Geography —- Unit 1 Test Review

What is Geography?​
Geography is the science that tries to understand how the Earth works and how humans
change it.
-​ It examines the Earth’s surface and the processes that shape it
-​ Looks at the relationship between people and Earth’s physical environment
-​ Looks at the connections between people and places.
-​ Geographers ask questions and search for answers to problems about our relationship
with Earth. By doing this, we can make wiser decisions.
-​ Understanding the world, the environment, and the economy will require a geographic
perspective because geography means a sensitivity to location, scale, maps,
movements, patterns, resources, and conflicts.
Due to these factors, Geography is regarded as an integrated discipline that brings together the
PHYSICAL and HUMAN dimensions of the world.
-​ Geography is a way of approaching issues and situations.
-​ Anything that can be mapped is Geography

They try to answer these questions:

-​ Where are things located on Earth?
-​ What are the connections between people and the Earth?
-​ How can we illustrate this information to understand it better?
-​ Why is it there?
-​ How did it get there?
-​ How does it interact with other things/places around it?

Geography has two main focuses:

-​ The Earth’s physical geography (natural things)
-​ The Earth’s human geography (people and things related to people, such as
cities/villages/towns)

Careers In Geography:
Skills gained:
-​ Written and oral communication effectively
-​ Communicate through design, construction of charts/graphs/tables/diagrams.
-​ Problem-solving
-​ Mathematical skills
-​ Research and data collection, analysis, and evaluation
-​ Being able to work independently and in a team environment
-​ IT skills
-​ Time management
 -​ Self motivation and self resilience
-​ Creative thinking
-​ The ability to meet deadlines
-​ Ability to recognize the moral and ethical issues in debates
-​ Create clear, precise maps, and be able to read and interpret maps and photographs
-​ Sort through vast amounts of information and knowledge and select specifically what is
needed.

Examples of careers in Geography/Where you could work:

-​ Things to do with nature/landscape: land surveyor, meteorologist, oceanographer,
landscape architect, environmental consultant/geologist, forestry technician/park ranger,
wildlife biologist, agricultural engineer, environmental health officer, urban planner,
hydrologist, weather forecaster, soil conservation/agricultural extension agent, wildlife
and environmental conservation, environmental science, flood and coastal engineering,
ecology and conservation, earth and planetary sciences, geology and environmental
hazards, cartographer/computer mapper.
-​ Business, HR, and finance (International Business Representative)
-​ Marketing, PR, and sales (Market researcher, surveyor)
-​ Charities (Peace Corps Volunteer)
-​ Civil Service (Transport planner idk)
-​ Environmental consultancies
-​ Local Government (Tourism officer)
-​ Ministry of Defense
-​ Police Service
-​ Education (Elementary/Secondary Teacher/Professor)

Maps:
-​ Globe: Is the only accurate method to represent the earth.
-​ Map: Representation of the Earth’s features drawn on a flat surface. Maps use symbols
and colors to represent features of an area, simplifying the real world.
-​ Features of a Map: Bolded are the 4 basic features you def need to know
-​ Title: Identifies the area shown, topic, focus, or purpose of the map.
-​ Legend: Explains the meaning of symbols & colors used on the map
-​ Scale: Represents the relationship between distance on the map and the
distance in the real world.
-​ Direction Arrow: Represented with an arrow or a symbol by the use of latitude &
longitude,
-​ Border: Sets the map apart from other information
-​ Date of publication: Indicates how recent the map is.
-​ Cartography: The art of drawing accurate, easily readable, attractive maps.
-​ Labels:
-​ Should be neat
-​ Spelled correctly
 -​ Parallel to the base of the map (except natural features/rivers, mountain ranges,
etc.)
-​ A dot should be used to located cities with the name as close as possible.
-​ Large features=large labels, labels for similar features= same size and font.
-​ Should not block other information
-​ Coloring: Properly color coded, shade consistently, solid colors, no white or black, gray
for unimportant areas, blue for water bodies.
-​

Map Projections:
-​ Map Projection: Created when the features of a globe are transferred onto a flat surface.
-​ Mercator Projection: Suited for navigation charts because it gives accurate compass
bearing between points for sea travel. It greatly distorts the size of landmasses —
countries near the equator are smaller than they actually are, while those closer to the
poles appear larger. (Cylindrical projection)

-​
-​ At the UN, many representatives of tropical countries felt that the importance of their
countries had been underestimated because they appeared smaller on the map than
their actual size.
-​ Equal–Area Projection: Preferred by most nation/international organizations because
they show the correct size of the countries in relation to one another.
 -​ Winkel Tripel Map Projection: Comprise between all types of distortions. This projection
provides the best balance between size, shape, distance, and direction and gives a
more realistic representation of the Earth

Types of Maps:
-​ General-Purpose Maps: Provides many types of information on one map. Ex: Atlas map,
wall map, road map.
-​ Road Maps: It's a map drawn to scale using symbols and colors to indicate major
highways and roads for transportation purposes. Can be small scale (country map) or
large scale (city map). They also include other features such as parks and hospitals and
tourist attractions
-​ Thematic Maps: It's a map that reveals the geographic patterns of statistical data. These
are designed to display distributions, or patterns, over the Earth’s surface. Usually focus
on one particular topic or theme, such as population or rainfall. Ex; Vegetation, urban
places
-​ Topographic Maps: A top/bird's eye view. A map that indicates to scale, using symbols
and colors for both natural and human features on the Earth’s surface. Shows the
Earth’s surface in great detail (large scale). Depicts the height of land features. Map
shows roads, settlements, vegetation cover, power lines, etc. Contour lines join lines of
equal elevation.
-​ Digital Maps: Computer programs, handheld devices, online. EX: Google Maps (online
map). Google Earth (Computer program using digital maps)
-​ GIS: Geographic Information System - Computer system for capturing, storing, and
displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. It manages, analyzes and maps
all types of data.
-​ GPS: Network of satellites and receiving devices used to determine the location of
something on Earth.
 Political Map of Canada

Water Bodies and Islands Map of Canada

Map Scale:
-​ Map Scale: Shows the relationship between the distance on a map and the actual
distance on the Earth’s surface.
1.​ Direct Statement Scale:
a.​ Uses words to describe what a distance on a map represents as distance on the
Earth’s surface. EX: 1 cm to 10 km OR 1 cm = 10 km
2.​ Linear Scale/Bar Scale:
a.​ A special RULER on the map that is divided into equal units of distance, to show
what a distance on a map represents in the real world.
b.​ ALWAYS includes the units of measurement on the Earth’s surface.
c.​ Always blocks out units of measurement on the map (the alternated black blocks
on the linear scale)

3.​ Representative Fraction Scale (RF)

a.​ The fraction is a ration where one unit on the map equals a specific number of
the same unit on the Earth’s surface. (CAN BE ANY UNIT)
b.​ It describes the ratio of the distance on the map to the distance on Earth
c.​ ALWAYS done as a ratio or fraction of 1. EX: 1:50,000 cm (If there isn't a unit
beside it, it’s assumed to be cm.)
d.​ **1:50,000 equals 1 cm = 0.5 km **1 cm on the map equals 50,000 cm on the
Earth’s surface.
e.​ CONVERSIONS: 1 km = 1000 m 1m = 100 cm 1 km = (1000·100)cm = 100,000
cm (King Henry Doesn't Usually Drink Chocolate Milk Mondays)
4.​ Mental Map: Created by what you visualize in your mind.
5.​ Large-Scale Maps: Shows a large amount of detail of a small area. Show detailed
information about a small area for such things as: Residential planning, Hiking, Military
purposes. Between 1:50000(RF) and 1:25000.(RF) Ex. Topographical Map, Road Map,
City Bus Map. (HOUSES SHOWN)
6.​ Small-Scale Maps: Shows a small amount of detail of a large area. Used to show
general detail such as political and economic information between 1:250,000 and
1:500,000. Ex. Globe, World Map, Atlas. (HOUSES NOT SHOWN)
Latitude & Longitude:
Since Earth is a sphere with no sides, it is much more difficult to describe the locations of points
on its surface, and a special frame of reference is needed. The poles of Earth provide this
reference frame.

Lines of Latitude/Parallels:
-​ Equator: An imaginary line that divides the Earth into 2 equal parts (Northern & Southern
Hemispheres) — The 0 degree line of latitude.
-​ Imaginary lines that measure the distance north or south of the Equator (0*)
-​ They measure the distance North & South of the Equator (parallel lines going
horizontally)
-​ Lines are drawn around the Earth, parallel to the Equator
-​ The lines never intersect each other — that’s why they’re called parallels.
-​ Each degree is approximately 111 km apart.

-​ Increases by 10 degrees in each line.

-​ Lines can also be used as political boundaries.

Important Points to Know for Latitude:

North Pole: 90* North from Equator.
Arctic Circle: 66.5* North from Equator
Tropic of Cancer 23.5 * North from Equator
Equator: 0* middle of Earth.
Tropic of Capricorn: 23.5* South from Equator
Antarctic Circle: 66.5* South from Equator.
South Pole: 90* South from Equator.
Lines of Longitude/Meridians:
-​ Prime Meridian (0*): An imaginary line that divides the Earth into 2 equal parts (Eastern
& Western hemispheres). Determines time zones. (Runs through Greenwich, England).
-​ Origin of the Prime Meridian: As more new lands were discovered, it became more
important for explorers to know where they were exactly. Different countries establish
longitude lines to measure east and west distances, but could not agree on their starting
point. In 1759, an English inventor named John Harrison invented the marine
chronometer to calculate the exact way to calculate longitude from a certain point. Since
his lab was in Greenwich, a base line was drawn through Greenwich, England. The
exact marking of this prime meridian was a brass strip set in paving and was marked as
zero degrees longitude. Since 1884, most countries have agreed to measure time from
this line. Today, our time zones are still based off of Greenwich Standard Time.
-​ Imaginary lines that measure the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian
-​ The International Date Line (180*): is across the world from the Prime Meridian. The
point where one day begins and one day ends.
-​ Lines converge at the poles and are furthest apart at the Equator.
-​ Longer than latitude lines.
-​ Increase by 15 degrees of longitude, which adds one hour in each time zone.
-​ West Longitude (Western Hemisphere)- to 180 degrees W. East longitude (Western
Hemisphere)- to 180 degrees E.

Absolute Location: The location of a point on the Earth using latitude and longitude lines.
Using the latitude and longitude grid, we can pinpoint any place on the Earth. The location is
specified by a series of numbers. They are done in the order of degrees, minutes, seconds
How you write locations: Latitude, Longitude Ex.(45* N, 108* W)

CAPITAL COORDINATES:
-​ Victoria- 48*N, 123*W
-​ Edmonton, 53*N, 113*W
-​ Regina- 50*N, 104*W
-​ Winnipeg- 50*N, 97*W
-​ Toronto- 43*N, 79*W
-​ Quebec City- 46*N, 71*W
-​ Yellowknife- 62*N, 114*W
-​ Whitehorse- 60*N, 135*W
-​ Iqaluit- 63*N, 68*W
-​ Charlottetown- 46*N, 63*W
-​ Fredericton- 46*N, 66*W
-​ Halifax- 44*N, 63*W
-​ St. John’s- 47*N, 62*W

Compass: A method of finding direction.

Compass Rose: The points all have corresponding degrees of a circle (0 degree—>360*)
Indicate direction on a map.
The 4 Cardinal Points: The FOUR MAIN compass directions; North, East, South, West.
The 12 Ordinal Points: in between the Cardinal points, NE, NW, SE, SW, NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE,
SSW, WSW, WNW, NNW
Bearing: Degree of the cardinal and ordinal points.
Each bearing (degree) 22.5 degrees apart

Time Zones:
-​ Every 15 degrees of longitude, there's another time zone, and one extra hour.
-​ There are 24 different timezones in Earth.
 -​ There are 6 different time zones in Canada.
-​ Every time zone you cross, it increases/decreases by 1 hour.
-​ As you go West, the time becomes Earlier, so you decrease by an hour. As you go East,
it becomes Later, meaning you add an hour. (Eastern Hemisphere = One day ahead.
Western Hemisphere = One day behind)
-​ Origins of Time Zones: When the railroad/telegraph were invented and the world
became more interconnected, there was a push for the concept of standardized time.
Canada and the US adopted time zones in 1883, before discussing with other countries
in a conference in Washington, D.C, in 1884. The Prime Meridian, in Greenwich, was
chosen, and each time zone was made 15* wide. However, most time zone boundaries
are irregular because of political factors.
West-to-East Time Zone names in Canada:
a.​ Pacific Time Zone,
b.​ Mountain Time Zone,
c.​ Central Time Zone,
d.​ Eastern Time Zone,
e.​ Atlantic Time Zone,
f.​ and Newfoundland Time Zone.
-​ Newfoundland Time Zone ONLY INCREASES BY 30 MIN
Geography Unit 2 Study Guide

Geologic Time: Is the sequence of events in the Earth’s history development from the
beginning of time to the present.
-​ Divided this history into four parts known as the eras.

In geography, we are concerned with how the land has changed on the Earth or part of the
Earth over time. Ex - Time of mountain building. - Mountains wearing away (By water, wind, or
glaciers)

Canada’s physical landscape has been shaped by the following:

Conflict between forces that build up the land and forces that wear down the land. Ex:
Volcanoes - Build up land. Wind, water - Wear down land.

