force. When the
time.
external signal to be measured by the
instrument is removed, the pointer should
INTEGRATING INSTRUMENT
return to the zero position. This is possibly
●​ This type of instrument gives the total
due to the controlling force, and the
amount of the quantity to be measured
pointer will be indicating a steady value
over a specified period of time.
when the deflecting torque is equal to the
controlling torque.
ELECTROMECHANICAL INDICATING
●​ Td = Tc
INSTRUMENT
●​ For satisfactory operation of an ●​ The force that opposes the deflecting force to
electromechanical indicating instrument, stabilize the pointer at a steady position.
three forces are necessary.​ ●​ Purpose: Ensures the pointer does not keep moving.
Brings the pointer back to zero when no input signal
They are:
exists.
(a) Deflecting force​
(b) Controlling force​
SPRING CONTROL
(c) Damping force
●​ Two springs are attached on either end of
the spindle (Fig. 1.5). The spindle is
DEFLECTING FORCE
placed in a jeweled bearing, so that the
●​ When there is no input signal to the
frictional force between the pivot and
instrument, the pointer will be at its zero
spindle will be minimum. When a current
position. To deflect the pointer from its
is supplied, the pointer deflects due to the
zero position, a force is necessary which is
rotation of the spindle. While the spindle
known as deflecting force.
is rotating, the spring attached to the
spindle will oppose the movements of the
MAGNITUDE EFFECT
pointer. The torque produced by the spring
●​ When a current passes through the coil
is directly proportional to the pointer
(Fig.1.2), it produces an imaginary bar
deflection.
magnet. When a soft-iron piece is brought
near this coil, it is magnetized. If two soft ●​ Definition: A method of providing a controlling force
iron pieces are placed near a in an electromechanical instrument using springs
current-carrying coil there will be a force attached to the spindle.
●​ Purpose: To oppose the deflecting force and bring
of repulsion between the two soft iron
the pointer to a stable position proportional to the
pieces. This principle is utilized in the measured quantity.
moving iron repulsion type instrument.
 OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

DAMPING FORCE
●​ Definition: A force that opposes the motion of the
pointer to prevent it from oscillating or overshooting
the correct value.
●​ Purpose:
○​ Stabilizes the pointer quickly.
○​ Ensures the reading is steady and accurate
without bouncing.​

How It Works
●​ When the pointer moves due to the deflecting force,
it tends to overshoot the equilibrium position (where
deflecting torque = controlling torque).
●​ The damping force resists this motion, gradually
slowing the pointer until it stops at the correct
position.​

OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM

BASIC CONCEPT OF CONTROL SYSTEM

●​ Automatic control systems play an
important role in the development and
advancement of modern civilization and
technology.
●​ Automation control systems are widely
used in numerous industrial applications
such as manufacturing, automation, space
technology, transportation, robotics, etc.

●​ Another classic example of this open loop

control system is a washing machine. The
washing machine operation is entirely
dependent on the amount of time set by
●​ The objective of this basic control system the operator. It is obvious that the clothes
is to control the variable “y” in a may be or may not be cleaned thoroughly
predefined manner by actuating the signal as there is no feedback to the washing
“x” through the elements of the control machine about the cleanliness of the
system. clothes.
●​ In common terms, the control variable is
the output of the system, and the
actuating signal is the input of the system.
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM ●​ Also, open loop control systems are easy
to design and economical. Open loop
control systems are very rarely used as it
is inaccurate.

KEY BENEFITS OF AN OPEN AND CLOSED

CONTROL SYSTEM

OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

●​ Simplicity: Open-loop systems are
typically less complicated than closed
control loop systems.
●​ Stability: Due to the absence of a
feedback loop, open-loop systems remain
unaffected by potential disturbances in the
feedback, ensuring consistent
performance.
●​ Cost Efficiency: Constructing and
maintaining an open loop system is
usually more cost-effective due to its
simple structure.
●​ Speed: Without the need to process
feedback information, open-loop systems
can often operate more swiftly than their
closed-loop counterparts.
●​ Immunity to Feedback Issues: Open
loop systems are immune to problems
that may arise in the feedback loop, such
as noise interference or feedback stability
issues.

