Chapter # 1

Q1: Define system. What are its basic component?

A system is described by its objectivity, components environment and communication for which it works.
Components:
Information Processing: collecting storing and processing of data.
Supporting other systems: provide a platform to other systems.
Achieving specific goal: completing tasks or operations.
Q2: Differentiate between natural and artificial systems.
Natural System Artificial system
Natural system occurs without Artificial system occurs with
Human involvements. Human involvements.
Human involvements. They are developed by human
They are govern by natural laws. Theory and experiments.
Q3: Describe the main components of a computer system.
A computer system is composed of several key hardware and software components. The main hardware
components include the motherboard, CPU, GPU, RAM, and storage (SSD or HDD).
Q4: List and describe the types of computer system.
Computer systems can be broadly categorized into four main types: microcomputers, minicomputers,
mainframe computers, and supercomputers.
Microcomputer: These are the personal computers we use at home and in offices, including desktops,
laptops.
Minicomputer: These mid-range systems can support multiple users simultaneously.
Mainframe: These are large, powerful systems used by large organizations to handle massive amounts of
data and transactions.
Supercomputer: These are the most powerful and complex computers, designed for specialized tasks
requiring massive processing power, such as scientific research, weather forecasting.
Q5: What are the main components of the Von Neumann architecture?
The Von Neumann architecture, a foundational computer architecture, primarily consists of three main
components:
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory
 Input/output (I/O) devices.
Q6: What is the Von Neumann computer architecture? List its key component?
The Von Neumann architecture is a computer architecture that uses a single address space to store both
instructions and data.
Its key components include the
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory
 Input/output (I/O) devices.
Q7: What are the four main steps in the Von Neumann architecture’s instruction cycle?
The four main steps in the Von Neumann architecture’s instruction cycle are:
Fetch – Get the instruction from memory.
Decode – Interpret the instruction.
Execute – Carry out the instruction.
Store – Save the result back to memory.
Q8: What is the Von Neumann bottleneck?
The Von Neumann bottleneck is a limitation in the design of most modern computers that arises from the
sequential fetching of instructions.
Q9: What is the key advantages of the Von Neumann architecture?
The primary advantage of the Von Neumann architecture is its simplicity and flexibility. It enables the
execution of different programs by simply loading them into memory.
Q10: What are the three main requirements for a computing system to function?
A computing system requires three main components to function: hardware, software, and a user.

Long Questions
Q1: Define and describe the concept of a system. Explain the fundamental components, objectives,
environment, and methods of communication within a system.
Answer: A system is a set of connected parts that work together to achieve a specific goal. Every system
has different parts, but they cannot work alone.
For example, our body is a natural system where the heart, brain, and lungs all work together to keep us
alive.
Fundamental Components of a System:
1. Input: The raw material or data that enters into the system.
Example: A keyboard provides input to a computer.
2. Process: The working part of the system that changes input into output.
Example: CPU processes data.
3. Output: The final result given by the system.
Example: The monitor displays results.
4. Feedback: Information about the performance of the system.
Example: An error message is feedback.
Objectives of a System:
Every system has a goal or purpose. For example:
 The objective of a school system is to provide education.
 The objective of a computer system is to process data and give correct information.
Environment of a System:
The environment means all external factors that affect the working of a system.
 Example: A school system is affected by parents, society, and government policies.
 A computer system is affected by users, electricity supply, and networks.
Methods of Communication in a System:
The different parts of a system must communicate to share information.
 In a human body, the brain communicates with organs through nerves.
 In a computer, the CPU communicates with memory, input, and output devices through electronic
signals.
In simple words a system is like a team where every player has a role. All players must communicate and
work together to achieve success.

Q2: Differentiate between natural and artificial systems. Discuss their characteristics, functions, and
purposes with relevant examples.
Answer: A system can either be natural (created by nature) or artificial (made by humans). Both types of
systems are important in our daily life, but they are very different from each other.
1. Natural Systems
Definition: Systems that exist naturally in the world without human effort.
Characteristics:
 Created by nature.
 Work automatically.
 Self-controlling and self-maintaining.
Functions: Help maintain balance in the world and support life.
Examples:
 Human Body: Our body is a natural system where the brain, heart, lungs, and other organs work
together.
 Solar System: Planets revolve around the sun, forming a balanced natural system.
 Ecosystem: Plants, animals, water, and soil interact together in nature.

2. Artificial Systems
Definition: Systems made by humans to solve problems or make life easier.
Characteristics:
 Man-made and designed with a specific purpose.
 Require energy or resources to run.
 Depend on humans for maintenance.
Functions: Help humans perform tasks faster, easier, and more accurately.
Examples:
 Computer System: Made to process data and give information.
 Transportation System: Roads, vehicles, and signals form a system for travel.
 Communication System: Mobile phones and the internet help people communicate worldwide.

Comparison (Natural vs. Artificial):

Aspect Natural Systems Artificial Systems
Created by Nature Humans
Control Self-controlling Controlled by humans
Example Human body, solar system Computer, mobile network

Conclusion: Natural systems are given by nature for survival and balance, while artificial systems are
designed by humans to make life easier. For example, a tree (natural system) grows by itself, while a
computer (artificial system) is built by humans to process information. Both are important, but artificial
systems often copy or are inspired by natural systems.

Q3: Examine the relationship between systems and different branches of science. How do these
branches utilize system theory to understand and improve their respective fields?
Answer: The idea of a system is not limited to computers only. It is also used in different branches of
science to understand how things work and to solve problems.
1. Systems in Natural Science
Natural science studies the natural world (plants, animals, earth, and space).
Examples:
 Human Body System: Doctors study how organs (heart, lungs, brain) work together to keep us alive.
 Solar System: Astronomers study how planets revolve around the sun.

2. Systems in Design Science

Design science deals with making and improving tools, machines, and structures.
Examples:
 In building a house, many systems (water supply, electricity, ventilation) are combined.
 System theory helps designers improve safety, speed, and efficiency.
3. Systems in Computer Science
Computer science is completely based on system theory. A computer itself is a system (input, process,
output, storage).
Examples:
 In schools, computer systems help in online learning.
 System theory helps computer scientists create faster, smarter, and more reliable technologies.

