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MODULE 4
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The amplifier in which a part of output is sampled and fedback to the input of the amplifier is
called feedback [Link] at the input ,we have two signals:input signal and part of
the output which is fed back to the input.
Both the signals may be inphase or out of [Link] input signal and part of output signal
are in phase,the feedback is called positive [Link] the other hand ,when they are out of
phase ,the feedback is called negative feedback.
Use of positive feedback results in oscillations and negative feedback gives stability and hence
used in amplifiers.
Negative feedback is used to stabilize the amplifier against variations in component values and
parameters of the active devices used in the [Link] feedback reduces
distortion,reduces noise output ,improves frequency response and improves input and output
resistances.
Basic ideas

• The input to a negative feedback amplifier can be either voltage or a [Link],the

output can be either a voltage or a current.
• The first type has an input voltage and an output [Link] circuit that uses this typeof
negative feedback is called a voltage controlled voltage source(VCVS).A VCVS is an
ideal voltage amplifier because it has a stabilized voltage gain,infinite input impedance
and zero output impedance as shown in figure 3.1a.
• In the second type of negative feedback,input current controls an otuptu [Link]
circuit using this type of feedback is called a current controlled voltage source
(ICVS).Because an input current controls an output [Link] an input current
controls an output voltage,an ICVS is sometimes called a transresistance [Link]
word resistance is used because the ratio of Vout/Iin has the unit of [Link] prefix
trans refers to taking the ratio of an output quantity to an input quantity.
• The third type of negative feedback has an input voltage controlling an output [Link]
circuit using this type of negative feedback is called a voltage controlled current
source(VCIS).Because an input voltage controls an output current,a VCIS is
sometimes called a transconductance [Link] ratio of iout/vin has the unit
siemens(mhos)
• In the fourth type of negative feedback ,an input current is amplified to get a larger output
[Link] circuit with this type off negative feedback is called a current - controlled
current source(ICIS).it has stabilized current gain, zero input impedance, and infinite
output impedance.
Voltage controlled voltage source
• Figure 4.1a shows the VCVS,a voltage amplifier.
• With practical circuits,the input impedance is not infinite,but it is very high.
• The output impedance is not zero,but it is very low.
• Voltage gain of VCVS is symbolized Av.

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• Since Zout approaches zero,the output side of VCVS is a stiff voltage source to any
practical load resistance.

Figure 4.1 a voltage controlled voltage source

Current controlled voltage source

• Figure 4.1b shows an ICVS ,a transresistance amplifier(current to voltage converter).
• It has very low input impedance and a very low output impedance.
• An ICVS is sometimes called transconductance rm and expressed in ohms.
• For instance,if rm=1KΩ and an input current of of 1 mA will produce a constant voltage
of 1V across the load
• Because Zout approaches zero,the output side of an ICVS is a stiff voltage source for
practical load resistances.

Fig 4.1b current controlled voltage source

Voltage controlled current source

• Figure 4.1c shows a VCIS ,a transconductance amplifier(voltage to current converter)
• It has very high input impedance and a very high putout impedance.
• VCIS is sometimes called transconductance, symbolized gm and expressed in
siemens(mhos).
• For instance,if gm=1mS,an input voltage of 1 V will pump a current of 1 mA through
the load.
• Because zout approaches infinity,the output side of a VCIS is a stiff current source for
any practical load resistance.

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Figure 4.1 c voltage controlled current source

Current controlled current source

• Figure 4.1d shows an ICIS ,a current amplifier.

• It has very low input impedance and very high output impedance.
• The current gain of ICIS is symbolized Ai.
• Since Zout approaches infinity, the output side of a ICIS is a stiff current source to any
practical load resistance.

Figure 4.1 d current controlled current source

VCVS VOLTAGE GAIN

Exact closed -loop voltage gain

• Figure 4.2 shows a non inverting [Link] opamp has an open loop voltage gain
AVOL,typically 100,000 or more.
• Because of the voltage divider, part of the output voltage is fedback to the inverting
input.
• The feedback fraction B of any VCVS circuit is defined as feedback voltage divided
by the output voltage.
𝑣2
i.e 𝐵 = … .1
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡

• The feedback fraction is also called the feedback attenuation factor because it
indicates how much the output voltage is attenuated before the feedback signal
reaches the inverting input.
• The closed loop voltage gain is given by
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = ….2
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵

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This is the exact equation for the closed loop voltage gain of any VCVS amplifier.

