SUBJECT: PHYSICS

SECOND TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
THEME: CONSERVATION PRINCIPLES
1. Revision of first term’s work.
2. Rectilinear acceleration: (c) Velocity-time graph. (d)Analysis of rectilinear motion.
3. Circular Motion: Meaning of circular motion, Definition of termsi. Angular velocity ii.Tangential
velocity iii. Centripetal accelerationv. Centripetal force v. Centrifugal force vi. Period vii.
Frequency viii. Calculations on circular motion.
4. Energy and Environment: (a)Concept of energy(b) Types of energy (mechanical):potential and
kinetic energy (c)Law of conservation of energy-conservation of mechanical energy.
(d)Sources of energy :Renewable and non-renewable energy(e)Uses of Energy (f)Energy and
development (g)Environment impact of energy use: (i)Global warning and Green- house effect
(ii)Oil spillage (iii)Energy Crisis.
5. Work and Power:(a)Interchangeability of work and energy (b)Determination of work and power
(c) Work done in a force field.
6. Heat Energy:Thermal expansivity(a)Concept of temperature (b)Effects of heat on change of
state, expansion, vaporization.Linear expansion, Coefficient of linear expansivity,
Experimental determination of linear expansivity , Area expansivity,
Cubic expansivity,Experiment to determine the apparent cubic expansivity,
Applications of expansion.
7. MID-TERM BREAK
8. Transfer of heat :Meaning, molecular explanation of conduction and
applications of conductors, Meaning, molecular explanation and application of
convection, Radiation, Emission and radiation by different surfaces, The Thermos flask.
9. Electrostatics: Types of charge, law of electrostatics, Gold leaf electroscope,
Electrostatic induction, Ways of producing charges, Distribution of charges,
Lightning conductor, Electrophorus.
10. Revision.
11. Examination.

REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al. 2011.
2. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W. 2010
3. Comprehensive Certificate Physics by Olumuyiwa Awe and Okunola, O.O. 2009.
4. Science Teachers Association of Nigeria Physics for Senior Secondary School, Book 1. New
Edition; 2012.
5. Melrose Physics for Senior Secondary School, Book 1 by Akano, O and Onanuga, O.O. 2012.

WEEK 1: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 1
TOPIC: REVISION OF FIRST TERM’S WORK.

The educator should make a good revision of the last term’s work especially on areas the students are
having problems.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
Educator should construct questions based on previous term’s work to ascertain the level of recalling.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Educator should give the students questions based on the previous term’s work and also prepare the
students’ mind for week 2.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’Rectilinear Acceleration’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.

WEEK 2: DATE: __________________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 1
TOPIC: RECTILINEAR ACCELERATION (CONT):
1. Velocity-time graphs.
2. Calculation on v-t graphs
3. Analysis of rectilinear motion.

Sub-Topic 1: VELOCITY-TIME (v-t) GRAPH.

When the velocity of a body moving uniformly is plotted against the time, a straight line is obtained and
the slope gives the acceleration or deceleration depending on the ascending or descending nature of the
graph. This is shown below.

v-t graph for uniform acceleration

𝑉(𝑚/𝑠)

∆𝒗
∆𝒕
 t (s)

The slope of line OA gives the acceleration.

∆v
∴a=
∆t
It is a positive value because the graph ascends from left to right.
𝑉 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

∆𝒗
∆𝒕 C
t(s)
The slope of line BC gives the deceleration.
∆v
∴d=−
∆t
It is a negative value because the graph descends from left to right.
Supposing a body accelerates from rest until it attains a final velocity v in time 𝑡1 and then brought to rest
in time 𝑡2 , the v-t graph is shown below.

V -- -- -- -- -- -- --A

C B
t/s
t1 (t1+t2)

i. Slope of line OA gives acceleration.

ii. Slope of line AB gives deceleration.
iii. Area of ∆OAC gives the distance travelled during the acceleration.
iv. Area of ∆ABC gives the distance travelled during the deceleration.
v. Area of the whole shape, ∆OAB gives the total distance travelled. You can equally add up the
distances in (iii) and (iv) above to give the total distance travelled.

Supposing another body accelerates uniformly from rest until it reaches a final velocity V in time, 𝑡1
and continues with uniform speed at this velocity in time, 𝑡2 then brought to rest in a further time ,𝑡3 , the
v-t graph is shown below:

V A B

E F G

t1 (t1+t2) (t1+t2+t3) t/s

i. Slope of line OA gives the acceleration.

ii. Slope of line BC gives the retardation.
iii. Area of ∆OAE gives the distance covered during the acceleration.
iv. Area of rectangle ABDE gives the distance travelled during the uniform speed.
v. Area of ∆BCD gives the distance travelled during the deceleration.
vi. Area of the whole shape (trapezium OABC) gives the total distance travelled during the entire
journey.
You can also add up the distances in (iii), (iv) & (v) to get the total distance travelled during the
entire journey.

EVALUATION
Examine the below v-t graph and answer the questions that follows.
V(m/s)

O C B
t1 (t1+t2) t(s)

(a) Area of rectangle OVAC will give ---

(b) Area of triangle ABC will give ---
(c) How would you find the total distance travelled?
(d) Did the body accelerate?
(e) The slope of line AB will give ---
 (f) Did the body start from rest?
(g) Briefly discuss the motion of the body.

Sub-Topic 2: WORKED EXAMPLES ON V-T GRAPH

1. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 2𝑚/𝑠 2 until it gets to a final velocity in 20s. It is then
brought to rest in another 10s. With the aid of a v-t graph, find the final velocity attained and the total
distance travelled.
Solution:

V(m/s) A

2ms-2

C B
O 20s 30s t(s)

i)Slope of line OA = acceleration

∆𝑦 𝐴 − 𝐶 𝑉−0
∴𝑎= = =
∆𝑥 𝐶 − 𝑂 20 − 0
𝑉
∴𝑎=
20
∴ 𝑉 = 2 × 20
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 40𝑚/𝑠
1 1
ii) Total distance travelled is the area of the whole shape = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 = 2 𝑏ℎ = 2 (𝑂𝐵)(𝐴𝐶)

Note that VO = AC
1 30 × 40
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (30)(40) =
2 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 600𝑚

2. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 𝑥𝑚/𝑠 2 until it reaches a final velocity of 60𝑚/𝑠 in
23s. It is then brought to rest for further 15s.
i. Sketch the v-t graph.
ii. Find the value of x
iii. Find the distance travelled during the acceleration and the deceleration.
iv. Find the total distance travelled.
Solution:
i)
V(m/s)

60 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - P

R Q
O 23 38 t(s)
∆𝑦
ii) 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑂𝑃 = ∆𝑥

𝑃 − 𝑅 60 − 0
∴𝑥= =
𝑅 − 𝑂 23 − 0
60
∴𝑥=
23
∴ 𝑥 = 2.6𝑚/𝑠 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑠 2.6𝑚/𝑠 2
1 1
iii) Distance travelled during the acceleration is the area of ∆𝑂𝑃𝑅 = 2 𝑏ℎ = 2 (𝑂𝑅)(𝑃𝑅)

Note that PR=60

1 23 × 60
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = (23)(60) = = 690𝑚
2 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 690𝑚
1 1
For the distance covered during the deceleration, it is area of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 = 2 𝑏ℎ = 2 (𝑄𝑅)(𝑃𝑅)

Note that PR=60

1 15 × 60
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (15)(60) = = 450𝑚
2 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 450𝑚
iii) Total distance travelled = 690m + 450m = 1,140m
1
Alternatively, total distance travelled is the area of the whole shape = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄 = 2 (𝑂𝑄)(𝑃𝑅)

Note that PR=60

1 38 × 60
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = (38)(60) = = 1,140𝑚
2 2

Evaluation
 1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 8𝑚/𝑠 2 until it attains a maximum velocity of
80𝑚/𝑠 in 10s. It continues with this speed for further 100s until it is brought to rest for another
25s. Using a v-t graph, find the total distance travelled.
2. A body moves with a constant speed of 10m/s for 10 s then decelerate uniform to rest in another 5
s. (i) Draw a velocity–time graph to illustrate this motion. (ii) calculate the deceleration of the
body (iii) calculate the total distance travelled by the body.

