Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

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Urban Climate
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Spatiotemporal distribution of PM2.5 and health risk assessment in

Kolkata, India: Evaluation of non-carcinogenic health hazards and
premature mortality
Buddhadev Ghosh a, Pratap Kumar Padhy a, *, Syed Yakub Ali b, Rameeja Shaik a,
Mobarok Hossain c, Sukanta Nayek d, Indranil Bhui a, Chandan Kumar Majee a
a
Department of Environmental Studies, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, Birbhum, West Bengal, India
b
Central Pollution Control Board, Regional Directorate, Kolkata, India
c
Department of Applied Geosciences, GZG—University of Göttingen, Goldschmidtstraße 3, 37077 Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany
d
Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, West Bengal, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The State of Global Air Report (2022) says that Kolkata is the second most polluted city world­
Air pollution wide, with continuously high PM2.5 concentrations. This study examines the spatial distribution
Health risk of PM2.5 and its associated health risks in the region. The yearly average concentrations of PM2.5
NAAQS
were found to consistently surpass the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) levels in
PM2.5
Premature mortality
India, China, United States of America (USA), and Canada including the prescribed standards of
World Health Organization (WHO) and European Union (EU). Additionally, PM2.5 levels excee­
ded the 24-h NAAQS for a substantial number of days in a year. The study reveals significant
correlation between meteorological factors and PM2.5, with temperature playing major role in the
distribution of PM2.5. The hazard quotient (HQ) values continuously exceeded the threshold level,
indicating severity of air pollution. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 resulted in a significant number
of premature deaths, with ischemic heart disease (IHD) being the leading cause in Kolkata. The
study indicates that reducing PM2.5 levels has a positive impact on mortality rates and health
outcomes. For every unit reduction (1 μg/m3) of PM2.5 concentration, the corresponding decrease
in premature mortality by 2.40%. Furthermore, reductions of 5 μg/m3 and 10 μg/m3 were
associated with health improvements of 13.85% and 33.40% respectively. Overall, this study
provides valuable information to effectively regulate air quality, implement targeted in­
terventions, and protect public health.

1. Introduction

The airborne particulate matter (PM) poses a serious concern worldwide due to its detrimental effects on the environment. Ambient
particulate matter is now the fourth-most dangerous health risk concern in the world due to a rise of 40% in the number of fatalities
caused by PM from 1990 to 2019 and 48% of deaths occurred in South Asia (IHME, 2020). According to the Lancet Commission on
“Pollution and health: a progress update”, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, occupational pollution, lead pollution, modern

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pkpadhy@[Link] (P.K. Padhy).

[Link]
Received 4 March 2024; Received in revised form 15 May 2024; Accepted 10 June 2024
Available online 14 June 2024
2212-0955/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

pollution and traditional pollution) was the leading environmental risk factor for different diseases and early death globally, causing 9
million premature deaths in 2019, which was one in every six fatalities worldwide. Ambient particulate matter is responsible for 4.14
(3.45–4.8) million premature deaths of the 9 million premature deaths worldwide which was caused by all pollution (Fuller et al.,
2022). On the other hand, WHO reported annually 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019 due to ambient (outdoor) air
pollution and 6.7 million premature deaths caused by combined effects of ambient and household air pollution (WHO, 2022). Ac­
cording to WHO report in 2019, it was found that a significant majority of the global population, around 99%, resided in regions where
the air quality requirements set by the World Health Organization (WHO) were not met. Furthermore, a substantial proportion of
premature deaths, about 89%, were concentrated in low- and middle-income countries, particularly within the South-East Asia and
Western Pacific Regions. Particulate Matter (PM2.5) is a prevalent atmospheric contaminant that has been linked to many detrimental
health effects. The various studies have provided evidence indicating that PM2.5, a particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less,
is a significant air contaminant closely linked to emissions from traffics are the major contributor in urban areas (Reche et al., 2022; Li
and Managi, 2021; Heydari et al., 2020). There are numerous sources contribute to the PM2.5 pollution such as biomass burning,
industrial processing, traffic emissions, secondary aerosol, soil dust, contaminated road dust, waste burning, agricultural processing,
thermal power plants and sea salts (Liao et al., 2023; Gaita et al., 2014; Chuersuwan et al., 2008). The anthropogenic inputs to PM2.5
concentrations in urban areas have escalated due to high vehicular traffic, urban development, population growth, and construction
and demolition activities (Singh et al., 2021). The primary issue lies in the substantial influence of PM2.5 pollution on human health.
The microscopic size of PM2.5 particles is responsible for their capacity to penetrate deeply into the respiratory system extensively and
affect the body's defensive mechanism. If these particles become trapped in the lungs, they might trigger harmful health effects.

Fig. 1. Study area map with sampling points (a) and wind rose diagram in Kolkata (b). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Numerous investigations have confirmed an association between exposure to PM2.5 and a range of respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases, adverse outcomes during pregnancy, neurodevelopmental issues in humans, and an elevated vulnerability to various types of
malignancies (Sørensen et al., 2003; Fuller et al., 2022; Bell et al., 2014). Air pollution (fine and ultrafine particulate matter (PM2.5 and
PM0.1) and industrial nanoparticles) exposures significantly impacts on paediatric and early adulthood neurodegenerative diseases like
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis as well as their asso­
ciations with neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders (Calderón-Garcidueñas et al., 2024, 2018). The short periods of
exposure might worsen pre-existing health issues, increasing the likelihood of hospitalizations and emergency department visits (Bell
et al., 2014). The various study indicates that PM2.5 particles might lead to systemic effects, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and
probable links to neurological illnesses (Lin et al., 2022; Calderón-Garcidueñas et al., 2003; Sørensen et al., 2003).
The existing literature suggests that there has been a significant focus on monitoring PM2.5 levels in metropolitan areas in the past.
However, just a few studies have been published on the human health risks associated with PM2.5 in India. The aims of this study are to
thoroughly evaluate and tackle the significant issues related to PM2.5 and its impact on human well-being in the urban metropolitan
area. The primary objectives of this study are as follows: (i) To characterise the spatiotemporal distribution of PM2.5 during 2021 to
2023 in urban area, (ii) To compare the levels of PM2.5 at National and International Standards, (iii) To identify the sources of
pollution, (iv) To understand the meteorological influences on the dispersion of PM2.5, (v) To conduct a health risk assessment,
specifically focusing on non-carcinogenic effects and premature mortality from exposure to PM2.5, and (vi) Suggested policy-making
for this region.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area