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Figure 4.2 VCVS amplifier

Loop gain

• The second term in the denominator of equation 2 AvoLB is called the loop gain because
it is the voltage gain of the forward and feedback paths.
• The loop gain is very important valkue in the design of negative feedback am[plifier.
• In any practical design,the loop gain is made very large. The larger the loop gain,the
better,because it stabilizes the voltage gain and has an enhancing or curative effect on
quantities such as gain stability,distortion,offsets,input impedance and output
impedance.
Ideal closed loop voltage gain

• For VCVS to work well,the loop gain AVOLB must be much greater than unity.
• When the designer satisfies this condition equation 2 becomes:
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = 𝐴𝑣 = ≅
1+ 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵
1 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵
Or 𝐴𝑣 ≅ …..3
𝐵

This ideal equation gives almost exact answers AVOLB≫ [Link] exact closed-loop voltage
gain is slightly less than this ideal closed loop voltage gain.
• The percentage error between the ideal and exact values can be calculated by
(100%)
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = …4
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵

For instance,if 1+AVOLB is 1000(60dB),the error is only 0.1 [Link] means that the exact
answer is only 0.1percent less than the ideal answer.
Using the ideal equation
The feedback fraction is

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𝑣2 𝑅1
𝐵= =
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
Ideal open loop gain is

1 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 ≅ = = +1
𝐵 𝑅1 𝑅1
OTHER VCVS EQUATIONS

Negative feedback stabilizes the voltage gain;that is,it almost eliminates the internal opamp
variations and makes the closed loop voltage gain dependent primarily on external resistances.
Negative feedback in VCVS amplifier increases the input impedance, decreases the output
impedance and reduces any nonlinear distortion of the amplified signal.
Gain stability
The gain stability depends on having a very low percent error between the ideal and the exact
closed loop voltage [Link] smaller the percent error ,the better the [Link] worst case
error of closed loop voltage gain occurs when the open loop voltage gain is minimum.
100%
%𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = …5
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵

Where AVOL(min) is the minimum or worst case open loop voltage gain shown on the data
sheet,with a 741C, AVOL(min) =20,000
For instance, if 1+ AVOL(min)B=500
100%
%𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = 0.2%
500

The closed loop voltage gain of any VCVS amplifier will be within 0.2percent of the ideal
value.
Closed loop input impedance
Figure 4.3a shows a non inverting [Link] exact equation for the closed loop input
impedance of the VCVS amplifier

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Figure 4.3(a) VCVS amplifier

Zin(CL)= (1 + 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵)𝑅𝑖𝑛||RCM….6
Where Rin=the open loop input resistance of the opamp
RCM=the common mode input resistance of the opamp
Rin is the input resistance shown on a data [Link] RCM is ignored because it is large,and
equation 6 is approximated by
Zin(CL)= (1 + 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵)𝑅𝑖𝑛
Since 1 + 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵 is much greater than unity in practical VCVS amplifier,the closed loop
input impedance is extremely [Link] a voltage follower,B is 1 and Zin(CL) would approach
[Link] ulitimate limit on the closed loop input impedance is
Zin(CL) =RCM
The exact value of closed loop input impedance is not [Link] is important is that it is
very large,usually much larger than Rin but less than the ultimate limit of RCM
Closed loop output impedance
The exact equation for the closed loop output impedance is
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
Zout(CL)= …7
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵

Where Rout is the open loop output impedance of the opamp shown on the [Link]
output resistance of a 741C is 75Ω.
Since 1+AvOLB is much greater than unity in practical VCVS amplifier,the closed loop output
impedance is less than 1 Ω and may approach zero in a voltage follower.
Non linear distortion