Q4: Explore the different types of computing systems such as computers, software systems, computer
networks, and the internet.
Answer: A computing system means a combination of hardware, software, and networks that work
together to process and share information.
1. Computer Systems
A computer system is the basic type of computing system. It includes hardware (physical parts like
monitor, CPU, keyboard, mouse) and software (programs that make the computer useful).
Example: A student uses a computer system to type assignments, watch lectures, and play games.
2. Software Systems
A software system is a set of programs that guide the computer on what to do.
Types:
 System Software: Like Windows or Linux, which control the computer.
 Application Software: Like MS Word, PowerPoint, and WhatsApp, which allow users to complete
specific tasks.
Example: Teachers use PowerPoint (application software) to make presentations for students.
3. Computer Networks
A network is when two or more computers are connected to share data and resources.
Types:
 LAN (Local Area Network): Used inside schools, offices, or homes.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers larger distances, like banks connecting different branches.
Example: In schools, computers in the lab are connected to share the printer and internet.
4. Internet
The internet is the largest computer network in the world. It connects millions of computers globally,
allowing people to communicate, search, and share information.
Examples:
 Students use the internet for Google searches and YouTube lectures.
 Social media like WhatsApp and Facebook connect people worldwide.

Q5: Describe the main characteristics of a computer as a system, including its objectives, components,
and interactions.
Answer: A computer is not just a single machine but a system where different parts (hardware and
software) work together to achieve a goal.
1. Objectives of a Computer System
The main goal of a computer is to process data into useful information. Its objectives include:
 Speed: Solve problems quickly.
 Accuracy: Give correct results.
 Storage: Save large amounts of data.
 Communication: Share information with other computers.
 Automation: Perform tasks without much human effort.
Example: When a student types a sum (5+10), the computer processes it instantly and shows the correct
answer (15).
2. Components of a Computer System
A computer system has four basic components:
 Input Devices: Allow users to enter data (keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone).
 Processing Unit (CPU): The “brain” of the computer. It has two parts:
 Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of data.
 Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations and logic.
 Storage (Memory): Saves data for short or long term.
 RAM: Temporary memory.
 Hard Disk/SSD: Permanent storage.
 Output Devices: Show results (monitor, printer, speakers).

3. Interactions between Components

 The input device sends data to the CPU.
 The CPU processes the data and may store it in memory.
 The processed result is shown through output devices.
 All parts communicate using electronic signals.
Example: If you type a question on Google, the keyboard (input) sends it to the CPU, the CPU processes it,
and the monitor (output) shows the results.

Q6: Explain the Von Neumann architecture of a computer.

Answer: The Von Neumann architecture was given by John Von Neumann in 1945. Almost every computer
we use today, whether it’s a desktop, laptop, or mobile phone, follows this design.
Von Neumann explained that a computer should work like a system with connected parts that handle
input, processing, storage, and output.
Main Components of Von Neumann Architecture
1. Input Unit
Devices like keyboard, mouse, and scanner are used to enter data into the computer.
1. Output Unit
Devices like monitor, printer, and speakers show the results to the user.
2. Memory (Storage)
Stores data and instructions.
 RAM (Primary Memory): Temporary storage while working.
 Secondary Storage (Hard disk, SSD): Permanent storage.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU is also called the brain of the computer. It has two important parts:
i. Control Unit (CU): Directs data flow between memory, input, and output.
ii. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations (addition, subtraction) and logical decisions
(greater, smaller, equal).
Working of Von Neumann Architecture (Step by Step)
 Data and instructions are entered through input devices.
 The Control Unit (CU) fetches instructions from memory.
 The ALU performs calculations or logical operations.
 The result is stored back into memory.
 Finally, output devices display the result.
Example: If you type 7 + 3 on a computer:
Input (keyboard) → CPU processes it (CU + ALU) → Memory stores it → Output (monitor) shows 10.

Q7: Provide a detailed explanation of how a computer interacts with its environment.
Answer: A computer system does not work alone. It always works in connection with its environment.
1. Interaction with Users (Human Environment)
A computer interacts with people (students, teachers, businessmen, doctors) through input and output
devices.
Example: A student types a question on the keyboard (input), the computer processes it, and the answer
appears on the monitor (output).
2. Interaction with Other Devices
A computer often connects with other machines like printers, projectors, scanners, and mobile phones.
Example: When you type an assignment on your computer and send it to the printer, the two devices
interact to give a printed copy.
3. Interaction with Networks and Internet
Computers interact with their environment by connecting to networks and the internet.
Example: When you send an email, your computer interacts with servers across the world to deliver the
message.
4. Interaction with Power and Physical Environment
A computer needs electricity to run. Without it, the system cannot work. Computers also interact with the
physical environment, like air and temperature. Overheating can damage its parts, so fans or cooling
systems are used.
Step-by-Step Example of Interaction
When a student searches “BISE Sargodha result” on Google:
 Keyboard provides input.
 CPU processes the request.
 Computer connects with the internet (external environment).
 Data comes back and is displayed on the monitor.
 The student interacts by checking and saving the result.
Q8: Describe the process of retrieving and displaying a file using a computer.
Answer: A file is a collection of information saved in the computer, such as a document, picture, video, or
program.
1. Input (User Action)
 The user gives a command to open the file.
 This can be done by double-clicking the file with a mouse or typing a command on the keyboard.
Example: A student double-clicks on a Word document named
Assignment.docx.
2. Processing (CPU Role)
 The CPU receives the command from the input device.
 The Control Unit (CU) finds the file’s location in storage (hard disk or SSD).
3. Storage (File Retrieval)
 The file is first located in the secondary storage (hard disk/SSD).
 It is then copied temporarily into primary memory (RAM) so that the computer can work on it quickly.
4. Output (Displaying the File)
 Once the file is loaded into memory, the operating system and application software open it.
 The output device (monitor) displays the file on the screen so the user can read, edit, or print it.
Example: The assignment file opens in MS Word, and the student can now read or edit it.
Step-by-Step Example:
 User clicks on the picture file.
 CPU processes the request.
 File is fetched from the hard disk into RAM.
 The monitor displays the picture.
 Chapter # 2
Q1. What is the primary purpose of the ASCII encoding scheme?
ASCII assigns a number code to each English letter, digit, or symbol. This makes it possible for computers to
store, process, and share text data. For example, the letter ‘A’ is stored as number 65 in ASCII.

Q2. Explain the difference between ASCII and Unicode.

ASCII is an old system that can represent only 128 characters (English alphabets, digits, symbols).
Unicode is a modern system that can represent thousands of characters from almost all world languages.
That is why Unicode supports English, Urdu, Arabic, Chinese, emoji’s, and more.

Q3. How does Unicode handle characters from different languages?

Unicode gives every character a unique code point (like a roll number). This allows characters from
different languages to exist together without confusion.
For example, ‘A’, ‘‫’ا‬, and ‘中’ all have different Unicode codes.

Q4. What is the range of values for an unsigned 2-byte integer?