This study was carried out in the urban city of Kolkata (22.57◦ N, 88.36◦ E), the capital of West Bengal state, India. Kolkata,
commonly called as “City of Joy,” is one of the most densely populated cities in India. Kolkata had a 4,496,694 (about 4.5 million)
population spread over an area of about 206.08 km2. Kolkata, an urban area, serves as the vibrant economic centre of West Bengal. It
has historical value as a commercial hub, a varied industrial base, an expanding service sector, a significant presence in education and
culture, and its function as a transportation and financial hub. This city is still a significant player in the Indian economy. However, the
city is dealing with a severe air pollution issue, which seriously compromises the health and well-being of its citizens (Ghosh et al.,
2023a, 2023b). Due to the dense population, rapid urbanization and developmental activities, and the heavy transportation load are
the leading probable causes of air quality degradation. Seven sampling sites of Kolkata, i.e., Ballygunge, Bidhannagar, Fort William,
Jadavpur, Rabindra Bharati University, Rabindra Sarobar, and Victoria, were considered in this analysis. These sampling sites are
located in different parts of Kolkata city. Ballygunge, Rabindra Sarobar, and Jadavpur are situated in the southern part, Bidhannagar is
in the northeastern part, Fort William and Victoria are located in the central part, and Rabindra Bharati University is located in the
western part of Kolkata. The graphical visualization of the study area is given in Fig. 1a.

2.2. Data collection

The air pollutants PM2.5 (μg/m3) and meteorological parameters such as temperature (◦ C), relative humidity (%), wind speed (m/
s), and wind direction (degree) data were collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Ministry of Environments, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEFCC) operated Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System (CAAQMS) data base from January 2021
to December 2023. This study included seven monitoring sites in Kolkata such as Ballygunge, Bidhannagar, Fort William, Jadavpur,
Rabindra Bharati University, Rabindra Sarobar, and Victoria. The monitoring stations together constitute a network that monitors and
evaluates the air quality in different areas of Kolkata. The implementation of this comprehensive monitoring system is crucial for
comprehending the dynamics of air pollution in the city, identifying the sources of pollution, and implementing efficient steps to
mitigate air pollution. Furthermore, the data on precipitation (measured in millimetres) and wind speed and direction (specifically for
creating a wind rose) was obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Prediction of Worldwide Energy
Resource (POWER) Data Accesses Viewer (DAV) during the study period spanning from January 2021 to December 2023. The wind
speed and direction data were collected by utilizing the geographical coordinates. In this study, the meteorological parameters mainly
temperature (◦ C), relative humidity (%RH) wind speed (m/s), wind direction (degree) and precipitations (mm/day) were taken based
on suitability of the study. The annual average temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity from 2021 to 2023 showed no
significant variations. The average annual (minimum – maximum) temperature was 26.61 ◦ C (19.96–30.30), 26.51 ◦ C (19.30–30.11),
and 26.60 ◦ C (18.76–30.93) in 2021, 2022, and 2023 respectively. The average maximum temperature recorded during the summer
month of April about 30.30 ◦ C and 30.11 ◦ C in 2021 and 2022, where as in 2023 recorded in June 30.93 ◦ C respectively. The average
lowest temperature was recorded during the winter month of January was 19.96 ◦ C and 19.30 ◦ C in 2021 and 2022, and December was
18.76 ◦ C in 2023, respectively. The details of meteorological data such as mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum with
significance levels are tabulated in Table S1. The wind rose diagram (Fig. 1b) shows the two most frequent wind directions throughout
the course of three years are from the south (S) and southwest (SW). The southwest (SW) and south-southwest (SSW) have the fastest
wind speeds. The northeast (NE) and east-northeast (ENE) have the slowest wind speeds. In Kolkata, calm circumstances are rather
uncommon—they happen about 1.1% of the time. The winter wind rose for Kolkata indicates that winds are most frequently blowing
from the northwest (NW, 24.44%) to the west (W, 22.91%). In Kolkata, high calm weather occurs 2.8% of the time during the winter.
During the summer, the most common wind direction ranges from south-southwest (SSW) at 48.89% to south (S) at 30.56%, and there

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

are no instances of calm conditions. Likewise, in the monsoon season, the wind direction fluctuates between southwest (SW) to
southeast (SE). The greatest wind speed was recorded in the summer, while the lowest occurred in the winter.

2.3. Health risk analysis

2.3.1. Non-carcinogenic health risk estimation

The potential adverse health consequences of exposure to PM2.5 can be determined via health risk assessment techniques (Risk
Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual, Part F, Supplemental Guidance for Inhalation Risk
Assessment). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) health risk assessment methods (EPA-540-R-070-002,
OSWER 9285.7–82) are used in this study to calculate the probabilistic non-carcinogenic health risk assessment (USEPA, 2009). In this
investigation used the inhalation route to estimate the non-carcinogenic health risks for adults from exposure to ambient PM2.5. For
calculations of exposure concentration (EC) and hazard quotient (HQ) of PM2.5 pollutants was calculated by using the following
equations (eqs. 1–2) were involved in assessing non-carcinogenic health risk.
The Exposure Concentration (EC, μg/m3) is calculated using eq. (1).
Cp × ET × EF × ED
EC = (1)
AT
Where Cp = concentration of PM2.5 in ambient air (μg/m3), ET = exposure time (24 h/day), EF = exposure frequency (350 days/
year), ED = exposure duration (24 years for adults), and AT = average time (ED × 365 days/years × 24 h for non-carcinogenic risk
estimation) (USEPA, 2009).
EC
HQ = (2)
RfC
The hazard quotient (HQ) is the ratio of the exposure concentration and the inhalation reference concentration (RfC) of pollutant
PM2.5 (eq. 2). The value of HQ <1 indicates no likelihood of impacts, whereas HQ >1 indicates a higher probability of non-
carcinogenic risk (Ghosh et al., 2023c; USEPA, 2009). In this investigation, the reference concentration (RfC) values for PM2.5 were
determined based on the diesel exhaust particulate matter (DPM) RfC values, as there is no consensus on the specific RfC value for
PM2.5. In this analysis, the reference concentration of PM2.5 (RfC) was set at 5 μg/m3 for diesel particulate matter (De Oliveira et al.,
2012; IRIS, 2003). This value was used to estimate the likelihood of adverse health effects, taking into account the significant
contribution of vehicle emissions as the primary source of air pollution (PM2.5) in the study area (WBPCB, 2019).

