Engine Combustion:

Pressure Measurement
and Analysis
Second Edition

David R. Rogers
 Engine
Combustion:
Pressure
Measurement and
Analysis
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By Richard D. Atkins
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 Engine
Combustion:
Pressure
Measurement and
Analysis
BY DAVID R. ROGERS

Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA

 400 Commonwealth Drive
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Contents

Preface xiii

CHAPTER 1

A Brief History of Engine Indicators 1

1.1. Early Engine Indicators 1
1.1.1. The First Indicators 1
1.1.2. Early Developments in Indicator Technology 3
1.1.3. Further Developments in Indicator Technology 5
1.1.4. Analysis of Indicator Diagrams 12
1.2. The Electronic Age 14
1.2.1. Oscilloscope Recording 14
1.2.2. Digital Systems 16
1.3. A Typical Measurement System 20
1.3.1. Complete System Components 20

Further Information 22

CHAPTER 2

The Measurement Chain: Encoders 25

2.1. The Angle Encoder 25
2.1.1. Basic Function 25
2.1.2. Required Resolution 27
2.1.3. Encoder Output Signals 28
2.1.4. Encoder Types 30
[Link]. Standard—Closed Encoder 30
[Link]. Open Encoders 30
2.1.5. Processing an Existing Encoder Signal 34

©2021 SAE International v

 vi Contents

CHAPTER 3

The Measurement Chain: Combustion

Pressure Transducers 39
3.1. Cylinder Pressure Transducers 39
3.1.1. Introduction 39
3.1.2. Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers for Engine
Combustion Measurement 40
[Link]. Introduction 40
[Link]. Crystal Materials Used 42
[Link]. Transducer Construction and Types 44
Cooled Type 46
Uncooled Type 49
[Link]. Piezoelectric Transducer Properties 50
Introduction 50
Environment Effects 50
Transducer Properties and Specifications 51
Transducer Thermodynamic Properties 56
Summary: Transducer Design 63
[Link]. Transducer Installation and Adaptors 64
Introduction 64
Intrusive Mounting 64
Transducer Mounting Considerations and P
­ ositions 65
Installation of Mounting Bores 69
Nonintrusive Mounting 70
Spark Plug Adaptors 73
Glow Plug Adaptors 77
[Link]. Transducer Selection and Applications 81
Introduction 81
Requirements of the Application 81
Categories of Transducers 83
Selection of Transducers for Common Applications 84

CHAPTER 4

The Measurement Chain: Additional and

Alternative Transducers 93
4.1. Alternatives to Piezoelectric Sensors for Cylinder
Pressure Sensing 93
4.1.1. Introduction 93
4.1.2. Piezoresistive 94
4.1.3. Optical 94
4.1.4. Ion Current 96
 Contents vii

4.2. Other Transducer and Signals for Combustion

Measurement Applications 99
4.2.1. Introduction 99
4.2.2. Ignition Signals 99
4.2.3. Line Pressure 102
4.2.4. Needle Lift 103
4.2.5. Valve Lift 108
4.2.6. Exhaust and Inlet Pressure 110

CHAPTER 5

The Measurement Chain: Measurement

Hardware 115
5.1. Signal Conditioning 115
5.1.1. Introduction 115
5.1.2. Piezoelectric Signals—The Charge Amplifier 117
[Link]. Basic Function and Operation 117
[Link]. Time Constant 119
[Link]. Drift and Drift Compensation 120
[Link]. Cabling and Interfaces to the Charge Amplifier 121
5.1.3. Analogue Signals 122
5.1.4. Other Amplifiers 123
[Link]. Ignition Timing Amplifier 123
[Link]. Carrier-Frequency Amplifier 125
5.1.5. Intelligent Amplifiers 127
[Link]. Introduction 127
[Link]. Sensor Recognition 129
TEDS 129
[Link]. Extended Functions for Monitoring and
Measurement 135
PMax Monitoring 135
Additional Evaluation Possibilities for Intelligent
Amplifiers 136
5.1.6. Summary—Signal Conditioning 140