N.B for bodies moving with constant or uniform acceleration, the following formulas could be used.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 … … … (𝑖)
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
2
𝑣+𝑢
𝑠=( ) 𝑡 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 … … … (𝑖𝑣)
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 2𝑚/𝑠 2 until it gets to a final velocity in 20s. It is then
brought to rest in another 10s. Using equations, find the final velocity attained and the total distance
travelled.
Solution:
1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎: 𝑢 = 0 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡) 𝑎 = 2𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑣 =? , 𝑡 = 20𝑠.
2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎: 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ′𝑣′ 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒, 𝑣 = 0 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡), 𝑡 = 10𝑠
𝑖) 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
∴ 𝑣 = 0 + 2 × 20 = 0 + 40
∴ 𝑣 = 40𝑚/𝑠
ii) To get the total distance covered, let’s get the distance covered in each stage.
In the first stage,𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 402 −0 1600
∴𝑠= = = = 400𝑚 s
2𝑎 2×2 4

In the second stage,𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, ′𝑎′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡.
𝑣 − 𝑢 0 − 40
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = −4𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 0 − 402 −1600
∴𝑠= = = = 200𝑚
2𝑎 2 × −4 −8
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 400𝑚 + 200𝑚 = 600𝑚
1
(NB: You can also use 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 for each stage)
2. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 𝑥𝑚/𝑠 2 until it reaches a final velocity of 60𝑚/𝑠 in
23s. It is then brought to rest for further 15s. Using equations,
i. find the value of x
ii. find the distance travelled during the acceleration and the deceleration.
iii. find the total distance travelled.

Solution:
1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎: 𝑢 = 0 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡) 𝑎 = 𝑥𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑣 = 60𝑚/𝑠, 𝑡 = 23𝑠.
2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎: 𝑢 = 60𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣 = 0 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡), 𝑡 = 15𝑠
𝑣−𝑢 60−0
i) 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 = = = 2.61𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 23

∴ 𝑥 = 2.61𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑖𝑖) 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 602 − 0 3600
𝑠= = = = 689.6𝑚 = 690𝑚
2𝑎 2 × 2.61 5.22
𝑣 − 𝑢 0 − 60
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = −4𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 15
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 0 − 602 3600
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑠 = = =− = 450𝑚
2𝑎 2 × −4 −8
iii) Total distance travelled = 690m + 450m = 1,140m

Evaluation
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 8𝑚/𝑠 2 until it attains a maximum velocity of 80𝑚/𝑠
in 10s. It continues with this speed for further 100s until it is brought to rest for another 25s. Using
equations, find the total distance travelled.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Write down the equations of motion.
2. Write down the various transformation of the above equations under gravity.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. The following are equations of motion. Except ---
A. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
B. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
(𝑣+𝑢)𝑡
C. 𝑠 = 2

D. 𝑉 = 𝑢2 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

2. When velocity is plotted against the time taken, the gradient of the uniform graph obtained gives ---
A. Speed
 B. Deceleration
C. Acceleration
D. Uniform speed
3. In a v-t graph, area of the entire shape obtained gives ---
A. Acceleration
B. Deceleration
C. Distance
D. Total distance travelled
4. For a body thrown upward, its acceleration is usually ---
A. Negative
B. Neutral
C. Positive
D. Valueless
5. When a body comes to rest, the final velocity is ---
A. Neutral
B. Zero
C. Uniform
D. Constant
Essay
1. Derive the equations of motion.
2. What is the acceleration of a body at uniform speed?
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’circular motion’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.
And answer the following questions:
- What is centripetal acceleration?
- Define uniform circular motion.

WEEK 3: Date:__________

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 1

TOPIC: CIRCULAR MOTION

CONTENT: 1. Meaning of circular motion

2. Definition of terms
i. Angular velocity ii. Tangential velocity iii. Centripetal acceleration
iv. Centripetal force v. Centrifugal force vi. Period vii. Frequency
3. Calculations on circular motion.
Sub –topic 1. Meaning of circular motion
Circular motion is the motion of a body around acicle. The simplest form of circular motion is the
uniform circular motion, where the speed is constant but the direction is changing.
V3
A V1
C
𝜃 B

V2

Consider a body moving in a circular path center O with a constant speed.

1. The direction at different points are not the samei.e the direction at A is different from the
direction at B. This leads to a change in velocity.
2. This difference in velocity produces an acceleration directed towards the center of the
circle. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
3. Since there is an acceleration, there is a force directed towards the center of the circle
called centripetal force.
4. In addition to the centripetal force, there is an equal but opposite force which acts
outwards from the centerof the circle. This force is called the centrifugal force. The centripeal and the
centrifugal forces enable the object to move in the orbit.

Sub –topic 2: Definition of terms used in circular motion.

1. Angular velocity (ω): The ratio of the angle turned through to the elapsed time.

r
𝜃
r

ω = Angular velocity

Angular displacement 𝜃
ω= =
time 𝑡

The S.l unit is rad/sec

2. Tangential velocity(V): This is the linear velocity whose direction is along the tangent to the
circumference of the circle.

displacement(s) 𝑠 𝑟𝜃
v= = =
time(t) 𝑡 𝑡

𝜃
But, ω=
𝑡
Then v = rω
The unit is m/s
3. Centripetal acceleration (a): This can be defined as the acceleration of a body in uniform circular
motion whose direction is towards the centre of the circle. It is given as:

v2
𝑎=
r
The unit is m/s2

But ,v = rω

Then, a = rω2

1. Centripetal force (F): It is defined as that inward force that is always directed towards the centre of the
circle required to keep an object moving with a constant speed in a circular path.

Centripetal force = mass x centripetal acceleration

mv2
𝐹= or F = rω2 = 𝜔𝑣𝑟 = ma
r

The unit is Newton

5. Centrifugal force: This force is equal in magnitude to the centripetal force but opposite in
direction. (it is always directed away from the centre of the circle)

mv2
𝐹=− or F= - rω2
r

6. Period (T): This is the time taken for a body to complete one revolution round the circle.

Displacement = 2𝜋𝑟
Time = T
Velocity = v

displacement 2𝜋𝑟
v= =
time 𝑇

2𝜋𝑟
T=
𝑣

7. Frequency (f): It is the number of revolutions in one second.

1
f=
𝑇
𝑣
T=
2𝜋𝑟

The unit is Hertz or per seconds. (Ie Hz or s-1)

Sub –topic 3: Calculations on circular motion

Question 1: A stone of mass 2kg is attached to the end of an inelastic string and whirled round two times
in a horizontal circular path of radius 3m in 3 sec, find:
i. Angular velocity
ii. Linear velocity
iii. Centripetal acceleration
iv. Centripetal force
v. Centrifugal force

SOLUTION

Angular displacement 𝜃
1. ω= =
time 𝑡
Where 𝜃is the angular displacement and ω is the angular velocity

θ = 360 X 2 = 7200 (ie two times)

π = 1800
θ = 4π rad
4𝜋
ω= = 1.33πrad/sec
3

2. v = rω
= 3 x 1.33π = 3.99 π m/s

v2
3. 𝑎 =
r

(3.99π)2
𝑎=
3
𝑎 = 5.31𝜋 2 m/s2
4.
𝐹 = ma = 2 x 5.31𝜋 2 = 10.62𝜋 2 N
mv2
5. 𝐹=− = −10.62𝜋 2 N
r

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Explain the following terms (i) Angular velocity (ii) Tangential velocity
(iii) centripetal acceleration
2. A body of mass 10kg is attached to the end of an inelastic thread and whirled round in a
circular path of radius 0.3m, if the body makes a complete revolution in 3 sec find
a. Angular velocity
b. linear velocity
c. centripetal acceleration
d. centripetal force
e. centrifugal force

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
:
1. A body moves with a constant speed but has an acceleration. This is possible if it
 A. moves in a straight line.
B. moves in a circle.
C. is oscillating.
D. has a varying acceleration.
2. The angular speed of an object describing a circle of radius 4m with a linear constant speed of
10m/s is
A. 40.0rad/s B. 14.0rad/s C. 2.50rad/s D. 1.58rad/s
3. The relationship between linear velocity and angular velocity is
A. v = rw. B. v = r2w C. v = w2r. D. v = w/r.
4. A stone tied to a string is made to revolve in a horizontal circle of radius 4m with an angular speed
for 2 radians per second. With what tangential velocity will the stone move off the circle if the
string cuts?
A. 16m/s B. 8.0m/s C. 6.0m/s D. 0.5m/s
5. An object of mass 0.40kg attached to the end of a string is whirled round in a horizontal circle of
radius 2.0m and a constant speed of 8m/s. Calculate the angular velocity of the object.
A. 0.8 rad/s B. 16.0 rad/s C. 2.0 rad/s D. 8.0 rad/s
6. A body moving in a circle at constant speed has
i. a velocity tangential to the
circle.
ii. a constant kinetic energy.
iii. an acceleration directed towards the circumference of the circle. Which of the statements
above are correct?
A. i and ii only B. ii and iii only C. i and iii only D.i,ii and iii

ESSAY
1. Explain the fact that a particle moving along a circular path with uniform speed has an
acceleration.
2. An object of mass 0.50kg at the end of an inelastic string is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius
2.0m with a constant speed of 10m/s. Determine its angular velocity.
3. A particle moves in a circular orbit of radius 0.02m, Determine its frequency if its speed is
0.88m/s.
4. A beam of electrons travelling at 1.0 x 108m/s is caused to describe a circular arc of radius
0.40m by the application of a magnetic field perpendicular to its path. Determine the
acceleration of each electron.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Senior secondary physics Bk 1 byNdupu, okeke , ladipo. Topic linear motion.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY: Differentiate between distance and displacement.