• One more improvement worth mentioning is the effect of negative feedback on distortion.
• In the later stages of amplifier ,nonlinear distortion will occur with large signals becausethe
input/output response of the amplifying devices becomes non [Link] instance,thenon
linear graph of the base emitter diode distorts a large signal by elongating the positive
half cycle and compressing the negative half cycle as shown in fig 4.3(b)

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Figure 4.3(b) non linear distortion (c) fundamental and harmonics

• Non linear distortion produces harmonics of the input [Link] instance if a sinusoidal
voltage signal has a frequency of 1KHz,the distorted output current will contain
sinusoidal signals with frequencies of 1,2,3KHZ and so forth as shown in the spectrum
of figure 4.3(c) .
• The fundamental frequency is 1KHz and all others are [Link] rms value of all the
harmonics measured together tells us how much distortion has [Link] linear
distortion is also called harmonic distortion.
• Harmonic distortion can be measured with an instrument called distortion [Link]
instrument measures the total harmonic voltage and divides it by the fundamental
voltage to get the percent of total harmonic distortion defined as
THD=𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 100% ......8
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
For instance,if the total harmonic voltage is 0.1Vrms and the fundamental voltage is 1
V,then THD=10percent.
• Negative feedback reduces harmonic [Link] exact equation for closed loop
harmonic distortion
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑜𝐿
is
THDCL=
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵
Where THDOL=open loop harmonic distortion
THDCL=closed loop harmonic distortion
The quantity 1+AVOLB has a curative [Link] it is large,it reduces the harmonic distortion
to negligible levels.
Discrete negative feedback amplifier
The discrete two stage feedback amplifier is shown in figure 4.4 is essentially a noninverting
amplifier using negative feedback.

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Figure 4.4 Two stage feedback amplifier

• Looking back at this circuit ,the two CE stages produce an open loop voltage gain equal
to
AVOL=AV1*AV2
• The output drives the voltage divider formed by rf and [Link] the bottom of re is at
ac ground ,the feedback fraction is approximately:
𝑟𝑒
𝐵≅
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑟𝑓
• The input vin drives the base of the transistor,while the feedback voltage drives the
[Link] error voltage appears across the base emitter diode.
• The closed loop voltage gain is approximately 1/B.
• The input impedance is (1+AVOLB)Rin
• The output impedance is Rout/(1+AVOLB)
• The distortion is THDOL/(1+AVOLB

THE ICVS AMPLIFIER

Figure 4.5 shows a trans resistance amplifier. It has an input current and an output voltage. The
ICVS amplifier is an almost perfect current to voltage converter because it has zero input
impedance and zero output impedance.

Figure 4.5 ICVS amplifier

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Output voltage
The exact equation for output voltage is
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿
Vout=− {𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑓 ∗ ( )}
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿

Because AvoL is much greater than unity,the equation simplifies to

Vout=-(iinRf)…1
Where Rf is the transresistance

An easy way to remember equation 1 is to use the concept of a virtual [Link] inverting
input is a virtual ground to voltage not current. When you visualize a virtual ground on the
inverting input,you can see all of the input current must flow through the feedback resistor.
The magnitude of the output voltage is given by
Vout=-(iinRf)
The circuit is a current to voltage converter.
If Rf=1KΩ then an input of 1 mA produces an output of [Link] Rf=10KΩ the same input current
produces an output of 10V.
ICVS input and output impedances
In Figure 4.5 ,the exact equation for closed loop input and output impedances are
𝑅𝑓
Zin(CL)= … .1
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
Zout(CL)= ….2
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵

In both equations,the large denominator will reduce the impedance to a very low value.
The inverting amplifier
The inverting amplifier of figure 4.6 has a closed loop voltage gain of
𝑅𝑓
Av=− …3
𝑅1

This type of amplifier uses ICVS negative [Link] of the virtual ground on the
inverting input,the input current equals
𝑉𝑖𝑛
iin=
𝑅1

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Figure 4.6 Inverting amplifier

THE VCIS AMPLIFIER

With a VCIS amplifier, an input voltage controls an output current. Because of the heavy
negative feedback in this kind of amplifier, the input voltage is converter to a precise value of
output current.

