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 Fourth Edition
Estimation
of the
Time
Since
Death
Estimation of the Time Since Death remains the foremost authoritative book on scientifically calculating the estimated
time of death post-mortem. Building on the success of previous editions, which covered the early post-mortem period
and the third edition’s coverage of the later post-mortem period, this edition includes a new chapter on DNA/RNA
degradation and a new chapter on drug testing in hair, widening the scope of the material.
Chapters have been improved, updated and expanded, and they include new and additional images to enhance the
text. A unique work of synthesis combining rigorous science with practical guidance, this edition reinforces the book’s
reputation as an invaluable resource—and also the standard—for the estimation of the time since death.
 Fourth Edition
Estimation
Time
of the

Since
Death
Fourth Edition
Edited by

Burkhard Madea

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Cover image—Getty © 685478291
Fourth edition published 2023
by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2023 selection and editorial matter, Burkhard Madea; individual chapters, the contributors
First edition published by Elsevier 1995
CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited
The right of Burkhard Madea to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. While all reasonable efforts have been made
to publish reliable data and information, neither the author[s] nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility or liability for
any errors or omissions that may be made. The publishers wish to make clear that any views or opinions expressed in this book by
individual editors, authors or contributors are personal to them and do not necessarily reflect the views/opinions of the publishers.
The information or guidance contained in this book is intended for use by medical, scientific or health-care professionals and is
provided strictly as a supplement to the medical or other professional’s own judgement, their knowledge of the patient’s medical
history, relevant manufacturer’s instructions and the appropriate best practice guidelines. Because of the rapid advances in medical
science, any information or advice on dosages, procedures or diagnoses should be independently verified. The reader is strongly
urged to consult the relevant national drug formulary and the drug companies’ and device or material manufacturers’ printed
instructions, and their websites, before administering or utilizing any of the drugs, devices or materials mentioned in this book.
This book does not indicate whether a particular treatment is appropriate or suitable for a particular individual. Ultimately it is
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-032-13553-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-24497-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003244974
Typeset in Melior
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
Preface to the Third Edition vii
Preface to the Fourth Edition ix
Editor Biography xi
List of Contributors xiii

1 General Remarks on Estimating the Time Since Death 1

Burkhard Madea and Claus Henssge

2 Historical Review on Early Work on Estimating the Time Since Death 9

Bernard Knight and Burkhard Madea

3 Supravitality in Tissues 25
Burkhard Madea

4 Rigor Mortis: Estimation of the Time Since Death by Evaluation of Cadaveric Rigidity 51
Thomas Krompecher

5 Post-mortem Lividity: Hypostasis and Timing of Death 71

Burkhard Madea and Bernard Knight

6 Post-mortem Body Cooling and Temperature-Based Methods 77

Claus Henssge, Michael Hubig, Michał Kaliszan, Gita Mall,
Holger Muggenthaler, Stefan Potente, Guy Rutty

6.1 Basics and Application of the ‘Nomogram Method’ at the Scene 79

Claus Henssge

6.2 Finite Element Method in Temperature-Based Death Time Determination 132

Michael Hubig, Holger Muggenthaler, Gita Mall

6.3 The Prism Method 152

Stefan Potente

6.4 The Use of Temperatures Recorded from the External Auditory Canal
for the Estimation of the Post-mortem Intervalt 162
Guy Rutty

6.5 Eye Temperature and the Time Since Death 181

Michał Kaliszan

7 Autolysis, Putrefactive Changes and Post-mortem Chemistry 187

Elke Doberentz, Claus Henssge, Bernhard Knight, Burkhard Madea,
Frank Musshoff, Angela Pittner, Stefan Pittner, Torleiv Ole Rognum, Brita Zilg