WEEK 4:

DATE:…………….

SUBJECT: PHYSICS

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

CONTENT:

1. Concept of energy
2. Types Energy
3. Conservation of mechanical energy
4. Sources of Energy
5. Uses of Energy
6. Environmental Impact of Energy.

Sub topic 1: Concept of Energy

Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. Its unit is Joules.

Types of energy

Energy exists in various forms some of which are;

1. Mechanical energy
2. Chemical energy
3. Solar energy
4. Heat energy
5. Sound energy
6. Electrical energy
7. Nuclear energy

Mechanical energy

Kinetic energy and potential energy constitutes mechanical energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a body
possesses as a result of its motion. Potential energy on the other hand, is the energy possessed by a body
because of its position. A body can also possess potential energy as a result of its nature. For example, an
elastic material when stretched stores up energy (potential energy) which is given as ½ k e2 where k is
what we call the elastic constant and e is extension in metres. Another form of potential energy is
chemical potential energy which is energy stored up in a substance because of its chemical composition.
Examples are; energy in the food we eat, electrolytes in cells or batteries.

Mathematically, Kinetic energy K. E = ½( mv2). m is mass in kilogram, v is velocity in m/s.

Examples of bodies that possess kinetic energy are

 i. A rolling ball
ii. An object falling under gravity
iii. wind or air in motion
iv. An athlete running a race
v. A bullet movement
vi. A plane flying.

If a body is raised to a height h, its potential energy is given as

P.E = mgh. Where m is mass in kilogram, h is height in metres and g is acceleration due to gravity.

Evaluation

1. Differentiate between potential energy and kinetic energy

2. What is the formula for calculating kinetic energy and potential energy

Sub topic 2: Law of conservation of energy

Energy as we have treated earlier exists in various forms. Although energy can be converted from one
form to the other, the total energy remains conserved.

This is the law of conservation of energy. It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but
can be converted from one form to the other. This law can be illustrated by mechanical systems as shown
in the figures below.

A VA = 0, hmax

height h

B VB

C hmax. V = 0
 hmax. V = 0 A
P.Emax. K.E = 0 A

A body of weight ( w) ifted upto a

height (h)

Fig 1 Fig. 2

Energy changes in a simple pendulum

For fig 1

i. As the pendulum bob approaches A, the velocityreduces until it becomes zero at point A
where it momentarily comes to rest; thereby making the KE zero.
ii. Also at A, the bob attains its maximum height above the ground; thereby making the PE to
be maximum.
iii. as the bob returns towards B, the velocity increases and the height decreases such that at B,
velocity is maximum (since KE = ½ mv2, KE is also maximum).
iv. At B, height is zero, PE is equal to zero.
v. At the middle point either between A and B or B and C, energy is conserved. Hence, PE
=KE

In fig. 2, as the body moves from the horizontal ground C to A, its velocity reduces and at point A, at
height h, where the body is stationary, the velocity v is zero. Consequently its kinetic energy is zero but
the potential energy is maximum. As the body drops to the ground, its velocity increases and the vertical
height h reduces to zero. Therefore, potential energy just before it touches the ground is zero and the
body has maximum kinetic energy. At point B, the body possesses both Kinetic energy and potential
energy. From the two illustrations we see that although the energy changes from kinetic to potential
energy and vice versa, the total energy of the system is conserved or remains unchanged.

Another example where it is applied is for a falling body.

P.EMAX

P.E +K.E
K.EK h

K.EMAX

Example 1. A ball of mass 8kg falls from rest from a height of 100m. Neglecting air

resistance, calculate its kinetic energy after falling a distance of 30m.

 (take g as 10m/s2).

SOLUTION:

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 100𝑚 𝑢=0

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠 = 30𝑚

𝑎 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 30 𝑚 𝑣 =?

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

𝑣 2 = 02 + 2 × 10 × 30

𝑣 = √600

𝑣 = 24.5 𝑚/𝑠

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
= × 8 × 600
2
𝐾𝐸 = 2400 𝐽

Alternative solution;

𝐾𝐸 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ

𝐾𝐸 = 8 × 10 × 30 = 2400 𝐽

Example 2

A body of mass 100kg is released from a height of 200m. With what energy does the body strike the
ground? (g = 10 m/s2)

Solution

Gravitational potential energy is given as P.E = mgh = 100 x 10 x 200 = 200,000J

Example 3

A stone of mass 50.0kg is moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. calculate the kinetic energy

Solution

mass = 50.0kg, velocity = 20 m/s

K. E = ½ mv2 = ½ x 50.0 x 20.0 = 500J

EVALUATION

1. 1. List eight forms of energy you know.

2. State the law of conservation of energy and apply it to any mechanical system

3. State the principle of conservation of energy. Using this principle explain

how energy is conserved for (i) objects falling under gravity

(ii) swinging of a simple pendulum bob.

4. A ball of mass 1kg is dropped from a height of 5m and bounces to a height

of 10m. Calculate (i) its kinetic energy just before impact.

(ii) its initial bouncing velocity and kinetic energy.

Sub-Topic 3: SOURCES OF ENERGY:

The following are the sources of energy:

1. Energy from the sun (solar energy)

2. Wood (fire wood)
3. Coal
4. Electricity
5. Fossil fuels
6. Chemicals as in cells and batteries.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF ENERGY
Sources of energy can be classified into:
i. Renewable sources of energy: These sources are not usually depleted as a result of usage. e.g,
solar energy, tidal waves, wind, waterfalls and dams.
ii. Non renewable sources of energy: These sources are usually reduced as they are being used. E.g,
fossil fuels-coal, oil, natural gas and wood.

USES OF ENERGY
a) Solar energy is a universal source of light to planet earth. The plants also use it to manufacture
their own food through photosynthesis.
b) Fire wood gives heat for cooking our food.
c) Energy from coal is used to boil water, then, produce steam used in steam engines.
d) Energy from waterfalls is used in hydro-electric power stations like kanji dam to produce
electricity.
e) Natural gas, petroleum, diesel oil, etc are all derived from fossil fuels.
 f) Chemical energy from cells and batteries are used to power our electronics and phones.

Evaluation
1. State five source of energy discussed.
2. What fuel can we derive from fossil fuels?
3. State three uses of energy.

Sub-Topic 4: ENERGY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The availability of electricity and petrol is very essential to every society. In fact, all lives on earth depend
on the availability of energy. This is because all our electrical gadgets at home and in offices, big
machines and engines in the factories and manufacturing industries, our day – to – day activities, all
depend on the availability of energy.
In advanced countries like the USA, Japan, Canada, Russia, etc, the availability of electricity is
everywhere. This has enhanced the economy of the countries and thus having a better Gross Domestic
Products (GDP). The reverse is the case in the under-developing world like Nigeria, Liberia, Togo, etc
where the availability of electricity is nothing to write home about. This has therefore jeopardized the
economy, thus, giving rise to low GDP.
Energy is indeed needed in every society for the production of food, efficient transport system, good
health programmes, good educational system, etc.
The need for energy availability in every society can never be over emphasized. In short, energy is a
major factor to societal development.

The Impact of Energy Usage on the Environment.

The impact of energy usage on the environment could be friendly or unfriendly.
The friendly impact is the display of light to give beauty to cities, at night and other significances; while
the unfriendly impact include the hazard radiations from nuclear reactors, gases from industries, etc
which could be detrimental to human health.

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans.Since the
early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about
two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that it is
primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases( like carbon (iv) oxide, methane, etc)
produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.

THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases
in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in
1824, discovered in 1860 by John Tyndall,was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius
in 1896,and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Callendar.
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, leading to increased radiation from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous
oxide. According to work published in 2007, the concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by
36% and 148% respectively since 1750.
Evaluation
1. What is green house effect?
2. The concept of green house effect was developed by who?
3. Mention any four countries of the world that has high GDP
4. Why do you think that the mentioned countries above have high GDP?

Sub-Topic 5: ENERGY CRISIS

An energy crisis is any great bottleneck (or price rise) in the supply of energy resources to an economy.
It often refers to one of the energy sources used at a certain time and place, particularly those that
supply national electricity grids or serve as fuel for vehicles.