Figure 4.7 VCIS amplifier

Figure 4.7 shows a transconductance amplifier. It is similar to a VCVS amplifier, except that
RL is the load resistor as well as the feedback resistor. In other words, the active output is not
the voltage across R1+RL;rather it is the current through RL This output current is stabilized;
that is ,a specific value of input voltage produces a precise value of output current.
In figure 4.6,the exact equation for output current is
𝑉𝑖𝑛

iout= (𝑅1)+(𝑅1+𝑅𝐿) ….1

𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿

in practical circuit, the second term in the denominator is much smaller than the first,and the
equation simplifies to
𝑉𝑖𝑛
iout=
𝑅1

this is sometimes written as

iout=gmVin
where gm=1/R1
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when you visualize a virtual short between the input terminals of figure 4.7,the inverting input
is bootstrapped to the noninverting [Link] all the input voltage appears across [Link]
current through this resistor is

i1=𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1

since the input side of figure 4.6 is same as the input side of a VCVS amplifier,the approximate
equation for the closed loop input impedance of a VCIS amplifier is
Zin(CL) =(1+AvoLB)Rin
Where Rin is the input resistance of the [Link] stabilized output current sees a closed loop
output impedance of :
Zout=(1+AvoL)R1
In both equations a large AvoLincreases both impedances toward infinity,exactly what we want
for a VCIS [Link] circuit is almost perfect voltage to current converter because it has
very high input and output impedances.
THE ICIS AMPLIFIER
An ICIS circuit amplifies the input [Link] of the heavy negative feedback,the ICIS
amplifier tends to act like a perfect current [Link] has very low input impedance and a
very high output impedance.

Figure 4.8 ICIS amplifier

Figure 4.8 shows an inverting [Link] closed loop current gain is stabilized and given by

Ai=𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿(𝑅1+𝑅2)…1
𝑅𝐿+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝑅1

Usually the second term in the denominator is much larger than the first and the above equation
simplifies to
𝑅2
Ai ≅ 1 + ( )…2
𝑅1

The equation for the closed loop input impedance of an ICIS amplifier is

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𝑅2
Zin(CL) = ..3
1+𝐴𝑣𝑜𝐿𝐵

Where the feedback fraction is given by

𝑅1
𝐵= …4
𝑅1+𝑅2

The stabilized output current sees a closed loop output impedance of

Zout(CL) =(1+AvoL)R1
A large AvoL produces a very small input impedance and a very large output
[Link] of this ,the ICIS circuit is an almost perfect current amplifier .

ACTIVE FILTERS
IDEAL RESPONSES
The frequency response of a filter is the graph of its voltage gain versus [Link] are
five types of filters:low pass,high pass,bandpass,bandstop,and all-pass.
Low pass filter
Figure 4.9a shows the ideal frequency response of a low pass filter.A low pass filter passes all
frequencies from zero to the cutoff frequency and blocks all frequencies above the cut off
frequency.
With a low pass filter ,the frequencies between zero and the cut off frequency is called the
[Link] frequencies above the cutoff frequency are called the [Link] roll -off
region between the passband and the stopband is called the [Link] ideal low pass filter
has zero attenuation (signal loss) in the passband,infinite attenuation in the stopband.

Figure 4.9a ideal low pass response

High pass filter
Figure 4.9b shows the ideal frequency response of a high pass filter.A high pass filter block all
frequencies above the cut off frequency.
With a high pass filter,the frequencies between zero and the cutoff frequency are the
[Link] frequencies above the cut off frequency are the passband.

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Figure 4.9b ideal high pass response

Bandpass filter
A bandpass filter is useful in electronic communication systems,suxhnas AM/FM
receivers,where only specific range of frequencies should be passed and all others [Link] is
also useful in telephone communications equipment for seprating the different phone
conversations that are being simultaneously transmitted over the same communication path.
Figure 4.9c shows the ideal frequency response of a bandpass filter.A brick wall response like
this blocks all frequencies from zero to the lower cutoff [Link] it passes all the
frequencies between the lower and upper cutoff [Link] it blocks all frequencies
above the upper cutoff frequency.
With a bandpass filter,the passband is all the frequencies between the lower and upper cutoff
[Link] frequencies below thw lower cut off frequency and above the upper cut off
frequency are the stopband.