2.3.2. Premature mortality risk assessment

The following equations (eqs. 3 and 4) are used to calculate the premature mortality caused by exposure to ambient PM2.5 con­
centration, which has been adapted from Guo et al., 2019. First, we calculate the relative risk from Eq. 3 to assess premature mortality.
[ ( )]
RRPM2⋅5 = exp βPM2⋅5 CPM2⋅5 (ambient air) − CPM2⋅5 standard (3)

where
CPM2⋅5 (ambient air) > CPM2⋅5 standard

Where, RRPM2⋅5 is the relative risk of PM2.5 representing the additional health risk of pollutant PM2.5, βPM2⋅5 is the exposure-response
coefficient of PM2.5. For PM2.5 the β values is 0.069 for every 1 μg/m3 increase (Guo et al., 2019). CPM2⋅5 (ambient air) is the concentration of
ambient air PM2.5, CPM2⋅5 standard is standard (threshold) concentration of PM2.5. In this study, we used 40 μg/m3 annual standard of India
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS). The Eq.3 shows that there is no additional health risk if the concentration of PM2.5 is
less than the standard value of India NAAQS.
{( )}
RRPM2⋅5 − 1
ΔMort = y0 × population (4)
RRPM2⋅5

The term “y0” is the baseline mortality rate for a certain illness in India. In this investigation, the average baseline mortality rates for
lung cancer (LC), cerebrovascular disease (CEV), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and ischemic heart disease (IHD)
were 14.21 × 10− 5, 0.65 × 10− 5, 16.58 × 10− 5, and 11.64 × 10− 5, respectively. The baseline mortality data was obtained from Guo
et al. (2019) and from the WHO mortality database. In this analysis, the population data was used around 4.5 million (4,496,694) in
Kolkata (India Census, 2011). The overall premature mortality in this research is the sum of the premature deaths from ischemic heart
disease (IHD), lung cancer, cerebrovascular disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

2.4. Statistical analysis

In this study, the MS-Excel, SPSS v26, and JASP v0.16.4.0 were used to conduct the statistical analysis. The JASP a statistical
software was employed for correlation, regression and principal component analysis (PCA). In this analysis, PCA is employed to
determine whether there are disparities in pollution across sampling stations. The descriptive statistics i.e., mean, standard deviations

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

(SD), minimum and maximum and percentage change were carried out using MS-Excel. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out
through SPSS. The Hydrognomon v4 software was employed to create a wind rose diagram, utilizing the wind speed and wind di­
rection data from the study area. In order to enhance the visual representation of the study area, a map was generated using ArcGIS
version 10.3. In Kolkata, used the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation approach in ArcGIS software to visualise the annual
distribution of PM2.5 and Hazard Quotient (HQ) of the area using spatial monitoring datasets. In this context, the IDW interpolation
approach is quite important as it makes easier to estimating the spatial distributions of Hazard Quotient (HQ) and PM2.5 in Kolkata.
Because IDW is sensitive to neighbouring data points, it is especially useful for correctly portraying air quality patterns, where closer is
frequently associated with greater influence. The continuous surfaces that are produced by this technique are crucial for depicting the
steady changes in PM2.5 and HQ levels across the study area. The Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) is a spatial interpolation technique
that estimates the values at unsampled locations based on the values at sampled locations. The basic idea is to assign weights to the
sampled points based on their inverse distances to the prediction location (Shukla et al., 2020). In addition, for the estimation of
probabilistic non-carcinogenic risks, the Monte Carlo simulation method (Crystal Ball v11.1.3.0; Oracle, USA) with a sensitivity
analysis (10,000 iterations) was used for this study. The Monte Carlo simulation methods applied in this analysis were sourced from
Ghosh et al. (2023b).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Mass concentrations of PM2.5 distribution in Kolkata city

The month wise annual variations of mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum concentrations of PM2.5 in seven stations
with significance levels (Ballygunge, Bidhannagar, Fort William, Jadavpur, Rabindra Bharati University, Rabindra Sarobar, and
Victoria) are tabulate in Table S2, S3 and S4 from 2021 to 2023. Fig. 2a illustrates the spatiotemporal distribution of PM2.5 in Kolkata.
The month wise and annual PM2.5 levels are significantly (p < 0.05, 95% CI) varied among the monitoring stations. Among the seven
stations, Rabindra Bharati University recorded the highest concentrations of PM2.5 in January 2021 (177.65 ± 31.74 μg/m3) and 2022
(144.29 ± 36.53 μg/m3), and Jadavpur recorded the highest concentrations of PM2.5 in January 2023 (121.18 ± 26.08 μg/m3).

Fig. 2. Spatiotemporal distribution of PM2.5 (a) and year-wise non-carcinogenic health risk (HQ) distribution in Kolkata (b).