5.2. Measurement Hardware—The Data Acquisition and

Measurement System 140
5.2.1. Introduction and Overview 140
5.2.2. Operating Requirements 141
5.2.3. System Interfaces 142
[Link]. Angle Encoder 142
[Link]. Operator Interface 143
 viii Contents

[Link]. Analogue Inputs and Outputs 143

[Link]. Digital Inputs and Outputs 145
5.2.4. A Typical System 146

CHAPTER 6

The Measurement Chain: Measurement

System Software 149
6.1. Software—The User Interface 149
6.1.1. Introduction 149
6.1.2. User Interface 150
[Link]. Parameterization 150
[Link]. Display of Data 151
[Link]. Data Management 152
6.2. Features and Operating Modes 154
6.2.1. Standard Measurement Operations 154
6.2.2. Special Measurement Modes 156
6.2.3. Other Applications 160
6.3. Software Interfaces 161
6.3.1. Remote System 161
6.3.2. Interface to the Engine Electronics Systems 163
6.3.3. CAN (Controller Area Network) 165
6.4. Calculations and Results 167
6.4.1. Introduction 167
6.4.2. Real-Time Results 168
6.4.3. User-Defined Results 170
6.4.4. Future Developments 173
6.5. Postprocessing and Data Management 174
6.5.1. Introduction 174
6.5.2. Basic Requirements for Data Format and Export 174
6.5.3. Requirements for Engine and System Parameters 176
6.5.4. Typical Environment 177

CHAPTER 7

Applications 181
7.1. Introduction 181
7.2. Measurement Chain Properties 182
7.2.1. Introduction and Overview 182
 Contents ix

7.2.2. Special Considerations for Combustion

Measurement Instrumentation 182
Measurement in the Angle Domain 182
Angle Encoders 183
Pressure Measurement 183
Signal Conditioning 183
Measurement Hardware 184
External Interfaces for Control and Data Transfer 184
7.3. Zero-level Correction, or Pegging 184
7.3.1. Introduction 184
7.3.2. Fixed Point and Reference Value 185
7.3.3. Fixed Point and Measured Value 185
7.3.4. Thermodynamic 187
7.3.5. Alternative Methods via Post Processing 189
7.3.6. General Comments 189
7.4. TDC Measurement 190
7.4.1. Introduction 190
7.4.2. Methods 192
[Link]. Static Determination 192
[Link]. Pressure Curve Determination 193
AVL 195
FEV 195
D2T 195
General Comment-Motored Curve Method 196
[Link]. Capacitive Probe 196
7.4.3. Comparison and Discussion of the Methods 199
7.4.4. General Considerations 204
7.5. Thermodynamic Analysis 205
7.5.1. Introduction 205
7.5.2. Basic Principles and Early Work 207
7.5.3. Methods for Real-Time Analysis 208
7.5.4. Further Discussion—Offline Analysis 211
[Link]. Wiebe Function 211
7.5.5. General Comments 211
7.6. Low Pressure Measurement and Gas Exchange Analysis 213
7.6.1. Introduction 213
7.6.2. Measurement Task and Goal 214
7.6.3. Typical Measurement Setup 216
7.6.4. Measurement and Analysis 217
7.6.5. Summary 220
 x Contents

CHAPTER 8

Abnormal Combustion Measurement and

Evaluation 223
8.1. Combustion Knock and Abnormal Combustion
(SI Engines) 223
8.1.1. Introduction 223
8.1.2. What Are Abnormal Combustion and Knock? 224
8.1.3. Why Is Knock Important? 226
8.1.4. Knock Measurement and Analysis 227
[Link]. Knock Measurement Techniques 227
[Link]. Knock Detection via Cylinder Pressure
Measurements 229
Introduction 229
Frequency of Knock 229
Signal Processing 230
Filtering 230
Acquisition Frequency 231
Acquisition Window 232
Calculation of Knock Overpressure 232
[Link]. Further Processing and Calculation Methods 232
Knock Pressure Peak and Knock Intensity 234
AVL Real Time 235
FEV CAS 237
AVL KI (Knock Index) 238
AVL Transient/VDO 239
AVL Histogram 240
Third Derivative 242
[Link]. Considerations for Knock Measurements 243
Transducer Position, Type, and Properties 243
Measurement Range and Resolution 245
Measurement System Setup 245
[Link]. Summary 246