Figure 4.9c ideal bandpass response

The bandwidth (BW) of a bandpass filter is the difference between its upper and lower 3-dB
cut off frequencies
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 … .1

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For instance,if the cutoff frequencies are 450 and 460KHz,the bandwidth is”
𝐵𝑊 = 460𝐾𝐻𝑧 − 450𝐾𝐻𝑧 = 10𝐾𝐻𝑧
As another example,if the cutoff frequencies are 300 and 3300Hz,the bandwidth is

𝐵𝑊 = 3300𝐻𝑧 − 300𝐻𝑧 = 3000𝐻𝑧

The center frequency is symbolized by fo and is given by the geometric
average of the two cutoff frequencies:

𝑓𝑜 = √𝑓1𝑓2
For instance,telephone companies use a bandpaqss filter with cutoff frequencies of 300 and
3300Hz to separate phone [Link] center frequency of these filters is

𝑓0 = √(300𝐻𝑧)(3300𝐻𝑧) = 995𝐻𝑧
The Q of a band pass filter is defined as the center frequency divided by the bandwidth
𝑓𝑜
𝑄=
𝐵𝑊
For instance ,if fo=200KHz and BW =40KHz then Q=5.
If Q is less than 1 ,the bandpass filter is called a wideband [Link] Q is greater than 1,the filter
is called narrow band filter.

• For example ,a filter with cutoff frequencies of 95 and 105KHz has a bandwidth of
[Link] is a narrow band because Q is approximately 10.
• A filter with cutoff frequencies of 300 and 3300Hz has a center frequency of
approximately 1000Hz and a bandwidth of [Link] is wideband because Q is
approximately 0.333.
Bandstop filter
Figure 4.9d shows the ideal frequency response of a bandstop [Link] type of filter passes
all frequencies from zero up to the lower cutoff [Link] it blocks all the frequencies
between the lower and upper cutoff [Link] passes all frequencies above the upper cutoff
frequency.
With a bandstop filter,the stopband is all the frequencies between the lower and upper cutoff
[Link] frequencies below the lower cutoff frequency and above the upper cut off
frequency are the passband.
The definitions for bandwidth,narrowband and center frequency are the same as [Link]
bandstop filter is sometimes called a notch filter because it notches out or removes all
frequencies in the stopband.

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Figure 4.9d ideal bandstop response

All-pass filter
Figue 4.9e shows the frequency response of an ideal all-pass [Link] has a passband and no
[Link] of this ,it passes all frequencies between zero and infinite frequency

Figure 4.9e ideal all-pass response

FIRST ORDER STAGES

first order or one pole active-filter stages have only one [Link] of thie ,,they can
produce only a low-pass or a high-pass response.
Low-pass stage
Figure 4.10a shows the first-order low-pass [Link] voltage gain is
Av=1….1
The 3 dB cutoff frequency is given by
1
𝑓𝑐 = ….2
2𝜋𝑅1𝐶1

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When the frequency increases above the cutoff frequency,the capacitive reactance decreases
and reduces the noninverting input [Link] the R1C1 lag circuit is outside the feedback
loop,the output voltage rolls [Link] the frequency approaches infinity ,the capacitor becomes a
short and there is zero input voltage.
Figure 4.10b shows another noninverting first order low pass [Link] has 2 additional
[Link] voltage gain is given by
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + ( )…3
𝑅1

The cutoff frequency is given by

1
𝑓𝑐 = ..4
2𝜋𝑅3𝐶1

Above the cutoff frequency,the lag circuit reduces the noninverting input [Link] R3C1
lag circuit is outside the feedback loop,the output voltage rolls off at a rate of 20dB per decade.
Figure 4.10c shows an inverting frist-order low-pass filter and its [Link] low frequencies
,the capacitor appears to be open and the circuit acts like an inverting amplifier with a voltage
gain of
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = − …5
𝑅1

As the frequency increases ,the capacitive reactance decreases and reduces the impedance of
the feedback [Link] implies less voltage [Link] the frequency approaches infinity,the
capacitor becomes short and there is no voltage [Link] shown in figure 4.10c,the cutoff
frequency is given by
1
𝑓𝑐 = … .6
2𝜋𝑅2𝐶1