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Similarly, the annual distribution of PM2.5 showed that Rabindra Bharati University was recorded highest in both the years 2021 and
2022 (81.33 ± 57.16 and 65.41 ± 46.57 μg/m3), whereas Victoria recorded in the highest in 2023 (53.47 ± 38.69 μg/m3). The details
of the annual distribution of PM2.5 in station wise showed in Table 1. The high annual PM2.5 concentrations at Rabindra Bharati
University and Jadavpur can be attributed to a combination of growing urbanization, traffic congestion, developmental activity, and
environmental factors. These areas are situated in highly populated urban zones of Kolkata and are home to many institutions where
workflow is concentrated. The mean, standard deviations, minimum and maximum concentrations of PM2.5 of these seven stations
represents the Kolkata's air pollution PM2.5 levels. The month wise and annual variations of PM2.5 in 2021, 2022 and 2023 shows
significant variation (p < 0.05, 95% CI). In Kolkata, the maximum concentration of PM2.5 was observed in January month of 2021
(127.36 ± 25.47 μg/m3) and lowest concentration was observed in July 2023 that was 12.68 ± 2.64 μg/m3. The annual variations of
PM2.5 mean, standard deviation (minimum – maximum) in Kolkata showed that 57.48 ± 43.40 μg/m3 (3.35–250.99 μg/m3), 50.11 ±
40.84 μg/m3 (3.18–227.11 μg/m3), and 42.63 ± 31.80 μg/m3 (4.42–195.69 μg/m3) in 2021, 2022 and 2023, respectively (Table 2).
The data shows a consistent trend of decreasing PM2.5 levels over the three years, with 2023 having the lowest annual mean con­
centration at 47.22 ± 31.93 μg/m3, but the annual concentration of PM2.5 are exceeded the Indian NAAQS (national) and international
levels over the year from 2021 to 2023 (Fig. 3). The primary source of PM2.5 in Kolkata city is the combustion of fossil fuels by motor
vehicles, especially diesel-powered vehicles, which contribute significantly to PM2.5 emissions. Industrial activities in and around
Kolkata release PM2.5 into the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels for manufacturing processes. In addition, con­
struction, excavation, demolition, and transportation of construction materials and burning of solid waste are also the key contributors
of PM2.5 sources in the ambient atmosphere. Some small-scale industrial processes involve the release of PM2.5 as a byproduct of
manufacturing and production activities (Mangaraj et al., 2022; WBPCB, 2019). As per the West Bengal State Pollution Control Board
(WBPCB, 2019) report, PM2.5 pollution in summer primarily arises from domestic and commercial combustion (35%) and vehicles
(22%), with smaller contributions from road dust (10%), open burning (6%) and about 20% is due to secondary aerosols. In winter,
vehicular activities (25%) and secondary aerosols (32%) are the predominant contributors, with wood combustion (15%) and coal
combustion (9%) playing notable roles in PM2.5 pollution in Kolkata. On the other hand, Mangaraj et al. (2022) conducted a
comprehensive high-resolution gridded emission inventory study that thoroughly assessed the annual emissions from various sectors
contributing to the deterioration of air quality in Kolkata. The study identified a total annual PM2.5 emission of 37.2 Gg/yr for the base
year 2020. The sector-specific PM2.5 emissions in Gg/yr were as follows: transportation (12.05), industry (6.82), municipal solid waste
burning (5.98), diesel generators (3.65), incense sticks/mosquito coils/cigarettes (1.92), construction (1.68), slum (1.12), wind-blown
road dust (1.05), street vendor (0.83), power plant (0.29), household (0.43), crop residue burning (0.42), cow-dung (0.46), and
crematories (0.51). The above data from 2021 to 2023 showed the decreasing trends, this decrease is a positive sign, indicating po­
tential improvements of air quality and reduced exposure to fine particulate matter (Singh et al., 2021). However, the city should
remain vigilant in addressing air quality concerns, as fluctuations are still evident. The seasonal variations showed that the highest
concentrations of PM2.5 were observed in winter season as compared to monsoon and summer (Ravindra et al., 2022). In comparison to
the summer (April, May, and June) and monsoon (July, August, and September) seasons, the PM2.5 levels was highest observed in the
winter season (January, February, and December) in 2021, 2022 and 2023 (Fig. 4). The observed seasonal variations in PM2.5 con­
centrations showed the highest levels occurring during the winter (exceeded the 24-h and annual NAAQS threshold levels) compared
to the monsoon and summer due to the combination of meteorological factors and human activities. In the winter, the atmosphere
remains stable as a result, air traps the pollutants near the ground and accumulates PM2.5 particles. In cold season increased energy
consumption for heating and industrial processing and reduced atmospheric dispersion (lower mixing ratio) can contribute to high
winter pollution (Ravindra et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2021). In contrast, the monsoon and summer seasons have higher rainfall,
temperatures, and stronger winds facilitating the dispersion and removal of pollutants from the atmosphere, resulting in low PM2.5
concentrations (Islam et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022). These seasonal variations highlight the complex connection between weather

Table 1
Annual distribution of PM2.5 in the study area from 2021 to 2023.
Annual PM2.5 2021 2022 2023 p-value

Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD (95 % Cl)

(Min. – Max.) (Min. – Max.) (Min. – Max.)

56.00 ± 43.27 53.61 ± 42.21 51.97 ± 34.19

Ballygunge p < 0.05
(9.09–202.91) (5.27–173.08) (7.99–183.76)
55.46 ± 36.01 48.01 ± 43.28 48.50 ± 33.59
Bidhannagar p < 0.05
(5.48–158.66) (3.18–211.13) (5.16–166.63)
60. 62 ± 38.65 41.94 ± 30.27 43.33 ± 33.19
Fort William p < 0.05
(3.35–148.43) (5.65–140.31) (8.46–149.84)
57.27 ± 42.26 50.52 ± 39.77 51.47 ± 35.45
Jadavpur p < 0.05
(6.67–191.70) (8.27–181.02) (7.08–195.69)
81.33 ± 57.16 65.41 ± 46.57 44.51 ± 31.30
Rabindra Bharati University p < 0.05
(9.10–250.99) (5.76–227.11) (4.42–164.17)
44.83 ± 35.83 39.22 ± 31.49 38.47 ± 27.00
Rabindra Sarobar p < 0.05
(4.41–162.92) (4.93–128.01) (5.56–110.37)
48.00 ± 35.88 52.10 ± 44.15 53.47 ± 38.69
Victoria p < 0.05
(5.55–169.84) (4.41–202.52) (2.00–181.02)

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Table 2
Month-wise annual distribution of PM2.5 in Kolkata.
Kolkata Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD p-value
(Min. – Max.) (Min. – Max.) (Min. – Max.)

Month 2021 2022 2023 (95 % Cl)

127.36 ± 25.47 97.82 ± 22.32 101.70 ± 22.26

Jan < 0.05
(86.64–183.36) (54.57–147.26) (57.74–150.75)
106.54 ± 24.08 74.60 ± 20.77 60.30 ± 16.65
Feb < 0.05
(60.74–146.13) (26.56–113.04) (35.79–93.20)
70.17 ± 20.15 62.09 ± 25.05 43.89 ± 17.21
Mar < 0.05
(25.68–109.23) (26.22–99.70) (13.65–71.73)
40.82 ± 10.29 24.68 ± 7.06 40.90 ± 12.97
Apr < 0.05
(22.11–66.75) (14.33–37.83) (21.22–59.36)
22.89 ± 6.13 28.27 ± 11.03 27.20 ± 6.33
May < 0.05
(13.11–34.61) (10.89–57.62) (15.11–42.42)
24.76 ± 4.97 24.22 ± 7.52 24.19 ± 10.19
Jun < 0.05
(15.18–34.11) (13.16–38.16) (8.02–41.32)
21.81 ± 10.25 13.78 ± 3.51 12.68 ± 2.64
July < 0.05
(8.75–51.90) (9.69–23.59) (9.43–19.30)
25.79 ± 10.14 17.24 ± 7.94 28.75 ± 14.35
Aug < 0.05
(12.21–42.61) (8.02–39.77) (10.45–67.33)
20.67 ± 9.56 20.15 ± 9.03 19.12 ± 11.49
Sept < 0.05
(11.47–51.91) (7.55–42.13) (5.06–63.23)
49.46 ± 26.27 33.88 ± 21.29 46.94 ± 24.11
Oct < 0.05
(12.40–95.90) (7.54–77.62) (5.09–122.34)
78.25 ± 18.48 87.88 ± 19.03 76.45 ± 33.56
Nov < 0.05
(33.95–116.29) (51.11–123.92) (14.83–183.76)
94.43 ± 32.60 117.63 ± 24.58 79.58 ± 27.55
Dec < 0.05
(10.56–141.21) (54.45–151.08) (14.93–184.76)
57.48 ± 43.40 50.11 ± 40.84 47.22 ± 31.93
Annual < 0.05
(3.35–250.99) (3.18–227.11) (4.42–195.69)

NA – Not available.