2 bytes = 16 bits → maximum values possible = 216=65,5362^{16} = 65,536216=65,536.
Since it is unsigned, the range is from 0 to 65,535.
So, it cannot store negative numbers, only zero and positive values.

Q5. Explain how a negative integer is represented in binary.

Computers use the two’s complement method to represent negative numbers.
Step 1: Write the positive number in binary.
Step 2: Invert the digits (0→1, 1→0) and add 1 to it.

Q6. What is the benefit of using unsigned integers?

Unsigned integers give a larger positive range using the same number of bits. They are useful when
negative numbers are not needed (like age or file size). For example, 8-bit unsigned can store 0–255, but
signed only −128 to +127.

Q7. How does the number of bits affect the range of integer values?
The more bits, the larger the range of numbers a computer can represent.
Unsigned numbers: 0 to 2n−12^n-12n−1.
Signed numbers: −2n−12^ {n-1}2n−1 to 2n−1−12^ {n-1}-12n−1−1.

Q8. Why are whole numbers commonly used in computing for quantities that cannot be negative?
Some values in real life, like the number of students, marks, or file size, cannot be negative. Whole
numbers (unsigned integers) are used for these cases. This prevents wrong results and saves memory
space.

Q9. How is the range of floating-point numbers calculated for single precision?
Single precision uses 32 bits: 1 bit for sign, 8 bits for exponent, and 23 bits for fraction.
The exponent decides the size of the number, so very small and very large values can be stored.
Its range is about 1.4×10−451.4 × 10^ {-45}1.4×10−45 to 3.4×10383.4 × 10^
{38}3.4×1038, with around 7 decimal digits accuracy.
Q10. Why is it important to understand the limitations of floating-point representation in scientific
computing?
Floating-point numbers cannot store every value exactly. They have rounding errors and limited precision,
especially in very large or very small numbers.

Long Questions
Q1. Explain how characters are encoded using Unicode. Provide examples of characters from different
languages and their corresponding Unicode code points.

Introduction
Unicode is a universal system of encoding characters. Its purpose is to assign a unique number
(called a code point) to every character used in computers.
Unlike ASCII, which only works for English letters and symbols, Unicode covers almost all world
languages, including Urdu, Arabic, Chinese, Hindi, and even emojis.
Benefits of UNICODE (Uses)
When we type something on a computer, the computer does not understand letters directly. It only
understands numbers (0s and 1s). Unicode solves this problem by giving each character a number that the
computer can process.
For example, the letter ‘A’ has the Unicode code point U+0041. Similarly, the Urdu letter ‘‫ ’ا‬has the
code point U+0627, and the Chinese character ‘中’ has the code point U+4E2D. Emojis also have their own
codes, for example 😊 is U+1F60A.
Importance
This system is important because it allows people all over the world to write in their own languages
on the same computer or internet platform without confusion. Unicode uses different encodings such as
UTF-8 and UTF-16,
Unicode acts like a universal dictionary of characters where every letter, symbol, or emoji has its
own ID number.

Q2. Describe in detail how integers are stored in computer memory.

Introduction
Computers store all kinds of data in the form of binary digits (0 and 1). Integers, which are whole
numbers, are also stored using binary representation. The number of bits (like 8, 16, 32, or 64) decides
how large or small an integer can be.
Types of integers
There are two main types of integers: unsigned and signed.
 Unsigned integers can only represent zero and positive numbers.
For example, an 8-bit unsigned integer can store values from 0 to 255.
 Signed integers can represent both negative and positive numbers.
 In two’s complement, positive numbers are stored normally in binary.
 Negative numbers are stored by inverting all the bits of the positive number and then adding 1.
For example, +5 in 8 - bit binary is 00000101, while −5 is 11111011.
The range of integers depends on how many bits are available. For example, a 16-bit signed integer
ranges from −32,768 to +32,767, while a 16-bit unsigned integer ranges from 0 to 65,535.
Q3. Explain the process of converting a decimal integer to its binary representation and vice versa.
Include examples of both positive and negative numbers.
Computers work in binary (0 and 1), but humans usually work in decimal (0–9). Therefore, we often
need to convert numbers between these two systems.
Decimal to Binary Conversion (Positive Numbers):
We divide the decimal number by 2 repeatedly and write down the remainders. Then we read the
remainders from bottom to top.
Example: Convert 13 to binary.
 13 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 1
 6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0
 3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
 1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
So, 13 = 1101₂.
Binary to Decimal Conversion (Positive Numbers):
We multiply each binary digit by powers of 2 and add them.
Example:
1011₂=(1 ×2³)+(0 ×2²)+(1 × 2¹)+(1× 2⁰)=8+0+2+1=11.
Negative Numbers (Two’s Complement Method):
To represent a negative number in binary, we use two’s complement.
Example:
−5∈8−bit binary .
+5=00000101
Invert =11111010
Add 1=11111011 →This is−5.
Conversion Back:
To convert back to decimal, check the sign bit. If it is 1, the number is negative. Then take two’s
complement again to find the magnitude.

Q4. Perform the following binary arithmetic operations

(a) Multiplication of 101 by 11
• Convert to decimal: 101₂=5 , 11₂=3
• 5 ×3=15 → in binary¿ 1111₂
Answer: 101 ×11=1111₂
(b) Division of 1100 by 10

• Convert to decimal: 1100₂ = 12, 10₂ = 2

• 12 ÷ 2 = 6 → in binary = 110₂ Answer: 1100 ÷ 10 = 110₂

Q6. Add the following binary numbers

(a) 101+110
1 0 1
+1 1 0
10 1 1
Decimal check: 5+6=11→ 1011₂
Answer: 101+110=1011₂
(b) 1100+ 1011
1 1 0 0
+1 0 1 1
10
¿
Decimal check: 12+11=23 →10111₂
Answer: 1100+ 1011=10111₂

Q7. Convert to 4-bit binary and add

(a) 7+(−4 )
• 7 in 4-bit ¿ 0111
• + 4=0100 →invert=1011→+1=1100(−4)

0 1 1 1
+1 1 0 0
0
¿
Decimal ¿ 3
Answer: 7+(−4 )=0011₂=3

(b) −5+3
• +5=0101→ invert =1010 →+ 1=1011(−5)
• 3=0011
1 0 1 1
+0 0 1 1
1
¿
Decimal ¿−2
Answer: −5+3=1110₂=−2

Q8. Solve the following

(a) 1101₂−0100₂
¿ 13−4=9 → 1001₂
Answer: 1001₂

(b) 1010₂−0011₂
¿ 10−3=7 → 0111₂
Answer: 0111₂

(c) 1000₂−0110₂ (d) 1110₂−100₂

¿ 8−6=2→ 0010₂ ¿ 14−4=10 → 1010₂
Answer:0010₂ Answer: 1010₂

Chapter # 3
1. Define a Boolean function and give an example.
A Boolean function is a mathematical expression that gives an output in binary form (0 or 1) depending on
input values. These functions are built using logic operations like AND, OR, and NOT.
Example: F=A⋅BF = A \cdot BF=A⋅B means the output is 1 only if both A and B are 1.