How old is the Earth?

Scientists estimate the Earth to be 4.6 billion years old.

How do geologists/scientists know how old the Earth is?

Scientists/geologists know how old the Earth is by analyzing: Rocks, Landforms, Fossils in rocks
(This is called “Carbon Dating”).

Eras are time periods that vary in length.

1.​ Cenozoic (era we’re in right now, most recent) 65 - now (millions of years)
a.​ Canada’s landforms are given their shape
b.​ Glaciers appear/shape our landscape
c.​ Dinosaurs died and mammals appear
d.​ Ice sheets cover most of Canada
e.​ Humans roam the world
2.​ Mesozoic (Middle era) 245 - 65 (millions of years)
a.​ Lasted 155 million years
b.​ Innuitian mountains formed
c.​ Sea covered most of Canada
d.​ Rocky mountains begin to form
e.​ Dinosaurs and reptiles live
f.​ Climate is/was warm/wet/humid
3.​ Paleozoic (second oldest) 544 - 245 (millions of years)
a.​ Most of the Earth had been formed
b.​ Canadian shield was a large mountain
c.​ Sediments formed into sedimentary rock
d.​ Appalachian mountains were formed in this era
e.​ Each of Canada’s provinces bedrock was formed during this era
f.​ Plant/animal life appears.
g.​ Approximately 299 millions years long
4.​ Pre-Cambrian (longest/oldest era) 4600 - 544 (million of years)
 a.​ Lasted four billion years
b.​ Entire mountain ranges formed/disappeared
c.​ Oceans developed/disappeared
d.​ Canadian shield formed
e.​ No remains of plants or animals (so no fossils)

What/who is a Seismologist?
Seismologists: Are scientists who study earthquakes.

What is folding?
Folding can occur in any kind of rock. Over a long period of time and under conditions of high
temperatures and pressure, rock layers slowly bend rather than break, the rocks become curved
during deformation. The result may be folded mountains, some examples are the Rockies and
the Appalachians.
-Folding is when the crust is being stressed and the stress is going inwards, resulting in the
crust bending.

What is faulting?
Fault - crack. Faulting - cracking
Faults are fractures (cracks) in bedrock along which movement has taken place. They are
produced in the Earth’s crust by the stress the convection currents create in the mantle (stress
moving outwards). Faulting can occur in any type of rock and takes a long time to produce
landforms.

There are two types of faults that are common in Canada, single faulting, and double faulting.
-​ Single faulting: When the stress on Earth’s crust is moving outwards and there is a crack
in the surface, one side falls, where it forms steep-sided cliffs. Steep-sided cliffs
(fault-line scarps) are formed.
-​ Double faulting: Sometimes stress will cause two faults to develop Under continued
stress, the middle portion drops downward in relation to the land on either side of the two
faults. The results is a rift valley or a graben or a double fault. The St. Lawrence Lowland
and the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben are examples.

3 types of plate boundaries:

-​ Divergent boundaries are where plates move away from each other
-​ These areas can form in the middle of continents or on the ocean floor
-​ Spreading ridges: As plates move apart, hot molten material can rise up to fill the
gap to the surface - causing volcanic activity
-​ Iceland: An example of continental rifting - has a divergent plate boundary
running through its middle. As The North American plate and the Eurasian plate
were pulling apart, volcanic activity and with many eruptions, the island grew out
of the sea!
-​ Islands only form when we have large mantle plumes and a lot of material erupts.
-​ Convergent boundaries are where the plates move towards each other
 -​ There are three types of convergent boundaries, each defined by what type of
crust is coming together:
-​ Continent-continent collision
-​ Continent-oceanic crust collision
-​ Called subduction/a subduction zone. The crust that subducts is
called a subducting slab, it subducts into the mantle at a rate of 10
centimeters per year.
-​ At a convergent boundary where continental crust pushes oceanic
crust, the oceanic crust, which is thinner and denser than the
continental crust, sinks below the continental crust.
-​ Subduction is a way of recycling oceanic crust, which is why
oceanic crust is much younger than continental crust, which can’t
be recycled.
-​ Ocean-ocean collision
-​ When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other, causing
it to sink into the mantle, creating a subduction zone.
-​ The subducting plate is bent downward to comprise a very deep
depression in the ocean floor called a trench.
-​ The world's deepest part of the ocean is found along trenches. Ex.
Mariana Trench.
-​ Can also cause volcanoes
-​ Transform boundaries are where the plates slide past each other diagonally.
-​ The San Andreas transform fault is an example between the Pacific plate and the
North American plate.

-​ Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics: Pacific Ring of Fire, volcanism is mostly focused at
plate margins, and since there are many active volcanoes near the margins of the Pacific
tectonic plate, it is known as the Pacific ring of fire.
-​ Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics: As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly
distributed over the globe. At the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to
stick together. When built up energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur. They
occur in linear patterns associated with plate boundaries.
-​ Where do earthquakes form? Movement and slipping along each of the different types of
boundaries can form an earthquake.
-​ Folding may cause deep focus earthquakes. These earthquakes occur at a depth where
the subducted crust should not be brittle. A possible mechanism for the generation of
deep focus earthquakes is faulting.

Structure of the Earth:

The Earth is made up of 3 main layers:
-​ Core (Inner and outer)
-​ The Inner core is a primarily solid sphere situated at Earth’s center. Made of iron
and other elements, similar to the temperature of the sun
 -​ Outer core is liquid, made of iron and other heavy elements, pressure is less so
its liquid, responsible for Earth’s magnetic field.
-​ Mantle
-​ Comprises 80% of Earth’s volume. Divided into sections based upon chang m
-​ Asthenosphere is the layer of Mantle right below the crust
-​ Crust - Where we live!
-​ The Earth’s crust is made up of 2 different types.
-​ Continental crust: Thick (10-70 km), buoyant (it's less dense than oceanic crust),
mostly old, contains some of the oldest rocks (ancient rocks exceeding 3.5 billion
years in age are found on all of Earth’s continents). Forms the land. This crust
floats on the dense mantle
-​ Oceanic crust: Thin (~7 km), dense (sinks under continental crust), young (not
older than 200 million years), below the oceans

If you look at the map of the world, you may notice that some continents could fit together like
pieces of a puzzle. This is because they DID use to be together/fit together. The Earth was not
always like how it is now. Land masses have pulled apart and joined together by the process we
call Plate Tectonics.

Plate Tectonics: states that the earth’s outer shell is made up of about twenty plates.
-​ The Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major plates (or 20 in total) which move in various
directions.
-​ This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other.
-​ Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or “tectonic
features”. Ex. Mountain ranges, volcanoes, and rift valleys.
-​ Plates are made of rigid lithosphere

Plate Movement: These plates are moving over a weaker layer of hot rock, several hundred km
below the surface, which flows like slow moving plastic.
-​ No one FULLY understands the forces that cause the plates to move; however,
CONVECTION is one possible explanation.
-​ “Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection cells.
-​ In the mantle, hot material rises toward the lithosphere. It reaches the base of the
lithosphere which cools the material down and sinks back down through the mantle,
which is replaced by more hot material, forming a large “convection cell”.
-​ This is a slow movement in the mantle which causes the rigid tectonic plates to
move/float around the Earth’s surface (which is equally slow)

Continental drift: a theory suggested by Alfred Wegner stating that about 300 million years ago
all the earth’s land masses, which were in constant motion, collided to create one super
continent.

Describe Pangaea
Pangaea: The name of the supercontinent - meaning “all lands”(In Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of continental drift—-the forerunner to the theory of plate tectonics.
-​ 180 million years ago: The supercontinent started to break up and drift apart.
-​
-​ Today: India has moved northwards and collided with Asia, crumpling up sediments and
the folded mountain range of the Himalayas. South America and rotated and moved
west to connect with North America. Australia has separated from Antarctica.
-​ Pangaea Ultima will form 250 million years in the Future. It will form as a result of the
subduction of the ocean floor of the North and South Atlantic beneath eastern North
America and South America. This supercontinent will have a small ocean basin trapped
at its center.

Describe the 4 Proofs of Alfred Wegner’s theory of Continental Drift

-​ Jigsaw puzzle: He saw the jigsaw fit between South America and Africa.
-​ Fossils: He found fossils of the same plants and animals on both continents. He felt that
they could only exist in both places if the continents were once joined together.
-​ Mountains: There are mountains similar in age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic
Ocean.
-​ Ice sheets: There is evidence that ice sheets covered South Africa, India, Australia, and
South America at similar time periods.

J. Tuzo Wilson: A Canadian who in 1968 helped to create interest in the theory of continental
drift.

Label the rock cycle diagram (the rocks and the processes (arrows) eg. Process: Erosion,
compression, heat & pressure….

Forces that build up and wear down the Earth

Building up forces of the Earth:

1.​ Volcanoes/Volcanism (subduction zone) -lava, ashes, gas, magma.
2.​ Mountains (converging land - folding)
3.​ Earthquakes (fault-crack, faulting - single or double fault) fault line - a thrust -movement
of an upper layer of rock forming a slope
Wearing Down Forces of the Earth:
Types of Erosion: Breaks down rock/weathering
1.​ Wind - as winds blow, rock debris goes against other rocks
2.​ Ice (glaciers) - The glacier moves and many underlying rocks are scratched against the
glacier
3.​ Rain - The force of water against the land/rock
4.​ Running water - The power of tides against rock
5.​ Plant roots - help compact the soil but also cracks it sometimes
6.​ Animals - worms create small pathways in the soil and water then passes through and
freezes, which then thaws.
Physical Regions - Rock Types:
A)​ Igneous rock (Ignite, fire)
Igneous rock means “Fire Rock”
Formed by the hardening of molten rock from the Earth’s core. Hardened, cooled lava.
Ex: Granite, mica, pumice (which is ash that has cooled down and been compressed)

B)​ Sedimentary rock - 3-step formation

Breakdown of another type of rock by weathering (rain, wind, ice, wave, chemical)
Movement and deposition of small particles by water
Pressure of other layers of sediment and water press sediments into rock -takes millions
of years
Ex. Shale, limestone, sandstone/sand

C)​ Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic means change, so over time the rock will change.
Formed by the heating and pressure or liquid, put on either sedimentary or igneous rock
or both, which changes the make-up of rock.
Ex: Marble - formed from limestone, Slate - formed from shale

What do you find in sedimentary rocks?

You can find coal, oil, natural gas, salt, and potash in between their layers. You can also find
fossils.

Erosion/Weathering: The process where rocks are broken down by natural forces such as
water, ice, wind, sand, chemicals. It flattens mountains, breaks down landforms, and never
stops. It takes time, where the landscape is always changed

Deposition: The building up of eroded materials in a new location.

Meteorologists study the climate, weather and other aspects of the atmosphere
Weather is the day-to-day readings of temperature and precipitation (and wind speed,
barometric pressure, and several other factors).
Side Note: Barometric pressure is the measurement of the air pressure in the Earth’s
atmosphere.
It is the combination of temperature, precipitation, cloud cover, and winds experienced daily.
Climate is the long term patterns of temperature and precipitation
We can illustrate climate and compare climates from different locations easily using a
climograph (a climate graph)
Climate is the weather conditions of a place averaged over a long period of time. The standard
averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose.

The difference between climate and everyday weather is best summarized by the popular
phrase; “Climate is what you expect next month, weather is what you get tomorrow”.