8.2. Combustion Noise 247

8.2.1. Introduction 247
8.2.2. What Is Combustion Noise? 248
8.2.3. Measuring Combustion Noise 249
Signal Processing and Calculation 249
Filters Used in the Calculation 252
8.2.4. Summary 253

8.3. Cold Start 255

8.3.1. Introduction 255
8.3.2. What Is a Cold Start Measurement? 255
 Contents xi

8.3.3. Typical System Configuration and Results 256

[Link]. Preconditions Prior to Measurement 256
[Link]. Executing the Measurement 258
[Link]. Data Visualization and Processing 259
8.3.4. Summary 260

CHAPTER 9

Successful Measurements 263

9.1. Problems and Errors 263
9.1.1. Introduction 263
9.1.2. Typical Sources of Error 264
[Link]. Transducer 264
[Link]. Cabling 265
[Link]. Encoder 266
[Link]. Amplifier 266
[Link]. Measurement Device 267
[Link]. Summary 268
9.2. Successful Setup and Diagnostics 269
9.2.1. Basic Setup 269
9.2.2. System Prechecks 270
[Link]. Introduction 270
9.2.3. Diagnostic and Reference Measurements 272
9.3. Software and Data Handling 276
9.3.1. Introduction 276
9.3.2. Measured Data Requirements 277
9.3.3. Plausibility Checks and Data Validation 280
9.3.4. Best Practice and Summary 281
9.4. Hardware Handling and Maintenance 283
9.4.1. Introduction 283
9.4.2. Measurement Hardware and System 283
9.4.3. Engine-Mounted Equipment: Encoder 284
9.4.4. Engine-Mounted Equipment: Transducers 286
[Link]. Introduction 286
[Link]. Installation and Handling 286
[Link]. Maintenance and Repair 287
[Link]. Calibration 288
9.5. Summary 292
 xii Contents

CHAPTER 10

Specification and Integration into the Test

Environment 295
10.1. Introduction 295
10.2. Technical Considerations—Features and Functions 296
10.2.1. Introduction 296
10.2.2. Typical Systems and Applications 298
[Link]. Low-End System 298
[Link]. Mid-Range System 300
[Link]. High-End System 302
10.3. Interfaces to Additional Equipment 304
10.3.1. Introduction 304
10.3.2. Interfaces—Measurement Chain Components 304
[Link]. Angle Encoder to Measurement System 304
[Link]. Transducer to Charge Amplifier 305
[Link]. Charge Amplifier to Measurement System 305
10.3.3. Interfaces—Data Transfer and Control 307
[Link]. Digital Control and Data Transfer Interface 307
[Link]. Analogue and Digital Hybrid Interface 308

Bibliography 311
References 313
About the Author 317
Index 319
Preface

Indicator, or combustion pressure measurements, used to be the preserve of “experts”

only. But, due to the general decrease in the cost of the measurement technology, and
the increasing complexity of the task of developing an internal combustion engine—
including optimizing all the available parameters—combustion pressure measure-
ment is no longer an exclusive task. Today, it is much more likely that test cell opera-
tors, technicians, and engineers will be required to have a clear understanding of the
measurement procedure and the equipment involved.
The idea behind this book is to provide the inexperienced technical person, trying
for perhaps the first time to understand combustion pressure measurements, a source
of basic information and guidance on what equipment is available and how to use it
in various common applications. The book has been developed as a handbook, to
be used as an initial source of information and then, perhaps, to be consulted regularly
as a reminder during daily work, or to point the reader to other good sources of
information on the subject.
This book is not offered as a detailed thesis on the subject of engine combustion
and thermodynamics; there are many excellent sources of information available to
supplement this book, that will enable readers to develop their knowledge further on
the topic of combustion and how to understand and optimize it.
There is much tribal knowledge in a working environment, and best practice,
gained from experience, is often shared among users and operators of combustion
measurement equipment. This book is an attempt to bring together some of this
knowledge and combine it with suggested pathways to further, more detailed infor-
mation. This should enable readers to go from understanding first principles, to using
equipment, gaining experience, and finally to being able to confidently purchase
equipment of the correct price and performance for their needs.
The important points to consider with respect to combustion measurements are
that this equipment is relatively expensive and sensitive, so that a correct under-
standing is a prerequisite for an efficient measurement process. It is important to bear
in mind that the only thing produced by combustion measurement is data. If this
data is in any way inaccurate, considerable time and money can be wasted. Therefore,
familiarity with the measurement system and its efficient operation is essential. In
addition, combustion measurements typically create large data files—and while the
cost of storing data is relatively low, the time needed to reduce or mine this data, to
©2021 SAE International xiii
 xiv Preface