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

●​ Accuracy: Due to the feedback
mechanism, closed-loop systems can
provide more accurate control than
open-loop systems.
●​ Adaptability: Closed loop systems can
adapt to changes in the operating
environment or process conditions due to
their feedback loop.
●​ Stability: Despite potential disturbances,
a well-designed closed-loop system can
maintain stability in its output.
●​ Automation: With their self-regulating
nature, closed-loop systems can operate
without much human intervention, making
them ideal for automated processes.
●​ Efficiency: By continuously monitoring
and adjusting their output, closed-loop
systems can operate efficiently, reducing
waste and saving resources.
●​ The concept of feedback plays an
important role in the closed loop control In conclusion, both open-loop and
system. Without the feedback a control closed-loop control systems have unique
system would not be able to achieve the attributes that make them suitable for different
accuracy and reliability of complex applications. Open-loop systems, with their
systems. simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and speed, can be
●​ Some of the main differences between the an ideal choice for applications where precision is
open loop control system and the closed not paramount. On the other hand, closed-loop
loop control systems are shown here. Like systems, with their high accuracy, adaptability,
we saw earlier, open loop control systems and efficiency, are better suited for tasks
are independent of the output as the requiring meticulous control and automated
feedback path is not present. processes.
PID AND ISA SYMBOLOGY A P&ID AS A WORKING DOCUMENT
A P&ID is a working document that is used
P&ID is the acronym for “Piping and by every discipline involved in the design,
Instrumentation Diagram”, i.e. a very detailed engineering and construction of process plants. It
diagram showing the processes happening within is used as a Process Plant Layout and Piping
a plant, the involved equipment, and their Design reference for checking engineering and
interconnections. design documents and drawings associated with
a project.
A set of standardized P&ID symbols is
used by process engineers to draft such P&IDs are also used in material take-off,
diagrams. The ISA S5.1, ISO 10628, and BS in generating a "Bill of Materials" for procurement
5070 cover the standardization of P&ID symbols and construction.
and guide process engineers in their plant design
activities. A P&ID Contains:
1.​ All the equipment and their specifications,
●​ ISA - International Society of Automation usually presented in the form of a table
●​ ISA S5.1 - Standard for Instrumentation Symbols
2.​ All piping and line specifications
and Identification
3.​ All piping system components such as
●​ ISO - International Organization for Standardization fittings, flanges and valves with their
●​ ISO 10628 - Standard for Process Flow Diagrams specifications
(PFDs) and Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams
4.​ All instrumentation and control
(P&IDs) in chemical and process industries.
components
●​ BS - British Standard 5.​ Flow directions
●​ BS 5070 - Standard for diagrammatic symbols for 6.​ Information on process variables such as
instrumentation and control systems.
pressure and temperature
7.​ Material specifications
The most common P&ID symbols are
8.​ Specialty items such as strainers
listed below:
9.​ Control input and output, interlocks and
●​ Lines
alarm system
●​ Piping components (pipes, flanges, and
10.​Interconnections references
fittings)
11.​Computer control system input
●​ Valves
12.​Identification of components and
●​ Filters
subsystems
●​ Instruments and instrumentation
13.​Delivered to and by others​
●​ Pumps
●​ Compressors
IMPORTANCE OF P&IDS
●​ Vessels
P&IDs play very important roles in plant
●​ Electrical machines (motors, generators,
maintenance and modification in that they
and turbines)
demonstrate the physical sequence of equipment
●​ Heat exchangers
and system as well as how they all connect.