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Figure 4.10 first order low-pass stage (a) noninverting unity gain (b) noninverting with
voltage gain (c) inverting with voltage gain.
High-pass stage
Figure 4.11 a shows the first order high-pass active [Link] voltage gain is
Av=1…1
The 3dB cutoff frequency is given by
1
𝑓𝑐 = …2
2𝜋𝑅1𝐶1
When the frequency decreases below the cutoff frequency,the capacitive reactance increases
and reduces the noninverting input [Link] the R1 C1 circuit is outside the feedback
loop,the output voltage rolls off ,As the frequency approasches zero,the capacitor becomes an
open and there ios zero input voltage.
Figure 4.11 b shows another noninverting first order high pass filter,The voltage gain above
the cutoff frequency is given by
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + ( ) … 3
𝑅1

The 3dB cutoff frequency is given by

1
𝑓𝑐 = …4
2𝜋𝑅3𝐶1

Below the cutoff frequency,the RC circuit reduces the noninverting input [Link] the
R3C1 lag circuit is outside the feedback loop,the output voltage rolls off at arate of 20dB per
decade.
Figure 4.11c shows another first order high-pass filter and its [Link] high frequencies,the
circuit acts like an inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of
𝑋𝑐2 𝐶2
𝐴𝑣 = − = − …5
𝑋𝑐1 𝐶1

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As the frequency decreases,the capacitive reactance increases and eventually reduce the input
signal and the [Link] implies less voltage [Link] the frequency approaches zero,the
capacitor becomes open and there is no input [Link] 3dB cutoff frequency is given by
1
`𝑓𝑐 = …6
2𝜋𝑅1𝐶2

Figure 4.11 first order high-pass stages (a) noninverting unity gain (b) noninverting
with voltage gain (c) inverting with voltage gain
VCVS UNITY-GAIN SECOND ORDER LOW-PASS FILTERS
Second order or two pole stages are the most important because they are easy to build and
analyze. Higher order filters are usually made by cascading second order stages.

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This section discusses the Shallen -key low-pass filters(named after the inventors) These filters
are also called as VCVS filters because the op-amp is used as a voltage controlled voltage
[Link] low-pass circuits can implement three of the basic approximations: Butterworth
,Chebyshev and Bessel.
Circuit implementation
Figure 4.12 shows a Shallen-key second order low-pass [Link] that the two resistors have
the same value.,but the capacitors are different. There is a lag circuit on the noninverting
input,but this time, there is feedback path through a second capacitor [Link] low frequencies
,both capacitors appear to be open,and the circuit has a unity gain because the opamp is
connected as a voltage follower.

Figure 4.12 second order VCVS stage for butterworth and Bessel
As the frequency increases ,the impedance of C1 decreases and the noninverting input voltage
[Link] the same time,capacitor C2 is feeding back a signal that is inphase with the input
[Link] the feedback signal adds to the source signal ,the feedback is [Link] a result
,the decrease in the non inverting input voltage caused by C1 is not as large as it woild be
without the positive [Link] larger C2 is with respect to C1,the more the positive
feedback.
Pole frequency
As shown in the figure 4.12
𝐶2
𝑄 = 0.5√ ….1
𝐶1

And
1
𝑓𝑝 = ….2
2𝜋𝑅√𝐶1𝐶2

The pole frequency (fp) is a special frequency used in the design of active filters.
In more complicated circuits, the pole frequency is given by
1
𝑓𝑝 = …3
2𝜋√𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2

In a Sallen-key unity gain filter R1=R2 and the equation simplifies to 2

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Butterworth and Bessel responses

When analyzing a circuit of figure 4.12,we start by calculating Q and [Link] Q=0.707,we have
butterworth response ad Kc value of [Link] Q=0.577,we have a Bessel response and a Kc value
of [Link] cutoff frequency is given by
𝑓𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐𝑓𝑝
Peaked response
Figure 4.13 shows how to analyze the circuit when Q is greater than [Link] calculating
the Q and the pole frequency of the circuit,we can calculate three other frequencies with these
equations
𝑓𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜𝑓𝑝….1
𝑓𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐𝑓𝑝…2
𝑓3𝑑𝐵 = 𝐾3𝑓𝑝…3
The first of these frequencies is the resonant frequency where peaking [Link] second is
the edge frequency,and the third is the 3dB frequency.