There has been an enormous increase in the global demand for energy in recent years as a result of
industrial development and population growth. Since the early 2000s the demand for energy, especially
from liquid fuels, and limits on the rate of fuel production has created such a bottleneck leading to the
current energy crisis.

Causes

i. Market failure is possible when monopoly manipulation of markets occurs.

ii. Large fluctuations and manipulations in future derivatives can have a substantial impact on price.
iii. Pipeline failures and other accidents may cause minor interruptions to energy supplies

OIL SPILLAGE
Oil spillage is the release of a liquidpetroleumhydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine
areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually applied to marine oil spills,
where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be
due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of
refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large
ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its
insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in
the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including
the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the
types of shorelines and beaches involved.Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

Causes:

i. When oil tankers have equipment faults.

ii. From nature and human activities on land.
iii. Water Sports.
iv. Drilling works carried out in sea.

Evaluation:
1. What are the causes of energy crises?
2. Define oil spill.
3. State two causes of oil spillage.
4. Define the concept of energy.
5. Why do you think that energy is one of the vital factors to societal existence?
6. Discuss the impact of energy use on environment.
7. Discuss the concept of global warming and the green house effect.
8. Enumerate the factors to be considered in cleaning up the water bodies as a result of oil spillage.

Weekend Assignment:

1. Reading assignment: Read on heat energy temperature and the kinetic theory of matter.
2. Give two sources each of the following forms of energy; kinetic energy, heat energy, electrical
energy, chemical energy, solar energy
3. If the maximum speed of a pendulum bob is 4.5 m/s at the lowest point O, calculate the height h
of the pendulum bob above O where its velocity is zero
4. (a) Define the following terms (i) Work (ii) Energy (iii) kinetic energy
(iv) potential energy.
(b) State two differences and two similarities between power and energy.
(c) Calculate the power of a pump which can lift 100kg of water through a
vertical height of 5m in 20secs ( g = 10m/s2 ).
(d) A ball of mass 8kg falls from rest from a height of 100m. Neglecting air
resistance, calculate its kinetic energy after falling a distance of 30m.
 (take g as 10m/s2).
5. A drum of mass 1000kg is rolled into the deck of a lorry 1.5m above a
horizontal floor using a plank 4m long. calculate the work done against
gravity during the process. ( g = 10m/s2 ).
A ball of mass 1kg is dropped from a height of 5m and bounces to a height
of 10m. Calculate (i) its kinetic energy just before impact.
(ii) its initial bouncing velocity and kinetic energy.
6. A stone of mass 1.0kg is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of
10m/s.
Find (i) the potential energy at the greatest height h and the value of h.
(ii) the kinetic energy on reaching the ground again ( g = 10m/s2).
7. Energy is a major factor to societal development. Discuss!
8. Discuss the concept of oil spillage in Nigeria. What are the likely causes of such ugly phenomenon?

Objectives A. parallel to the line of action

1. Power is defined as the of the force from a reference point.
A. capacity to exert a force B. perpendicular to the line of
B. product of force and time action of the force from a
C. product of force and distance reference point.
D. energy expended per unit C. on a line through the
time. reference point.
D. by the object.
2. What is the unit equivalent of joules?
A. Nm B. Nm2 5. The mass on a loaded spiral spring
C. kgm/s D. kgm/s2 oscillates vertically between two extreme
positions P
What is the unit equivalent of watt? and R equidistant from the
A. Nm/s B. Nm equilibrium position Q. Which of
C. kg/m D. kg/m the following statements about
the system is not correct?
3. Which of the following sourceshas the same A. The momentum of the mass
unit as energy? is maximum at Q.
A. Power B. Work B. The elastic potential energy
of the spring is maximum at Q.
C. Force D. Momentum
C. The kinetic energy of the
mass is maximum at P.
4. Which of the following sources of energy
D. The total energy of the
is renewable?
system is always constant.
A. sun B. Petroleum
C. Coal D. Uranium
6. A stone of mass 0.5kg is dropped
from a height of 12m. Calulate its
4. Which of the following statements correctly
maximum kinetic energy.
defines quantitatively, the work done by a
( g = 10m/s2)
force?The product of the force and the
A. 3.0J B. 6.0J
distance moved
C. 30.0J D. 60.0J
7. The diagram below shows the 11. A boy of weight 300N climbs to
position of a simple pendulum the top of a hill of height 20m.
set in motion. At which of the the work done by the boy against
positions does the pendulum the force of gravity is
have maximum kinetic energy? A. 6000J B. 600J
A. 5 B. 4 C. 320J D. 15J
C. 3 D. 2 and 6
12. Under which of the following
conditions is work done
A. A man supports a heavy
Load above his head with his hands
B. A woman holds a pot of
water
C. A boy climbs unto a table.
D. A man pushes against a
stationary petrol tanker.

13. At what height above the ground

2 3 4 5 6 must a body of mass 10kg be
situated in order to have
8. A 70 kg man ascends a flight of potential energy equal in value
stairs of height 4m in 7s. The to the kinetic energy possessed
power expended by the man is by another body of mass 10kg
A. 40W B. 100W moving with a velocity of
C. 280W D. 400W 10m/s?
A. 5m B. 10m
C. 100m D. 500m
9. A pump lifts water into an
overhead tank at a height of 12m 14. The time taken to complete one
at the rate of 5kg/s. The power of revolution is…..
the pump is A. period B. frequency
A. 60W B. 600W C. velocity D. speed
C. 720W D. 1200W

10 A 40kg girl climbing a flight of

stairs expends energy at the rate 15. The number of oscillations per
of 50W. The time taken for her to second is known as
reach a height of 20m is A. period B. frequency
A. 16s B. 32s C. velocity D. speed.
C. 80s D. 160s

16. The later development on the concept of the Green House Effect
A. Joseph Fourier
B. Svante Arrhenius
C. Guy Stewart Callendar.
 D. Sir Isaac Newton.
17. One of the following is a factor to be considered in cleaning up the water bodies from oil spills.
A. Depth of the water body.
B. Temperature of the water body
C. Type of oil spilled
D. Type of shorelines.
18. The following are forms of energy, except ---
A. Chemical energy
B. Aquatic energy
C. Solar energy
D. Nuclear energy.
19. Oil spillage is predominant in one of the following areas in Nigeria.
A. Middle belt
B. Bendel
C. Niger delta
D. South west
20. The following are oil companies in Nigeria. Except ---
A. Shell
B. Chevron
C. Agip
D. NNPC

WEEK 5:

DATE:…………….

SUBJECT: PHYSICS

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: WORK AND POWER

CONTENTS
 1. Work done in a force field
2. Interchangeability of work and energy
3. Calculations on work and power

Sub topic 1: Work done in a force field

Work done in Physics is simply defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of
the force. If work done is w, distance covered is s and force is f, then mathematically,

Work done = force x distance

W=fxs

the S.I unit of work done is Joules ( J ). Since unit offorce ‘F’ is Newton (N), unit of distance ‘s’ is metre,
the unit of work done is also Newton-Metre (Nm). Other units are kilojoules and megajoules. Note: If no
distance is covered, work done is zero. Work done is a scalar quantity.

Every object on the earth’s surface is under the influence of the force of gravity. This force pulls the
object towards its centre. The earth’s gravitational field is an example of force field. If a body is to be
lifted vertically upwards, work has to be done against this force of gravity. The work done is given as

Work done = force x distance

=mxgxh

Where m = mass of the body in kilogram, g = acceleration due to gravity and h is height in metres. If on
the other hand, the body falls freely from a vertical height h to the ground, the work done is also mgh.

Work is said to be done whenever a force moves a body over a distance in the direction of the force. i.e.
work=force (F) x distance(d) moved in the direction of the force(fxd).

Mathematically
 W(d)=Fxd
The unit of work is joules with symbol J.s

Component of F along the direction

F
of motion. 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
F
θ WD = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑑
Fcosθ
𝐹𝑥
𝜃 Cos 𝜃 =
Work = F x dcosθ d 𝐹

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

∴ 𝑊𝐷 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑑

POWER

Power can be defined in a number of ways:

1. Power is the time rate at which work is done.

2. Power is energy expended with time.
3. Power is work done in a given time interval. Its S.I unit is watt. Larger units are horse
power (hp), kilowatt (kw) and megawatt (mw).

work done (w)or energy expended

Mathematically. Power (P) = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑡)

𝑤
=
𝑡

𝑓𝑋𝑠
= 𝑡

=fxv

Where f is force and v is velocity (i.es/ t). that means power can also be defined as the product of force
and velocity. The instrument for measuring power is watt-metre.

One horse power is equal to 746watts (1h.p = 746W).