Fig. 3. Annual distribution of PM2.5 with NAAQS (National and International Standard).

patterns and emission sources of PM2.5.

3.2. Source apportionment

The Table S5 presents the component loadings for principal component analysis and the uniqueness values for various stations in
Kolkata. PC1 has significant loadings, with Rabindra Sarobar showing the highest loading at 0.987, and closely followed by Bally­
gunge, Jadavpur, Bidhannagar, Victoria, Rabindra Bharati, and Fort William. Approximately 93.30% of the overall variation in the
data is accounted for by the eigenvalue of PC1 (6.531). The principal component analysis (PCA) results show notable trends in the
PM2.5 data across multiple monitoring sites in Kolkata. A common factor that significantly contributes to the observed variance in
PM2.5 levels has been identified by PC1, which is reflected by the high loadings of several stations (Fig. 5). This common factor in­
dicates widespread sources of PM2.5 pollution that affect these stations similarly. The high loadings of locations like Rabindra Sarobar,

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Fig. 4. Seasonal distribution of PM2.5 in Kolkata from 2021 to 2023.

Ballygunge, Jadavpur, and others on PC1 suggest that these areas have common sources of PM2.5 pollution in Kolkata. The possible
sources of PM2.5 in this region may include massive vehicular emissions, road dust, urban development (construction and demolition
activities), small scale industrial processing, waste burning and residential activities (WBPCB, 2019). The dominance of PC1 with a
high eigenvalue underscores its importance in explaining the variations in PM2.5 levels across the city. The lower uniqueness values are
indicating strong common factor of pollution sources. The findings suggest that targeted efforts to lower PM2.5 pollution in Kolkata
should concentrate on combating the common sources identified by PC1, which are probably contributing substantially to the city's
overall air quality issues. In urban areas, the primary contributors to PM2.5 pollution differ across various regions. In the Taipei
metropolis of Taiwan, secondary aerosol constitutes the largest source at 28.8%, followed by biomass burning/industry at 24.4% and
road traffic emissions at 24.7% (Liao et al., 2023). Conversely, a separate study conducted in Nairobi, Kenya, found that mineral dust
and traffic-related factors accounted for approximately 74% of PM2.5 pollution (Gaita et al., 2014). In the Bangkok Metropolitan
Region, the primary sources of PM2.5 at traffic sites were automobile emissions and biomass burning, contributing approximately 32%
and 26%, respectively (Chuersuwan et al., 2008). To mitigate the effects of PM2.5 pollution on human health and the environment,
strategies may include stricter emission regulations for automobiles and industry, the promotion of cleaner energy sources, and
sustainable urban design.

3.3. PM2.5 in Kolkata vs. National and International NAAQS comparison

The current study attempts to assess the levels of PM2.5 concentrations in Kolkata and compare them with the air quality standards
set by several nations and organizations including China, the United States (US), Canada, the European Union (EU), and the World

Fig. 5. Loading plot of principal component analysis (PCA) of the study area in Kolkata.

8
B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Health Organization (WHO). Our primary aim was to ascertain the percentage change by which PM2.5 levels exceeded the established
national and international air quality benchmarks. The study's results indicated that the annual levels of PM2.5 consistently elevated
the air quality standards set by India, China, the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Union (EU), the United States (US),
and Canada from 2021 to 2023 (Fig. 3). In the years 2021, 2022, and 2023, the levels of PM2.5 surpassed the Indian annual NAAQS by
43.70%, 25.27%, and 6.57%, respectively. These levels also surpassed the China's annual NAAQS by 64.23%, 43.17%, and 21.79%,
WHO's standards by 1049.60%, 902.19%, and 752.54%, EU's NAAQS by 129.92%, 100.44%, and 70.51%, US standards by 379.00%,
317.58%, and 255.22%, and Canada's annual standards by 474.80%, 401.10%, and 326.27% (Fig. S1). These findings highlight the
consistent and significant exceedance of annual air quality standards of PM2.5 over the three-year period. Although there were im­
provements of PM2.5 levels in 2022 and 2023 as compared to 2021. In this analysis, use annual PM2.5 standards from various countries
and international organizations. For annual exposure, India's standard allows up to 40 μg/m3, while China sets its limit at 35 μg/m3,
WHO at 5 μg/m3, EU at 25 μg/m3, US at 12 μg/m3, and Canada at 10 μg/m3. In the context of short-term exposure over 24 h, India
permits up to 60 μg/m3, while China allows 75 μg/m3, WHO at 15 μg/m3, EU at 50 μg/m3, the US at 35 μg/m3, and Canada at 28 μg/
m3. These standards serve as critical benchmarks for assessing and regulating PM2.5 pollution levels and protecting public health and
the environment. In Kolkata, PM2.5 levels were found to exceed the daily (24-h) National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
recommended by the India, China, World Health Organization (WHO), the European Union (EU), the United States (US), and Canada
for 42%, 31%, 90%, 44%, 56%, and 67% of days in a year, respectively. In 24-h variations of PM2.5 levels at national and international
levels the PM2.5 concentrations consistently exceed the established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) during January,
February, March, October, November, and December (Fig. 6). During the months of January, February, March, October, November,
and December, PM2.5 concentrations consistently exceeded the NAAQS, which may be attributable to meteorological, environmental,
and human factors. These months are frequently characterized by unfavourable weather, such as temperature inversions (stable at­
mosphere) and stagnant air masses that trap PM2.5 pollution at the near surface, inhibiting their dispersion and causing the buildup of
fine particulate matter in the lower atmosphere (Zhong et al., 2018).