7.1 Autolysis (Self-digestion) 189

Burkhard Madea

7.2a Eye Changes After Death 201

Burkhard Madea and Claus Henssge

7.2b Potassium Levels Combined with Age and Temperature 229

Brita Zilg

v
vi Contents

7.2c Estimation of Time Since Death Based on Vitreous Humour

Hypoxanthine and Temperature Measurement 232
Torleiv Ole Rognum

7.3 Cerebrospinal Fluid Chemistry 240

Burkhard Madea and Claus Henssge

7.4 Estimation of Duration of Immersion 245

Elke Doberentz and Burkhard Madea

7.5 H3-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 259

Frank Musshoff and Burkhard Madea

7.6 Post-mortem Protein Degradation 264

Stefan Pittner and Angela Pittner

8 DNA/RNA Degradation and Time Since Death 283

Akihiko Kimura and Toshikazu Kondo

9 Gastric Contents and Time Since Death 295

Burkhard Madea, Bernard Knight, Elke Doberentz

10 Immunohistochemical Methods as an Aid in Estimating the Time Since Death 309

Burkhard Madea

11 Practical Casework 313

Claus Henssge, Burkhard Madea and Stefan Potente

11.1 Integration of Different Methods in Casework 313

Claus Henssge and Burkhard Madea

11.2 Conditional Probability in Death Time Estimation 328

Stefan Potente

12 Forensic Entomology 335

Saskia Reibe

13 Radiocarbon Dating: Basic Principles and Applications 345

Wilfried Rosendahl and Doris Döppes

14 Cross-Sectional Imaging and the Post-mortem Interval 355

Guy Rutty

15 Drug Testing in Hair for the Estimation of the Time Since Death 371
Christopher Wiedfeld and Frank Musshoff

Index 375
Preface to the Third Edition
Estimation of the time since death is a practical task in Progress in the field of death time estimation usually
daily forensic casework. Already the physicians of the requires long lasting research.
19th century were familiar with the difficulties to esti- Real progress will not be achieved by just writing a
mate the time since death. As a historical review will paper but if research focuses for years on a special prob-
indicate, the problem of determining to estimate the post- lem rising from the basic idea to validation of the method
mortem interval has absorbed doctors and scientists for over field studies which prove the accuracy and reliabil-
at least one century and a half, yet accuracy still remains ity of the method.
beyond our grasp. For about the last 50 years, forensic sci- In practice, estimating the time of death is not always
entists have tried hard to solve the problem of estimating an exact science. The best we can achieve is often only
the time since death by developing methods that would a reasoned guess taking into account all known factors.
permit the determination of the exact time of death. But Our aim should be to limit the margin of error inherent
the results of all these often even very extensive studies in assessing the effects of these factors. Aim of methods
clearly show that the moment of death can only be deter- of estimating the time since death is according to Camps
mined within certain limits of probability. According to to give true scientific evidence and to avoid at all costs a
Francis E. Camps the establishment of the time since death miscarriage of justice. However, in some cases the time of
must have a true scientific backing both on an experimen- death resembles somewhat the value attributed in some
tal and statistical basis. Otherwise the evidence might peoples mind to the lie detector. It is hoped that this new
possibly be dangerous to the aims of justice. The main book edition will continue to be the main work in English
aim should be to obtain a figure with the smallest range language to provide up to date data and references on this
of error as possible. In fact, it would be better to prove important subject. In this 3rd edition we have included
without contradiction that death could have occurred at a new developments in death time estimation. All chapters
time when a certain person was present rather than it did of the previous edition were revised and new chapters
occur at a certain exact time. were added. These new chapters are for instance: Forensic
This book is based on basic research and this basic aspects of decomposition: how immunohistochemistry
research should always be the background for time since and magnetic resonance spectroscopy can contribute to
death estimation in practice. However, a practical case death time estimation. Estimation of duration of immer-
does sometimes not fit into the experimental background sion based on decomposition in relation to the actual
of scientific research. Instead of analysing a case and water temperature. Entomology and the Radiocarbon test
evaluate it which information on postmortem changes is have been included as well since they may be of impor-
possible to obtain some practitioners rely only on envi- tance already in the early postmortem period. In times of
ronmental evidence instead of seeking an intellectual increasing importance of postmortem imaging a chapter
challenge to find solutions based on an examination of on cross sectional imaging and the postmortem interval
the scene of death and the body. was included as well. Furthermore a new mathemati-
Relying just on environmental evidence is often not cal approach to narrow down the postmortem interval
more than certain convenience or even laziness of the derived from the compound method (conditional prob-
forensic pathologist who may feel unpleasant to study the ability in death time estimation) is described in detail.
results of research. I have to thank all contributors to the third edition and
Since the last edition of this book numerous papers on hope that the book will be a valuable source of informa-
estimation of the time since death have been published. tion for forensic practitioners and scientists dealing with
Most of them have in common that they are of no value the estimation of the time since death. Many thanks to my
for practice. secretary Elke Weinland and the staff of the Institute of
The main criterion for the quality of any new method is Forensic Medicine in Bonn for continuous support.
that it helps to solve a case better, easier and with greater
accuracy compared to traditional methods. Burkhard Madea