Four basic Facts of Canada’s Climate:

1.​ Canada is a very large country; it extends for a great distance from north to south and
from east to west.
2.​ Different elevations produce different climate conditions
3.​ Coastal regions have different climates from inland regions.
4.​ Wind and pressure systems move weather conditions from one part of the country to
another.
There are six major factors that affect climate. LOWER N
Latitude:
-​ Distance from the equator is a key (but not the only) factor in determining whether a
region has a hot climate or a cold one. The energy from the sun that hits the Earth at the
equator covers a small area. This means that locations nearer the equator have warmer
climates, as the Sun’s energy is more concentrated over a small area.
-​ Latitude causes focused or dispersed sunlight.
-​ Places closer to the North and South poles experience colder temperatures than those
near the equator because the same amount of energy is spread over a larger area near
the poles.
Ocean Currents
-​ The temperature of an ocean current impacts the air that passes over it/the air mass
above it.
-​ On the west coast, the warm North Pacific Current heats the cool, moist air that passes
over it, giving the coastal regions of British Columbia a milder climate than might be
expected at this latitude.
-​ Cold Labrador current meets the warm Gulf Stream moving north off the coast of
Newfoundland, creating foggy conditions (interesting facts: 100 foggy days yearly in
Newfoundland)
-​ The temperature of an ocean current in comparison to the surrounding water determines
if it is a cold or warm current.
Winds and Air Masses
-​ An air mass is a large volume of air that takes on the climatic conditions of the area
where it is formed.
-​ Air mass: an Air mass is the large body of air having the same moisture and temperature
and conditions throughout.
-​ Air masses that form over continents are typically dry. Air masses that form over oceans
contain moisture and release precipitation when they reach land.
 -​ Air has weight which measured as air pressure
-​ Warm air rises, creating a high pressure system. Cold air falls, creating a high pressure
system.
-​ Air moves along the surface of Earth from the high-pressure areas to the low pressure
areas. This moving air causes wind.
-​ Around Earth, there are high and low pressure belts that have created a well-established
pattern of prevailing winds.
-​ Over most of Canada, prevailing winds blow from west to east.
-​ Prevailing winds: Prevailing winds are winds that are most commonly found in an area.
For example, over most of Canada, the prevailing winds are the westerlies, which blow
west to east.
-​ These prevailing winds (also called westerlies) move the air masses that affect our
weather.
-​ The boundary between the cold, dry polar air and warm, wet tropical air is called the
polar front.
-​ Polar Fronts are stormy boundaries between cold, dry polar air and warm, moist tropical
air.
-​ High in the atmosphere above the polar frost in a current of fast-moving air called the
polar-front jet stream.
-​ The Jet Stream is the west to east movement of air in the mid-latitude flowing at speeds
of up to 400 km/h at an altitude of between, 8000 and 15,000 m.
-​ This jet stream moves from west to east, controlling the location of the polar front: to the
north of this jet stream there is colder air; to the south there is warmer air.
-​ THEY CARRY THE WEATHER CONDITIONS FROM THE SOURCE REGION TO THE
NEW REGION!
Elevation
-​ Temperatures drop as you go higher in elevation.
-​ As air rises, it expands due to lower air. As it expands, it cools (loses energy). As it
cools, it reaches a temperature where it is saturated with water vapor.
-​ This is the dew point or point of condensation
-​ If it cools further, it will cause condensation.
-​ If you had to climb from sea level to the top of a mountain, you would notice that the
temperature drops steadily as you cling. As you approach the top, you might even find
ice and snow all around you.
Relief
-​ Condensation is the process whereby vapor is cooled and changes from an invisible gas
to liquid water. Condensed water is what forms clouds.
Near Water
-​ Oftentimes, climates around water will be cooler, with higher precipitation and more
moderate temperature, as the water acts as a heat sink
1. Convectional Precipitation: The precipitation caused on hot summer days, when heated
land causes the air above it to rise by convection. As the air rises, it cools and condensation
occurs. Rain or hail may fall from thunderclouds that build.
 -​ It is the type of rainfall that is responsible for the fact that most parts of Canada get more
precipitation in the summer than in the winter.
-​ So, warm air rises & expands due to decrease in air pressure.
-​ Expanding air mass decreases the concentration of heat energy, causing cooling of the
air mass.
-​ The cooling air mass is less able to hold water vapor in the air, so the water condenses
and falls back to the earth as rain or snow.
2. Frontal Precipitation (cyclonic)
-​ The polar frost is also responsible for producing much of the rainfall that occurs in many
parts of Canada, including all of Ontario. The production of rainfall is a relatively
complicated process that involves the lighter, warmer air at the polar front being forced to
rise over the colder, denser air and then condenses, and the water falls forming
precipitation.
3. Relief precipitation (orographic): The precipitation created when an air mass rises to cross
a mountain barrier
-​ Mountain barriers create relief precipitation.
-​ As moist air rises up the windward slope of a mountain range, it expands and cools.
-​ As air cools, the amount of evaporation decreases while the rate of condensation
increases.
-​ As more water vapor condenses, the droplets become too heavy to remain suspended in
the clouds, and fall to the ground as rain or snow.
-​ As cool air descends on the more protected leeward slope of a mountain range, it
contracts and becomes warmer.
-​ Since more evaporation than condensation takes place as the air descends, cloud
formation and precipitation decrease.
-​ This results in a drier climate, or rain shadow, on the leeward slope of the mountain
range than on the windward slope.

Near Water
-​ In the Summer, a large body of water is cooler than the surrounding land, as water heats
up slower than the land. This cooler water will cool the surrounding land. You will have
cooler summers near water.
 -​ In the Winter, the large body of water is warmer than the surrounding land, as water
cools down slower than the land. This warmer water will warm the surrounding land. You
will have warmer winters near water.
-​ This is called a maritime climate.
-​ Areas located far from oceans and large lakes have a continental climate, usually harsh,
cold winter and hot summer.
-​ The Great Lakes region is unique, as it is classified as modified continental.

Moderating Effect: Moderating Effect is the effect that large water bodies have on the climate
over nearby land areas. Winter temperatures are warmer and summer temperatures are cooler
than areas located away from large water bodies. The result is a small annual temperature
range.
-​ Water bodies have a moderating effect on land, are warmer in winter and cooler in
summer
*Temperature drops (gets cooler-or lower numbers *C) the higher in elevation you go (eg.
climbing up a mountain) from sea level (0m elevation). Therefore, the top of a mountain will be
cooler temperatures than at the base of a mountain at lower elevations.
Calculations of the temperatures of a rising air mass:
**The temperature drops 1 degree Celsius from sea level (0m) before condensation:
-​ Before condensation, we use the dry lapse rate: -1*C/100m (subtract 1 degree Celsius
for every 100 m)
**After condensation, the temperature drops by 0.6 degrees Celsius:
-​ After condensation, we use the wet lapse rate: -0.6*C/100m (subtract 0.6 degrees
Celsius for every 100m after condensation).
Examples:
Handout Unit 2 Mountain A:
650/100 * 1 = 6.5 degrees C
25-6.5=18.5 degrees C at condensation point
1000-650 = 350 m
350/100 * 0.6 = 2.1
25 - (6.5+2.1) = 16.4 degrees C at top of mountain

Maritime Climate (also called Oceanic Climate) is the climate type that is strongly influenced by
the closeness of an ocean or other large water body. The annual temperature range tends to be
small, and the precipitation is high.
Continental climate is the climate type that develops away from the influence of the ocean.
The annual temperature range tends to be large and precipitation is low.

To figure out the type of climate:

Climate Characteristics Maritime Continental

Average Annual Temperature High Low

 Annual Temperature Range Low <25 degrees High >25 degrees

Total Annual Precipitation High >1000 mm Low <1000 mm

Seasonal Distribution of Winter Maximum Summer Maximum

Precipitation

An even distribution indicates both a continental and maritime climate.

Areas with similar climates may be grouped together to form a climate region. The climates of
Canada may be grouped to create eight regions.

El Niño refers to the above-average sea-surface temperatures that periodically develop across
the east-central equatorial Pacific. It represents the warm phase of the ENSO cycle. La Niña
refers to the periodic cooling of sea-surface temperatures across the east-central equatorial
Pacific.

Landforms: Configurations of the land surface taking distinctive forms and produced by natural
processes.
Canada composes of 7 landform regions, also known as physiographic region.
Elevation - height of land and starts from sea level of 0 elevation.
Highlands are above sea level and are high levels of land, more than 500 m of elevation. They
are the Western Cordillera, Innuitians, Appalachians.
Lowland, low level of land, less than 500 m of elevation. They are the Interior plains, Arctic
islands and Hudson Bay lowlands, and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands.
 -​ We live in the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Lowlands.
Canadian Shield: is the foundation of the Canadian landmass
-​ If you dig deep enough anywhere in Canada, you would eventually strike the shield.
-​ This bedrock contains some of the oldest rocks in the world.
-​ A significant portion of the shield is composed of igneous rock called granite.
-​ The shield used to stand much higher than it does today.
-​ Erosion has caused the gradual breakdown of land or rock.
-​ The landmass eventually became stable, and it has been at its present height for years.
-​ Largest region, oldest region, vast, saucer shaped region. Flat, rounded hills with
elevation no higher than a couple of hundred meters. Flat landscape.
-​ Excellent source of minerals, and good for recreational use.
The Ice Age in North America: It is the period of time, ending approximately 10,000 years ago,
when freezing temperatures created ice sheets across continents.
-​ Massive ice sheets once covered most of Canada. The ice was up to 3 km thick.
-​ The force of moving ice eroded parts of the landscape.
-​ Unique landforms such as: drumlins, eskers, and moraines have been created as a
result.

Interior Plains:
-​ The particles of eroded rock were carried west by the movement of rivers, streams, and
ice and deposited in the Interior plains.
-​ Layer by layer, sediment was deposited, eventually forming sedimentary rock.
-​ These layers contain valuable mineral resources.
-​ Vast expanses of sedimentary bedrock
-​ Very flat, almost no rounded hills. Thick sedimentary underground layer.
-​ Great for farming due to the rich soil and flat ground. Good for fossil fuels/coal, and oil.
The Lowlands:
 -​ There are 3 large lowland regions in Canada: The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence (GLSL),
the Hudson Bay, and the Arctic lowlands.
-​ The GLSL is the smallest of the 3 regions
-​ 3 of every 5 Canadians live in this region.
-​ The GLSL is divided into 2 parts.
The Great Lakes — St. Lawrence Lowlands:
-​ The Great lakes lowlands exist from southwestern Ontario to the shores of the St.
Lawrence River.
-​ The St. Lawrence lowlands spread from the river towards Quebec City and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence.
-​ During the last Ice Age, the ice gouged out the area that today we know as the Great
Lakes.
-​ Today, the Great Lakes form the largest concentration of inland freshwater in the world.
-​ The Ice Age deposited a large amount of till, creating the rolling landscape and optimum
farming conditions.
-​ The Hudson Bay lowland are found south of Hudson Bay.
-​ The Arctic lowlands are scattered among the islands of the far north.
-​ Arctic Region: Swampy flat land. Along the rivers and lakes, flat due to erosion. Suited
for agriculture due to excellent soil.
-​ In both the HB and AL, the ground remains frozen for much of the year due to the frigid
climate of the north (permafrost).
Canada’s Mountains:
-​ Fold mountains — created when a lighter plate is forced upon a heavier one, resulting in
uplift and folds in the land. The mountains of the Western Cordillera are fold mountains.
-​ There are three main sections of the Western Cordillera: the Coastal mountains, the
eastern mountains and the interior plateau.
-​ Western Cordillera: High elevation, pointed mountains. Bumpy, not very flat. Near
coastal area. Undergoes a lot of earthquakes. Recreational use, skiing, and winter
sports.
-​ The Appalachians are one of the oldest mountain system in Canada.
-​ Actually, because of their age, they can longer be considered mountains… due to
erosion elevations rarely exceeding 500m.
-​ Appalachians: Rounded high mountains. Plentiful amount of forestry, also consists of
plateaus. Valuable minerals, non-metallic minerals.
-​ Glaciers have cut deep into the valleys, creating fiords.
-​ The Innuitian Mountains of the north are the least known mountains in Canada.
-​ Some of these mountains are spectacular, peaking at over 2500 m.
-​ Innuitians: Pointed mountains, fairly young, has not undergone erosion. Composed of
sedimentary rock. Similar types of mineral like Appalachian. Mining hasn’t been
introduced due to its remote location and permafrost.
Soil regions:
Soil is a naturally occurring, unconsolidated or loose material on the surface of the earth,
capable of supporting life.
True soil consists of 4 main parts:
Minerals, Bacteria and Organic Material, Air, Moisture.
If one of these parts is missing, the material cannot be considered soil.

Parent material- describe what is in it (minerals)

Parent material is also known as bedrock
The minerals in soil come from rock, known as the parent material.
Rock is broken down by weathering into smaller particles of sand, silt, and clay.
Many minerals are nutrients needed by plant for growth ex. Calcium, potassium, etc.

Bacteria & organic materials: When plants & animals die, they are decomposed by bacteria in
the soil.
-​ As bacteria break down the organic matter, nutrients are released.
Decaying organic materials forms humus which provides nutrients and moisture for plants.
Humus: Dark, upper layer of soil made up of partially decayed plant material. ​
The process of decay is nature’s way of recycling nutrients. Humus gives the soil it’s dark color.

Air: Air is found in all soils usually in between soil particles.

Plants need air around their roots.
Air spaces also created by insects/worms and small animals that tunnel through the soil.

Moisture (water): Water dissolves nutrients in the soil and is then taken up by plants through
their roots.
Helps weather rock and decay organic materials.

Two processes contribute to soil formation: Leaching and Calcification

Calcified Soil (how they occur and in what type of climate)
Occurs in dryer climates.
As water in the topsoil evaporates, water from below is drawn up to replace - Capillary action.
As the water reaches the surface, it evaporates leaving behind the minerals that were dissolved
in it.
The result is a thick topsoil layer, rich in minerals.
Calcium is the main mineral deposited near the surface.
In very dry climates, the amount of mineral deposits can be poisonous to plants.

Leached Soil (how they occur and in what type of climate)

Usually occurs in wet climates.
It is a continual downward movement of water through the soil.
As the water moves down, it dissolves the chemical nutrients and carries them away.
This downward movement removes nutrients that plants need.​
You can identify leached soil by its poor, often thin, topsoil layer.
Leached soils can be developed into excellent farmland by adding fertilizers.

*Draw, label and describe a typical soil profile & the color of each layer (O/A-topsoil,
B-subsoil, C-parent material)
O/A — Topsoil: this top layer contains humus. It is rich in organic material. It is dark brown/black
in color.
B — Subsoil: combines minerals and organic layers. Usually lighter brown in color.
C — Parent material: mineral materials from which soil is made. Usually bedrock or glacial
deposits. Usually gray in color.