get the important information from it, can be considerable and should not be over-
looked. Data can, of course, be reduced, but it is important to understand the compro-
mises in each stage of reduction, and, if possible, to maintain reversibility and trace-
ability so that if it should be necessary to go backward, post-reduction, deeper into
the detail of the raw data, that can still always be possible.
With the current trend of electrification, it may seem that combustion measure-
ment and combustion engines are of declining interest and relevance to today’s
Powertrain and Propulsion development Engineers. However, the reality is not so
clear cut. Many manufacturers are not developing new engines but there is much
focus on optimizing and extending the life of existing designs. This involves many
peripheral technologies to reduce the emission output and increase the efficiency of
the power unit. Almost without exclusion, adoption or extension of these technolo-
gies, on an existing engine design, has a significant impact on the combustion system
and combustion event in some way. For this reason, combustion measurement is just
as relevant today, and even more so when you consider the possibility of main stream
adoption of carbon-neutral fuels, that also required a detailed understanding of
combustion in order to deploy them with the greatest impact. For this reason, combus-
tion pressure measurement remains totally relevant, as the Engineers “eye into the
combustion chamber” - providing key information about the energy conversion and
losses within the engine.
I would like to thank the companies who have supported me in this project by
providing and sharing details of their equipment, systems, and technologies for
combustion pressure measurement. I am very grateful to them for this. In particular,
I would like to thank Sandra Gildemeister of AVL List GmbH for her ongoing assis-
tance throughout the project.
David R. Rogers, 2021
Companies who have provided support and information:
AVL List GmbH ([Link])
Kistler Instruments ([Link])
d2t ([Link])
FEV ([Link])
Dewetron ([Link])
Lehmann and Michels GmbH ([Link])
Optrand Inc. ([Link])
Delphi ([Link])
Polytec GmbH ([Link])
Wolff Control Corp ([Link])
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©2021 SAE International 311

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©2021 SAE International 313

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About the Author

David. R. Rogers has been operating in technical and commercial roles, in automotive
research and development for over 25 years. He has specialist knowledge and experience in
the areas of powertrain testing, instrumentation, test systems, tools and workflows. Whilst
working in this environment he has developed a detailed, practical knowledge base on the
combustion pressure measurement task, from a user perspective and application viewpoint.
He gained most of this knowledge through hands-on interaction with users of the equipment
in real-life applications. Professionally he is a registered Chartered Engineer, European
Engineer, a Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and a member of
SAE International.