Example

A machine is rated 2500watts. Calculate the power in horse power

Solution

1 horse power = 746watts

Therefore 2500watts = (2500 / 746) horse power = 3.35 horse power

Interchangeability of work and energy

Energy and work can be used interchangeably because they are almost the same thing. They have the
same unit which is Joule. For example, if someone has energy, it means he can do some work and if
someone can do some work, it means he has some energy. Thus work and energy cannot be separated.
Evaluation

1. Define work, energy and power. State their S.I units.

2. Can energy and work be used interchangeably? Explain.

Sub topic 2. Calculations on work and power

Example 1

A body of weight 300N climbs to the top of a hill of height 20m. What is the work done by the body
against the force of gravity?

Solution

Force F = 300N, distance s = 20m

Work done = force x distance

=Fxs

= 300 x 20 = 6000J

Example 2.

An object of mass 12kg is held at a height of 10m above the ground for 15 minutes. Calculate the work
done within this period.

Solution

Since the body is not falling freely under gravity, acceleration due to gravity is zero. Hence work done is
also zero.

Example 3

A bag of rice of mass 50kg was pushed through a distance of 5m for 10seconds by a force of 500N.
Calculate the work done.(g = 10ms-2)

Solution

m = 50.0kg, F= 500 N, s = 5m and t = 10 seconds.

Work done = force x distance

=Fxs

= 500N x 5m

= 2500J

Example 4
Calculate the power of a pump which lifts 1000kg of water through a vertical height of 2m in 10 seconds.
( g = 10ms-2)
Solution

Mass (m) = 1000kg, distance (s) = 2m, time (t) = 10s

Power = Work done

Time taken

= force x distance

Time

= mxgxs

= 1000 x 10 x 2

10

= 2000W

Example 5

An engine develops a power of 750W while moving a car at constant velocity of 3ms-s. Calculate the
force exerted on the car by the engine.

Solution

Power = 750W, velocity = 3m/s, F = ?

Power = force x velocity

Force = power

Velocity

= 750 / 3 = 250N

Example 6

A stone of mass 10kg falls from a height of 2.0m. Calculate the work done. (take g = 10ms2)

Solution

Mass (m) = 10kg, height (h) = 2.0m

Work done = mgh

= 10 x 10 x 2 = 200J

Evaluation
 1. Differentiate between work done and power
2. What other unit is used in measuring work done?
3. A girl applied a force of 20N on an object for 5s. if the object remains stationary, calculate the
work done
4. A boy lifted up a bag of yam of weight 5N through a height of 2m in 10s. Calculate his power.

Weekend assignment

1. A boy of mass 50kg runs a set of step of steps of total height 10cm. calculate the work done
(take g = 10ms-2)
2. A 70kg man ascends a flight of stairs of height 4m in 7 seconds. Calculate the power
expended by the man
3. A 40kg girl climbs up a stair and expends energy at the rate of 50W. calculate the time taken
for her to reach a height of 20m

WEEK 6:DATE:…………….

SUBJECT: Physics

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: Heat Energy

CONTENTS

1. Concept of heat and temperature

2. The kinetic theory of matter
3. Effects of heat on substances (expansion, vaporization)
4. Linear expansion, Coefficient of linear expansivity
5. Experimental determination of linear expansivity , Area expansivity
6. Cubic expansivity, Experiment to determine the apparent cubic expansivity.
7. Applications of expansion

Sub topic 1: Concept of heat and temperature

Heat is a form of energy that moves from one point to the other due to temperature difference. When you
dip one end of an iron rod into fire and hold the other end with your hand, this other end soon becomes
hot because energy has flowed from the point dipped into the fire to this other end. This energy flow is
what is known as heat. Temperature is a measure of how cold or hot a body is.

Differences between heat and temperature

Heat Temperature
It is a form of energy It is not a form of energy
It is measured in joules It is measured in Kelvin
it is a form of energy transferred from a body it is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
at a higher temperature to one at a lower the constituent particle of the a substance
temperature
it is a derived quantity It is a fundamental quantity
Other unit for measuring heat :calorie (Cal), Other units include: 0F, 0C
kcal, ...
It can be determined using a calorimeter It can be measued using a thermometer

The kinetic theory of matter

The kinetic theory of matter states that:

1. Matter is made up of atoms and molecules.

2. The molecules are in a state of constant random motion.
3. They possess kinetic energy because of their motion.
4. The kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the temperature of the body.

Evaluation.

1. Define temperature and state its unit.

2. State three assumptions of the kinetic theory of matter.

Sub topic 2: Effects of heat on substances ( expansion, vaporization)

When heat is applied to a substance, it can lead to the following changes

1. Chemical changes.
2. Temperature changes.
3. Expansion/contraction.
4. Change of state (melting, vaporization, sublimation).
5. Change in pressure in gases at constant volume.
6. Thermionic emission.

Thermal expansion
Most solid substances expand when heated. The rate of expansion varies from one solid to another.
Expansion is more pronounced in gases followed by liquids and least in solids. A substance whether
solid, liquid or gaseous consists of molecules. When the substance is heated, the molecules gain kinetic
energy and move faster and hence the molecules take up more space in the substance. This leads to
expansion.

Ball and ring experiment

Experiment to demonstrate expansion of a solid.

Apparatus: Bunsen burner, ball and ring apparatus

ring metal ball

Before heating After heating

Solid expansion

Procedure: Allow the metal ball to pass through the ring. Heat the metal ball for some time in the
Bunsen burner and make it pass through the same ring. The metal ball will no longer pass through the
same ring it passed through earlier as a result of expansion. When allowed to cool down for some time
and allowed to pass through the ring once more, it will pass through because it has contracted and
regained its original size.

Using kinetic theory to explain temperature of a body

According to the kinetic theory of matter, the average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly
proportional to the temperature. This means that as the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the
temperature also increases. When a body is subjected to heat, the velocities of the molecules increases
and hence they gain more kinetic energy this of course will lead to increase in the temperature of the
body. On the other hand, if we reduce or lower the heat, the velocities of the molecules will decrease
leading to a decrease in the kinetic energy of the molecules. Hence the temperature falls or reduces.

Evaluation

1. Give three differences between heat and temperature

2. Explain the phenomenon of expansion using the kinetic theory of matter
3. Give four effects of heat on a substance

Sub –topic 4. Linear expansion, Coefficient of linear expansivity

TYPES OF EXPANSION:
I. Linear expansion
2. Area or Superficial Expansion
3. Volume or cubic Expansion

LINEAR EXPANSION: linear expansion is expansion in length of a body. Different solids expand at
different rates, this is because they have different coefficient of linear expansivity.

COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSIVITY (α)

It is defined as increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature. The unit is per Kelvin or
1/Kor K– 1

Increase in lenght L2 −𝐿1

α = original lenght x temperature rise = L1 ( θ2 −𝜃1)

L2 − 𝐿1 = increase in lenght or expansion

θ2 − 𝜃1=𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
θ2 is final temperature, θ1 is initial temperature

𝐿1 = original lenght, L2 is new length

Question 1.
What is meant by the statement, the linear expansivity of copper is 0.000017/k.
Solution:
It means that the increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature of copper is 0.000017m.

Question 2:
A brass is 2 meters long at a certain temperature. What is its length for a temperature rise of 100k, if expansivity of
brass is 1.8 x 10-5/k
Solution:
Increase in lenght L2 −𝐿1
α = original lenght x temperature rise = L1 (θ2 −𝜃1 )

L2 − 𝐿1 = α𝐿1 ( θ2 − 𝜃1)
L2 = 𝐿1 {𝛼(θ2 − 𝜃1 ) + 1}
L2 = 2{1.8 𝑥10−5 (100) + 1}
L2 = 2{0.0018 + 1}
L2 = 0.0036 + 2 = 2.0036m
Question 3:
A metal of length 15.01m is heated until its temperature rises to 600C. If its new length is 15.05m, calculate its
linear expansivity.

Solution:

𝐿1 = 15.01m, L2 = 15.05, θ2 − 𝜃1 = 600 , L2 − 𝐿1 = 0.04

Increase in lenght L2 −𝐿1

α = original lenght x temperature rise = L1 ( θ2 −𝜃1)
L2 −𝐿1
α=L
1 ( θ2 −𝜃1)
 15.05−15.01 0.04
α= = 900.6 = 0.000044 = 4.4 x 10−5 /k
15.01 x 600

EVALUATION:
I. What is meant by the statement that the linear expansivity of copper is 0.000017/k.
2. Steel bars each of length 3m at 290c are to be used for constructing a rail line. If the linear expansivity of steel is
1.0 x 10-5/k. Calculate the safety gap that must be kept between successive bars, If the highest temperature expected
is 400c.

Sub –topic 5: 1. Experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a metal block.