2. What is the significance of the truth table in digital logic?

A truth table lists all possible input combinations and shows the corresponding outputs. It is important
because it explains how a logic circuit works step by step. With the help of truth tables, we can design, test,
and verify digital systems easily.

3. Explain the difference between analog and digital signals?

Analog signals are continuous signals that change smoothly over time, like sound, temperature, or light.
Digital signals are discrete signals represented in binary form (0s and 1s). Computers and digital devices
use digital signals because they are less affected by noise and easier to process.

4. Describe the function of a NOT gate with its truth table?

A NOT gate is also called an inverter. It changes the input value to its opposite. If the input is 1, the output
becomes 0; if the input is 0, the output becomes 1.

Input Output
0 1
1 0

5. What is the purpose of a Karnaugh map in simplifying Boolean expressions?

A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a special diagram used to simplify Boolean expressions. By grouping 1s
together in the map, we can reduce long logic equations into simpler ones. This makes the circuit smaller,
cheaper, and faster because it uses fewer logic gates.

Long Questions

Q1. Explain the usage of Boolean functions in computers?

Boolean functions are the foundation of computer logic. They are mathematical expressions written using
binary values (0 and 1) and logic operations like AND, OR, and NOT. In computers, every task such as
calculations, decision-making, and data processing is done using Boolean functions.
One of the main uses of Boolean functions is in logic gates. Each gate (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR)
performs a Boolean function. For example, the AND gate works when both inputs are 1, and the OR gate
works if at least one input is 1. By combining gates, complex circuits are created for calculators, processors,
and memory units.
Boolean functions are also used in decision-making. For example, if a student’s marks ≥ 33 then "Pass",
else "Fail". This can be written as a Boolean expression. Similarly, traffic lights, washing machines, and ATM
machines all work on Boolean-based control systems.
In computer memory, Boolean functions decide whether to store data as 0 or 1. They are also important in
search engines, where Boolean operations (AND, OR, NOT) are used to filter results.
In short, Boolean functions are like the language of computers. Without them, computers cannot think
logically or perform operations. From small devices to modern supercomputers, everything is built on the
principles of Boolean logic.

Q2. Describe how to construct a truth table for a Boolean expression with an example.

A truth table is a table that shows all possible input values of a Boolean expression and their corresponding
outputs. It helps us understand how a logic circuit behaves. The steps to construct a truth table are simple:
1. Identify the variables. For example, in F(A,B)=A⋅BF(A,B) = A \cdot BF(A,B)=A⋅B, we have two variables (A
and B).
2. List all possible input combinations. For 2 variables, we get 4 rows (00, 01, 10, 11).
3. Apply the Boolean operation. Calculate the output for each combination.
4. Fill in the truth table.
Example: F(A,B)=A⋅BF(A,B) = A \cdot BF(A,B)=A⋅B (AND operation).
A B A•B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

This shows that the AND gate only outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.
Thus, by following these steps, we can construct truth tables for any Boolean expression, even
complex ones. Truth tables are very important in designing and testing digital circuits because they give a
complete picture of how the system will work.

Q3. Describe the concept of duality in Boolean algebra and provide an example to illustrate it.
The concept of duality in Boolean algebra means that every Boolean expression remains valid if we swap
AND with OR and 0 with 1. In other words, duality gives us another correct expression from the original
one by interchanging operations and constants.
Example:
• Original expression: A+0=AA + 0 = AA+0=A
• Dual form: A⋅1=AA \cdot 1 = AA⋅1=A
Both are true. Another example:
• Original: A+A=AA + A = AA+A=A
• Dual: A⋅A=AA \cdot A = AA⋅A=A
Again, both are correct.
Duality is very useful because it reduces the need to learn many rules separately. If we know one law of
Boolean algebra, its dual also holds true automatically.
This saves time in circuit simplification and design.
In simple words, duality is like a mirror image in Boolean algebra. Just as a mirror shows a reflection,
duality gives us a reflected form of the original law, which is also correct.

Q4. Compare and contrast half-adders and full-adders, including their truth tables, Boolean expressions,
and circuit diagrams.
A half-adder and a full-adder are both combinational circuits used to perform binary addition. However,
they differ in function and structure.
 Sum (S) = A ⊕ B (XOR gate)
A half-adder adds two single-bit numbers (A and B). It gives two outputs:
•
• Carry (C) = A • B (AND gate)
Truth Table (Half-Adder):

A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
A full-adder adds three inputs: A, B, and a Carry-in (Cin). It gives two
1 1 0 1
Sum (S) = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin
outputs:

Carry (Cout) = A•B + Cin(A ⊕ B)

•
•
Truth Table (Full-Adder):
A B C-in Sum C-out
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Difference: Half-adder cannot handle carry input, while full-adder can. That’s why full-adders are used in
building multi-bit adders.

Q5. How do Karnaugh maps simplify Boolean expressions? Provide a detailed example with steps.
A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a diagram used to simplify Boolean expressions without using long algebraic
rules. It works by grouping 1s in the truth table and forming simpler expressions.
Steps:

1. Draw the K-map. Place all possible combinations of inputs (like A and B) in cells.
2. Fill values. Put 1 where the function output is 1.
3. Group 1s. Make groups of 1, 2, 4, or 8 cells (powers of 2).
4. Write simplified expression. Each group gives a smaller Boolean term.
Example:
F(A,B)=Σ(1,3)F(A,B) = Σ(1,3)F(A,B)=Σ(1,3)
Truth table: F = 1 for (A=0,B=1) and (A=1,B=1).
K-map (2 variables): A\B 0 1
0 0 1
0 1

Group the two 1s in column B=1.

Simplified Expression = B
Thus, instead of a long expression, we get only one variable. This makes circuits smaller and faster.

Q6. Design a 4-bit binary adder using both half-adders and full-adders. Explain each step with truth
tables, Boolean expressions, and circuit diagrams.

A 4-bit binary adder is used to add two 4-bit numbers (A3A2A1A0 and B3B2B1B0). Since each bit must be
added along with possible carry, we use half-adders and full-adders together.