P&IDs are also known as Process

During the design stage, they provide the
Engineering Flow Diagrams/Scheme (PEFD/PEFS)
basis for the development of system control
or Process Flow Diagrams/Scheme (PFD/PFS).
schemes, allowing for further safety and
P&IDs are often used in the process industry to
operational investigations like HAZOP (Hazard
show the process flow and other installed
and Operability Study).
equipment and instruments. They show the
interconnection of process equipment and the
instrumentation used to control the process.

P&IDs are schematic diagrams that

contain engineering and design details of the
process plants. It is a pictorial representation of:
●​ Key Piping and Instrument Details
●​ Control and Shutdown Schemes
●​ Safety and regulatory requirements
●​ Basic Start-up and Operational
Information
PRIMARY ELEMENTS / SENSORS and transmits one or more resultant output
signals.
In all cases, some kind of instrument is
measuring changes in the process and reporting LOCAL
a process variable measurement. Some of the This is a location of an instrument that is neither
greatest ingenuity in the process control field is in nor on a panel or console, nor is it mounted in
apparent in sensing devices. a control room.
Because sensing devices are the first element in Local instrumentations are commonly in the
the control loop to measure the process variable, vicinity of a primary element or a final control
they are also called primary elements. element.

Examples of Primary Elements include: LOCAL PANEL

●​ Pressure sensing diaphragms, strain This is a panel that is not a central or main panel.
gauges, capacitance cells Local panels are commonly in the vicinity of plant
●​ Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) subsystems or sub-areas.
●​ Thermocouples The term "local panel instrument" should not be
●​ Orifice plates confused with "local instrument."
●​ Pitot tubes
●​ Venturi tubes
●​ Magnetic flow tubes MONITOR
●​ Coriolis flow tubes A monitor is a general term for an instrument or
●​ Radar emitters and receivers instrument system used to measure or sense the
●​ Ultrasonic emitters and receivers status or magnitude of one or more variables for
●​ Annubar flow elements the purpose of deriving useful information.
●​ Vortex sheddar​
PANEL
Primary elements are devices that cause A panel is a structure that has a group of
some change in their property with changes in instruments mounted on it, houses the
process fluid conditions that can then be operator-process interface, and is chosen to have
measured. a unique designation.
The panel may consist of one or more sections,
For example, when a conductive fluid cubicles, consoles, or desks.
passes through the magnetic field in a magnetic
flow tube, the fluid generates a voltage that is PANEL MOUNTED
directly proportional to the velocity of the process This is the term applied to an instrument that is
fluid. The primary element (magnetic flow tube) mounted on a panel or console and is accessible
outputs a voltage that can be measured and used for an operator's normal use.
to calculate the fluid’s flow rate.
PILOT LIGHT
TRANSDUCER A pilot light indicates which number of normal
A transducer is a device that translates a conditions of a system or device exists.
mechanical signal into an electrical signal. It is unlike an alarm light, which indicates an
abnormal condition.
CONVERTER
A converter is a device that converts one type of SHARED CONTROLLER
signal into another type of signal. This is a controller, containing pre-programmed
●​ Example: A converter may convert current algorithms that are usually accessible,
into voltage or an analog signal into a configurable, and assignable.
digital signal.​
SHARED DISPLAY
TRANSMITTER This is the operator interface device (usually a
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading video screen) used to display process control
from a sensor or transducer into a standard information from a number of sources at the
signal and transmits that signal to a monitor or command of the operator.
controller.
Transmitter types include: SIGNALS
●​ Pressure transmitters There are three kinds of signals that exist for the
●​ Flow transmitters process industry to transmit the process variable
●​ Temperature transmitters measurement from the instrument to a
●​ Level transmitters centralized control system:
●​ Analytic (O₂ [oxygen], CO [carbon ●​ Pneumatic signal
monoxide], and pH) transmitters ●​ Analog signal
●​ Digital signal
COMPUTING DEVICE
This is a device of function that performs one or PNEUMATIC SIGNALS
more calculations or logic operations, or both,
Pneumatic signals are signals produced by ●​ Required by law for many process
changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in manufacturers to provide process history
proportion to the measured change in a process to regulatory agencies.
variable. ●​ Helps manufacturers gather data for trend
The common industry standard pneumatic signal analysis.
range is 3–15 psig.
●​ The 3 corresponds to the lower range CONTROLLERS
value (LRV). A controller is a device that:
●​ The 15 corresponds to the upper range 1.​ Receives data from a measurement
value (URV). instrument.
Pneumatic signaling is still common. 2.​ Compare that data to a programmed
setpoint.
ANALOG SIGNALS 3.​ If necessary, signal a control element to
The most common standard electrical signal is take corrective action.​
the 4–20 mA current signal.
With this signal, a transmitter sends a small Local Controllers are usually one of three types:
current through a set of wires. ●​ Pneumatic
●​ 4 mA represents the lowest possible ●​ Electronic
measurement, or zero. ●​ Programmable​
●​ 20 mA represents the highest possible
measurement. Controllers also commonly reside in a digital
The current signal is a kind of gauge that control system.
corresponds to measurement ranges.

