Processing &

defect
Discontinuity & Defect

Discontinuity. An interruption of the typical structure

of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in its
mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A
discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.

Defect. A discontinuity or discontinuities that by

nature or accumulated effect render a part or product
unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance
standards or specifications.
 Casting
Forging
Rolling
Extrusion
Drawing
Heat treatment
Casting processes

A commonly used method of forming metal objects of complex

shapes is by pouring molten metal into a mould in which it sets
to the required shape

•sand casting
•permanent mould casting
casting processes : •die casting
•centrifugal casting
•Investment casting
•shell mould casting
•Continuous casting
(a)Sand casting

Different types of sand

moulds:

•Green sand moulds

•dry-sand moulds
(b) Permanent mould casting

A casting made by pouring molten

metal into a mould made of some
metallic alloy or other material of
permanence is known as a permanent
mould casting
permanent moulds materials:

Grey cast iron with large graphite flakes are the due to the ease with
which they may be machined.

Certain steels, particularly special alloy steels that are heat Treated often
have especially good resistance to erosion. They have excellent refractory
properties.

Some aluminium alloys on which the surface has been anodized, are also
used as moulding materials. Anodizing produces Al 2 O3 which is very
refractory and resistant to abrasion. These alloys are very easy to machine
and possess a good chilling capacity. The mould is not destroyed on
removing the casting and therefore can be re-used many times.
(c) Die casting (pressure die casting)

Die casting may be defined as the use of a permanent mould (die) into
which molten metal is introduced by means of pressure his pressure is
obtained by application of compressed air or by pneumatically or
hydraulically operated pistons

(a)Hot chamber die casting

Methods of Die casting:
(b) Cold chamber die casting
(a) Hot chamber die casting
(b)Cold chamber die casting

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(d) Centrifugal casting
Any process in which molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify
while the mould is revolving, is a centrifugal casting process

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(e) Investment casting

This process involves making a one-piece mould from which the pattern is
removed by a procedure which melts the pattern
(f) Shell mould casting

This process involves making a mould that has two or more thin,
shell-like parts consisting of thermosetting resin-bonded sand.

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(g) Continuous casting

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Casting defects

•Porosity
•Blowholes
•Inclusions
•Shrinkage
•Hot tears
•Cold shuts
•Unfused chaplet
•Misplaced core
Porosity
Gas holes are spherical holes of varying size, with bright walls, usually
fairly evenly distributed and formed by gas in the metal. The larger
holes tend to be found in the heavier section (i.e. last to solidify).
(b) Blowholes

Blowholes are mainly found in three forms:

 Elongated cavities with smooth walls, found on or just below the

surface of the topmost part of a casting. These are caused by entrapped
air and repetition can be avoided by venting the mould and increasing
its permeability

 Rounded shape cavities with smooth bright walls are caused by mould
or core gases, coupled with insufficient permeability, or venting. They
can be avoided by using less oil binder in the mould and ensuring that
cores are dry and properly baked and that the sand is properly mixed
(d) Inclusions
These are material discontinuities formed by the inclusion of oxides, dross,
and slag in a casting. They are due to careless skimming and pouring, or the
use of a dirty ladle, and to turbulence due to improper gating methods when
casting alloys, such as aluminium and bronze, that are subject to surface
oxide-skin formation. Faulty closing of moulds can cause ‘crush’ and loose
pieces of sand becoming incorporated in the casting. The occurrence of
inclusions can be avoided by proper use of equipment and foundry practice.
(f) Shrinkage

It is a casting defect that occurs

during the middle and later
stages of solidification of the
cast metal. It has a branching
formation, is readily
distinguishable from that of
sponginess . The defect can be
avoided by paying particular
attention to the direction of
solidification and ensuring
adequate risers, or other
feeding aids, on the heavier
sections of a casting.
Hot tears
These are discontinuities that result from stresses developed close to the
solidification temperature while the metal is still weak. These, again, are
attributed to resistance of the mould and core, which hinder contraction of
the casting, causing thermal stress. Hot tears resemble ragged cracks.
They can be avoided by making cores and moulds more collapsible,
avoiding abrupt changes in section.
Cold shuts
These are discontinuities (a form of lack of fusion) caused by the failure of a
stream of molten metal to unite with another stream of metal, or with a solid
metal section such as a chaplet. They are linear in appearance, with perhaps a
curling effect at the ends. It caused in condition that surfaces too cold or perhaps
unsatisfactory methods of feeding the molten metal. Cold shuts can often be
avoided by raising the pouring temperature or pouring rate .
Unfused chaplet

A chaplet is often used to support a section of a mould or a core within a

mould and when the molten metal is poured in, the chaplets should fuse
into the casting. When unfused, the chaplet will cause a discontinuity in the
casting. Design of chaplet and type of chaplet should be reviewed in
overcoming this defect.
Misplaced core

An irregularity of wall thickness, e.g. one wall thicker than the other, can be
detected by a double wall technique radiograph. It is caused by core out-of
alignment, careless coring-up and closing of mould, or rough handling after
the mould is closed.
Segregation

Segregation is a condition resulting from the local concentration of any of the

constituents of an alloy. The segregation can be general extending over a
considerable part of a casting, local when only the shrinkage voids or hot tears
are wholly or partially filled with a constituent of low melting point or `banded’
which is mainly associated with centrifugal castings but can also occasionally
occur in static castings.

Al-10%Bi
Forging processes

Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by

hammering or pressing and is the oldest of the metal forming
processes.
open-die forging: where the working surface of the dies is
flat or of uniform curved contour and shaping is done by
manipulation using tools of simple shape
closed-die forging: where impression dies are used and the
metal is shaped by being forced into the die impressions.