List the four parts of soil

BAMM
Bacteria and Organic Material
Air masses
Moisture
Minerals

What is Natural Vegetation and describe types of natural vegetation in Canada

Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region (which very much depends on soil
quality).
Natural Vegetation — refers to those plants that grow without any human interference.
In Canada, we have grasslands, forests, and tundra.
There are seven natural vegetation regions across Canada:
Tundra (in the Arctic)
-​ It is located above the tree line
-​ Climate is cold and dry so trees do not grow
-​ It has permafrost
-​ Only the active layer (top metre or so of permafrost, thaws during the short summer)
-​ Small shrubs, mosses, and lichen grow close to the ground.
-​ Little humus is found in the Tundra’s thin layer of soil.
Boreal and Taiga Forest (South to Tundra)
-​ South of the Tundra is this region
-​ It is the largest vegetation region in Canada
-​ Coniferous (evergreens) trees grow here
-​ The needles are acidic, so they make the soil acidic
-​ The lack of humus, the high acidity and the leaching make these soils infertile and
unsuitable for agriculture
-​ White and black spruce, balsam fir, and pine grow sparsely along the northern edge of
the boreal forest.
-​ They are harvested by pulp and paper and lumbering companies
-​ Coniferous trees can withstand the harsh, northern conditions because:
-​ They extract nutrients from the poor soil with their long roots
-​ Stick sap acts like anti-freeze
-​ Waxy needles and thick bark prevent the loss of moisture
-​ The needles and flexible branches shed snow (so the tree doesn’t break)
-​ The needles conduct photosynthesis on warm days.
Mixed Forest (South to Boreal)
-​ South of the Boreal in eastern Canada
-​ Mixed forest of coniferous and deciduous trees.
-​ Spruce, fir, pine, cedar and hemlock, maple, beech, ash, oak and birch trees
 -​ Excellent resource for the lumbering industry
-​ It is a transition zone between the Boreal forest to the north and the deciduous forest to
the south.
-​ Transition zones are regions where vegetation gradually changes from one type of
vegetation to another.
-​ Humus is created because of all the leaves
-​ Soils in mixed forest regions are suitable for farming, but aren’t the best.
Deciduous Forest (where we live, also known as Broad Leaf Forest Region)
-​ Only deciduous forest in Canada, which is found in southwestern Ontario
-​ Only small remnants remain because it has been cleared for farming and urban
developments
-​ These trees need at least five months of warm weather
-​ Soils are similar to those of the mixed forest but contain more humus
-​ The most fertile soils of eastern Canada, but not of all of Canada!
Grasslands
-​ The grasslands, or prairies, are located in the southern part of Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
and Alberta
-​ Climate is too dry for most species of trees to survive
-​ Aspen, willow, and spruce grow in river valleys
-​ Grass is suited for this dry climate – since grass dies off on the surface, but its roots
remain alive.
-​ Short grasses, sagebrush, and cactus are the only types of vegetation which can survive
here
-​ The land can be used for grazing animals, particularly cattle
-​ The long grass prairie is ideal for growing grains and oil seeds.
-​ Rich black soil is created from humus — because of dead grass/grasses die
Cordillera Vegetation
-​ Vegetation varies
-​ Temperatures are warmer in the valleys than in the mountains
-​ Grasses and cactuses grow in the dry, hot valleys and soils are similar to the prairie
grasslands.
-​ Vegetation changes with altitude
-​ Forest of coniferous trees grow on lower slopes
-​ The vegetation on the higher slopes of the mountain ranges is similar to that of the
tundra.
West Coast Forest
-​ Along the West Coast of Canada grow lush forest of Douglas Fir, spruce, red cedar and
western hemlock.
-​ Heavy rainfall and mild climate provide excellent growing conditions.
-​ Trees have played a crucial role in B.C’s forest industry
-​ The lush vegetation provides a lot of plant material to make humus.
In Canada, we have everything from desert cactus to massive rainforest trees, and everything in
between.
-​ Mosses
-​ Plants
-​ Shrubs
-​ Coniferous trees
-​ Deciduous trees

Deciduous trees and examples

Deciduous trees have leaves that fall off yearly, and grow back. They are trees that conserve
energy by dropping their leaves when the growing season is over.
Maple, beech, ash, oak, and birch, - mixed forest
Other examples: hickory, cherry.

Coniferous trees and examples

Coniferous trees bear cones and have needles or scales that no not fall off.

Evergreen trees, white and black spruce, balsam fir, and pine - Boreal
Spruce, fir, pine, cedar, and hemlock - mixed forest
Douglas Fir, red cedar, and western hemlock, spruce - West Coast

What is an ecozone? How many ecozones do we have? Which ecozone do you live in?
An ecozone is a region based on its ecological characteristics such as landforms, climate,
vegetation, soils, and human activities.
Areas in Canada are grouped as separate ecological zones. A change in one part of the system
will result in an adjustment to the rest of the system.
If you were to overlay or combine the climate, landforms, soil (and vegetation) maps of Canada
shown in this slideshow, you would see patterns emerge resulting in Canada’s 15 terrestrial
(land) ecozones.
We live in the Mixedwood Plains.
Other regions: Taiga Cordillera, Prairie, Hudson Plains, pacific Martitime, Boreal Cordillera,
Taiga Plains, Taiga Shield, Montane Cordillera, Northern Arctic, Boreal Shield, Atlantic Martime,
Boreal Plains, Southern Arctic, and Arctic Cordillera.

What is a climate graph?

-​ Climate graphs comprise two key components:
-​ Line graph and bar graph
-​ Line graph: Shows continuous change over time, using continuous data to show trends.
They can be simple (only one feature) or multiple (multiple features). They can be drawn
as curves, or as points joined by straight lines.
-​ Bar graph: Used to compare one thing with something else. Totals of one item over time,
or totals of different items within a range of items.
Climate graph:
-​ A climate graph combines a line graph with a bar graph.
-​ The common unit (months) remain on the horizontal axis.
-​ The measured units are placed on the vertical axes.
-​ Temperature is shown on a line graph, with the figures (degree Celsius) being shown on
the left side of the graph. Temperature is red, like heat.
-​ Rainfall/Precipitation is shown by a bar graph, with the figures (mm) being shown on the
right side of the graph. Precipitation is blue, like water.

*Create a climate graph using a chart that has the temperature and precipitation for each month.
(Be sure to use a red line graph for temperature and blue bar graph for precipitation. Include all
labels and a title)
*Know how to analyze a climate graph! Calculate: (show the formula for):
~the temperature range,
Take your higher temperature and subtract it from your lowest temperature.
Ex. (Highest - Lowest) = annual temperature range

~average annual temperature,

Add all of the numbers together and divide by the numbers of months.
Ex of Calgary: ((-10)+(-6)+(-3)+4+10+14+16+16+11+6+(-3)+(-8))/12 = 3.917 which is 3.9

~total precipitation
Add up all the precipitation for each month.
Ex of Calgary: 12+10+15+25+53+77+70+49+48+16+12+13 = 400 total annual precipitation

~seasonal distribution of precipitation (summer or winter maximum of precipitation and

maritime or continental climate)
It is the time of the year when most of the precipitation occurs. It indicates the type of climate.
To figure it out add up all the winter months. Then add up all the summer months.
Winter: January, February, March, October, November, December.
Summer: April, May, June, July, August, September.
Whichever is highest is the seasonal distribution of precipitation.
Unit 3 Geography Study Guide:

We can categorize countries of the world into three groups:

-​ Developed nations, developing nations and newly industrialized nations.
-​ Developed nations: Countries that have a high quality of life and HDI, developed
economy (high GDP, per capita income), advanced technological infrastructure and
standard of living relative to other less industrialized nations.
-​ (HDI-Human Development Index- measures life expectancy, education and per
capita income.)
Examples include- Canada, United States, Australia, United Kingdom, France, and Western
Europe.
-​ Developing nations: Countries with a less developed industrial base and a low Human
Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries.
Examples include: Angola, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ethiopia, and Haiti.
-​ Newly industrialized nations- Countries with developing economies that have advanced
towards industrialization and may become developed in the near future.
Examples include-China, India, Thailand, the Philippines, South Africa, Brazil, and Mexico.

Demography:
-​ Population growth places a strain on a country’s resource base (food, water, energy), so
there’s an important connection between population and resources.
-​ Demography: The study of population and population statistics. Greek: “demos” -
“common people”
-​ It helps answer questions such as:
-​ Why are more schools closing than opening?
-​ Why will you likely have to work more years than your parents before retiring?
-​ Why are old rock-and-roll groups still so popular?
-​ Demographers examine issues relating to the structure, size, and distribution of human
populations. Ex: Growth rate (speed of growth), Births and Deaths, Migration, Health,
Wealth, and Density.
-​ Demographers use rates, in order to compare different countries, and we’re looking at
specifically how populations change in different countries.

How do populations change?

-​ They change in 4 ways:
-​ Naturally: Births and Deaths.
-​ Migration: Immigration and Emigration
Natural Change (Births and Deaths)
-​ Birth Rate = (# of births per year/population) * 1000
-​ Death Rate = (# of deaths per year/population) * 1000
-​ Balance between births and deaths is “Natural Increase Rate”
-​ Natural Increase Rate = Birth rate - Death rate
Migration (Immigration and Emigration)
-​ Immigration Rate = (# of immigrants per year/population) * 1000
 -​ Emigration Rate = (# of emigrants per year/population) * 1000
-​ Balance between immigration and emigration is “Migration Rate”
-​ Migration Rate = Immigration rate - Emigration rate.

Population Growth Rate: The overall growth of a population can be determined by adding the
natural increase rate and the net migration rate.
-​ Population Density is a measure of the number of members of a population in a govern
area. It is usually measured in km^2.
-​ PD = # of people(population)/area
-​ Human populations do not double each year, but they do double over time. Generally,
countries have rates of growth between -2% and 4%. Canada’s PGR is 0.9% or
(9/1000).
Compounding: The ability of a population to build upon itself over time due to its growth rate
adding to its base.
Doubling Time: The amount of time it takes for a population to double in size. It can be
calculated using the Rule of 70.
Rule of 70: Doubling Time = 70 / PGR (as a percent!)

Take Home Message(s)

1.​ The global population is rising at a dramatic rate.
2.​ Population growth puts stress on the landscape (pollution, waste, resource extraction),
and creates challenges for humans. Ex - Distribution of food/resources.
3.​ Using demographic equations, we can track the changes in a given population, and
make predictions about future population characteristics.

Population pyramids:
-​ The best way to compare populations of different countries is through population
pyramids.
-​ It is a “paired horizontal bar graph” with females on the right and males on the left. Both
sides show the percentages of people in each age group.
What is a population pyramid?
-​ It is a diagram that gives information about the proportion of males and females in each
age group.
Also shows:
-​ proportion of young people (0-14)
-​ proportion of working people (15-64)
-​ proportion of elderly people (65+)
-​ The 65+ and under 15 segments of the population are part of what is called the
dependency load.
-​ The base of the pyramid can be a population value or a percentage.
-​ Putting the two sides together can allow you to easily compare a country’s population for
different years (or to compare different countries).
Dependency Load:
 -​ The dependency load is the part of the population that needs to be supported. It is made
up of two components: the 0-14 age group and the 65+ age group.
-​ Children need education, daycare, etc.
-​ Seniors need health care, old age homes, etc.
-​ Neither one contributes meaningfully to the economy through work/taxes.
-​ Age structure affects future population size: Having many individuals in young age
groups results in high reproduction and rapid population growth.
-​ Many populations are getting older:
-​ Older people need care and financial assistance, but also reduces the number of
dependent children and crime rates.

How do population pyramids help us learn about population?

-​ Population pyramids are used to show information about the age and gender of people
in a specific country.

In this country, there is a high Birth rate, there is also a high Death rate.
This population pyramid is typical of countries in poorer parts of the world/developing countries.

In some developing countries, the government is encouraging couples to have smaller families.
This means the birth rate has fallen.
In this country, the number of people in each age group is about the same. The largest category
of people were born about 40 years ago.
This country has a low Birth Rate and a low Death Rate.
This population pyramid is typical of countries in the richer parts of the world/developed
countries.

In this country, the birth rate is decreasing. This is happening more and more in many of the
world’s richer countries. In the future, the elderly people will make up the largest section of the
population in this country.

This country has numerous temporary workers. These are people who migrate here especially
to find a job.

How to read a population pyramid?

Read the title ex. Country or city or racial group
Comment on general shape of pyramid
Note the proportion of people in various age groups
Note the sex ratio
Interpret the data.

Types of Population Pyramids

The shape of the pyramid is controlled by the births, deaths & migrations.
1.​ Triangular-shaped/Broad-based pyramid
a.​ Shape: Broad Base - high birth rates. Narrow Top - small elderly pop, high death
rate
b.​ Proportion: Large proportion of young, high young dependency ratio.
c.​ Sex Ratio: Balance pyramid - Balance sex ratio
2.​ Beehive-shaped pyramid
a.​ Shape: Rocket shaped/narrow base. Low birth rates, slow pop growth.
b.​ Proportion: Large proportion of working population, 15-64 year old, large group of
economically active population
c.​ Sex Ratio: Balance pyramid
3.​ Rectangular-shaped pyramid
a.​ Shape: Rectangular-shaped - zero pop growth. Narrow base - low birth rates.
Life-expectancy is high, 80+. Low death rates.
b.​ Proportion: Bars of equal length, balance proportion
c.​ Sex Ratio: Balance pyramid - Balance sex ratio.