Figure 4.13 second order VCVS stage for Q>0.707

Gain bandwidth product of Op Amps
In the active filters, we will assume that the op-amps have enough gain-bandwidth product
(GBW) not to affect the filter performance. GBW increases the Q of a stage. With high cutoff
frequencies, a designer must be aware of limited GBW because ot may change the performance
of the filter.
One way to correct for limited GBW is by means of predistortion. This refers to decreasing the
design value of Q as needed to compensate for limited GBW. For instance, if a stage should
have Q of 10 and a limited GBW increases it to 11,a designer can predistort by designing the
stage with a Q of 9.1 to [Link] best approach is to use a better op amp ,one with a higher GBW.
VCVS EQUAL -COMPONENT LOW-PASS FILTERS

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Figure 4.14 shows sallen second order low pass filter. Both resistors and both capacitors have
the same value. Hence the circuit is called a Sallen -key -equal-component filter. The circuit
has a midband voltage gain of
𝑹𝟐
𝑨𝒗 = 𝟏 +
𝑹𝟏

The operation of the circuit is similar to that of the Sallen-Key unity gain filter, except for the
effect of the voltage gain. Since the voltage gain can produce more positive feedback through
the feedback capacitor,the Q of the stage becomes a function of voltage gain and is given by
1
𝑄=
3 − 𝐴𝑣
Because Av can be no smaller than unity, the minimum Q is [Link] Av increases from 1 to
3,Q varies from 0.5 to infinity. Therefore the allowable range of Av is between 1 and [Link] we
try to run the circuit with Av greater than 3,it ill break into oscillations because the positive
feedback is too large. A butterworth filter has Q=0.707 and Kc=1.A Bessel filter has Q=0.577
and Kc=0.786.

Figure 4.14 VCVS equal component stage

VCVS HIGH PASS FILTERS
Figure 4.15 a shows the Sallen-key unity gain high pass filter and its [Link] positions
of resistors and capacitors have been reversed..Q depends on the ratio of resistances rather
than capacitances.
The cutoff frequency of a high pass filter is
𝑓𝑝
𝑓𝑐 = …1
𝐾𝑐

For instance if the pole frequency is 2.5KHz and Kc=1.3,the cutoff frequency for the high
pass filter is
2.5𝐾𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 = = 1.92𝐾𝐻𝑧
1.3

Figure 4.15 b shows the Sallen -Key equal component high -pass filter and its [Link]
the equations are the same as for a low pass [Link] positions od the resistors and
capacitors have been reversed.

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Figure 4.15 second order VCVS high pass stages: (a) unity gain (b) voltage gain greater
than unity
MFB BANDPASS FILTERS
A bandpass filter has a center frequency and a [Link] basic equations for a bandpass
response:
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1

𝑓𝑜 = √𝑓1𝑓2
𝑓𝑜
𝑄=
𝐵𝑊
When Q is less than 1,the filter has a wideband [Link] this case a bandpass filter is
usually built by cascading a low pass stage with a high pass [Link] Q is greater than
1,the filter has a narrow band response.
Wideband filters
Suppose we want to build bandpass filter with a lower cutoff frequency of 300Hz and an
upper cutoff frequency of [Link] center frequency of the filter is

𝑓𝑜 = √𝑓1𝑓2 = √(300𝐻𝑧)(3.3𝐾𝐻𝑧) = 995𝐻𝑧

The bandwidth is
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 = 3.3𝐾𝐻𝑍 − 300𝐻𝑧 = 3𝐾𝐻𝑧
Q is

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𝑓𝑜 995𝐻𝑧
𝑄= = = 0.332
𝐵 3𝐾𝐻𝑧
𝑊

Since Q is less than 1 ,we can use cascaded low-pass and high-pass stages,as shown in figure
[Link] high -pass filter has a cutoff frequency of 300Hz and the low pass filter has acut off
frequency of [Link] the two decibels are added ,we get a bandpass response with
cutoff frequencies of 300Hz and 3.3KHz.