vii
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Seven years after the third edition, the preparation of a The ‘rat forensic pathologist’ with biochemical or
fourth edition of Estimation of the Time Since Death was molecular background should at least learn something
necessary. about the essentials of death time estimation in practice.
The first edition was published in 1995, edited by Pro- One of the co-authors of this book, Professor Claus
fessor Bernard Knight, who brought together some foren- Henssge, aged 85, died last year (Figure 0.1).
sic pathologists working on time since death. Born on June 3, 1936, in Dresden, he later studied medi-
Without Bernard, this book would never have been cine at the Humboldt University in East Berlin where he
born, and the book still seems to be viable. also received his MD. He started his career in physiology
I still remember the time more than 25 years ago, when at the Institute of Applied Physiology, collaborating with
I prepared my contributions for the first edition. This is Professor Adolf-Henning Frucht (1913–1993). The insti-
nearly a generation ago and much has been published on tute had three research departments: biophysics, physiol-
time since death in the meanwhile. ogy, and applied physiology, with a focus on sports and
Four authors of the first edition are still contributing performance physiology. Since the head of the depart-
to the book, but like the previous edition, new aspects ment was also interested in biomathematics, he studied
of death time estimation had to be considered and pre- this, too.
sented by new authors. New aspects are, for instance, This education in physiology and later also in sports
post-mortem protein degradation, DNA/RNA degrada- medicine formed the essential basis for his scientific work
tion, circadian rhythm, recent mathematical approaches, in forensic medicine. In 1966, Dr Henssge was then board-
taking into account influencing factors such as ambient certified as a physiologist.
temperature for a more precise estimation of TSD using For political reasons he had to leave his job in sports
vitreous humour, cross-sectional imaging and time since medicine in 1975 and was offered another job at the
death. These methods should be further developed, and Humboldt-University in East Berlin. He was allowed to
the practical applicability should be carefully observed. choose the field, and so he decided to start a second career at
It is hoped that this new edition will continue to be an
informative work in the English language to provide up-
to-date data and references on this important subject.
It is furthermore hoped that the book inspires research
in this field. As already outlined in the previous edi-
tion, real success in the field and scientific breakthrough
require years of undisturbed research.
The editor of this book has to review many papers sub-
mitted to international journals on death time estimation.
When the abstract or the paper begins like ‘death time
estimation is a crucial part in forensic case work’ since
methods are imprecise and then many papers that have
nothing to do with death time estimation in real casework
are cited, and the relevant literature is missing, you can
already be convinced that the authors are familiar with
neither time since death estimation nor forensic medi-
cine. Then either animal experiments are reported on
killed rats (‘rat and mice forensic pathology’) with highly
sophisticated biochemical or molecular approaches,
which however solve no problem in practice, or a meta-
analysis is carried out—mainly done by students super-
vised by a professor—which do not delve deep into the
real problems.
Papers on time since death estimation are abundant and
most—even the published papers—are either nonsense or
superfluous: waste of time and money. As in the previous
editions, this book focuses on time since death in prac-
Figure 0.1 Professor Claus Henssge.
tice. The forensic pathologist going to the scene of crime
should use it and benefit from it. (Photo: ® Timo Bobert, Berlin)