Population pyramids in Transition:

Each pyramid tells a story about the past, present & future of a country & its people.
Importance of Population Pyramids:
Policy Planning
-​ Future housing estates
-​ Future schools
-​ Future jobs
Comparison with other countries
-​ Developed (Canada) vs developing (India)
The demographic transition:
Demographic transition: model of economic and cultural change to explain the declining death
and birth rates in industrializing nations.
Stable pre-industrial state of high birth and death rates changes to a stable post-industrial state
of low birth and death rates.
As mortality decreases, there is less need for large families. Parents invest in quality of life.

The Study of Populations:

A specific pattern of population growth has occurred in many developed nations during the past
60 years.

What is Population density?

It is the # of people per square km
Population density = Population/area
Canada has one of the lowest population densities in the world (about 3.5 people per km^2)
Nunavut has the lowest density (0.017)
PEI has the highest density (25.77)
The City of Toronto’s population density is almost 4,000 people/km^2

Factors affecting the Population Density - Human Factors:

Political - Countries with stable governments tend to have a high population density. Ex.
Singapore
Unstable countries tend to have lower population densities as people migrate. Ex Afghanistan
Social - Groups of people want to live close to each other for security. Ex USA
Other groups of people prefer to be isolated. Ex. Scandinavians
Economic - Good job opportunities encourage high population densities, particularly in large
cities around the world.
Limited job opportunities cause some areas to be sparsely populated. Ex. Amazon Rainforest

Population distribution means the pattern of where people live.

World population distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated contain few
people.
Sparsely populated places tend to be difficult places to live. These are usually places with
hostile environments. Ex. Antarctica
Places which are densely populated are habitable environments. Ex. Europe
Settlement can be a concentrated, dispersed or linear pattern.
In Canada as a whole, the pattern of distribution is concentrated in large-cities - Toronto
southern Ontario), Montreal and Vancouver close to the US border.
After looking at the pie graph, why do you think that Canada’s population is distributed the way
that it is?
Alberta, British Columbia, Quebec and Ontario make up the majority of Canada’s population.
Why do you think these provinces have such a large population? What factors would contribute
to people moving there from other provinces?
The Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Prince Edward Island each make up less than
1% of Canada’s population. Why do you think this is so?
Can you think of any reasons why people born in these provinces or territories might move
away to another province?

Definitions:
Migration - the movement of people from one place to another
Immigration - moving into another country as a place of permanent residence
Emigration - leaving one country for another
Historical trends of populations
Immigration to Canada has had periods of boom and bust. These were caused by events that
occurred both in Canada and in other countries.

When? What Happened Why?

1840s Arrival of thousands of Irish Irish potato crop fails; facing

settlers starvation, many Irish move
to Canada and other
countries

1905-1914 Massive immigration from Canadian Government

Eastern Europe to the wanted to settle the Prairies;
Canadian West offered free land and other
incentives to immigrants

1915-1919 Little immigration World War 1 and worldwide

influenza epidemic

1930-1945 Little immigration Worldwide economic

depression and World War 2

1947-1960 Many Italians come to World War 2 devastated Italy;

Canada Italians searched for
economic opportunities in
Canada

1956 Many Hungarians come to Hungarian revolt against the

Canada Russians failed; refugees fled
to Canada to avoid
punishment

1980-1997 Arrival of thousands of Hong Residents of Hong Kong

 Kong Chinese sought political stability
before China took control of
Hong Kong in 1997

1980-2003 Many people from Immigrants seek a safe

Afghanistan come to Canada haven from conflicts that
engulfed their country

Indigenous People in Canada:

A Land Acknowledgement is a formal statement that recognizes the relationship between
Indigenous peoples and their traditional territories.

Acknowledging the land is an Indigenous practice that has been happening for thousands of
years. It recognizes and respects the legal and spiritual relationship Indigenous peoples have
with their territories.

Definitions:
Aboriginal/Indigenous People: The descendants of the original inhabitants of Turtle Island (North
America). Indigenous replaces the term “Aboriginal”.
This is an umbrella term used to categorize all people of Indian, Métis and Inuit ancestry into a
single entity. Usage is acceptable if your intention is to categorize all nations into a single entity.
Crown: Refers to the government (term comes from the fact that we are descendants of a
monarchy - get it crown for king or queen)
First Nations: The native people of Canada to replace the word “Indian”.
Inuit: The native people of northern Canada
Métis: People who are half First Nations and half European (mostly French)
Reserve: Land given to the group of First Nations in which they can live and govern.
Off-reserve: A term used to describe people, services, or objects that are not part of a reserve
but relate to First Nations people.
Tribal Council: A regional group of First Nations members (think of it as a bunch of Bands
joining together). Some tribe names include: Algonkin, Cree, Chippewa, Haida, Huron, Iroquois,
Shuswap, Assiniboine, Ottawa, Dakota, Dene.
Indian Act: A Canadian legislation first passed in 1876 but amended (changed) several times
since. Indian Act outlines who is considered ‘Indian’. It sets out the federal government
obligations to the First Nations people. It also regulates the management of the Indian reserves,
Indian monies and other resources.
Status Indian: A person who is registered as an Indian under the Indian Act.
Non-status Indian: An Indian who is not registered as an Indian under the Indian Act.​
Treaty Indian: A Status Indian who belongs to a First Nations group that signed a treaty with the
crown.
Treaty: An agreement signed between a specific tribe and the crown.
Tribe: A group of Indians who live and work together.
First Nations: (commonly used term in brackets)
Nehiyawak or is it spelt Nehiyawik? (cree)
Dene (Chipewyan, but not recommended)
Anishinabe (Ojibway; Saulteaux)
Sioux: Lakota (sioux), Dakota (sioux), Nakota (sioux); Assiniboine.
A land claim is defined as "the pursuit of recognized territorial ownership by a group or
individual".
Location of Reserves:

Land claims in Canada:

Many treaties among the Early European settlers and First Nations groups deal with land
claims, logging, fishing, hunting, taxation, etc.
Most of these issues deal with Treaty Rights signed many years ago in peace treaties with First
Nations groups by Canada and, before Confederation

-​ The ideology of Eurocentrism had a major role in the destruction, oppression, and
suppression of Aboriginal civilizations.
-​ Eurocentrism stems from the belief that Europeans are politically and culturally superior
to all other people in the world. The image of the uncivilized Native originated long ago;
Europeans held the belief that indigenous societies were barbaric, subhuman, and
savage for centuries.
-​ After Confederation in 1867, the Indian Act (1876) was brought in. It reduced “Indians” to
an oppressed people that were wards of the state administered by white Indian Agents.
It set up the Reservation System and denied them full Canadian Citizen status (ex.
Voting rights.) Women who married non-Natives lost all status, as did their children.
Residential Schools:
-​ Aboriginal children were removed from their reservations and sent to schools far away
from home.
-​ School life was modeled after military life:
-​ Children were issued uniforms
-​ Learned drill practices
-​ Marched to and from classes and the dining hall for meals.
-​ School structure operates on academics for half a day and trades the other half.
-​ Children were not allowed to speak their native tongue or participate in any first Nations
spiritual ceremonies.
-​ Canadian residential schools were operated by Christian churches at the request of the
government. The government's role was to eradicate all that was ‘Indian’ in the children.
THE GOAL WAS ASSIMILATION.
 -​ Years later, reports of physical, psychological and sexual abuse surfaced. The schools
were shut down IN THE 1970s AND 1980s and legal compensation settlements are
ongoing between the government and the victimized former students. The money was
given out in 2007 and PM Stephen Harper apologized formally in 2008.

Different from Christianity, like really

different.
*September 30th has been declared Orange Shirt Day annually, in recognition of the harm the
residential school system did to children's sense of self-esteem and well-being, and as an
affirmation of our commitment to ensure that everyone around us matters.

Nunavut - which means “Our Land”:

Land Claims in Canada:
The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement created Canada’s newest territory in 1999.
The Territory of Nunavut:
Eastern part of the NWT that was created in 1999 to give Northern Innu and Inuit
self-government and more input into their own affairs.
The capital is Iqaluit on Baffin Island, in the east.
Nunavut is both the least populated and the largest of the provinces and territories of Canada. It
has a population of only 40,692 spread over an area the size of Western Europe.
If Nunavut were a sovereign nation, it would be the least densely populated in the world: Nearby
Greenland, for example, has almost the same area and twice the population.
Nunavut means ‘our land’ in Inuktitut, the language of the Inuit.

Facts about Nunavut:

-​ Became a territory on April 1st, 1999 (legally)
-​ Nunavut means “our land”
-​ A request from the people in the Eastern portion of the North West Territories
-​ 85% are Inuit
-​ In 1982, Nunavut was created, and the capital was named Iqaluit
-​ Inuit were given:
-​ Ownership of 350 000 km^2
 -​ Equal representation on management board
-​ To hunt/trap on settled land
-​ Capital fund to create a government
-​ Preference in the development of all resources
-​ 3 new national parks
-​ Self-government.
Characteristics of Nunavut:
-​ Harsh (cold) climate
-​ Sparse vegetation (tundra and permafrost)
-​ Small and sparse population (about 40,692 people)
Income/cost of living:
-​ High unemployment
-​ Expensive to live.
-​ Nothing can be grown there/raised there, so they need to bring in food/resources.
Transportation is costly.
-​ Ex. Bread - $3.50 — $12.00
-​ Milk - $15.00 —- $20.00
Economic Potential:
-​ Development of natural resources (ex. Mining, fishing, hunting)
-​ Ecotourism (enjoying the ecozone)
Environmental Concerns:
-​ Sensitive environment
-​ Plants grow sparsely and take a long time to grow.
-​ More money is necessary to create industries that make environment protection a
priority.

Canadian Immigration:
A Cultural Mosaic:
-​ We have a multicultural society
-​ Multiculturalism refers to a theory of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity that applies to the
demographic make-up of a specific place, city or nation.
-​ Canada encourages immigrants to retain their traditions and language while becoming
part of Canada. There are many diverse cultures.
-​ Canada is known as a cultural mosaic (or ‘tossed salad’)
-​ 97%, the majority of Canadians are immigrants or descended from immigrants.
VS. The Melting Pot
-​ An example is the United States
-​ People adopt the main culture and assimilate to one culture (losing their cultural identity)
-​ Like a ‘pot of soup’
Immigration/the Top Countries that immigrate to Canada:
-​ Immigration has changed over the years… 19th & 1st half of 20th centuries people came
from Britain and Europe (largely because of rough economic/political conditions).
-​ China
-​ India
 -​ Philippines
-​ Pakistan
-​ United States
-​ Iran
-​ United Kingdom
-​ Republic of South Korea
-​ Colombia
-​ France
Why Choose Canada?
-​ Large landmass, abundant natural resources & small population
-​ Democratic, open society
-​ Multicultural population welcoming to newcomers
-​ Well developed infrastructure, health, educational and other systems
-​ Highly industrialized, vibrant economy with many opportunities for skilled workers &
business persons.
-​ Immigrants tend to go to Ontario, British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec. Why?
-​ There are economic opportunities there and many others of their same kind.
-​ There are resources available there to help
-​ Toronto, Vancouver, Windsor and Montreal, are the cities with the largest percentage of
foreign-born residents.
Benefits of Immigration:
-​ Increase of population
-​ Economic Gain
-​ Increase in cultural diversity
-​ Increase in standard of living in the part of immigrants
-​ A younger workforce
-​ Skilled workers
Why do people immigrate?
Push Factors:
-​ Factors making people want to emigrate (leave/exit) their country such as
overpopulation, war, absence of human rights, poor economic opportunities
(poverty/unemployment) and poor educational opportunities. Also political oppression,
religious persecution, terrorism, and natural disasters are reasons.
Pull Factors:
-​ Factors that draw someone into immigrating (moving into) a country.
-​ Good climate, many job opportunities, lower taxes, be with family/relatives, freedoms,
higher standard of living, medical care, fair/just government and safety/protection
-​ Often a combination of push and pull factors makes people decide to be immigrants/to
immigrate.
Three types of Immigrants:
1.​ a) Economic Immigrants
-​ Includes skilled workers/business immigrants. Economic immigrants are the
biggest group.
-​ If one family member qualifies, the rest do as well.
 -​ Must receive 67 points from a system designed to see if you will be a successful
resident.
1.​ b) Economic Immigrants
-​ Business class immigrants must show immigration a willingness and ability to
make financial contributions to our economy.
-​ They can create a business, buy a business or make an investment that creates
1 job outside their own family.
-​ Must receive 35 points on an immigration points system test.
2.​ Family Immigrants
-​ Purpose to reunite existing Canadians with their families by bringing relatives to
Canada!
-​ Includes spouses, dependent children, parents, grandparents and
brothers/sisters, nephews/nieces, and grandchildren.
-​ Have to be sponsored by a relative living in Canada.
-​ Sponsor must agree/agrees to pay for housing and needs for 3 — 10 years if the
immigrant is in financial difficulties.
-​ Risky and tight requirements so numbers of this group are gradually reduced.
3.​ Refugees:
-​ Someone who fears cruel or inhumane treatment/death in their home country.
-​ Persecution may be because of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or
member of a social group.
-​ Can apply while visiting or from within their own country.
-​ Family and refugee classes do not have to apply based on a points system.
Interprovincial Migration:
-​ Movement from one province to another
Points system:
Multiculturalism:
What is culture?
Culture is the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people,
or other social group.
What is a cultural mosaic?
"Cultural mosaic" is the mix of ethnic groups, languages, and cultures that coexist within society.
Unlike a “melting pot” that emphasizes blending and abandonment of cultural heritage, a cultural
mosaic describes a society in which cultural groups live and work together maintaining their
unique heritages while being included in the larger fabric of society.