Step 1: Start with the least significant bit (A0, B0).

• Use a half-adder because there is no carry-in.
• Output: Sum0 and Carry0.
Step 2: For the next bits (A1+B1, A2+B2, A3+B3), we need to add two numbers plus the carry from the
previous stage.
• For this, we use full-adders.
• Each full-adder has three inputs (Ai, Bi, and Carry-in).
• Outputs: Sum and Carry-out.

Half-adder: Sum = A ⊕ B, Carry = A•B

Boolean Expressions:

Full-adder: Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin, Carry = A•B + Cin(A ⊕ B)

•
•
Working:
1) First bit → Half-adder produces Sum0, Carry0.
2) Second bit → Full-adder adds A1, B1, and Carry0.
3) Third bit → Full-adder adds A2, B2, and previous carry.
4) Fourth bit → Full-adder adds A3, B3, and carry. Finally, we get a 4-bit sum (S3S2S1S0) and a final
carry-out.
Thus, a 4-bit adder is constructed using 1 half-adder and 3 full-adders. This design is widely used in CPUs
and calculators.

Q7. Simplify the following Boolean function using Boolean algebra rules F(A, B) = A•B + A•B
Solution:
Step 1: Expand → F = (A•B) + (A•B)
Step 2: Apply Distributive Law → F = A•(B + B)
Step 3: Apply Complement Law → (B + B) = 1
Step 4: F = A•1
Step 5: Apply Identity Law → F = A
Final Answer:
The simplified function is F = A
This shows how Boolean algebra removes unnecessary terms and makes circuits smaller.

Q8. Use De Morgan’s laws to simplify the following function: F(A, B, C) = A + B + AC

Solution:
Step 1: Original → F = A + B + A•C
Step 2: Apply Absorption Law → A + A•C = A
Step 3: So, F= A+ B
Final Answer:
The simplified function is F = A + B
This means the function depends only on A and B, while C has no effect.

Q9. Simplify the following expressions

(a) A̅ +B •( A+ B)
¿ A̅ +( AB+ BB)
¿ A̅ +( AB+ B)
¿ A̅ +B
Answer: A̅ +B
(b) ( A+ B̅ )•(A̅ + B)
¿ AB+ A̅ B̅ + AB̅ + A̅ B
¿( AB+ A̅ B)+( AB̅+ A̅ B̅)
¿ B+B̅ =1
Answer: 1
(c) A+ A̅ •(B+C )̅
¿ A+(A̅ • B̅ • C̅ )
¿( A + A̅ )•( A +B̅ )•( A+C̅ )
¿ 1 •( A +B̅ )•( A+C̅ )
¿( A +B̅ )(A +C̅ )
Answer :(A + B̅ )( A+C̅ )
(d) A̅ B+ AB
¿ B( A̅ + A )
¿ B• 1=B
Answer : B
(e) ( A • B)+( A̅ • B̅ )
¿( A ⊕ B)̅
This is XNOR operation.
Answer : A̅ B̅+ AB
 Chapter # 4
Q1: What is the first step in the systematic process of troubleshooting, and why is it important?
The first step is identifying the problem. It is important because without knowing the exact issue, we
cannot find the right solution. For example, if a computer is not starting, we first confirm whether the
problem is with power, hardware, or software.

Q2: After identifying a problem, what is the next step in troubleshooting, and how does it help in
resolving the issue?
The next step is establishing a theory of cause. This means guessing why the problem happened. It helps by
narrowing down possible reasons, saving time and effort in finding the correct fix.

Q3: Describe the importance of testing a theory during the troubleshooting process. Provide an
example?
Testing a theory checks if our guess about the cause is correct. For example, if the computer is not turning
on, we test the theory by changing the power cable. If it works, our theory was right.

Q4: Explain what the "Implement the Solution" step entails in troubleshooting?
This step means applying the correct fix to solve the problem. For example, replacing a faulty RAM or
installing missing drivers. It is where the actual repair is done after finding the root cause.

Q5: Why is it necessary to verify full system functionality after implementing a solution?
It is necessary to confirm that the system is working properly and no new problem has appeared. For
example, after fixing a printer, we test it by printing a page to ensure it works fully.

Long questions:

Q1: Discuss the importance of troubleshooting in maintaining the smooth operation of systems,
especially computing systems?
Troubleshooting is the process of finding and fixing problems in a system. In computing, it plays a vital role
in ensuring that devices and software run smoothly. Without troubleshooting, small issues may turn into
bigger problems that can cause system failures.
For example, if a computer keeps restarting, it may disturb daily work. Troubleshooting helps to identify
whether the problem is in hardware (like

RAM, hard disk, or power supply) or in software (like drivers or viruses). Once the problem is fixed, the
system runs normally.
Troubleshooting also saves time, money, and effort. Instead of replacing the entire system, only the faulty
part is repaired. In schools and offices, troubleshooting is important to avoid delays in work. For instance,
when the internet is not working, troubleshooting helps check the router, cables, and network settings
step by step.
In short, troubleshooting is like a doctor’s check-up for computers. It ensures smooth operation, increases
the life of devices, and keeps users stress-free by quickly solving problems.
Q2: Explain the systematic process of troubleshooting. Describe each step in detail.
Troubleshooting is done step by step to find the real cause of a problem. The main steps are:
1. Identify the Problem:
Ask questions and observe symptoms. Example: Computer not starting.
2. Establish a Theory of Cause:
Guess possible reasons like power supply issue, faulty RAM, or software error.
3. Test the Theory:
Check if the guess is correct. Example: Change the power cable to test.
4. Establish a Plan of Action:
Once the cause is found, decide how to fix it. Example: Replace RAM or reinstall software.
5. Implement the Solution:
Apply the fix. For instance, replace faulty hardware or update drivers.
6. Verify Full Functionality:
Test the system after repair to ensure it works properly.
7. Document Findings:
Record the problem, solution, and results for future reference.
This systematic approach makes troubleshooting simple, accurate, and effective.

Q3: Using a case study where a printer is not printing, explain how you would identify the problem and
establish a theory of probable cause?
Suppose in a computer lab, a printer is not printing. The troubleshooting process starts with identifying the
problem. We first check whether the printer is turned on and properly connected to the computer.
Next, we establish a theory of cause. Possible causes could be:
i. Printer is out of paper.
ii. USB cable is loose or disconnected.
iii. Printer drivers are missing or corrupted.
iv. Ink cartridge is empty.