DIGITAL SIGNALS
Digital signals are the most recent addition to
process control signal technology.
●​ Digital signals are discrete levels or values
that are combined in specific ways to
represent process variables.
●​ They can also carry other information,
such as diagnostic information.
●​ The methodology used to combine digital Controllers may perform complex mathematical
signals is referred to as a protocol.​ functions to compare a set of data to setpoint, or
they may perform simple addition or subtraction
Types of Protocols functions to make comparisons.
●​ Open protocols → can be used by anyone
developing a control device. Controllers always have the ability to:
●​ Proprietary protocols → owned by specific 1.​ Receive input
companies, used only with permission.​ 2.​ Perform a mathematical function with the
input
Examples of Open Digital Protocols 3.​ Produce an output signal​
●​ HART® (Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer) protocol Common Examples of Controllers:
●​ FOUNDATION Fieldbus ●​ Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) –
●​ Profibus PLCs are usually computers connected to
●​ DeviceNet a set of input/output (I/O) devices.
●​ Modbus® protocol ●​ Distributed Control Systems (DCSs) –
DCSs are controllers that, in addition to
INDICATORS performing control functions, provide
While most instruments are connected to a readings of the status of the process,
control system, operators sometimes need to maintain databases, and advance
check a measurement on the factory floor at the man–machine interface.​
measurement point.
An indicator makes this reading possible. CORRECTING ELEMENTS / FINAL CONTROL
●​ It is a human-readable device that ELEMENTS
displays information about the process. The correcting or final control element is the part
●​ Indicators may be as simple as a pressure of the control system that acts to physically
or temperature gauge, or more complex, change the manipulated variable.
such as a digital read-out device. ●​ In most cases, the final control element is
a valve used to restrict or cut off fluid
RECORDERS flow.
A recorder is a device that records the output of ●​ Other examples: pump motors, louvers
a measurement device. (typically used to regulate air flow),
Uses: solenoids, and other devices.
 ●​ Final control elements are typically used
to increase or decrease fluid flow.​ PRESSURE CONTROL LOOPS
●​ Pressure control loops vary in speed –
ACTUATORS they can respond to changes in load or to
An actuator is the part of a final control device control action either slowly or quickly.
that causes a physical change in the final control ●​ The required speed in a pressure control
device when signaled to do so. loop may be dictated by the volume of the
●​ The most common example is a valve process fluid.
actuator, which opens or closes a valve in
response to control signals from a
controller.
●​ Actuators are often powered:
○​ Pneumatically
○​ Hydraulically
○​ Electrically

FLOW CONTROL LOOPS

PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS ●​ Generally, flow control loops are regarded
as fast loops that respond to changes
FEEDBACK CONTROL quickly.
●​ A feedback loop measures a process ●​ Therefore, flow control equipment must
variable and sends the measurement to a have fast sampling and response times.
controller for comparison to setpoint. ●​ Because flow transmitters tend to be
●​ If the process variable is not at setpoint, rather sensitive devices, they can produce
control action is taken to return the rapid fluctuations or noise in the control
process variable to setpoint.​ signal.​

Example:​
A transmitter measures the temperature of a
fluid and, if necessary, opens or closes a hot
steam valve to adjust the fluid’s temperature.

LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS

●​ The speed of changes in a level control
loop largely depends on the size and
shape of the process vessel (e.g., larger
vessels take longer to fill than smaller
ones) and the flow rate of the input and
outflow pipes.

SINGLE LOOP CONTROLLERS

Single loop controllers are used in a variety of
industrial facilities such as:
●​ Power plants
●​ Oil refineries
●​ Petrochemical plants
●​ Chemical plants
●​ Iron and steel plants​

These controllers:
●​ Receive temperature, flow rate, pressure,
and other types of measurement readings TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS
from sensors ●​ Because of the time required to change
●​ Send corresponding instructions to control the temperature of a process fluid,
elements (such as valves) temperature loops tend to be relatively
●​ Maintain these values within a desired slow. Feedforward control strategies are
range
 often used to increase the speed of the
temperature loop response.

MULTI-VARIABLE / ADVANCED CONTROL

LOOPS
●​ Multivariable loops are control loops in
which a primary controller controls one
process variable by sending signals to a
controller of a different loop that impacts
the process variable of the primary loop.
For example, the primary process variable
may be the temperature of the fluid in a Cascade Control
tank that is heated by a steam jacket (a ●​ Cascade control is a control system in
pressurized steam chamber surrounding which a secondary (slave) control loop is
the tank). set up to control a variable that is a major
source of load disturbance for another
FEEDFORWARD CONTROL primary (master) control loop.
●​ Feedforward control is a control system
that anticipates load disturbances and
controls them before they can impact the
process variable. For feedforward control
to work, the user must have a
mathematical understanding of how the
manipulated variables will impact the
process variable.

BATCH CONTROL
●​ Batch processes are those processes that
are taken from start to finish in batches.
For example, mixing the ingredients for a
juice drink is often a batch process.
Typically, a limited amount of one flavor
(e.g., orange drink or apple drink) is
mixed at a time. For these reasons, it is
not practical to have a continuous process
●​ An advantage of feedforward control is
running. Batch processes often involve
that error is prevented, rather than
getting the correct proportion of
corrected. However, it is difficult to
ingredients into the batch.
account for all possible load disturbances
in a system through feedforward control.​
RATIO CONTROL
• Factors such as outside temperature,
●​ Imagine a process in which an acid must
buildup in pipes, consistency of raw
be diluted with water in the proportion
materials, humidity, and moisture content
two parts water to one part acid. If a tank
can all become load disturbances and
has an acid supply on one side of a mixing
cannot always be effectively accounted for
vessel and a water supply on the other, a
in a feedforward system.
control system could be developed to
control the ratio of acid to water, even
FEEDFORWARD PLUS FEEDBACK
though the water supply itself may not be
●​ Controllers with summing functions are
controlled. This type of control system is
used in these combined systems to total
called ratio control.
the input from both the feedforward loop
and the feedback loop, and send a unified
signal to the final control element.
SELECTIVE CONTROL
●​ Selective control refers to a control
system in which the more important of
two variables will be maintained. For
example, in a boiler control system, if fuel
flow outpaces air flow, then uncombusted
fuel can build up in the boiler and cause
an explosion. Selective control is used to
allow for an air-rich mixture, but never a
fuel-rich mixture.

Fuzzy Control
●​ Fuzzy control is a form of adaptive control
in which the controller uses fuzzy logic to
make decisions about adjusting the
process. Fuzzy logic is a form of computer
logic where whether something is or is not
included in a set is based on a grading
scale in which multiple factors are
accounted for and rated by the computer.