O Level Physics Notes: Thermodynamics (Thermal Physics)
1. Kinetic Model of Matter
This model explains the properties of solids, liquids, and gases based on the movement of their
particles (atoms/molecules).
● Solids: Particles are arranged in a fixed, regular pattern (lattice). They vibrate about
their fixed positions. Strong forces of attraction hold them together.
● Liquids: Particles are closely packed but randomly arranged. They can move and slide
past one another. Weaker forces of attraction than in solids.
● Gases: Particles are far apart and move randomly and rapidly in all directions. Negligible
forces of attraction between them.
Key Idea: The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its
particles. Higher temperature means particles are moving/vibrating faster.
2. Temperature and Heat
It is crucial to understand the difference between these two terms.
● Temperature:
○ A measure of the degree of hotness of an object.
○ Related to the average kinetic energy of the particles.
○ Measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).
●
● Heat:
○ The flow of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of
lower temperature.
○ It is a form of energy.
○ Measured in Joules (J).
●
3. Thermometers and Temperature Scales
● Principle of a Thermometer: It uses a physical property that changes uniformly with
temperature (e.g., the expansion of a liquid like mercury or alcohol).
● Qualities of a Good Thermometer:
○ Sensitivity: A large change in the physical property for a small change in
temperature. (Achieved with a narrow bore tube).
○ Range: The difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures it can
measure.
○ Linearity: The physical property changes uniformly with temperature.
●
● Temperature Scales:
○ Celsius (°C): Based on the freezing point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of
water.
○ Kelvin (K): The absolute temperature scale. Absolute zero (0 K) is the lowest
possible temperature, where particles have minimum kinetic energy.
○ Conversion: K = °C + 273
●
4. Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred in three ways: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
a) Conduction
● What is it? The transfer of thermal energy through a substance without any net
movement of the substance itself.
● How it works:
1. In all solids: Particles at the hot end gain kinetic energy and vibrate more
vigorously. They collide with neighbouring particles, passing on the energy.
2. In metals (very effective): Metals have free-moving electrons. These electrons
gain kinetic energy at the hot end and move quickly to the colder end,
transferring energy very efficiently.
●
● Best in: Solids, especially metals (conductors).
● Worst in: Gases and liquids (insulators), e.g., wood, plastic, wool.
b) Convection
● What is it? The transfer of thermal energy through the bulk movement of a fluid (liquid
or gas).
● How it works (Convection Current):
1. A part of the fluid is heated (e.g., water at the bottom of a kettle).
2. The heated fluid expands, becomes less dense, and rises.
3. Cooler, denser fluid from the top sinks to take its place.
4. This creates a continuous circulating current that transfers heat.
●
● Occurs in: Fluids only (liquids and gases).
● Examples: Sea breezes, boiling water, room heaters.
c) Radiation
● What is it? The transfer of thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
(specifically infrared radiation).
● Key Properties:
○ Does not require a medium to travel (can travel through a vacuum).
○ This is how the Earth receives heat from the Sun.
●
● Factors affecting Radiation:
○ Surface Colour and Texture:
■ Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of radiation.
■ Shiny, silver surfaces are poor absorbers and poor emitters (they are
good reflectors).
○
○ Surface Temperature: The hotter the object, the more radiation it emits.
●
Application Example: The Vacuum Flask
A vacuum flask is designed to minimise all three types of heat transfer.
● Conduction: Stopped by the vacuum between the two walls and the plastic/cork
stopper.
● Convection: Stopped by the vacuum (no particles to form a current).
● Radiation: Stopped by the silvered inner walls which reflect heat.
5. Specific Heat Capacity (c)
● Definition: The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1°C (or 1 K).
● Formula: Q = mcΔθ
○ Q = Heat energy supplied (in Joules, J)
○ m = mass of the substance (in kg)
○ c = specific heat capacity (in J/kg°C)
○ Δθ = change in temperature (in °C)
●
● Significance: A substance with a high specific heat capacity (like water) requires a lot
of energy to heat up and releases a lot of energy when it cools down. This is why water
is used as a coolant.
6. Latent Heat (L) and Changes of State
● Definition: The amount of heat energy absorbed or released when 1 kg of a substance
changes its state without any change in temperature.
● What happens to the energy? The energy is used to break or form the bonds between
particles, not to increase their kinetic energy (which is why temperature stays constant).
Types of Latent Heat:
1. Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf):
○ Energy needed to change a substance from solid to liquid (melting) or vice
versa (freezing).
○ Formula: Q = mLf
2.
3. Latent Heat of Vaporization (Lv):
○ Energy needed to change a substance from liquid to gas (boiling) or vice versa
(condensation).
○ Formula: Q = mLv
4.
The Heating Curve: A graph showing temperature vs. time as a substance is heated at a
constant rate.
● Sloping sections: Temperature is rising (KE of particles is increasing).
● Flat (horizontal) sections: State is changing (melting or boiling). Temperature is
constant because energy is being used as latent heat to break bonds.