To test these theories, we perform simple checks. First, ensure there is paper in the tray. If paper is
available, check the cable connection. If the connection is fine, we look into the software side by
reinstalling the drivers.
By testing one step at a time, we find the actual problem. Suppose we discover the drivers were corrupted;
reinstalling them solves the issue. This case study shows how identifying the problem and forming a theory
makes troubleshooting easy and successful.

Q4: Discuss the importance of documenting findings, actions, and outcomes during the troubleshooting
process?
Documentation means keeping a record of the problem, the steps taken to fix it, and the final result. It is
very important in troubleshooting because it helps in future situations.
For example, if a computer had a virus and the solution was antivirus installation, documenting it will help
solve the same issue quickly next time. It also helps other technicians understand what was done earlier.
Documentation also saves time and resources. Without records, the same tests may be repeated, wasting
effort. In schools or offices, it builds a history of common problems and solutions, making future
troubleshooting easier.
Furthermore, it improves communication. If one technician cannot complete the task, another can
continue the work using the written notes.
In short, documentation is like a diary of troubleshooting. It makes the process efficient, reduces mistakes,
and ensures systems remain reliable.
Q5: Analyze the various ways troubleshooting is vital in computing systems, particularly in preventing
downtime, ensuring data integrity, and improving security. Provide specific examples and scenarios.
Troubleshooting is essential in computing systems because it prevents major losses.
1. Preventing Downtime:
In banks or schools, computers must work without interruption. Troubleshooting quickly fixes issues like
server crashes or internet disconnection, preventing delays.
2. Ensuring Data Integrity:
If a hard disk shows errors, troubleshooting detects and repairs it before data is lost. Regular checks also
protect against corruption of important files.
3. Improving Security:
Troubleshooting also deals with security issues. For example, when a system is infected with malware,
troubleshooting helps identify the attack and remove it, keeping data safe.
Scenario: In an office, if emails stop working due to a server problem, downtime causes delays.
Troubleshooting the network restores service quickly.

Similarly, if a virus infects a computer, antivirus installation through troubleshooting keeps data secure.
Thus, troubleshooting ensures smooth working, protects data, and provides security.

Q6: Describe basic software-related troubleshooting strategies, including handling application freezing and
unresponsive peripherals.
Software problems are common in computers. Basic troubleshooting strategies help fix them easily.
• Application Freezing:
If a program stops responding, the first step is to close it using Task Manager (Ctrl+Alt+Del). Restarting the
application usually solves the issue. If it keeps freezing, reinstalling the program may be necessary.
• Unresponsive Peripherals:
Devices like a mouse, keyboard, or printer may stop working. The solution is to check drivers, reconnect
cables, or restart the computer. Sometimes, updating software fixes the issue.
Another important strategy is keeping the operating system updated. Updates remove bugs that cause
software to hang.
By applying these simple steps, most software issues can be solved without professional help.

Q7: Explain how to recognize hardware failures, particularly focusing on RAM and hard drive issues.
Hardware failures can stop a computer from working. Two common parts are RAM and hard drives.
• RAM Failure:
Signs include the computer restarting again and again, showing a blue screen, or making continuous beeps
when starting. To confirm, RAM can be tested with another computer.
• Hard Drive Failure:
Symptoms include very slow performance, strange clicking sounds, or error messages like “Disk not found.”
If ignored, all data may be lost.
Recognizing these signs early helps prevent bigger damage. Replacing faulty RAM or backing up data from
a failing hard drive ensures the computer works properly.
Q8: Elaborate on the importance of maintaining software and addressing security threats.
Software maintenance means updating and repairing programs regularly. It keeps systems safe, fast, and
reliable.
Without updates, software may become slow or unsafe. For example, old versions of Windows can have
security holes that hackers use to steal data.
Addressing security threats is equally important. Installing antivirus software, enabling firewalls, and
updating applications protect against malware, spyware, and hackers.
For example, in schools, unprotected systems can lose student records due to viruses. Regular
maintenance prevents such risks.
In short, maintaining software and fixing security issues is necessary for smooth, safe computing.
Q9: Describe common methods for identifying and removing malware infections and applying operating
system updates for security.
Malware infections can slow down or damage computers. Common signs are unexpected pop-ups, slow
performance, and unknown programs running.
To remove malware:
• Install and run antivirus software.
• Perform a full system scan.
• Delete or quarantine infected files.
Operating system updates are also important. They fix bugs, close security gaps, and improve performance.
For example, Windows Update regularly installs patches to protect against new viruses.
Thus, identifying and removing malware, along with applying updates, keeps the system healthy and
secure.

Q10: Describe the different data backup methods, including using external storage devices and cloud
solutions.
Data backup protects files from loss due to hardware failure, viruses, or accidental deletion.
• External Storage Devices:
Files can be copied to USBs, external hard drives, or DVDs. This method is cheap and easy, but the devices
must be kept safe.
• Cloud Solutions:
Data is stored online using services like Google Drive or One Drive. Cloud backup is secure, available
anywhere, and automatically updated.
For example, students can save homework in Google Drive to access it from home or school.
Both methods ensure data safety. Using a mix of external and cloud backups is the best practice.
 Chapter # 5
1. Define system software and provide two examples?
System software controls computer hardware and makes it work properly. Examples: Operating System
(Windows, Linux) and Utility Software (Antivirus, Disk Cleaner).
2. Explain the primary functions of an operating system?
An operating system manages computer hardware and software. Its main functions are managing files,
running programs, handling memory, and connecting devices.
3. What is utility software and why is it important?
Utility software keeps the system safe and fast. It cleans junk, detects viruses, and helps backup data.
Example: Antivirus software.
4. Describe the role of device drivers in a computer system?
Device drivers act like a translator between hardware and the operating system. Without drivers, devices
like printers, keyboards, or sound cards cannot work.
5. Differentiate between system software and application software with examples?
System software controls the computer (e.g., Windows, Linux). Application software helps us do specific
tasks (e.g., MS Word, Photoshop).
6. What are the main functions of spreadsheet software?
Spreadsheet software helps in calculations, making tables, charts, and storing data. Example: MS Excel.
7. How can graphic design software be used in the field of education?
Graphic design software helps teachers make visual notes, presentations, and diagrams to explain lessons
better.
8. What is the significance of data backups and how can they be performed?
Backups save data from loss due to virus or hardware failure. They can be done on USB, external hard
drives, or cloud storage.

Long Questions:

1. Discuss the importance of system software in a computing system?

System software is the backbone of any computer. It controls and manages the hardware so that users can
easily run different applications.
The most important part of system software is the operating system (OS). It allows users to interact with
the computer through commands, menus, and graphical interfaces.
For example, Windows, Linux, and Android are popular operating systems.
Another part is utility software, which keeps the computer clean and secure. Antivirus software protects
against harmful programs.
Device drivers are also a type of system software. They make sure that hardware like printers, sound cards,
and keyboards can communicate properly with the operating system.