ix
x Preface to the Fourth Edition

the Institute of Forensic Medicine led by Professor Otto Furthermore, he carried out single- and multicen-
Prokop. tre studies on the reliability of the nomogram method.
He soon started with his experiments on human body Besides his own research, he stimulated research on other
cooling and found empirical solutions for the two- methods of death time estimation, for instance, supravital
exponential formula by Marshall and Hoare. electrical excitability and chemical methods, especially
He developed the nomogram for time of death estimation on vitreous humour, amongst others.
under standard cooling conditions (rectal-temperature- In 1988 the first German monograph on death time esti-
time of death nomogram). mation was published and in 1995 an English monograph,
For ambient temperatures above 23°C, he used the titled The Estimation of the Time Since Death in the Early
material of De Saram et al. Postmortem Period, originally edited by Bernard Knight,
In 1980 he was board-certified as an expert in foren- followed. This monograph is now published in a fourth
sic medicine and in 1982 received the licence to lecture edition.
(habilitation). Professor Henssge worked not only in research but also
Meanwhile, he had also carried out extensive investiga- in practice in the whole field of forensic medicine, and he
tions on body cooling under non-standard conditions. was a very respected expert at court, especially in difficult
In 1983 he moved from East to West Germany and was trials.
appointed deputy at the Institute of Forensic Medicine of His practical work in forensic medicine was very much
the University of Münster. influenced by the school of Otto Prokop in East Berlin.
Further steps in his scientific career were investigations However, his first postgraduate training in physiology
on central brain temperature and body cooling in water- was the basis of all the research on death time estimation
immersed bodies. and without his experimental and mathematical training
He was always in further contact with physiologists. In in physiology, this career in forensic medicine would not
Münster, for example, with a cardiac physiologist with have been possible.
whom first results on the supravital electrical stimulation In 2003 Professor Henssge retired, but even after his
of skeletal muscle using a force transducer for objectifying retirement, he was available to give younger colleagues
the muscle contraction were produced. advice on their further research.
In 1986 he was appointed Professor of Forensic Medi- He was a genuine and focused man and colleague, free
cine at the University of Cologne, and in 1993 Professor from any vanities. Until his death he was clearheaded and
and Director at the Institute of Forensic Medicine at the interested but due to underlying conditions physically
University of Essen. The focus of his own scientific work limited.
was always the time of death using the decrease of body Not only the German forensic medicine but forensic
temperature. He used cooling dummies for simulation medicine worldwide has lost one of the leading scientists
of body cooling. Further main research fields were the in the field.
empirical evaluation of body corrective factors for body I have to thank all contributors to the fourth edition and
cooling under non-standard conditions, evaluating the hope that the book will be a valuable source of informa-
dependence of the corrective factors from the real body tion for both practitioners and scientists.
weight and estimation of the time since death in cases of
change of the ambient temperature. Burkhard Madea
Editor Biography
Professor Burkhard Madea is a world-renowned forensic his forensic studies at the University of Cologne from 1985
pathologist and is the author of approximately 40 books and to 1989. In 1991 he was appointed as Professor of Foren-
700 papers. He earned his medical licence in 1982, work- sic Medicine at the University of Cologne. In 1996 he was
ing as a medical doctor in the German army from 1983 to appointed as Professor of Forensic Medicine at the Univer-
1984. He completed his postgraduation degree in forensic sity of Bonn. He also served as the Head of the Institute of
medicine from the University of Münster, further continuing Forensic Medicine until his retirement in autumn of 2022.

xi
Contributors
Elke Doberentz Frank Musshoff
Institute of Forensic Medicine Forensic Toxicological Centre
University of Bonn, Germany Munich, Germany