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Rolling processes

The flattening of metal between rollers is used for the

production of strip, sheet, plate, bar and sections.

Rolling may be performed above the temperature of re-

crystallization (hot rolling) or below the temperature of re-
crystallization (cold rolling)
Rolling &forging defects
a) Laminations: Large porosity, pipe and non-metallic
inclusions in slabs or billets are flattened and spread
out during the rolling and forging processes
(b) Seams

Surface irregularities, such as cracks, on the slab or billet are stretched out and
lengthened during rolling and are then called seams. Seams may also be
caused by folding of the metal due to improper rolling. Seams are surface
discontinuities and on finished bars will appear as either continuous or broken
straight lines. On round bar stock they will appear as straight or slightly spiral
lines, either continuous or broken.
(c) Forging laps
Forging laps are the discontinuities caused by the folding of metal in a
thin plate on the surface of the forging
(d) Centre bursts
Ruptures that occur in the central region of a forging are called centre bursts.
They can arise because of an incorrect forging procedure or from the presence
of segregation or brittle phase in the metal being forged
Clinks

Clinks are cracks due to stresses arising from excessively high

temperature gradients within the material. Cracks formed during too
rapid cooling originate at the surface and extend into the body of the
forging; those formed during too rapid heating occur internally and can
be opened up to become diamond-shaped cavities, during subsequent
forging
Hairline cracks (flakes)

Flakes are very fine internal cracks of circular shape that develop
and extend with time and are associated with the presence of
hydrogen in steel. There is greater susceptibility in larger forgings
than in smaller and in certain grades of alloy steel than in carbon
steel; they can be avoided by correct treatment.
Flash line tears
As the dies close in the final stage of the forging process, a small amount of
metal is extruded between the dies. This extruded metal is called flash and
must be removed by trimming.
If the trimming is not done or not done properly, crack or tears can occure
along the flash line.
Stringers
Non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets that are thinned and lengthened in
the direction of rolling by the rolling process are called stringers
Extrusion processes

Another process which is similar to rolling is extrusion. In

principle, extrusion is similar to squeezing toothpaste from a
toothpaste tube. The raw material is a heated cast billet of the
required metal.

Usually this is either a copper alloy, an aluminium alloy or lead.

The pressure necessary to force the metal through the die is
provided by the hydraulic ram.
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Surface cracking
Surface breakage defect on a metal extrusion, is breakage on the
surface of the part. These cracks usually occur along the grain
boundaries of the metal.
The primary cause of surface cracking defect in extrusion
manufacture is excessive stresses on the surface of the part's material.
Friction is a large factor in controlling surface breakage, while
manufacturing an extruded section. Increased friction will create a
more favorable environment for surface cracking.
Lubrication can help reduce friction, so can an increased die angle.
Centre burst or chevron cracking

The difference between the material movement of the outer regions compared
to that of the central region is critical. If the material displacement occurring in
the outer areas is of a much greater magnitude than that which is occurring in
the central area, then the difference will cause high stresses to develop within
the material. If the stress level becomes too high then material breakage will
occur in the form of internal cracks.
Piping Defect

piping, also called tailpipe or fishtailing is a defect common when manufacturing

sections by direct extrusion.

Piping is a result of improper metal flow during the extrusion operation.

The way to solve a piping problem is to enact a smooth metal flow during the
extrusion process
Drawing
Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch
metal.
It is broken up into two types: sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and
tube drawing.
Drawing is usually done at room temperature, thus classified a cold
drawing process, however it may be performed at elevated temperatures
to hotwork large wires, rods or hollow sections in order to reduce forces
Defects in rod and wiredrawing

seams
pipe
centre burst
Heat treatment

Heat Treatment is the controlled

heating and cooling of metals to
alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing the
product shape. Heat treatment is
sometimes done inadvertently due
to manufacturing processes that
either heat or cool the metal such as
welding or forming. Processing
Performance

Microstructure Properties
 Softening: Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness,
remove residual stresses, improve toughnesss, restore ductility,
refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of the
steel. annealing— full Process, spheroidizing, normalizing and
tempering — austempering, martempering are the principal ways
by which steel is softened.

 Hardening: Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength

and wear properties. If there is sufficient Carbon content then the
steel can be directly hardening. Otherwise the surface of the part
has to be Carbon enriched using some diffusion treatment
hardening techniques.

 Material Modification: Heat treatment is used to modify

properties of materials in addition to hardening and softening.
These processes modify the behavior of the steels in a beneficial
manner to maximize service life, e.g., cryogenic treatment.
Full annealing
The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite
(depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes soft
and ductile .
Normalizing
This results in a grain structure of fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or
Cementite. The resulting material is soft; the degree of softness depends
on the actual ambient conditions of cooling. This process is considerably
cheaper than full annealing since there is not the added cost of controlled
furnace cooling.
Spheroidization
All these methods result in a structure in which all the Cementite is in the form
of small globules (spheroids) dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix. This
structure allows for improved machining in continuous cutting operations
such as lathes and screw machines. Spheroidization also improves resistance
to abrasion.
Insufficient hardness:

Decarburization
Low hardening temperature or too fast uneven heating,
Insufficient soaking at hardening temperature,
Cooling rate
Tempering temperature
too high formation of bubbles of steam during cooling
Brittleness
Excessive hardness-insufficient tempering.
Overheating (coarse fracture and bright grain)

Deformations
Uneven heating.
Too fast cooling.
Part incorrectly supported in furnace.
Incorrect dipping in quenching bath.
Stresses present before heat treatment.

Fractures during cooling

Uneven heating.
Too fast cooling.
Overheating.
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