2. Describe the roles of operating systems, utility software, and device drivers, providing examples of
each?
The operating system (OS) is the core of system software. It manages memory, files, and connected
devices. For example, Windows organizes files into folders, while Android manages apps on smartphones.
Utility software keeps the computer in good health. Antivirus programs like Avast remove viruses, while
tools like Disk Cleanup or CCleaner delete junk files to improve speed. Backup utilities help protect
important data from being lost.
Device drivers connect hardware with the OS. For example, a printer driver ensures that when we give a
print command, the printer understands it.
Similarly, graphics drivers allow video games and animations to run smoothly. Together, these three
components make a computer fast, safe, and user-friendly.

2. Explain the differences between system software and application software?

System software controls and manages the computer’s internal working. Examples include Windows, Linux,
and MacOS. It provides a platform for applications to run. Without system software, no programs can
work.
On the other hand, application software helps users perform specific tasks. For example, MS Word is used
for typing documents, MS Excel for calculations, and Photoshop for editing pictures.
To make it simple, system software is like the foundation of a house, while application software is like the
furniture and decoration inside it. Both are important, but system software must come first.

4. Describe the process of using utility software to optimize system performance and maintain
security. Provide detailed steps and examples of common utility tools?

Utility software ensures that a computer works smoothly and securely. The process starts with cleaning
junk files using tools like Disk Cleanup or CCleaner. This step frees space and makes the computer faster.
The second step is running antivirus software such as Avast or Windows Defender. This detects and
removes viruses that can harm files or steal information.
The third step is using backup utilities. Data can be copied to USBs, external hard drives, or cloud storage
like Google Drive to protect against data loss.
Finally, system update tools keep the operating system and drivers up to date. Updates not only improve
performance but also fix security issues.
Thus, utility software works like a “doctor” for the computer, keeping it healthy and secure.

5. Explain how to install, update, and troubleshoot device drivers for hardware components?

Device drivers are necessary for hardware like printers, keyboards, and graphic cards.
• Installation:
When we connect a new device, the operating system often installs the driver automatically. If not, we
download it from the manufacturer’s website.
• Updating:
Drivers should be updated regularly to fix bugs and improve performance. Updates can be done through
“Device Manager” in Windows or by downloading from the internet.
• Troubleshooting:
If a device does not work, we check whether the driver is installed properly. Sometimes reinstalling the
driver solves the problem.
For example, if a printer is not working, updating or reinstalling its driver usually fixes the issue.

6. Discuss the main functions of commonly used application software, such as word processing,
spreadsheet, presentation, and graphic design applications?

Application software helps users in their daily work:

• Word Processing Software (MS Word):
Used for typing letters, assignments, and reports. It also checks spelling and grammar.
• Spreadsheet Software (MS Excel):
Helps in calculations, making tables, and creating charts. It is useful for teachers, businessmen, and
students.
• Presentation Software (MS PowerPoint):
Used to create slideshows with text, images, and animations. Teachers use it for lectures, and students for
projects.
• Graphic Design Software (Photoshop, CorelDraw):
Helps in editing pictures, making logos, and designing posters. In education, it helps create visual aids for
better understanding.
In short, application software makes learning, teaching, and office work easier and more creative.
 Chapter # 6

1. Define data communication and list its key components?

Data communication is the process of sending and receiving data between two or more devices using a
medium. For example, sending a WhatsApp message is data communication. The key components are:
Sender (who sends data), Receiver (who gets data), Message (the actual data), Transmission Medium (like
cables or Wi-Fi), and Protocol (rules that control communication).

2. Explain the role of routers in a computer network?

A router is a device that connects different networks, like your home network and the internet. It checks
the destination address of data and decides the best path to deliver it. Without routers, devices on
different networks couldn’t talk to each other. For example, when you open Google, the router sends your
request to the correct server and brings back the webpage.

3. What are the main functions of the Network Layer in the OSI model?
The network layer is the third layer of the OSI model. Its main jobs are: logical addressing (assigning IP
addresses), routing (choosing the best path for data), and packet forwarding (sending data packets to the
right device). This layer makes sure data moves from one computer to another even if they are on
different networks.

4. Describe the difference between packet switching and circuit switching.

In packet switching, data is broken into small packets and each packet may travel a different path before
reaching the destination. The internet mostly uses packet switching. In circuit switching, a fixed
communication path is created between sender and receiver for the whole conversation, like in old
telephone systems. Packet switching is faster and more efficient, while circuit switching is more reliable
for voice calls.
5. What is the purpose of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)?
DHCP is a network service that automatically provides IP addresses to computers and devices. Without
DHCP, every device would need manual IP settings, which is difficult and time-consuming. For example,
when you connect your mobile to Wi-Fi, DHCP quickly assigns it an IP so you can browse the internet
without any setup.
6. How does encapsulation ensure secure communication in a network?
Encapsulation means wrapping data with extra information like sender address, receiver address, and
error-checking codes at every OSI layer. This ensures that data is delivered correctly and securely to the
right destination.
For example,
when you send an email, your message is encapsulated into packets, which helps protect and deliver it
safely over the network.

7. Differentiate between TCP and UDP in terms of data transfer reliability.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures reliable communication by checking for errors and resending
lost data. It is used in applications where accuracy is important, like emails and file downloads. UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) is faster but less reliable because it does not resend lost packets. It is used in online
gaming, video streaming, and live calls where more than 100% accuracy speed matters.
8. Explain the importance of encryption in network security.
Encryption changes data into a secret code before sending it over a network. Only authorized devices can
decode and read it. This is important to protect private information such as passwords, online banking, or
personal chats. Without encryption, hackers could easily steal and misuse sensitive data.
For example:
WhatsApp uses end-to-end encryption to keep messages safe.

9. What are the advantages of using a star topology in a network?

In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. If one device fails, it does not affect
the whole network, making it reliable. It is also easy to add or remove devices and simple to manage.
For example:
In computer labs at schools, a star topology is usually used because it is easy to troubleshoot.

10. How do firewalls contribute to network security?

A firewall acts like a security guard for your network. It monitors incoming and outgoing traffic and blocks
suspicious or harmful data, such as viruses or hackers, while allowing safe communication. Firewalls can be
hardware devices or software programs. For example, Windows has a built-in firewall that protects your
computer when connected to the internet.