Aim: Experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a metal block

Apparatus: Thermometer, Micrometer screw guage, steam jacket, metal rod, meter rule
Method:i. Measure the length of the metal rod (L1).
ii. Insert the metal rod in the steam jacket and take the initial temperature of the
metal rod with thermometer (θ1).
iii. Screw the micro-meter to touch the end of the rod and take the reading of
micro-meter (xi).
iv. Unscrew micro meter to make room for expansion of metal rod.
v. Introduce steam into the steam jacket for several minutes then the metal rod
will expand.
vi. Screw the micrometer screw guage to touch the end of the metal rod again and take
the reading again (x2).
vii. Record the final temperature (θ2).
Calculation:

x1 −𝑥2
α=
L1 ( θ2 −𝜃1)
Conclusion: Since all parameters are known, α can be calculated.

2. Area or Superficial expansivity(β)

It is defined as the increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temperature
 Increase in Area A2 −𝐴1
β = original Area x temperature rise = A1 (θ2 −𝜃1 )

A2 − 𝐴1 = increase in Area or expansion

θ2 − 𝜃1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
θ1 is initial temperature, θ2 is final temperature
𝐴1 = original Area, A2 isnew area

Relationship between Linear expansivity and Area expansivity:

𝜷 = 𝟐𝜶
Question 1: A metal cube of cross sectional area 3.45m2 at 00C is heated at a temperature rise of 70K, when the
final length of the cube is 3m. Find the: i. coefficient of superficial expansivity.
ii. coefficient of linear expansivity.
Solution:
i.
Increase in Area A2 −𝐴1
β= =
original Area x temperature rise A1 (θ2 −𝜃1 )

2
A2 = L =3 x 3 = 9m2
θ2 − 𝜃1 = 70K
𝐴1 = 3.45m2

9−3.45 5.55
β= = = 0.023/k = 2.3 x 10−2 /k
3.45 x 70 241.5
ii.
𝛽 = 2𝛼
𝛽
𝛼=
2
2.3 × 10−2
𝛼= = 1.15 × 10−2 𝐾 −1
2

EVALUATION:
1. The linear expansivity of a metal is 0.000019 per k. What will the area of 400mm2 be if its temperature is raised
by 100C.

Sub –topic 6: Cubic expansivity, Experiment to determine the apparent cubic expansivity.

Cubic or volume expansivity(γ)

It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature
 Increase in volume V2 −𝑉1
γ= =
original volume x temperature rise V1 (θ2 −𝜃1 )

V2 − 𝑉1 = increase in volume or expansion

θ2 − 𝜃1=𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑉1 = original volume𝑉2 is final volume.

Relationship between Linear expansivity and Cubic expansivity:

γ = 3α
Question 2: The increase in the volume of 10cm3 of mercury when the temperature rises by 1000C is 0.182cm3.
What is cubic expansivity of mercury.

Increase in volume V2 −𝑉1

γ= =
original volume x temperature rise V1 (θ2 −θ1 )

V2 − 𝑉1 = increase in volume = 0.182cm2

θ2 − 𝜃1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 =100𝑜 C
𝑉1 = original volume=10cm2

0.182 0.182
γ= = = 0.000182/k = 1.82 x 10−4 K −1
10 x 100 1000

EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS:
Expansion in liquid is complicated by the expansion of the container because while the liquid expands,
the container equally expands. So it is important to differentiate between real and apparent cubic
expansivity.

REAL OR ABSOLUTE CUBIC EXPANSIVITY (γr): It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume
per degree rise in temperature.

APPARENT CUBIC EXPANSIVITY (γa): It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume per
degree rise in temperature when the liquid is heated in an expansible vessel.

𝛾𝑟 = 𝛾𝑎 + 𝛾
𝛾𝑟 = Real or cubic expansivity of liquid
𝛾𝑎 = Apparent cubic expansivity of liquid
𝛾 = 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟

QUESTION 3:
A cube with side 100cm at 00C is heated to 1000C. If the side becomes 101cm long find,
a. The linear expansivity
b. The cubic expansivity
SOLUTION:

(𝑎). 𝐿1= 100cm= 1m, L2 = 101cm = 1.01m, θ2 = 1000 , 𝜃1 = 00

Increase in lenght L2 −𝐿1

α= =
original lenght x temperature rise L1 ( θ2 −𝜃1)
L2 −𝐿1
α=
L1 ( θ2 −𝜃1)
1.01−1 0.01
α= = = 0.0001 = 1.0 x 10−4 /k
1x 100 100

(b). γ = 3α
γ = 3 x 1.0 x 10-4= 3.0 x 10-4/K

DETERMINATION OF THE APPARENT CUBIC EXPANSIVITY OF A LIQUID.

APPARATUS: Thermometer, Density bottle, Retort stand, Water, Source of heat, Beaker, Beam balance,
Liquid, Stirrer.
METHOD:
i. Dry the density bottle and weigh it (M).
 ii. Fill the density bottle with the liquid that the apparent cubic expansivity is
required and weigh it (M1)
iii. Immerse the density bottle into a beaker of water and suspend with a thread on
the clamp of the retort stand.
iv. Take the original temperature of the water in the beaker (θ1).
v. Heat the set up gently until the water boils.
vi. Some liquid are expelled through the orifice of the bottle cover, the heating
continues until no liquid is seen expelled again.
vii. The final temperature of water is taken(θ2)
viii. The density bottle is removed and wiped dry and re-weighed(M2).

CALCULATION:
Mass of empty density bottle = M
Mass of density bottle + liquid = M1
Original temperature of water = θ1
Final temperature of liquid = θ2
Mass of remaining liquid + density bottle = M2

Mass of liquid expelled M1 −𝑀2

𝛾𝑎 = =
Mass of liquid remaining x temperature rise M2−𝑀(θ2 −𝜃1 )

CONCLUSION:
Since all the parameters are known, apparent cubic expansivity𝛾𝑎 can be
calculated.

EVALUATION:

1. Differentiate between Real cubic expansivity and Apparent cubic expansivity.

2. A glass bottle full of mercury has mass 500g on being heated through 350C, 2.43g of mercury was
expelled. Calculate the mass of mercury remaining in the bottle ( cubicexpansivity of mercury is 1.8 x 10-
4
/k and linear expansivity of glass is 8.0 x 10-6/k)

Sub-Topic 7: Applications of Expansion

(A) ADVANTAGES OF EXPANSION:

1. The use of the bimetallic strip in:
a. Fire alarm
b. Bi-metallic thermometer
c. temperature regulator in electric pressing iron

2. Red hot rivet used in ship

3. Removal of tight glass stopper
4. Fitting of wheels in rims

Bi-metallic strip:
It consists of two different metals joined together. They expand at different rates when heated e.g brass
and iron.

a. ELECTRIC FIRE ALARM:

When a fire breaks out in a building, the resulting heat causes the bi-metallic strip to bend towards the
contact, thus completing the circuit. This causes the bell to ring out a fire alarm.

b. BI-METALLIC THERMOMETER
It consists of a coiled bi-metallic strip which expands outwards when heated. As this
happens, the pointer moves along the scale and the reading on the scale is taken as the
temperature.

c. ELECTRIC PRESSING IRON:

It has a device known as Thermostat, it is made of bi-metallic strip and it is used to regulate
the temperature of the pressing iron, Gas cooker, Refrigerator.

MODE OF OPERATION OF PRESSING IRON

When the current is switched on, current flows through the circuit and the bi-metallic strip is heated up. It
expands and the strip bends away from the contact point thereby switching off the flow of current.
The pressing iron cools down,straighten-out and contact is re-made and current begin to flows again and
the processcontinues. This make-and-break device regulates the temperature of a pressing iron.

2. RED-HOT RIVET USED IN SHIP:

 Steel plates and girders which are used in ship building and other constructional works are usually
riveted together.
3. FITTING OF WHEELS IN RIMS:
The large driving wheels of locomotive are fixed with steel tyre which are renewed from time to
time as they wear out. In order to ensure a tight fitting, the tyre is made slightly smaller in
diameter than the wheel. The tyre contracts on cooling thus ensuring tight fitting.
4. REMOVAL OF TIGHT GLASS STOPPER:
A tight glass stopper can be removed by standing the bottle in hot water. The glass bottle expands
and the stopper becomes loose.