3.4. PM2.5 and meteorology

The Pearson correlation analysis shows significant correlations between meteorological factors and PM2.5 (Fig. 7). The relationship
between temperature (Temp) and PM2.5 concentrations shows strongly negative (r = − 0.746, p < 0.001) correlation, suggesting that
colder weather is associated with increased PM2.5 pollution. The wind direction (WD) and PM2.5 concentrations shows a significant
positive relationship (r = 0.390, p < 0.001). This correlation suggests that particular wind patterns could transport contaminants and
raise PM2.5 levels (Coskuner et al., 2018). The relationship between wind speed (WS) and PM2.5 concentrations shows a significant
negative (r = − 0.249, p < 0.001) correlation, and the enhanced wind speed contributes to the dispersion and reduction of particulate
matter in that location because higher wind speeds are linked to higher dispersion of pollutants (Aslam et al., 2017). The concentration
of pollutants in urban areas is significantly affected by the combination of low wind speed and the variability of wind directions (Hsu
and Cheng, 2016). The correlation between the relative humidity (RH) and PM2.5 is strongly inverse (r = − 0.547, p < 0.001). The
relationship between RH and PM2.5 expresses that higher humidity helps to lower the PM2.5 levels (Gupta et al., 2006). Similarly, the

Fig. 6. Day wise distribution of PM2.5 with national and international NAAQS levels.

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Fig. 7. Pearson's correlation between PM2.5 and meteorological variables.

precipitation (PPT) and PM2.5 concentrations also correlate negatively (r = − 0.359, p < 0.001). The rainfall can remove particles from
the atmosphere through washout (Fujino and Miyamoto, 2022). These results highlight the complex dynamics of PM2.5 pollution and
meteorological conditions. The multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis showed significant results with a 95% confidence interval, as
indicated in Table S6. Among the predictor variables, temperature (Temp) exhibited a strong negative relationship with PM2.5, with a
coefficient of − 6.068 (CI: − 6.382 to − 5.754), indicating that if the temperature decreases one degree Celsius the PM2.5 levels tend to
rise significantly at 6.382 μg/m3 (Zhao et al., 2018). On the other hand, the wind direction (WD) showed a positive relationship with a
coefficient of 0.126 (CI: 0.086 to 0.166), suggesting that specific wind patterns can bring in pollutants from elsewhere to contributing
to increased PM2.5 concentrations, where wind speed (WS) displayed a negative, with a coefficient of − 1.898 (CI: − 2.919 to − 0.876),
indicating that higher wind speeds are associated with reduced PM2.5 levels in a study area (Cheng and Hsu, 2019). The relative
humidity (RH) also exhibited a negative influence (− 0.834; CI: − 0.940 to − 0.728), implying that increased humidity corresponds to
lower PM2.5 levels. Similarly, precipitation (PPT) also showed inverse association (− 0.512; CI: − 0.635 to − 0.388), indicating that
rainfall effectively reduces PM2.5 levels (Wang and Ogawa, 2015). The marginal effects of Temp, RH, WS and PPT are negative on
PM2.5 except WD (shows positive effects). The marginal effects on PM2.5 indicating that when the ambient Temp, RH, WS and PPT rises
the PM2.5 concentrations in the ambient air decreases (Fig. S2). Additionally, WD have pose on positive impacts on PM2.5 distribution,

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

wind directions pose a significant role on PM2.5 accumulation in the region (Coskuner et al., 2018). The study of independent variable
(Temp, RH, WS, WD and PPT) importance in relation to PM2.5 (dependent variables) shows temperature (Temp) is the most important
predictor of these factors, with a significance score of 0.316 (100.0% normalised relevance). This emphasizes the critical role of
temperature in determining the PM2.5 levels distribution and supports the linear regression analysis's finding that there is a substantial
negative link between the temperature and PM2.5. Other significant factors are precipitation (PPT), which has a value of 0.234 (74.1%
normalised importance), and wind speed (WS), which has a score of 0.183 (57.8% normalised relevance). These results confirm that
wind speed might affect particle dispersion while precipitation effectively removes pollutants. Relative humidity (RH) and wind di­
rection (WD) also exhibit considerable relevance, with scores of 0.101 (32.1% normalised importance) and 0.166 (52.6% normalised
importance), respectively. The findings revealed that the meteorological factors playing an important role to distribution of PM2.5 in
the ambient environment. Among the all-meteorological factors temperature relatively influence (31.60%) greatly, followed by
precipitation (23.40%), wind speed (18.30%), wind direction (16.60%) and relative humidity (10.10%). The findings offering
important information for managing air quality and designing targeted interventions to combat the PM2.5 pollution in this area.