©2021 SAE International 317

Index

A inductive measurement Cetane index, 103

Abnormal combustion, 6, principle, 26 Charge amplifier
86, 156, 157, 224 measurement task and capacitive negative
Active-X or distributed crank degree feedback circuit, 118
component object resolution, 28 circuit components, 118
model, 162 nested/multilevel drift and drift
Advanced thermodynamic measurement compensation,
analysis, 160 tables, 28 120–121
American standard code open encoders, 30–34 environment cleanliness,
for information optical measurement 121–122
exchange (ASCII), principle, 26 measurement cable
175, 176 output signals, 28–30 routing, 121–122
Analogue and digital hybrid signal processing, 34–36 open-loop gain, 118
interface, 308–309 standard—closed time constant property,
Analogue signals encoder, 30, 31 119–120
bridge configurations, ASAP-3 link, 164 Cold start, 157
123, 124 Association for angle-based
bridge signal, 123 Standardization of measurement, 258
current signal, 123 Automation and data visualization and
Hall effect sensors, 123 Measuring systems processing, 259–260
multipurpose amplifier, (ASAM), 153 definition, 255
123, 125 AVL MicroIFEM, 117, 132 emission
piezo resistive AVL real-time knock measurements, 255
sensors, 123 detection, 235–237 encoder pulses, 259
strain gauge, 123, 125 AVL’s Thermodynamics 2 parameterization, 258
two-channel modular calculation, 209 preconditions, 256–258
units, 122 pressure curves, 258
B
voltage signal, 122 TDC setting, 258
Best straight line with
Angle encoders, 183, 190 technical limitation, 256
forced zero point
analogue-to-digital zero-level correction, 258
(BSLFZ), 53
conversion Combustion noise
Brake mean effective
process, 27 definition, 248
pressure
basic function, 25, 26 evaluation method, 248
(BMEP), 214
combustion pressure free-field structure
curve, 27 C response curve,
crank angle resolution, 27 Calc-Graf model, 172, 173 248, 250
data acquisition system, Carrier-frequency amplifier, signal processing and
25, 27 125–127 calculation
319
 320 Index

filters, 252–254 Digital indication system encoder, 266

raw pressure curve, 251 advantage, 18, 19 instrumentation error
root mean square application-specific effect, 268
(RMS) circuit, 252 features, 17 measurement device,
schematic control systems, 20 267–268
diagram, 250 digital processor-based sensitivity to external
stand-alone units, 17 interference, 268
combustion noise feature of, 16 transducer, 264–265
meters, 251 overview diagram, 16 F
third-octave PC-based user Farnboro indicator system
spectrum, 251 interface, 18 actual recorder unit, 8, 9
structure attenuation portable measurement basic system layout, 8
derivation, 249, 250 systems, 17 cylinder pressure
transfer function, 248 real-time calculation diagram, 11, 12
Controller area network ability, 17 description, 9
(CAN), 165–167 Drift, 264 disc valve arrangement,
Conversion process, 20–22 Drum-type indicator, 3–5 9, 11
Cooled switching adapter, Dynamically linked library measurement
111, 112 (DLL), 176 procedure, 9
Cooled type piezoelectric E Fixed-point reference
pressure transducers Engine indicators method, 185–186
cross-section, 47 description, 1 Friction mean effective
cross-talk, 48 diaphragm-type optical pressure (FMEP)
overview, 46, 48 indicator, 7 values, 191
with transverse-cut digital indication system, Fuel injection analysis, 160
elements, 46, 47 16–20
water-cooled sensors, 46, G
drum-type indicator, 3–5
83, 84 Glow plug adaptors,
engine efficiency and
77–80
D losses, 12
Glow plug sensors, 97
Data acquisition and Farnboro indicator
measurement system system, 9–12 H
combustion analyzer general arrangement, 2 Hardware handling and
system, 146–147 linkage mechanism, 13 maintenance
operating requirements, Midgely optical amplifier racks, 284
141–142 indicator, 7–8 angle encoder, 284–286
system interfaces “moving tablet” indicator, calibration and linearity
analogue inputs and 2, 3 checks, 283
outputs, 143–145 oscilloscope recording, data acquisition
angle encoder, 142–143 14–16 system, 283
digital inputs and planimeter, 13 engine-mounted
outputs, 145–146 pressure-volume parts, 283
operator interface, 142 diagram, 14 piezoelectric transducers
Data management, 152–154, pressure vs. crank angle calibration, 288–292
174, 276, 279 diagram, 12 installation and
Data transfer and control, Richards indicator, 5, 6 handling, 286
307–309 special continuous maintenance and
Deadweight analysis recording designs, 6 repair, 287–288
parameters, 156 Error sources High-end combustion
Diaphragm-type optical amplifier, 266–267 measurement
indicator, 7 cabling, 265 system, 302–304
 Index 321