(B) DISADVANTAGES OF EXPANSION:

1. Expansion of metal on steel bridges/galvanized iron sheets: Cracking sounds are heard when
galvanized iron sheets used in the roof of buildings are being heated. This is due to the expansion of
sheet when heated. Bridges made of steel equally expand during hot weather.
2. Cracking of glass cup when hot water is poured into it: When hot water is poured into the glass
tumbler, it often cracks due to uneven expansion of the interior walls and exterior walls of the glass
cup.
3. Expansion of balance wheel of a wrist watch. This makes the watch to give wrong reading
4. Sagging of overhead wires: Telegraph wires when laid in hot weather are allowed to sag so that in
cold weather they can contract without snapping.
5. Expansion of railway lines: Gaps are left between rails in railway lines to allow for free expansion
and contraction of rails, without the gaps, there would be buckling of rails.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
I. Explain four advantages of expansion in solids.
2. Explain three disadvantages of expansion in solids

Weekend assignment 1:

1. Give three applications of expansion/contraction

2. What is a bimetallic strip? Give two applications of a bimetallic strip
3. Explain how a thermostat regulates the temperature of an electric iron
4. Mention three solids that undergoes sublimation

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT 2:
:
1. The unit of linear expansivity is
A. m/k B. m/k C. k D. K–1

2. A copper rod is 3m long at a certain temperature. Calculate its length for a temperature rise of 100k
if the linear expansivity of copper is 17 x 10-6 1/k.
A. 3.0051 B. 3.0017
C. 3.5100 D. 3.0510
3. Calculate the change in length of a wire of length 35m which is heated from a temperature of 100c
to 500c. [ linear expansivity of the material of the wire = 2.0 x 10-61/k].
A. 2.8 x 10-3 B. 2.8 x 10-6C. 2.8 x 10-5 D. 2.8 x 10-4

4. Steel bars each of length 3m at 280c are to be used for constructing a rail line. If the
linear expansivity of steel is 1.0 X 10-5/k, what is the safety gap that must be left between
Successive bars if the highest temperature expected is 400c?
A. 1.2 X 10-1cm B. 7.2 X 10-2cm C. 6.0 X 10-2cm D. 3.6 X 10-2cm

5. A solid material of volume 100cm3 is heated through a temperature difference of 400c.

Calculate the increase in the volume of the material if its linear expansivity is 2.0 x 10-6/k.
A. 2.4 X 10-2cm3 B. 1.6 X 10-2cm3 C. 8.0 X 10-3cm3 D. 5.0 X 10-6cm3
ESSAY
1. a. What is meant by the statement: ‘The linear expansivity of zinc is
2.6 x 10-5k-1?
b. Describe an experiment to determine the linear expansivity of
a zinc rod.
c. State one advantage and two disadvantage of thermal expansion of
solids.[Neco 2000]
d. An iron rod is 1.58m long at 00c.What must be the length of a brass rod at 00c if the
difference between the lengths of the two rods is to remain the same at all
temperatures.[ linear expansivity of iron = 1.2 x 10-5k-1, linear expansivity of
brass = 1.9 x 10-5/k].

2a A density glass bottle contains 44.25g of a liquid at 00c and 42.02g at 500c.Calculate

the real cubic expansivity of the liquid [ linear expansivity of glass= 1.0 x 10-5/k].

b. The increase in the volume of 10cm3 of mercury when the temperature rises by

1000c is 0.182cm3. What is the cubic expansivity of mercury?

c. A glass bottle full of mercury has mass 500g on being heated through 350c,

2.43g of mercury is expelled. Calculate the mass of the mercury remaining in

in the bottle ( cubicexpansivity of mercury is 1.8 x 10-4/k, linear expansivity of

glass is 8.0 x 10-6/k).

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read the three modes of heat transfer from your physics Text book

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Using molecular theory explain conduction of heat

REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. New School Physics for senior secondary schools by M.W. Anyakoha
2. Senior secondary physics by P.N Okeke, F.N Okeke, S.F. Akande
WEEK 7: MID-TERM BREAK

WEEK 8:
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 1

TOPIC: TRANSFER OF HEAT

CONTENT: 1. Meaning, molecular explanation of conduction and applications of conductors

2. Meaning, molecular explanation.and application of convection
3. Radiation, Emission and radiation by different surfaces, The Thermos flask.

Sub –topic 1. Meaning, molecular explanation of conduction and applications of conductors

Conduction of heat is the process by which heat is passed along a material from molecule to molecule
while the heated particles remaining in mean position. Most metals are good conductors but their thermal
conductivities differ from one metal to another. Experiment performed to compare the conductivity of
solid showed that copper is a better conductor than brass, followed by iron, lead...

Using Kinetic molecular theory to explain conduction in solids

C
B
A

Heat souce

When the end A is heated, molecule A vibrate about its mean position with a greater kinetic energy and
pushes the molecule B to do the same. Molecule B’s increase in kinetic energy is transferred to C and so
on until this effect reaches Z. Soon the kinetic energy of molecule at Z is also increased. As the kinetic
energies of the molecules increase, temperature increases and heat is then tranferred from the hot part to
the cold part.
Conduction in liquids:
Liquids are poor conductors of heat except mercury and other molten metals. Experiment demonstrated
below shows that water is a poor conductor of heat.
Experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat.

Water boils here

Heat
Trapped ice-block in wire guaze
Aim: To show that water is a bad conductor of heat.
Apparatus: water, test tube, ice-block, Bunsen burner and wire guaze.
Method: i. Wrap the ice block with wire guaze to prevent the ice from floating in water,
and drop in the water in the test tube.
ii. Heat the water near the top of the water with the Bunsen burner.
Observation: It is observed that while the water was boiling on top, the ice at the bottom
did not melt
Conclusion: The ice did not melt because water is a poor conductor of heat and was not able to conduct
the heat to the ice.

Applications of conductors and insulators

1. Cooking utensils: Bad conductors of heat are used as handles while the cooking pots are
made ofmetals such as aluminium which are good conductors of heat.
2. Lagging: Insulators are often used as lagging materials in hot water pipes, stem boilers,
hot water storage tanks and ovens to prevent them from getting colder.
3. Warmth: Woollen sweaters keep us warm during winter or cold weather to prevent
conduction of heat from the body.
4. Double walls: Houses built with double walls with space in between them have air trapped
in the spaces that act as insulators, thus, keeping the house warm.

EVALUATION:

I. What is conduction?
2. Use the molecular theory to explain conduction.
3. Explain three applications of conductors and insulators.

Sub –topic 2: Meaning, molecular explanation.and application of convection

Convection is the process by which heat is transferred in a liquid or gas by the actual movement of the
heated fluid from the hotter to the colder parts. Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat but transfer
heat by convection.
Using kinetic Molecular theory to explain convection in liquid
When a liquid is heated at the bottom of its container, the molecules there expand and becomes lighter.
They therefore move to the top and are then replace by denser colder molecules from the top. The new
dense molecules also get heated up and become lighter and hot then move to the upper part to be replaced
by others. This action set up a convection flow of heat which continues until the water boils.

water
Convection current
Applications of convection
1. Land and sea breeze: This is convection current in nature. It happens in coastal area.
i. Sea breeze: In a hot day the sun warms the air near the land quickly than the sea
because the earth has a lower specific heat capacity than the sea. This warm air
rises. Cooler air from the sea moves to replace the risen air. This cool breeze from
the sea is known as sea breeze.

ii. Land breeze: at night, the air above the sea is hotter. There is a conventional flow
of hot air from the sea rises up.They are replaced by cool air from the land. The
flow of cool air from the land to the sea is called the land breeze.

2. Ventilation: Air heated by respiration and fires rises towards the ventilators placed near the
ceiling. This is replaced by fresh air from windows and other openings.

3. Cooling of motor car engine: Car engines require cooling to prevent overheating. The heat
generated by the engine is conducted by the metal to the water in the jacket. The water is cooled
by the air circulating round the radiator as the vehicle moved and by the cool air from the fan
4. The Domestic hot water system: Water is heated in the boiler by conduction through the metal.
Hot water rises by convection to the cylinder, cold water flows in to take its place.
 To tap

EVALUATION
Describe an experiment to show Convection current in water.

Sub-Topic 3: Radiation, Emission and radiation by different surfaces, The Thermos flask.

Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred from a hotter to a cooler place without heating of the
intervening medium. Radiation is a mode of heat transfer that do not required a material medium for it
transfer. Radiation can be detected by a radiometer and a thermopile. A thermopile detects and measures
radiant energy.
A black surface is a better radiator and absorber of heat than a polished / shining surface. This is why it is
not advisable to wear a black cloth on a sunny day because one feels hot.
Polished surface, white surface and silvered surface are good reflectors of heat.