Rural and Urban Settlement Patterns and Urban Land Uses:

What is a settlement pattern?
-​ It is the arrangement of: where people live on the earth or in the country
-​ Settlements in Canada can be divided into two major categories:
-​ Rural - outside towns and cities (populations under 1000)
-​ Urban - within towns and cities (populations over 1000)
Settlement can be:
-​ Dispersed (A) - found in areas that have a strong agricultural base; spread out on farms
-​ Concentrated (B) - found where resources are focused in small areas; towns, cities
-​ Linear(C) - (a type of concentrated pattern) found along lines (ex. Highways,
rivers/bodies of water)
Rural Settlement:
-​ Population density is low
-​ Outside cities and towns
-​ The settlement pattern is dispersed
-​ Inhabitants are engaged in activities such as farming, fishing and mining
Transportation methods:
-​ The transportation methods that were available at the time of settlement the type of rural
settlement patterns (ex. Next to rivers and lakes for transport along water or along
railroads and later roads)
-​ In some areas, government planned how, where, and when settlement would occur,
-​ It created a SURVEY SYSTEM (pattern of land division used in an area)
THREE Canadian rural settlement patterns:
-​ Long Lots of Southern Quebec

-​
-​ Settlement pattern where individual lots tend to be long and narrow and extended
back from major rivers or roads.
-​ Transportation was mainly by water
-​ Farms built along the St. Lawrence River
-​ Concession System of Southern Ontario

-​
-​ Pattern of land division, whereby land is divided by concession roads and side
roads into squares of varying sizes.
-​ Farms were 40 to 80 hectares in size.
 -​
-​ Section System of the Southern Prairies

-​
-​ Pattern of land division with units of land, 9.6 km by 9.6 km (divided into lots
about 64 hectares in size)
-​ The baseline was the 49th parallel (the Canada - US border)
-​ But… As Farmers needed more land than the government had planned, they
started to buy the neighbor’s farms – process known as farm consolidation
Urban Settlement:
-​ The process by which an area changes from being rural to urban is called
URBANIZATION
-​ This causes an increase in population density and concentration
-​ 1867 — 82% of Canadians lived in rural areas.
-​ Presently, 80% of the population lives in cities and towns/urban areas.
-​ Urban areas grew as rural residences moved into towns and because most immigrants
moved to the cities for jobs in manufacturing and services rather than to the farms as
they had in earlier years.
-​ For an urban place to grow the following factors must be considered:
-​ Manufacturing - need for jobs
-​ Transportation - ways to get around
-​ Resource Use - using local resources to produce goods
Service Centers:
-​ Low order products —-> Use all the time. Ex.convenient stores
-​ Middle order products—> Occasionally used. Ex- Clothing stores, Music stores
-​ High order products —> Infrequently used. Ex- Rock climbing stores, movie theaters.
 -​ Threshold Population: number of people who are needed to support a given service.
Urban Land Uses:
-​ All Land uses in an urban place can be classified into one of SIX major groups:
industrial, residential, commercial, transportation, institutional and open space.
-​ Residential (Yellow)
-​ 40% of developed land in many cities (greatest % of land use!)
-​ Contains single detached, semi-detached, duplex, town houses, low rise
apartments, and high rise apartments.
-​ Transportation (Brown)
-​ Nearly 32% of urban land is for roads, highways, railroads, and electricity
transmission corridors, subways, streetcars, parking lots, sidewalks, bike paths,
and automobile paths(?)
-​ Industrial (Blue)
-​ About 6% of all urban land, which includes factories, warehouses, shipping
-​ They are close to transportation routes – Highways, railways, and water.
-​ Institutional (Red)
-​ About 10% of land use, this land is owned or controlled in some way by the
government.
-​ This includes schools, hospitals, governments, places of worship.
-​ Commercial (Purple)
-​ 5% of land is used for this, which includes retailing, wholesaling, offices, and
services.
-​ There are 6 types (refer to chart on pg.252)
-​ Open space/Recreational (Green)
-​ 7% of land is used for this, which includes parks, golf courses, open land, and
green spaces.
Unit 4 Study Guide: Canada’s Industries and Economy
Economic System: The organization in which products and services are made and used up
The economy is made up of two different types of people:
-​ Producers: People who harvest, manufacture products or provide services
-​ Consumers: People who use products and services
How we categorize our economic industries:
-​ Primary Industries: Industries that harvest natural resources
-​ Natural resources are non-human made (natural) components of the Earth which
humans use.
-​ Example: air, soil, water, oil, plants, rocks, minerals, wildlife
-​ Natural resources come in two basic categories
-​ Renewable resources, which regenerate themselves naturally within 100 years or
less
-​ Non-renewable resources, which take millions of years to regenerate themselves
-​ Examples of Canadian Primary Industries: forestry, mining;oil and gas,
agriculture, fishing, hunting & trapping

-​ Secondary Industries: Refining Industries and Manufacturing Industries

-​ Refining industries: process raw materials into industrial products. Example: steel
mills, paper mills, textile mills, plastic manufacturers, flour mill
-​ Manufacturing industries: process industrial products into goods. Example:
carmakers, garment industry, furniture makers, industrial bakers
-​ Tertiary Industries: Provide services and distribution of final products to the market.
Example: retail sales, utilities, public administration, communications, health care,
restaurants, education
-​ Quaternary Industries: provides intellectual services. Example: Scientific research,
information technology, consultants
Basic and Non-Basic Industries:
-​ Basic: Industries that sell their products outside the community, bringing “new” money
into the community.
-​ Non-Basic: Industries that sell their products within the community, not bringing “new”
money into the community.
 -​
Fishing:
Types and Locations of Fish
Category Description Examples

Groundfish Fish that feed and are caught Cod, Pollock, haddock,
near the ocean floor halibut, redfish

Pelagic fish Fish that feed and are caught Salmon, herring, mackerel,
near the surface tuna, caplin

Shellfish Mollusks and crustaceans Shrimp, lobster, oyster,

scallop, mussels
Methods of Fishing in Canada:
In shore Off Shore

Small boats with limited gear, self-employed Large ships with variety of gear, company
85% of fishers but just 10% of fish owned
Day trips only, no trips during bad weather 15% of fishers but 90% of fish
(16-25 km from shore) Out for two weeks or more at a time, in any
Low income weather (370 km away from shore)
Ex. Lobster, shrimp, clam, cod, and haddock Reasonable income
Ex. Harvest cod, sole, halibut, redfish, and
flounder
Collapse of Canada’s Fisheries:
Some of the reasons for the collapse of the East and West Coast fisheries are:
Overfishing, improved fishing technology, changes in the environment, water pollution.
Farming:
Types of Farming Ecozone Climate Region Factors that influence
the type of farming

Wheat Prairie Prairie Dry, rich soil

 Cattle Prairie Prairie Dry, rich soil

Grain Boreal Shield South Eastern Rain, extreme

weather

Potatoes Atlantic Maritime Atlantic Maritime Rain, humid, moist

Tobacco Taiga Plains Taiga Dry, cold

Vegetables Pacific Maritime Pacific Maritime Rain, moist

Dairy Montane Cordillera Cordillera Rocky Terrain

Mixed Livestock Southern Arctic Arctic/South Eastern Cold, dry, permafrost

Factors affecting Farming and Agriculture:
-​ Arable land is necessary to be able to grow and farm products, like vegetables and fruits.
Soil could be considered as renewable, but it would take a long time to renew the soil.
Nutrients in various forms (fertilizers) can be added to the soil, but eventually the soil, if
continually used, will become infertile.
-​ Some of these plant/soil chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides) enter our
waters
-​ Many people are leaving farms because of the growing pressure coming from large
companies and corporations who control large scale farming operations as business
instead of the traditional family farm.
-​ These large businesses controlling large shares of farms is called agribusiness, and is
discouraging many family members
Intensive & Extensive agriculture:
Intensive agriculture: Large farms, new technology, massive amount of machinery, livestock
Extensive agriculture: Smaller farms, less labor, older technology, low amount of technology,
wheat, and barley.

Forestry: Methods of Harvesting Forests

Clear-cutting
-​ Loggers remove every tree and leave a barren landscape. When replanted, the new
forest grows uniformly in species and size
Shelterwood Cutting:
-​ Involves clear-cutting only part of an old growth forest.
-​ Small groups of seed bearing trees are left so the area will regenerate
-​ Shelter wood method is often used in forests that have grown and aged evenly.
Selective Cutting:
-​ Only mature trees of the desired size, type, or quality are cut
-​ Selective cutting is the best method to help maintain forests as a renewable resource
Forestry Issues:
-​ Too few trees are planted? Soil erosion, clogged rivers, water pollution, air pollution,
aerial spraying, forest fires, destruction of wildlife habitat
Mining:
Minerals are non-renewable resources found all over the world
-​ The Canadian Shield is the source of many of our mineral deposits
-​ Minerals can be divided into three categories:
-​ Metallic (copper, nickel, uranium, gold, etc)
-​ Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
-​ Industrial (stone, diamonds, salt, potash)
Products of Mining in Canada:
-​ Batteries: Cadmium, lithium, nickel and cobalt
-​ Circuitry: Gold, copper, aluminum, steel, silver, lead, and zinc
-​ Computer and television screens: Silicon, boron, lead, phosphorus, and indium
-​ Cosmetics and jewelry: Gold, diamonds, iron oxide, zinc, and titanium dioxide
-​ Electricity: Coal and uranium
-​ Eyeglasses: Limestone, feldspar and soda ash
-​ Fertilizer: Phosphate, nitrogen, sulfur, and potash
-​ Musical instruments: copper, silver, steel, nickel, brass, cobalt, copper, iron, and
aluminum
-​ Sports equipment: graphite, aluminum, and titanium
-​ Sun protection and medical ointments: zinc
-​ Surgical instruments: stainless steel
-​ Vehicles and tires: steel, copper, zinc, barium, graphite, sulfur, and iodine
-​ Housing construction: gypsum, clay, limestone, sand, and gravel
-​ Hybrid car components: rare earth elements such as dysprosium, lanthanum,
neodymium, and samarium
Types of Mines:
1.​ Strip Mining
a.​ Used in oil sands, coal, and other minerals located near the surface. Strips are
removed from the surface with machines or blasting
2.​ Open Pit Mining
a.​ Used for minerals near the surface and slightly deeper. Often used for coal or
rock mining. Sometimes pits can be quite deep
3.​ Underground Mining
a.​ Used to extract minerals deep beneath the surface using deep underground mine
shafts and tunnels. Commonly used for coal or potash
Environmental Issues:
-​ Mining can cause air pollution, acid precipitation, and can pollute local water sources
-​ Abandoned mines can also be an environmental and aesthetic hazard
Economic Issues:
-​ 50% of minerals mined in Canada are processed after being exported —> Exported jobs
-​ The Echo Effect: Global markets control minerals prices and demand, so if demand for
minerals slows in Asia, we feel it here
-​ Foreign competition: lower productions costs overseas make their minerals cheaper
-​ Boom-Bust Towns: After a mine closes, many one-industry towns have been abandoned,
i.e. Elliot Lake, ON
Energy:
Types of Energy:
-​ Conventional Energy Sources
-​ Oil, natural gas, coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear energy.
-​ Conventional energy sources are responsible for almost all the energy used in
Canada
-​ Fossil Fuels:
-​ In Canada, most of our energy use comes from fossil fuels, and hydroelectricity
-​ Fossil fuels are when any mineral can be burnt to produce energy (coal, oil,
natural gas)
-​ Fossil fuels are a source of energy that is non-renewable. Limited in supply and
cannot be replenished
-​ Alternative Energy Sources
-​ The use of all of these sources of energy has a great benefit to the environment.
There are no emissions into the atmosphere at all, and they come from
renewable sources - unlimited in supply!
-​ Solar: Solar energy is produced when the sun's rays are captured in solar panels
and then stored
-​ In Canada, solar energy is mainly used in remote areas like cottages or
individually produced in homes
-​ Wind: In Canada, the most used alternative is wind energy
-​ Biomass: Comes from natural living things such as plants. The oil is extracted
and is used to produce energy
-​ Biodiesel and ethanol are examples of this type of energy used to fuel cars. In
Canada, there is still not extensive use of this type of energy.
Electricity:
-​ Produced by generators and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
-​ Hydro-electic: Moving water. Thermal-electric: burning coal, oil, natural gas.
Nuclear-electric: Nuclear fission
Geography CPT 2030 Olympic Game Bid: Nunavut

Introduction:
Hello ladies and gentlemen, today, the organizing committee will present to you why Nunavut is
the ideal location for the 2030 Winter Olympic Games. As your presenter today, I’ll be going
over a multitude of things about Nunavut. Firstly, I’ll be discussing the territory’s unique physical
aspects, which are perfect for hosting the Olympics for many to attend. Secondly, I’ll be delving
into Nunavut’s population, and its multiculturalism which impacts the human activities found in
Nunavut (which you may not see much anywhere else!) Thirdly, I’ll be describing the major
industries found in Nunavut, and the distinct forms of transportation and infrastructure within the
territory for tourists to experience. Fourthly, I’ll be outlining the games that will be hosted, and
why that is the best place for that specific event. Finally, we’ll be viewing the map of the Torch
Relay Race, and how Nunavut is the ideal location to create the perfect path for all of Canada to
experience the warmth of the Olympic Torch.