I data transfer and control, AVL transient/VDO,

Ignition timing amplifier, 307–309 239–240
123–125 transducer to charge degree of flexibility,
IMEP meter, 138–140 amplifier, 305 234
Indicator diagram, 1 In-vehicle measurement, FEV approach,
Indicom, 172 167 237–239
Inductive signal- Ion current based goal, 232
conditioning measurement knock index algorithm,
measurement chain, technology, 96–99 238–239
100–101 pressure peak and
K
Inductive transducers, 15 intensity, 234–235
Kettering ignition
Intelligent amplifiers third derivative,
system, 100
advantages, 127–128 242–243
Kistler Company, 43, 55
AVL Indicom, 133 RON, 226
Kistler SCP compact digital
combustion noise self-ignition event, 225
amplifier racks,
evaluation, 136–139 signal processing, 230
127, 128
definition, 127–128 spark knock, 224, 225
Knock
features, 12–128 transducer position, type,
acquisition frequency,
IMEP meter, 138–140 and properties,
231–232
Kistler SCP compact 243–245
acquisition window, 232
digital amplifier tuning and adaptation,
combustion chamber
racks, 127, 128 246
deposits, 226
knock meter, 137, 138 Knock meter, 137–140
cylinder pressure curve,
PMax monitoring, 225, 229 L
135–139 damaging phenomena, Lab oscilloscope–based
regular calibrations, 134 225 indicator system, 15
risk factors, 134 definition, 223 Labview™, 172
TEDS in development Laser Doppler vibrometer,
advantage, 130–132 phase, 226 108–110
AVL MicroIFEM, 132 filtering, 230–231 Low-end system,
connector with frequency of, 229–230 298–300
integrated high load conditions at Low pressure-gas exchange
microchip, 129 low speed, 226 process
data and signal measurement range basic requirement, 214
transmission, 133 and resolution, 245 BMEP, 214
data security measurement system calculation time, 218
management, 130 setup, 245–246 curves and results,
data sheet, 130, 131 measurement techniques, 218, 219
description, 129, 130 227–229 expansion phase, 215
integrated sensor modes of, 243 external subsystems, 213
database, 133 overpressure calculation, first law of
standard templates, 232–234 thermodynamics, 215
131, 132 pre-ignition event, 225 general process, 218, 219
Interfaces processing and internal exhaust gas
angle encoder to calculation methods recirculation,
measurement AVL histogram, 215, 216
system, 304–305 240–242 measured curves, 215
charge amplifier to AVL real-time measurement setup,
measurement knock detection, 216–217
system, 305, 306 235–237 MEP, 214
 322 Index

PMEP, 214 optimized methods, 174 P

reduced simulation parameter data, 174 PC based operating
model, 218 parameter files, 176 system, 149
M project-based work Piezoelectric crystal charge
Mean effective pressure file, 176 effect, 40
(MEP), 214, steady state Piezoelectric measurement
281, 299 measurement technique, 183
Measurement, calibration, requirement, 178 Piezoelectric pressure
and diagnostics pulse frequency transducers
(MCD) system, 164 analysis, 161 acceleration sensitivity,
Measurement real-time results, 168–170 55–56
hardware, 184 remote system, 161–163 for applications
Measurement in angle standard measurement cold-start
domain, 182 operations, 154–156 measurements, 88
Measurement system time-based mode, combustion and
software 158–159 thermodynamic
advanced torsion and rotation analysis, 88–89
thermodynamic analysis, 159, 160 engine calibration,
analysis, 160 user-defined results, 168, 87–89
basic function and 170–173 engine knock
requirements, 150 user interface, 150–154 (gasoline)/
calculation of IMEP, 167 Microsoft Windows™, 149 combustion noise
CAN, 165–167 Midgely optical indicator, (diesel), 88
cold start, 157 7–8 engine monitoring, 86
data reduction technique, Mid-range system, 300–301 friction measurements,
167–168 “Moving tablet” indicator, 89–90
engine electronics 2, 3 gas exchange and
interface, 163–165 N detailed energy
error state Normal combustion, 86, balance, 89
information, 163 156–157, 224 basic properties, 50
event mode, 157–158 O boundary conditions, 81
fuel injection Open encoders capacitance, 54–55
analysis, 160 advantage, 33 charge amplifier
knock measurement, application, 33 principle, 41
156–157 custom-made marker cooled type
MCD system, 164 disk, 30 cross-section, 46–47
optical and flame marker track, 33, 34 cross-talk, 48
analysis, 161 with mounting of disk overview, 46, 48
postprocessing and data and sensor head, with transverse-cut
management 32, 33 elements, 46, 47
analogue sensor and mark trace, water-cooled sensors,
interfaces, 178 33, 34 46, 83–84
data format and shine-through optical crystal materials,
export, 174–176 measurement, 32 42–44
data recalculation, 174 signal-conditioning cycle-by-cycle basis, 42
digital interfaces, 178 electronics, 33 design, 63–64
file-naming Optical and flame direct and reciprocal
convention, 177 analysis, 161 piezoelectric effects,
host control Optical sensors, 94–96 40, 41
system, 178 Optrand, 95 drift effect within cycle
 Index 323