Long questions:

Q1. Discuss the objectives of computer networks and provide examples of how they facilitate resource
sharing and data communication.
Answer: The main objective of computer networks is to connect different computers and devices so they
can communicate and share resources. Instead of working alone, computers can link together to exchange
information, files, and hardware devices.
One important objective is resource sharing. For example, in a school network, all computers can use the
same printer and internet connection. This reduces cost and saves time. Similarly, in offices, employees can
share files and software without copying them on every computer.
Another objective is data communication. Networks allow fast transfer of data in the form of text, images,
audio, or video. For example, email, WhatsApp, and online meetings are all forms of data communication.
This makes it easier for people to collaborate even if they are far away.
Networks also improve collaboration and teamwork. Students can work on group projects online, and
businessmen can attend meetings through video conferencing.
In short, computer networks save cost, improve speed, and make communication easier. They are an
essential part of modern life, used in schools, offices, hospitals, and even homes.

Q2. In a Simplex communication system, assume data is transmitted at a rate of 500 bits per second
(bps). Compute the time to transmit a message if
(a) it is of 10 kilobits. (b) it is of 10 kilobytes.
Answer: A Simplex communication system allows data to move only in one direction, like radio or TV
broadcast.
• Data rate given = 500 bits per second (bps)
(a) For a 10 kilobit message 1 kilobit=1000 bits
So ,10 kilobits=10 × 1000=10,000 bits.
Time = Data ÷ Rate = 10,000 ÷ 500=20 seconds.
(b) For a 10 kilobyte message:
1 byte = 8 bits
1 kilobyte=1000 bytes=8,000 bits
So, 10 kilobytes=10 ×8,000=80,000 bits.
Time = 80,000 ÷ 500=160 seconds.
Thus, larger files take more time to transmit. This is why high-speed communication systems are preferred
for sending big data like videos or images.

Q3. Describe how data is transmitted across computer networks using packet switching and circuit
switching.
Answer: There are two main ways to send data in a network: circuit switching and
packet switching.
In circuit switching, a dedicated path is set up between sender and receiver before communication starts.
This is like a telephone call where one line is reserved until the call ends. The advantage is reliability, but
the drawback is wastage of resources if no data is being sent.
In packet switching, data is broken into small packets. Each packet may travel through different routes
depending on availability. At the destination, packets

are reassembled in the correct order. This is the method used by the internet because it is fast, efficient,
and flexible.
Example: When we send an email, the message is divided into packets. These packets may travel through
different cities and routes, but they all reach the correct destination.
Thus, circuit switching is good for continuous voice calls, while packet switching is best for digital
communication like the internet.

Q4. Discuss the role and importance of protocols in data communication. Explain the functions of key
protocols such as TCP/IP, HTTP, DNS, and DHCP.
Answer:
Protocols are rules that control communication between computers. Without them, devices cannot
understand each other. Just like people need a common language to talk, computers need protocols to
exchange data.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):
It ensures reliable communication. TCP breaks data into packets and checks for errors, while IP sends
these packets to the correct address.
• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
It is used for accessing and viewing websites on the internet. When we type a web address, HTTP helps
open the webpage.
• DNS (Domain Name System):
It translates website names (like google.com) into numerical IP addresses. Without DNS, we would have to
remember long numbers instead of easy names.
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
It automatically gives IP addresses to computers in a network. This saves time and avoids mistakes.
Protocols are important because they ensure accurate, safe, and organized data communication. Without
them, the internet and networks would not work properly.
Q5. Evaluate different methods of network security, including firewalls, encryption, and antivirus
software.
Answer: Network security protects computers and data from unauthorized access, hackers, and viruses.
Different methods are used for this purpose:
• Firewalls:
A firewall acts like a security guard. It filters incoming and outgoing data and blocks harmful traffic. For
example, schools use firewalls to stop students from opening unsafe websites.
• Encryption:
Encryption changes data into secret code before sending it. Only the receiver with the correct key can read
it. Online banking and shopping websites use encryption to protect passwords and credit card numbers.
• Antivirus Software:
This software scans the computer for viruses, worms, or malware. It removes harmful files and protects
against future attacks. Together, these methods keep data safe and ensure smooth network performance.
Without security, personal and financial data could easily be stolen or damaged.

Q6. Describe real-world applications of computer networks in business, education, and healthcare.
Answer:
Computer networks are used in almost every field of life.
• Business: Networks allow employees to share files, hold online meetings, and run online shops.
Banks also use networks for ATM systems and online banking.
• Education: Students and teachers use e-learning platforms, online lectures, and digital libraries.
During exams, results are uploaded on school websites through networks.
• Healthcare: Doctors share patient reports, hospitals use digital records, and telemedicine allows
patients to consult doctors online.
In short, networks save time, improve efficiency, and make services available even from home.

Q7. Compare and contrast the different types of network topologies (star, ring, bus, and mesh).
Answer:
Network topology is the arrangement of computers in a network.
• Star Topology: All devices connect to a central hub. Easy to manage, but if the hub fails, the
network stops.

• Ring Topology: Computers are connected in a circle. Data passes from one to another. If one
connection breaks, the whole network is affected.
• Bus Topology: All computers share one main cable. It is cheap but if the cable fails, the network
stops working.

• Mesh Topology: Every computer is connected to every other. It is very reliable but costly.

Each topology has advantages and disadvantages. Star topology is the most common in
schools and offices.
Q8. Consider a shift cipher with a shift amount of 4. (a) Encrypt the message "SECURITY". (b) Decrypt the
message "WMXYVMI".
Answer:
A shift cipher changes each letter by a fixed number of steps. Here shift = 4.
(a) Encrypt "SECURITY":
S →W , E → I , C → G ,U → Y , R → V , I → M ,T → X , Y →C
Result = WIGYVMXC
(b) Decrypt "WMXYVMI":
W → S , M → I , X → T , Y →U , V → R , M → I , I → E
Result = SITURIE (approx., small errors may occur with short words). This simple cipher shows how secret
codes can be made.

Q9. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit number. Calculate the total number of unique IPv4 addresses possible.
(a) Show the calculation.
(b) How many addresses are left if 10% are reserved?
Answer:
IPv4 uses 32 bits for addresses.
(a) Each bit can be 0 or 1.
So ,total addresses=2³²=4,294,967,296 addresses.
(b) If 10% are reserved:
10 % of 4,294,967,296=429,496,729.
Remaining ¿ 4,294,967,296 – 429,496,729=3,865,470,567 usable addresses.
Thus, IPv4 has billions of addresses, but due to rapid internet growth, many are already used, which is why
IPv6 was developed.