Human Geography:
Population:The population of Nunavut as of 2021 was 36,858 while in comparison to 2016, the
population was 35,944, showing that the population is steadily increasing, increasing by
approximately 2.5%. Nunavut has a small population in comparison to how large the territory is,
and has a population density of 0.02/km^2, the lowest population density in Canada. This may
not seem like a good thing, but this shows that there will be a lot of space for the games to
occur in Nunavut. Not only that, but it won’t become overcrowded in the territory, which some
people who like their personal space will enjoy if the Games were hosted in this territory.

To determine what mostly makes up the population in Nunavut, we can use equations to
determine the two most impactful factors in population growth, NIR and NMR. As recorded from
Statista, there were 893 births and 201 deaths in 2021 or using the equations there were 24.23
births/1000 people, and 5.45 deaths/1000 people in 2021. The natural increase rate in Nunavut
was 0.019/1000 or 1.88% in 2021. In 2021, there were 21 immigrants and 169 emigrants or
using the rates, there were 0.57 immigrants/1000 people and 4.59 emigrants/1000 people. The
net migration rate was -0.004/1000 people or -0.4% in 2021. The main factor impacting
Nunavut’s population is its natural increase rate, as there is a negative number of the net
migration, since many are leaving the territory. The population growth rate in 2021 (after adding
the natural increase rate and net migration rate) was 0.95%, showing that the population is
slowly growing!

How long will it take for Nunavut’s population to double in size? Well, it can be calculated by
using the rule of 70. It will take Nunavut’s population approximately 73.84 years to double in
size, using the rule of 70.
(data from Statistics Canada)
Nunavut’s population in 2021, as recorded from Statistics Canada, forms a triangular-shaped
pyramid. This shows that Nunavut has a high birth rate, and a high death rate, but the lack of
working population/elderly can also be due to emigration (since we’ve seen that many people
are leaving Nunavut with the previous calculations.) The table also shows this, as there is a high
young dependency (32.8% of the population) in comparison to the elderly dependency (4.4% of
the population). This population pyramid is typical of developing countries, but it can be seen
that the shape of the pyramid is slowly changing. More people seem to be staying or living for
longer, seen from the age groups of 20–40 years, as that part of the pyramid protrudes quite a
bit. There is also quite a large amount of working population, with a total of 62.9%, which is
good for supporting the dependency load.

Cities: Nunavut consists of 25 municipalities, which are geographically isolated from one
another and only accessed by air or sea. The capital of Nunavut is Iqaluit, and the top 5 cities by
population in this territory are: Iqaluit, Rankin Inlet, Arviat, Baker Lake, and Igloolik.

Iqaluit is the first major city in Nunavut, and it’s capital, with the largest population of 7,429
people in 2021. Iqaluit has the full range of things you need to live there, such as services
(hospitals, schools, churches etc.), culture (with English, French, and primarily Inuktitut), and
wildlife variety (caribou, fish, whales, etc.). This makes Iqaluit the best city to live in and a great
reason to host the Olympic Games here.

Rankin Inlet is the second major city in Nunavut based on population, with a population of 2,975
people in 2021. Located at the northwestern corner of Hudson Bay, this city is well known for its
arts, primarily Inuit ceramic arts.

Arviat is the 3rd most populated city in Nunavut, with a population of 2,864 people in 2021. They
are famous for their seamstresses, providing clothes made with sealskin that are known all over
Nunavut. Found on the western coast of the Hudson Bay, Arviat is even known for its
landscape, and rich wildlife, such as beluga whales, and polar bears for tourists to view.

Baker Lake, the only inland community in Nunavut, is the fourth-largest city by population, with a
population of 2,061 people in 2021. This city has a beautiful tundra landscape around it, with
rich plant life and massive herds of Caribou. It is also located near the Thelon Wildlife
Sanctuary, making this a great place for tourists to adventure in.

Finally, Igloolik, which is the fifth-largest city by population, with a population of 2049 people in
2021. Found north of the Arctic Circle, this city is where you’ll find the only Inuit circus troupe in
the world, Artcirq. You can also enjoy activities such as dog sledding, visiting an iceberg and
most importantly taking in the beautiful Northern Lights. These unforgettable and unique cities
are exactly why Nunavut should host the 2030 Olympic Games.
Make-up:Nunavut is home to many cultures and origins, but it was created as a territory for the
Inuit to have their own self-government, which is why the Inuit make up 83.31% of the
population. There are 30,705 Inuit living in Nunavut in 2021, according to Statistics Canada.
This doesn't mean that there are only Inuit, approximately 16.69% of the population are not
Inuit.

The most common backgrounds in Nunavut after the Inuit are Scottish, encompassing 5.7% of
the population with 2,100 people. Then Irish, making up 4.3% of the population, with 1,585
people, English, comprising 3.81% of the population with 1,405 people, and finally Canadian,
with 2.78% of the population, with 1,025 people. These statistics truly show how much of a
cultural mosaic Canada is, which makes Canada a great place to host the Olympics.

Due to the amount of people of Indigenous descent and even the Inuit, this territory is perfect to
experience a culture distinct from other cultures all over the world. Since they impact the human
activities within the territory, for many tourists to also participate in.

Human activities: Some human activities within the territory include: festivals such as the
Toonik Tyme Festival and Kugluktuk Nattiq Frolics, and tourist attractions such as the Northwest
Passage and Pond Inlet. Here’s some more brief information about each of these, specifically
what tourists can do in each.

Toonik Tyme Festival: Iqaluit, every April, celebrates the return of spring with a week-long
festival, which contains having fun with dog sleds, snowmobile races, and traditional Inuit
sporting competitions. This festival captures the attention of all visitors with their traditions like
igloo building or even with Iqaluit’s own Fear Factor or North of 60 Idol competition.

Kugluktuk Nattiq Frolics: Similar to Iqaluit’s Toonik Tyme Festival, Kugluktuk celebrates the
return of spring during mid-April. With a festival that lasts a week, they start off with a parade,
then participate in traditional dress competitions, bingo, a bazaar, and a monster poker rally.
There are even sporting events, such as archery or a fishing derby, and even games for elders,
good for tourists of all ages.

The Northwest Passage is a sea route that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans above
Canada. You can see the walruses, narwhals, polar bears, and seabirds. Tourists can go on
their own adventures by cruising the passage while attempting to trace the steps of past
explorers of the arctic. If the water doesn’t interest them, they can walk along the surface to see
the relics of European explorers who explored the beautiful landscape.

Pond Inlet: This pond is a must-see for anyone that visits the territory, for only one reason, the
narwhals, which pass through in pods regularly, creating an unimaginable wildlife experience.
Here you can not only view different animals, but the culture from the local theater group, and
the landforms, with ice caves, icebergs, mountains, and fjords all close by.
Physical Geography:
Nunavut is the largest territory in Canada, amassing ⅕ of Canada’s land mass, approximately
1,836,993.78 km^2. Due to its size there's much to find, Nunavut consists of four major
physiographic regions: The Canadian Shield, which runs along the mainland and the islands
around the Hudson Bay, the Arctic Archipelago in the north, the Innuitian mountains at the
farthest point North in Canada, and the Arctic and Hudson Bay Lowlands

An archipelago is defined as an area that contains a group of islands scattered around in bodies
of water. Using this definition, we can understand that the Arctic Archipelago is a group of
Canadian Islands which lie north of the mainland. They are an extension of the Canadian
Shield, the Arctic lowlands to the south and the Innuitian mountains to the north and east of
Baffin Island. Most of the archipelago is permanently covered in snow and ice, especially in the
north and east.

The Innuitian mountains is a triangle-shaped area of 540,000 km^2 which extends southwest to
northeast across several islands reaching heights of 1,830 meters or more. They are part of
geologically young, layered sedimentary rock surrounding the Canadian Shield. Due to the
Innuitians location (farther north (receiving less sunlight), nearby water, and with high
elevations), they have freezing winters and cool summers, and are permanently covered with
snow and ice.

The Canadian Shield comprises most of the mainland, with certain islands as well around the
Hudson Bay and Arctic Archipelago. The Canadian Shield in Nunavut is a flat, and poorly
drained lowland, with a thin layer of soil, which rests on rock that is more than 1 billion years old.
A unique feature of this region is the thousands of lakes and rivers dotting the surface of the
Canadian shield, which are located on the heavily glaciated surface.

Nunavut also comprises the Arctic and Hudson Bay Lowlands, which is located between the
Canadian Shield and the Innuitian mountains. The Arctic Lowland is a region of tundra, and is a
sedimentary basin located in the middle of the Canadian shield. It contains lowland plains with
glacial moraines in the west and plateaus and rocky hills in the east.

Major water bodies: Some major water bodies that surround Nunavut are the Hudson Bay,
Baffin Bay and Beaufort Sea. The Hudson Bay is a water body, bounded by Nunavut to the
south, of shallow water going to an average depth of 100m, with a coast that is mainly a marshy
lowland. It has been designated a closed sea for conservation purposes, with all islands within
the Bay being a part of Nunavut. The Baffin Bay, located northeast of Nunavut, between
Greenland and Baffin Island, is a deep body of water. It is connected to the Arctic Ocean in the
north and the Labrador Sea in the south. This body of water has a lot of biological diversity and
supports a large amount of nesting populations of seabirds, belugas, walruses and narwhals.
Finally, the Beaufort Sea, located to the northwest of Nunavut, is part of the Arctic Ocean with a
rich marine environment that supports migratory shorebirds, seabirds and marine mammals.
This sea is under ice for almost the whole year, where only in August and September does the
ice break at the coasts. The coasts of the Beaufort Sea are low-lying and are entirely covered
with tundra. All of these major water bodies are important in their own ways, and provide many
resources (especially wildlife) to Nunavut.

Soil regions:
The soils in Nunavut are impacted by the climate, and affect what vegetation grows as well. The
territory is located mostly in the Tundra soils and a bit of the wet-climate soils as well. Tundra
soils are when the floor is bare, rocky, and treeless, because it is almost all year round covered
in permafrost, making plant life difficult. Soils that are wet like wet-soils make perfect conditions
for permafrost, due to the cold. The soils in Nunavut are known as cryosol, commonly occurring
in cold environments, when the horizons in the soil profile become frozen. In these types of
soils, organic matter builds up because the decomposition rates are quite slow in cold
temperatures. This is a big problem with climate change, because these soils have the potential
to release large amounts of carbon dioxide as decomposition rates increase.

Climate:Nunavut lies entirely within the Arctic climate zone, and experiences long, harsh
winters and cool summers. Nunavut is the coldest and driest part of Canada, and classifies as a
polar desert. Annual precipitation is very low, and average annual temperature is also low,
where on Baffin Island, the average annual temperature may be as low as -20 degrees Celsius.
One of the warmest communities, Kugluktuk, can sometimes reach 30 degrees Celsius in the
summer, and up to -40 degrees C in the winter. The northernmost community in Canada, Alert,
typically varies from -31 degrees C to 5 degrees C over the year, but isn’t the coldest. The
coldest town in Nunavut, Eureka, has a wide range of temperatures, typically varying from -35 to
9 degrees C.

Climate change in Nunavut: There is a big problem happening with Nunavut, the territory is
experiencing climate change much harder than other parts of the world. Temperatures are
rising, permafrost is melting, reduced sea ice, thinning and retreating glaciers. These changes
impact many species, and housing and infrastructure throughout Nunavut. Hosting the Olympic
Games here will allow other people to see the territory’s natural beauty, but also serves as an
example of climate change to convince people to take action.
Climate graph: Iqaluit

(data from Climate data)

Iqaluit’s climate can be classified into a continental or maritime climate, and can be determined
by some simple calculations using the climate graph. First off, using temperature, the average
annual temperature and the range can be found by using these equations. In this climate graph,
Iqaluit has an annual temperature of -8.667, with a range of 35. Since the average annual
temperature is low and the range is larger than 25, Iqaluit can be classified as a continental
climate in this part of the climate. Then, using precipitation, the annual precipitation and the
seasonal distribution of precipitation can be calculated using these equations. In this climate
graph, Iqaluit has an annual precipitation of 592, and a summer maximum of 355 mm in
comparison to the 205 mm of precipitation in the winter. Since the annual precipitation is less
than 1000 mm and is a summer maximum, this part of the climate can be classified as a
continental climate.
Finally, by looking at the table, the temperature is mostly in the negatives, and the only months
with positive temperatures are summer months, but they are still quite cool. Knowing this and
the calculations, it can be concluded that Iqaluit has cool summers and harsh winters, common
to continental climate.