cyclic heating structural integrity, R

device, 57 65–66 Rassweiler and Withrow
dynamic sensitivity, with and without algorithm, 211
60–61 intervention, 64, 65 Regular combustion, 224
heating curve, 59, 60 insulation resistance, 54 Research Octane Number
intra- and intercycle linearity, 53–54 (RON), 226
effects, 60, 63–64 measurement application Richards indicator, 5, 6
measurement vs. transducer choice “Right first time”
conditions, 60–61 vs. installation approach, 264
reference method, 82, 83 S
transducer, 57 natural frequency, 54 Setup and diagnostics
short-term drift effect, operating life, 52 acquisition process, 269
58, 59 operating principle, 42 compression ratio/
temperature operating temperature clearance
distribution and range, 52 volume, 275
deformation, 57, 58 properties and data collection/analysis,
test rig, 58, 59 specifications, 51 269–270
electronic schematic drawing, fired log PV diagrams,
components, 41 44, 45 274, 275
environment effects, 50 selection flowchart, 87, 88 motored logPV diagram,
ground-isolated and sensitivity, 52–53 273–274
insulated sensor sensitivity shift, 83 motored pressure
principles, 45, 46 sensor installation, 43 analysis, 275
IMEP stability, 63 technical challenge, 39 polytropic index, 275
installation and adaptors, temperature coefficient of pressure-volume
39–40, 90 sensitivity, 54 diagram, 273
compression ratio, 65 temperature effects over software and hardware
configurations, 67 cycles, 60–61 features, 269
environmental thermodynamic system prechecks,
factors, 66 properties, 56–57 270–272
gas dynamics, 65–66 torque (mounting), 56 thermodynamic and
gasoline knock uncooled sensor engine parameters,
measuring technology, 49, 84 273
applications, 67–68 Piezoresistive sensors Signal conditioning
gas temperature advantage, 94 system, 183
curves, 67, 68 basic principle of amplification, 115
glow plug adaptors, operation, 94 analogue signals
77–78 description, 94 bridge configurations,
indicating channel, 67 features, 93 123, 124
intrusive mounting, gauge factor/K factor, 94 bridge signal, 123
64–65 PMax monitoring, 135–139 current signal, 123
knock detection Pressure measurement, 185 Hall effect sensors, 123
algorithm, 68 Pulse frequency multipurpose
of mounting bores, analysis, 161 amplifier, 123, 125
69–72 Pumping mean effective piezo resistive
nonintrusive pressure sensors, 123
mounting, (PMEP), 214 strain gauge, 123, 125
70–73, 86 Q two-channel modular
spark plug adaptors, Quality performance units, 122
73–77 indicators, 184 voltage signal, 122
 324 Index