Thermos flask
This device is used to prevent loss of heat energy from its content
The three modes of heat transfer are prevented in the thermos flask in the following ways:

1.The vacuum between the double walled glass prevents loss of heat by conduction and convection.
2. The silver colour of the inside of the double walls prevents heat loss by radiation
3. The cork support, or plastic prevents heat loss by conduction.
4. The cork stopper prevents heat loss by conduction, evaporation and convection.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
I. Mention the features of the Thermo flask and explain how heat losses are prevented.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Some water is heated in a pot. The major mode(s) of heat transfer within the water is/are by
A. conduction. B. convection C. radiation D. conduction and radiation

2. Which of the following statements is not correct?

A. A sea breeze is due to convection in air
B. Cotton materials are better thanwoolen ones for use in hot weather.
C. Convectional currents play an important role in the cooling of the engine of a motor car.
D. The vacuum space in a flask helps to reduce heat loss by radiation.

3. The heating element in an electric kettle is usually located near the bottom of the kettle because
A. water is a good conductor of heat.
B. heat can be more quickly radiated to all parts of the water.
C. no heat can be lost to the surroundings.
D. the convectional current which are set up can carry heat to all parts of the water.
4. Which of the following does not need a medium for heat transfer?
A. conduction B. convection C. Radiation D. Evaporation
ESSAY

a. Mention two modes of heat transfer other than convection.

b. Explain land and sea breezes.
c. Describe an experiment each to show
i. Convection current in water
ii. Aluminium is a better conductor of heat than wood.
iii. Water is a poor conductor of heat.
d. Describe an experiment to show that blackened surfaces are better heat absorbers

than shiny surfaces.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Electric charges in your Text book. And answer the question:
List two types of charges and how they can be generated.
WEEK 9:

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 1

TOPIC: ELECTROSTATICS

CONTENT: 1. Types of charges

2. law of electrostatics
3. Gold leaf electroscope
4. Electrostatic induction
5. Ways of producing charges
6. Distribution of charges
7. Lightning conductor
8. Electrophorus

Sub- Topic 1: TYPES OF CHARGES, LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS, GOLD LEAF

ELECTROSCOPE

Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest. It is electricity that does not move from one point to
another in the substance in which it is produced.

Types of charges:
Positive charge: A body becomes positively charged if it losses electron. This can be obtained in the
Laboratory if glass rod is rubbed with silk and there is a net transfer of surface electrons from glass to the
silk. The glass becomes positively charged and the silk becomes negatively charged.
Negative charge: A body is negatively charged if it gains electron. This is obtained by rubbing ebonite
rod with fur and there is a transfer of electrons from the atoms of fur to the ebonite rod. The fur becomes
positively charged.
The positively charged protons deep in the nucleus are not free to be transferred. Hence bodies do not
become electrically charged by transfer of protons. They become charged by transfer of electrons

Law of electrostatics: Like or similar charges repel each other; unlike or opposite charges attract each
other.

Gold leaf Electroscope:

An electroscope is an instrument used for the detection and testing of small electric charges. It consists of
a flat brass disc or cap, a brass rod with a gold leaf. The metal case is made draught-proof and connected
to the earth to prevent accumulation of charges due to external influence.

Brass disc

Metal case
Brass rod

Gold leaf
Earth
Uses of the Gold leaf Electroscope
1. To detect charges: If a charged body is placed on the cap of a charged electroscope an
increase in divergence or collapse of the leaf shows the body is charged. If there is no
change in the divergence, it means the body is not charged.
2. To determine the nature of charge on the body: If a charged body is placed on a charged
electroscope, increase in divergence means the charge on the electroscope and the body are
the same. If there is collapse of the leaf, it means they have opposite charge or the body is
uncharged.
3. To determine the conducting properties of a body: If a good conductor is placed on the
cap of an electroscope, the leaf collapses immediately. If it is a semi conductor, it collapses
gradually and if an insulator, there is no alteration of the leaf

EVALUATION:
I. What is electrostatics?
2. Explain three functions of a Gold leaf electroscope.

Sub-topic 2: Ways of producing charges.

1. Electrostatic induction
Electrostatic induction is the act of charging a neutral body by placing a charged body near it without any
contact between the two.

STEP 1 STEP 2
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STEP 3 STEP 4

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STEP 1: A negatively charged body is brought near the uncharged body, free electrons from the metal
sphere are repelled by the excess electrons on the rod. They shift towards the right. They can not escape
from the sphere because the stand and the surrounding air are insulated.

STEP2: These excess charges called induced charges are released to the earth by touching the right part of
the sphere with a wire and the other part of the wire to the earth.

STEP 3: The wire is disconnected.

 STEP 4: The negatively charged rod is removed. A net positive charge is left on the rod.

2. Friction:

Charges can also be produced by friction. By rubbing as in ebonite and fur, glass rod and silk, charges are
transferred from one by either of the two bodies involved. Equal and opposite charges are produced by
friction.

Effects of charging byfriction:

1. Passengers stepping out of cars and buses complain of a slight electric shock as soon as their feet touch
the ground.This is because friction between the air and the body of the fast moving car makes the
body of the vehicle to be charged.

2. A chain is often left hanging from the rear of a petrol tanker to discharge the charges acquired on the
body during movement as this may cause a spark when inflammable vapour is present.

3. Contact:

This is done by bringing a charged body in contact with an uncharged body. Charges
are transferred from the charged body to the uncharged body.

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION IN A CONDUCTOR

Charges are usually concentrated at places where the surface is sharply curved. The charge density is
highest at the sharpest point of the conductor. Because of this high charge density, air molecule close
to this point get ionized ( i.e broken down into positive and negative ions). Those with charge opposite
to the conductor will be attracted to the conductor. Those with charge opposite to that of the conductor
will be repelled. As these ions move, they collide with other molecules and knock off electron from
them thereby ionizing those molecules. This process could continue leading to a geometrical increase
in the number of ions around the conductor.
For a hollow conductor, charges reside only on its outside surface, no charges reside inside the
conductor.

EVALUATION

1. What is electrostatic induction?

2. Explain the three methods of charging.
Sub-Topic 3: Lightning conductor and Electrophorus.

Lightning conductors are used to prevent tall buildings from being damaged when being struck by
lightning. They are made from a copper with a sharp point edge or spike at the top. It helps to conduct the
charges generated harmlessly to the earth. When electrical charges in thunderclouds build up, attraction
between unlike charges within a cloud increases steadily until a heavy spark and sound is produced as the
charges approach one another. This spark is observed as lightning and the sound is thunder. The heat
generated can set a building or tree on fire.

The charge on the cloud induces electrical charges on the lightening conductor. This buildup at the sharp
edge and cause ionization of air molecule around it. Some of the charge avalanche result from the
ionization of air around the lightening conductor travels toward the cloud and help to neutralize some of
the charge on the cloud thereby reducing the possibility of a lightening.

Negatively charged
cloud

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Highly charged spikes

Thick copper cable

Electrons leak away to earth from buried copper plate

ELECTROPHORUS

Electrophorus is used for storing and transferring electric charges. It consists of a metal disc fitted with an
insulating handle and another flat disc made of insulating material such as ebonite.

Insulating handle
Ebonite
disc Metal disc
GENERAL EVALUATION

Explain the use of the following (i) Lightning conductor (ii) Electrophorus

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. A building can be adequately protected from lightning by
A. using asbestos for the roof the house. B. Planting trees around the house.
C. Fixing a long copper strip from the ground along the outside wall to a sharp vertical spike.
D. Fixing a long wooden pole with sharp spikes to the outside wall.

2. Which of the following instruments can be used to compare the relative magnitudes of
charge on two given bodies?
A. The electrophorus B. Ebonite rod C. Proof plane D. Gold-leaf electroscope.
3. A short chain is usually attached to the rear side of a petrol tanker trailing behind it to ensure
that the
A. charges generated by friction in the tanker are conducted to the earth.
B. chain vibrates in resonance with the tanker’s engine.
C. heat generated by friction in the engine is conducted to the earth.
D. petrol tanker is balanced on the road.
4. The leaves of a negatively charged electroscope collapse completely as an object is brought close
to the cap of the electroscope. The object possesses
A. an equal quantity of negative charge B. an equal quantity of positive charge.
C. less quantity of negative charge.
D. less quantity of positive charge.
. 5. A dry plastic comb used in combing hair was found to attract pieces of paper and dust. The most probable
explanation for this phenomena is that the comb has been given
A. magnetization by induction.
B. electric charges by induction
C. electric charges by conduction
D. electric charges by friction
ESSAY
1a List three ways of charging a conductor.
b. Describe how a conductor can be charged negatively by induction.
c. If a gold leaf electroscope is charged and left, the leaves gradually
collapses. Give TWO possible reasons for this.

2a. Give the reason why it is foolish to walk across an open space carrying an open
umbrella in thundery condition.
b. Describe how a lightning conductor protects a building from lightning.
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read current electricity from the text book

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Construct an electroscope

10. REVISION
11. EXAMINATION