3.5. Non-carcinogenic and premature health risk study

The estimated non-carcinogenic health risk due to exposure to PM2.5 over 2021 to 2023 are listed in Table 3 for Kolkata and
Table S7 for all monitoring areas in Kolkata. In all monitored sites in 2021 to 2023, the HQ values continuously exceed the safety level
of HQ < 1 (De et al., 2012). The Fig. 2b provides a visual representation of the spatiotemporal distribution of non-carcinogenic health
risk (HQ) in Kolkata. The findings indicate that the levels of PM2.5 in the atmosphere exceed national and international established
threshold values, leading to concerns regarding the health consequences for the inhabitants due to fine and ultrafine particulates. The
Table 3 represents the annual HQ from 2021 to 2023. The HQ values for these years are 11.02, 9.61, and 9.06, respectively. The
findings indicate a possible health hazard linked to PM2.5 exposure in the city, highlighting the importance of promptly addressing air
quality concerns. When the Hazard Quotient (HQ) exceeds the established threshold (HQ > 1), it signifies a substantial health hazard
due to elevated exposure to pollutants. The elevated HQ values in relation to PM2.5 levels suggest a potential health impact (USEPA,
2009). The spectrum of respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular consequences, decreased lung function, and elevated mortality risk
particularly in vulnerable groups are associated with exposure to PM2.5 (Thangavel et al., 2022; Apte et al., 2015). The sensitivity
analysis and Monte Carlo simulation with 10,000 replications were used to calculate the potential non-carcinogenic risk of PM2.5. The
certainty range (5th and 95th percentile) of PM2.5 exposure of non-carcinogenic risk (HQ) was 9.00 and 11.00 which was greater than
the USEPA recommended threshold values of non-carcinogenic risk (Fig. 8a). The sensitivity analysis shows that the Rabindra Bharati
University monitoring station was the most significant influence on the development of non-carcinogenic health hazards (67.40%)
followed by Fort William (21.90%), Bidhannagar (3.20%), Jadavpur (2.40%), Rabindra Sarobar (2.30%), Victoria (1.60%), and
Ballygunge (1.20%), respectively (Fig. 8b).
The long-term exposure to PM2.5 can increase the premature mortality rate such as lung cancer (LC), cerebrovascular disease (CEV),
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and ischemic heart disease (IHD). In 2021, 2022, and 2023, the mortality due to LC
was 3.67 × 104, 2.63 × 104 and 2.05 × 104, CEV was 0.21 × 104, 0.15 × 104 and 0.11 × 104, COPD was 4.48 × 104, 3.21 × 104 and
2.50 × 104, and IHD was 5.2 × 104, 3.7 × 104, and 2.9 × 104 of total population of Kolkata (4.5 million), respectively. The findings
showed that IHD is the leading cause of premature deaths in Kolkata due to exposure to PM2.5. Another study also found that IHD is the
leading cause of premature death related to PM2.5 (Saini and Sharma, 2020). The total premature mortality due to the long-term
exposure to PM2.5 was 135,727.64 (per lakh 3018.39), 97,286.10 (per lakh 2163.50) and 76,007.89 (per lakh 1690.30) in 2021,
2022 and 2023 respectively (Table 4). Apte et al. (2015) found that PM2.5 levels are highest in Asia (38 μg/m3) and lower in the
northern Americas (12 μg/m3), Europe and northern Africa (19 μg/m3). Consequently, Asia has faced the highest per-capita and
overall PM2.5-related mortality, with 63 deaths per lakh of the population, totalling 2.3 million deaths. In contrast, the northern
Americas have the lowest per-capita and total PM2.5-related mortality, with 25 deaths per lakh and 150,000 total deaths. The national
per-capita mortality rates due to PM2.5 pollution vary widely. The China had about 92, Russia had around 58, India had approximately
47, Germany had about 40, United States had roughly 33, and Australia had about 6 deaths per lakh (105) population (Apte et al.,
2015). On the other hand, Guo et al. (2018) found that India experienced the highest number of premature deaths due to cerebro­
vascular disease (CEVD) with a total of 0.44 million deaths followed by ischaemic heart disease (IHD) with 0.40 million deaths, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with 0.18 million deaths, and lung cancer (LC) with 0.01 million deaths. These four factors
were responsible for 1.04 million fatalities overall. The states experiencing the highest levels of premature mortality were Uttar
Pradesh 0.23 million, Bihar 0.12 million, and West Bengal 0.10 million deaths (Guo et al., 2018). The occurrence of premature death
depends on various factors such as the levels of pollutants, the size of the population, and the baseline mortality rates of a country.
Accurate estimating of premature death cases requires a comprehensive investigation of these variables, as these values can differ
significantly across different countries. The total mortality is reduced if the PM2.5 concentration decreased. In this investigation found

Table 3
Estimated non-carcinogenic health risk due to exposure to PM2.5 over 2021 to 2023.
Kolkata Cp (μg/m3) EC (μg/m3) RfC (μg/m3) HQ USEPA HQs

2021 57.48 55.12 5 11.02 >1

2022 50.11 48.05 5 9.61 >1
2023 47.22 45.28 5 9.06 >1

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Fig. 8. Monte Carlo simulation and sensitivity analysis of non-carcinogenic health risk (HQ) due to exposure to PM2.5 in Kolkata.

Table 4
Premature mortality due to the long-term exposure to PM2.5 in Kolkata from 2021 to 2023.
COPD CEV IHD LC Total mortality Per lakh
mortality

2021 44,769.96 2047.89 52,236.87 36,672.93 135,727.64 3018.39

2022 32,089.96 1467.87 37,442.05 26,286.22 97,286.10 2163.50
2023 25,071.31 1146.82 29,252.80 20,536.95 76,007.89 1690.30

every unit (1 μg/m3) reduction of PM2.5 the total premature mortality rate was reduced 2.40%. Similarly, if PM2.5 reduced 5 μg/m3 is
associated with a health improvement of 13.85%, while a more modest reduction of 10 μg/m3 a health improvement of 33.40%. These
findings underscore the critical importance of air quality management and pollution control measures aimed at reducing PM2.5
concentrations. Such efforts can lead to significant health benefits, reduced premature mortality, and an overall enhancement of public
health outcomes. Such a decline in mortality rates is indicative of various factors contributing to improved public health. Potential
explanations for this trend could include advancements in medical treatments, increased access to healthcare services, awareness and
prevention measures, lifestyle modifications, and a focus on reducing risk factors associated with these health conditions.

4. Conclusions

This study reveals the persistent and extensive prevalence of PM2.5 pollution in Kolkata, which consistently surpasses the annual
National and International Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). The PM2.5 levels reached their highest point during winter,
surpassing both the 24-h and annual NAAQS limitations. The study observed that Kolkata's annual mean PM2.5 levels were higher than
the national and some international NAAQS levels. Kolkata's PM2.5 values exceed the standards prescribed by India, China, WHO, EU,
USA, and Canada and the levels exceeded by 1.25, 1.43, 10.01, 2.00, 4.17, and 5.01 times, respectively. The main contributors to PM2.5
pollution in Kolkata are include emissions from vehicles, developmental operations, construction activities, waste incineration, and
other human-caused sources. These factors contribute to the city's declining air quality. The non-carcinogenic (HQ) health risk shows
that the levels of HQ > 1, indicating significant health consequences for the citizens of Kolkata. The level of non-carcinogenic health
risk was significantly elevated in close proximity to specific monitoring stations. The sensitivity analysis showed that the Rabindra
Bharati University was the most significant influence on the development of non-carcinogenic health hazards followed by Fort Wil­
liam, Rabindra Sarobar, Bidhannagar, Ballygunge, Jadavpur and Victoria, respectively. The study suggests that prolonged exposure to
PM2.5 is associated with health hazards such as lung cancer (LC), cerebrovascular disease (CEV), chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), and ischemic heart disease (IHD). The total mortality was reduced if the PM2.5 concentration decreased. The study
found every unit (1 μg/m3) reduction of PM2.5 the total premature mortality rate was reduced 2.40%, if PM2.5 reduced 5 μg/m3 and10
μg/m3 was associated with a health improvement of 13.85 and 33.40%. This finding underscores the significant advantages to public
health that come with enhanced air quality. The meteorological variables, such as temperature, wind speed, precipitation, and relative
humidity exhibited a strong negative relationship with PM2.5 levels except wind direction. The study of independent variable (Temp,
RH, WS, WD and PPT) importance in relation to PM2.5 shows temperature (Temp) is the most important factor for distribution of
pollutants in the atmosphere followed by precipitation, wind speed, wind direction and relative humidity, respectively. It is crucial to
tackle air quality concerns in Kolkata by prioritising the reduction of PM2.5 pollution sources, improving urban planning, advocating
for cleaner energy sources, and implementing stronger emission rules for automobiles and industries. Furthermore, it is crucial to
prioritise continuous monitoring and endeavours to enhance public health results. Kolkata's encounter with PM2.5 pollution is a