Figure 4.16 wideband filter uses cascade of low pass and high pass stages
Narrowband Filters
When Q is greater than 1 ,we can use the multiple feedback (MFB) filter shown in figure
[Link],the input signal goes to the inverting input rather than the noninverting [Link]
,the circuit has two feedback path,one through a capacitor and another through a resistor.
At low frequencies,the capacitors appear to be [Link] the input signal cannot reach the
opamp,and the output is [Link] high frequencies ,the capacitors appear to be [Link] this
case the voltage gain is zero because ethe fedback capacitor has zero [Link] the
low and high extremes in frequency,there is a band of frequencies where the circuit acts lika an
inverting amplifier.
The voltage gain at the center frequency is given by
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = − ..1
2𝑅1

This is almost identical to the voltage gain of an inverting amplifier,except for the factor of 2
in the denominator. The Q of the circuit is given by
𝑅2
𝑄 = (0.5)√ …2
𝑅1

Which is equivalent to

𝑄 = 0.707√−𝐴𝑣…3
When using equation 3,the absolute value of the voltage gain will be [Link] instance,if Av=-
100

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𝑄 = 0.707√100 = 7.07
Equation 3 tells us that greater the voltage gain,the higher the Q
The center frequency is given by
1
𝑓𝑜 = …4
2𝜋√𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2

Since C1=C2 in figure 4.17,the equation simplifies to

1
𝑓𝑜 = …5
2𝜋𝐶√𝑅1𝑅2

Figure 4.17 multiple feedback bandpass stage

Increasing the input impedance
Equation 3 tells us that Q is proportional to the square root of R2/[Link] get high Qs,we need to
use a high ratio of R2/[Link] instance to get a Q of 5 ,R2/R1 must equal [Link] avoid problems
with input offset and bias current ,R2 is usally kept under 100KΩ,which means R1 has to be
less than 1 KΩ.For Qs greater than 5,R1 must be even [Link] means that the input
impedance of figure 4.17 may be too low at higher Qs.
Figure 4.18a shows an MFB bandpass filter that increases the input [Link] that R1
and R3 forms a voltage [Link] applying Thevenins Theorem ,the circuit simplifies to figure
[Link] configuration is the same as that shown in figure 4.17,but some of the equations are
[Link] begin with,voltage gain equation is still given by the equation 1 of previous
[Link] the Q and center frequency become:

𝑄 = (0.5)√((𝑅2)/(𝑅1||𝑅3)….6
1
𝑓𝑜 = …7
2𝜋𝐶√𝑅1||𝑅3)𝑅2
The circuit has the advantage of higher input impedance because R1 can be made higher fir a
given Q.

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Figure 4.18 increasing input impedance of MFB stage

Tunable center frequency with constant Bandwidth
Figure 4.19 shows a modified MFB circuit in which R2=2R1 and R3 is [Link] this
circuit,the analysis equations are:
𝐴𝑣 = −1..1
𝑅1+𝑅3
𝑄 = (0.707)√ …2
𝑅3

1
𝑓𝑜 = …3
2𝜋𝐶√2𝑅1(𝑅1||𝑅3))

Since BW=fo/Q,we can derive this equation for bandwidth

1
𝐵𝑊 = …4
2𝜋𝑅1𝐶

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Figure 4.19 MFB stage with variable center frequency and constant bandwidth
Bandstop filters
Figure 4.20 shows a Sallen-key second -order notch filter and its analysis [Link] low
frequencies,all capacitors are [Link] a result ,all the input signal reaches the noninverting
[Link] circuit has a passband voltage gain of:
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + ( )…1
𝑅1

At vert high frequencies,the capacitors are [Link] all the input signal reaches the non
inverting input.
Between the low and high extremes in frequency,there us a center frequency given by
1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
The Q of the circuit is given by

𝑄= 0.5
2 − 𝐴𝑣
The voltage gain of a Sallen ket notch filter must be less than 2 to avoid oscillations.

Figure 4.20 Sallen key second order notch filter

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