Vegetation regions:
The vegetation regions Nunavut is located in are the Tundra, and the Boreal and Taiga forest.
The Tundra is known for being a harsh place, as it is covered in permafrost due to the North's
freezing temperatures. Due to these difficult conditions, Nunavut does not have many trees in
their territory, and plants must be resilient, which is why most plants are perennials, allowing
them to survive long-term. Most of the soil that exists in the tundra is covered by mosses and
lichens, which helps other plants (such as herbaceous and shrubby plants) to grow.
The Boreal and Taiga forest is a broad transitional area from boreal forest to tundra, and is
dominated by sparse vegetation. This vegetation region is located under the treeline, and is
home to species of trees such as black spruce, white spruce in drained places, and dwarf birch.
There are also ericaceous shrubs, cotton grass, lichens, and mosses native to this region.

Ecozones:The ecozones found within Nunavut is the Arctic Cordillera, Northern Arctic,
Southern Arctic, and the Taiga Shield

The Northern Arctic ecozone covers most of Nunavut, within this ecozone there are harsh dry,
cold, desert like conditions, wetland oases, and other landscapes. Much of this ecozone is
covered with deposits of glacial moraine, which makes the soils frozen year-round/have
continuous permafrost except for thin layers of soil that thaw during the short summer.

Within the Arctic Cordillera ecozone, there are mostly glaciers, ice caps and mountains. This
region contains some major mountains besides mountain systems. It is also covered with deep
covers of ice and snow throughout the year. These two ecozones cover mostly the islands of
Nunavut.

The Southern Arctic ecozone in contrast to the previous two ecozones, is mostly located on the
mainland. This ecozone contains rolling plains with some hills, where the plains vary in kinds.
Some examples of plains that appear in this region are coastal plains and drumlinized plains.
The soils located in this region are frozen and thaw shallow to medium depths in the summer.

Finally, the Taiga shield contains the Canadian Shield rock formations. This ecozone is found on
both sides of the Hudson Bay, and occupies the lower parts of Nunavut. It is similar to the
southern arctic ecozone, with rolling plains, hills, and soils covered with permafrost. The
difference is that the northern edge of the ecozone is the treeline and is made up of open forests
mixed with areas of arctic tundra vegetation.

Economic Geography:
According to IBIS World, Nunavut’s gross domestic product in 2023 reached $3.6b, with a
growth rate of 4.4% from 2018 to 2023, ranking #1 in province growth. Some major industries in
Nunavut are the mining industry (including oil and gas extraction and quarrying), public
administration and real estate/renting/leasing.

The mining industry (a primary industry and a basic industry) in Nunavut is growing as the years
go, and primarily deal with mining gold and iron, and currently have three working gold mines
and one iron ore mine. The mining industry is also a great contributor to the gross domestic
product, and in 2022 provided to 43.87% of the GDP (the most contribution.) Some jobs within
this sector include mine laborers, heavy equipment operators, geologists, and employs 5,320
people in total (the most out of all industries)! This industry isn’t as big in comparison to other
places, but has much potential, with the possibility of uranium, copper, lead, zinc, and silver
mines to open soon in the future.

The public administration industry is a tertiary industry, and engages in activities with the
government, and the administration of those programs, such as the federal government public
administration, etc. Some jobs in this sector may go from government managers, to firefighters,
social workers, and educators, impacting a great deal of people in the community, making this a
non-basic industry. It is the second-largest contributor to the GDP and employment in the
territory, contributing to 17.12% in 2022 and employing a total of 4,840 people!

Finally, the third major industry in Nunavut is the real estate sector, a tertiary industry, which
deals with renting or leasing assets like machinery, and holding intangible assets such as
trademarks. This is a non-basic industry, since the business within this sector deals with renting
or leasing assets such as houses within the community. This industry contributed to 6.9% of the
GDP in 2022, yet didn’t employ that many people in comparison to the previous two industries,
where it only employed approximately 700 people in total.
The secondary industry in Nunavut is simply the manufacturing industry, consisting of 0.51% of
GDP in 2022, employing 90 people.
Though, quaternary industries include the professional, scientific, and technical services given,
comprising 1.03% of the GDP in 2022, employing 435 people.

Transportation:Nunavut has quite a harsh climate, and due to this unique ways of
transportation were made. There are no roads connecting Nunavut to southern Canada, and the
only paved road is within the capital, so instead of driving on roads, they drive on ice roads.
Water bodies are usually frozen for half the year, and are thick enough for vehicles to drive on.
During the summer, this is not possible, which makes water also a great source of travel, since
the territory is surrounded by water, but this does not apply during the Winter Olympics. Some
other distinct ways of transportation are the ski-doos, which are just snowmobiles, in place of
Husky’s and wooden sleds. Finally, air travel is also a popular method of travel, since
communities in the North are isolated from one another, but this is expensive. The many
transportation methods allow resources to exit and enter the territory, providing for the economy.

Some infrastructure in Nunavut includes water and sewer services, ice roads and city roads,
airports, a deep sea port, and telecommunication services, which also helps bring in and out
resources, contributing to the lives of residents and the economy. The transportation and
infrastructure will allow tourists to easily access the whole territory for the Olympics.

The Games:
Fishing - Location: Cambridge Bay, Nunavut - Ecozone: Northern Arctic
The traditional name for Cambridge Bay (Iqaluktuuttiaq) means “one with plenty of fish” and the
city is located near water, and is known for the fishes in the nearby lakes and rivers. That is why
this is the perfect place for a competition about fishing.

Hockey - Location: Kugaaruk Arena, Kugaaruk - Ecozone: Northern Arctic

There aren’t many arenas in Nunavut, especially those of high quality, but this one is very
special! It has been used by its community to play hockey, so it is perfect for a competitive game
of hockey. After the game, the tourists can change the arena into a makeshift field with its
recently installed artificial turf to play soccer!

Curling - Location: Kugaaruk Arena, Kugaaruk - Ecozone: Northern Arctic

This arena can also be used for different games. It is perfect since some tourists do not want to
spend much money on transportation, especially since all the communities are separated and
the only way to quickly access them is by air travel (which is expensive). Some changes may
have to be made, since curling requires a target to be made.

Dog sledding: - Location: Igloolik, Nunavut - Ecozone: Northern Arctic

Igloolik is in the northern arctic ecozone, which is an ecozone with soil that is covered in
permafrost almost all year round, and a cold climate causing there to be snow, perfect for dog
sledding. Dog sledding is perfect for these conditions because the ground is rock solid ice,
making the competition safer. Not only that, but the terrain at this location is relatively flat, which
not only protects the competitors but also tourists who may want to try dog sledding for the first
time.

Hiking: - Location: Arctic Bay, Nunavut - Ecozone: Northern Arctic

Arctic Bay has a terrain with deep valleys, fiords and tall red rock cliffs, with a climate making
the location full of ice and snow, perfect for hiking. The reason this location is great for this
specific game is because of the Sirmilik National Park nearby, which is used daily for
recreational activities like hiking. This makes it safe to use advantageously in the Olympics, but
is also great for the audience to have fun by viewing the wildlife in the national park, especially
the birds.
Cross-country skiing: - Location: Arctic Bay, Nunavut - Ecozone: Northern Arctic
With how expensive transportation is, even more so in Nunavut, using this city’s terrain and
climate a second time for cross-country skiing will be beneficial for those participating in the
games and viewing the games. This city also has other fun things to do for those coming to
Nunavut for the first time, like viewing the artworks, and sculptures, made by talented artists in
the community.

Figure Skating - Location: Arctic Winter Games Complex, Iqaluit - Ecozone: Northern Arctic
This arena is perfect for the Winter Olympics, as it is operated as an ice arena from October to
April, during the season of the 2030 Winter Olympics. This arena is also probably one of the
best arenas in all of Nunavut, because of its high quality. It is also regularly used by skating
groups and hockey groups because of how first-class this arena is.

Skating - Location: Arctic Winter Games Complex, Iqaluit - Ecozone: Northern Arctic
To save the contestants and the visitors money and time, this game will be hosted in the same
arena as the figure skating competition. This gives them access to one of the best arenas in
Nunavut, and time to tour around the city. Especially with different restaurants to go to, much to
shop, and a whole culture to learn about, which is perfect to end the Olympics off in a bang.

Map:

Design a map of Olympic Torch Relay Race:

Conclusion:
In conclusion, Nunavut is the best territory to host the 2030 Winter Olympic Games. This is due
to the fact that there are very few people, and a lot of space, good for tourists that like being
isolated. And it’s cold climate, different from other climates all around the world, and it’s unique
ways of transportation and infrastructure, allowing fun, easy ways of accessibility across the
territory! What do you think, is Nunavut the best place to host the Olympics?
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The Great Ice Storm of 1998

1.​ What events caused the ice storm?

The ice storm was caused because of multiple different effects such as winds, air
masses, and latitude. The El Niño phenomenon caused the most effect on the weather
when causing the ice storm. It disrupted the weather by splitting the North American jet
stream into two different parts. One of them was positioned over the southern United
States, and the other was positioned over the American-Canadian border.
2.​ Describe the impact of the storm on:
a.​ People’s lives: Over two million people lost power in Eastern Canada and the
northeastern parts of the United States during the ice storm. The storm cut off the
electricity, running water could not be pumped, heating stopped, and many
businesses closed and threw out a lot of frozen foods. People at home were
trapped and isolated without access to basic needs. As people resorted to other
methods of surviving, some were hurt or killed due to these different methods.
Some were impacted by house fires because of fireplaces, some were poisoned
by carbon monoxide as they tried to cook BBQ in their houses, and others were
hurt by falling ice and tree limbs as they went outside. Many people were also
impacted due to economic loss, as businesses closed, they threw out products
(such as farmers), and their products were ruined and had to be replaced (such
as maple syrup producers). To conclude, many people were affected due to the
ice storm in various ways.
b.​ Power lines: Many power lines, hydro towers and telephone poles collapsed and
were damaged due to the weight of the ice on them. As the frozen rain continued
falling, the ice continued accumulating on the power lines, causing them to snap
like paper clips. As the power lines broke, power cut off for a large amount of
people, which resulted in no electricity and no heating. As the power lines fell,
they could have potentially blocked roads up and caused fires due to their
surroundings. Thousands of kilometers of power lines were broken, and
damaged due to the storm.
c.​ Trees: Similar to the power lines, as ice continued accumulating, the trees could
not handle the weight of the ice and could break and fall. These fallen trees
blocked streets, where driving and walking could be dangerous. These fallen
trees could also break power lines or fall on animals and hurt people. Thousands
of trees were damaged and had to be cut down. Maple syrup farmers and
Christmas trees farmers had to cut down their trees because their crowns were
damaged, and had to wait for a new crop of undamaged trees to grow.
d.​ Wildlife: Due to power lines and trees falling, hundreds of farm animals were
killed. Small mammals that travel between the snow and the ground had to go to
the surface due to the pressure of the ice, and became easy prey for predators.
Many animals also died because their food was coated with ice and difficult to
eat. Some animals were fortunate and took shelter in trees, or were able to
forage food from fallen branches.
3.​ What was done to help people affected by the storm?
 To help people affected by the storm, the federal government sent soldiers to help
provincial authorities in Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick. 15,000+ troops helped to
clear fallen trees from streets, and moved citizens to heated shelters that had food and
emergency medical supplies. Electrical generators, food, and water were distributed to
people in need. Many hydro crews also tried to restore power lines. Diesel engines were
driven off their tracks and onto roads to use as generators. The Canadian government
spent a lot of effort and time into helping the public, as well as money, as the losses
were estimated to be over $2 billion.
4.​
a.​ How many people in Canada were affected compared to the number in the
United States? How many people, in total, were affected?
In Canada, approximately, the ice storm affected 1,673,000 people. In the United
States, approximately, the ice storm affected 544,000 people. More people in
Canada were affected by the storm, where the difference between Canada and
the US is 1,129,000 people. In total, approximately, the ice storm affected
2,217,000 people.
b.​

5.​ Personally, I would go to a shelter instead of trying to find ways to survive at home,
especially when I don’t have that many options, like a fireplace or a generator to power
the house, or even a way to cook food without electricity. I believe that going to a shelter
would be the best way for me to survive an ice storm as extreme as The Great Ice Storm
of 1998.
6.​ Even though Canada doesn’t have many natural disasters/weather events, I believe that
having a hurricane would seriously affect my life, as the disaster hurricanes cause is
extreme, and the results would be destruction and many people misplaced. Tornadoes,
as the same as hurricanes, they cause massive damage and misplacement for people.
Not only would these two natural disasters affect my life, but of those around me, which
can impact me even more depending on the situation we’re in. For example, my parents
would be extremely stressed about bringing our family to safety but also with the
damage it could cause to our house, which would stress me out as well. In conclusion,
hurricanes, and tornadoes as just natural disasters which aren’t likely to occur in these
parts of Canada.