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

component of a broader global problem, which has consequences for the management of air quality and public health in different
places around the globe. The findings from this study can provide valuable guidance for formulating strategies to tackle air pollution on
a broader scale.

Policy recommendations for mitigating air pollution levels in Kolkata

Based on the comprehensive analysis presented in the manuscript, the following specific policy actions are recommended to
address the air pollution challenges in Kolkata:

1. Transportation Policies:

Encourage to adoption electric vehicles: Automobile emissions are the biggest challenge in metropolitan areas. Implement
policies and incentives to encourage the use of electric vehicles in order to minimize pollution levels and lower emissions from
combustion engines.
Improve Public Transport: In order to decrease traffic-related PM2.5 emissions, public transit systems should be improved and
expanded, and impose heavy tax on private vehicles. This would lessen the need on private automobiles.

2. Strict Enforcement of Existing Norms:

Enhance compliance and transparency by strengthening enforcement measures to guarantee strict adherence to current air quality
standards across the area. And to established localized air quality concern systems.

3. Season-Specific Decision-Making to pollution minimization:

To address the changing nature of air pollution, develop and implement season-specific solutions, effectively adapting in­
terventions to tackle seasonal difficulties. During the winter season, the atmosphere experiences heigh pollution levels due to tem­
perature inversion and decreased wind speeds. These conditions lead to the accumulation of pollutants near the ground, resulting in an
increased pollution load. It is essential to minimize human activities during this period, including industrial processing, tourism ac­
tivities, and vehicular mobility, to mitigate outdoor pollution. In contrast, the monsoon and summer seasons are characterized by an
unstable atmosphere, greater mixing heights, and significant precipitation. These weather conditions promote the dispersion and
removal of pollutants and contributing to the reduction of air pollution issues. During these periods, increase human activities.

4. Urban Planning and Development:

Green spaces and urban planning: To enhance air quality and lessen the impact of the air pollution and heat island effect,
incorporate green areas into urban development.
Construction practices: Enact rules governing construction methods to reduce dust emissions, particularly while digging and
demolition are underway. To encourage the use of green construction materials and techniques in order to lower emissions related to
conventional building.

5. Waste Management:

Control open burning: In metropolitan areas one of the largest concerns is garbage management. Residents are burning their
rubbish outdoors, which contributes significantly to air pollution. Strict regulations are imposed in place to prevent this kind of ac­
tivity. And government can take initiatives to implement and promote waste recycling programs to reduce the need for burning and
disposal in landfills.

6. Industrial and Automobile Emission Control:

Stricter emission standards and promote cleaner technologies: Enforce and update industry and automobile emission stan­
dards to reduce PM2.5 emissions, particularly those resulting from the burning of fossil fuels. Encourage industries to implement
greener technologies and processes to reduce PM2.5 emissions in urban areas.

7. Monitoring and Enforcement:

Strengthen Monitoring Networks: In metropolitan areas improve the networks that monitor air quality and make sure the data is
available in real time for efficient enforcement and policymaking. In addition, a continuous monitoring system develop at a five-
kilometre range, and identified emissions hotspots in order to follow the actual situation of pollution emissions status in a certain
location.
Penalties for violations: Impose high penalties to industries and automobiles for violating emission standards.

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

8. Public Awareness and Engagement:

Air Quality Alerts: Establish a system for issuing air quality alerts to the public, particularly during periods of high pollution levels
into the atmosphere.
Public Education Programs: Execute public education campaigns about the causes of air pollution and its effects on health, and
motivate locals to get involved in initiatives to improve air quality.

9. International Collaboration:

Collaborate on Regional Solutions: Work with neighbouring regions and countries to address transboundary air pollution and
take initiatives to sharing greener technology each other to reduced influential factors which exacerbate the air pollution in the urban
atmosphere.

10. Green and Sustainable Practices:

Promote Green Building Practices: The government can take initiatives to encourage the use of environment friendly con­
struction materials and practices to minimize the release of air pollutants in the ambient atmosphere.
Renewable Energy Adoption: Facilitate shifting to renewable energy sources to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels.

11. Research and Innovation:

Invest in Research: Provide funds for continuing research to find novel causes of PM2.5 pollution and innovative approaches to
reduce it.
Technology Innovation: Local government can take initiatives to support the development and implementation of advanced
technologies for pollution control and monitoring.

12. Policy Implementation and Review:

Regular Policy Reviews: Establish a framework for reviewing and adjusting policies on a regular basis in accordance with the
success of the actions that have been implemented location.
Coordination Among Departments: To successfully develop and enforce air quality regulations, make sure that several gov­
ernment departments are working together in harmony.

Study strengths and limitations

The sample is representative, with a meticulously designed selection process, allowing for the generalization of study results. The
data is notably consistent, precise, and reliable. The study primarily relies on data collected from online monitoring stations during the
specified period, and health risk assessments are derived from mathematical and theoretical computations.

Funding

This study did not receive any funding from public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Buddhadev Ghosh: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Pratap Kumar
Padhy: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. Syed Yakub Ali: Software, Conceptualization.
Rameeja Shaik: Writing – original draft. Mobarok Hossain: Writing – original draft. Sukanta Nayek: Writing – original draft.
Indranil Bhui: Writing – original draft. Chandan Kumar Majee: Writing – original draft.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors assert that there are no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the
work reported in this paper.

Data availability

The datasets can be obtained from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

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B. Ghosh et al. Urban Climate 56 (2024) 102005

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC), Delhi, for providing the air quality data. Additionally, we acknowledge with appreciation UGC, New Delhi, India, awarded
non-NET fellowship to one of the authors (BG).

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at [Link]

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