AVL MicroIFEM, 117 with inclined interval-bisection

carrier-frequency electrode, 74 method, 199
amplifier, 125–127 with insulator measured curves,
charge amplifier extension, 75 198, 199
capacitive negative M14 and M12 spark crankshaft position, 191
feedback circuit, 118 plugs, 77 FMEP values, 191
circuit components, with probe, 74 general considerations,
118 technical challenge, 73 204–205
drift and drift Standard measurement heat transfer and
compensation, operations, 154–156 combustion-related
120–121 parameters, 203
environment T inaccurate
cleanliness, 121–122 TDC measurement. See Top determination, 199
measurement cable dead center (TDC) kinematic TDC, 200
routing, 121–122 measurement loss angle, 203
open-loop gain, 118 TEDS. See Transducer motored pressure curve
time constant property, Electronic Data method, 201
119–120 Sheet (TEDS) optical encoder
ground noise-related Thermodynamic analysis types, 201
issues, 115 bomb calorimeter, pressure curve
3-HU amplifier rack, 116 207–208 determination
ignition timing amplifier, burn angles/energy AVL, 195
123–125 conversion description, 193
intelligent amplifiers (see points, 206 D2T, 195–196
Intelligent burn rate and heat FEV, 195–196
amplifiers) release, 206 fundamental
temperature effects, 116 derivative and integral principle, 193
Software and data handling curves, 205 general comment-
calculation and data direct results, 205 motored curve
visualization, 277 experimental method, 196
calibration test process, 207 motored curve, 193
environments, general errors, 211–213 thermodynamic loss
279–280 IMEP, 205 angle, 193, 194
data production indirect results, 205 static determination
issues, 277 offline analysis, 211 method, 192, 193
manufacturer equipment, real-time analysis, trigger mark, 190
277–278 208–210 using capacitive
plausibility checks and reference volume, 208 sensors, 203
data validation, total pressure Transducer and signals
280–281 change, 207 exhaust and inlet
process improvements, Top dead center (TDC) pressure,
282 measurement 110–113
test bed automation accuracy, 204 ignition signals,
controller, 279 angle encoders, 190 99–101
Spark knock, 224–226 capacitive probe line pressure
Spark plug adaptors, 73–77 advantage, 198 measurements,
bespoke basis, 76 basic measuring 102–103
design, 73 circuit, 197 needle lift
first-generation, 73 capacitive measuring carrier frequency
heat range principle, 197 signal method, 105
comparison, 77 installations, 198–199 definition, 102
 Index 325

equipment data and signal W

manufacturers, 104 transmission, Water-cooled sensors, 46,
hall effect sensing 131–133 83–84
element interface data security Wiebe function, 210–211
connections, 106 management, 130 Wien-Robinson oscillator,
Hall effect sensor, 105 data sheet, 130, 131 127
instrumented description, 129–130 Z
injectors, 105 integrated sensor Zero-level correction/
production database, 133 pegging
equipment, 104 standard templates, 131, comparison of, 190–191
relative movement 132 engine breathing and
and dynamic Typical conversion friction
behavior, 107 processes, 296, 297 measurements, 189
signal output, 107 U fixed-point reference
valve lift, 108–110 Uncooled sensor method, 185–186
Transducer Electronic technology, 49, 84 integrated heat release
Data Sheet Uncooled type piezoelectric curve, 189
(TEDS) pressure measured value method,
advantage, 129–130 transducers, 49, 84 185
AVL MicroIFEM, User interface postmeasurement
132, 133 data management, adjustment, 189
connector with 152–154 pressure referencing
integrated online data display, 152 methods, 189
microchip, parameterization, thermodynamic method,
129–130 150–151 187–188
Engine Combustion:
Pressure Measurement
and Analysis
Second Edition
David R. Rogers

Cover image used under license from [Link].

Engine combustion pressure measurement and analysis is a fundamental
technique applied universally in the research and development of reciprocating
combustion engines. As combustion pressure measurement systems have now
become standard equipment in engine test and development environments,
technicians and engineers need to have a solid understanding of this technique
and the associated equipment.

This book provides practical information A comprehensive

and advice on the task of measuring, handbook on the topic
analyzing, and qualifying engine of engine combustion
combustion pressure data. Providing
pressure measurement, for
practical detail on hardware plus
technicians and engineers
software requirements, and system
components of the measuring chain.
involved in engine testing
By describing and characterising the and development.
principles of a successful combustion David R. Rogers
measurement process, the book
will enable technicians and engineers to efficiently generate the required data
to complete their development tasks. The reader will learn about the base
features and functions of the equipment used, best practice for measurements
and most importantly how to diagnose and recognize problems during
measurements and data analysis.

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