Doris Döppes Angela Pittner

World Cultures and Natural History Department of Environment and Biodiversity
Reiss-Engelhorn-Museum, Mannheim, Germany Paris Lodron University of Salzburg
Salzburg, Austria
Claus Henssge†
Institute of Forensic Medicine
University of Essen, Germany Stefan Pittner
Department of Forensic Medicine
Michael Hubig Paris Lodron University of Salzburg
Institute of Forensic Medicine Salzburg, Austria
Jena University Hospital
Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany Stefan Potente
Institute of Legal Medicine
Michał Kaliszan University of Saarland, Germany
Department of Forensic Medicine
Medical University of Gdansk, Poland Saskia Reibe
Institute of Forensic Medicine
Akihiko Kimura University of Bonn, Germany
Department of Forensic Medicine
Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
Torleiv Ole Rognum
Bernard Knight Institute of Forensic Medicine
University of Wales University of Oslo, Norway
College of Medicine
Cardiff, Wales Wilfried Rosendahl
Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen
Toshikazu Kondo Curt-Engelhorn-Centre of Archaeometry
Department of Forensic Medicine Head German Mummy Project, Germany
Wakayama Medical University, Japan Mannheim, Germany

Thomas Krompecher Guy Rutty

University of Lausanne, Switzerland East Midlands Forensic Pathology Unit
University of Leicester, UK
Gita Mall
Institute of Forensic Medicine
Jena University Hospital Christopher Wiedfeld
Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany Forensic Toxicological Centre
Munich, Germany
Holger Muggenthaler
Institute of Forensic Medicine Brita Zilg
Jena University Hospital Institute of Forensic Medicine
Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany Karolinska Institute, Sweden

xiii
 1 General Remarks on Estimating
the Time Since Death
Burkhard Madea and Claus Henssge

Contents
1.1 Estimation of the Time Since Death 1
1.1.1 Design of Study (Methodology) 3
[Link] Case Material 4
[Link] Analyses of Results 4
1.1.2 Conclusions 4
1.2 Errors in Estimating the Time Since Death 4
1.2.1 Time Since Death as Evidence at Court 6
[Link] Case Example (for the Basics on body cooling See Also Chapter 6.1) 6

1.1 Estimation of the Time

Since Death

Bernard Knight [12] began the general introduction to the

previous edition with the following words:

The importance of estimating the time since death

must have been appreciated for centuries, probably
millennia. Even in the most unsophisticated soci-
eties, when homicides took place the community
would inevitably have correlated the location and Figure 1.1 Copy of the article of Professor Camps dedicated to
movements of the prime suspects with the appar- Professor Schleyer (1913–1995) Bonn, a leading German expert on
ent time of death—however crude that comparison time since death estimation at that time.
might have been—to test what would later become
the defence of alibi.
Little has changed from those early days, except
Reliability as the most important principle can only be
that their data acquisition equipment was merely
provided empirically by statistical analysis of mistakes
the back of a hand to test the coolness of the corpse’s
(deviation between calculated and real time since death)
skin, and their eyes and nose to evaluate decompo-
in field studies (Camps, Figure 1.1).
sition. We now have multichannel thermometry
The demands of practice are to be precise, to be reli-
with thermocouples sensitive to a fraction of a
able and to give an immediate result. The main principle
degree, enzyme methods, vitreous chemistry, mus-
of determining the time since death is the calculation of
cular reactivity and several other avenues for col-
a measurable date along a time-dependent curve back to
lecting data. Regrettably, the accuracy of estimating
the starting point. Characteristics of the curve (e.g. the
the postmortem interval has by no means kept pace
slope) and the starting point are influenced by internal
with the enormous strides made in technological
and external, antemortem and post-mortem conditions.
sophistication.
Therefore, the estimation of the time since death will
never reveal a time point, but rather an interval.
Estimation of the time since death is a practical task in
Methods of estimating the time since death are based on
daily forensic casework. The main objective is to give the
two different approaches:
police a first estimation of the time since death already
at the place where the body was found. Methods of esti- 1 Which antemortem changes, either physiological
mating the time since death should, of course, be as pre- or pathological, can be detected and allow, together
cise as possible, but even more important is its reliability. with police investigations, a conclusion on the

DOI: 10.1201/9781003244974-1 1
2 Estimation of the Time Since Death

time since death (survival time)? Methods such as Table 1.1 Grading of Methods of Estimating the Time Since
wound-age estimation and gastric emptying when Death Regarding Mode of Registration of Post-mortem Changes,
time and volume of the last meal are known follow Description, Considering Infuencing Factors; Calculation of
Confdence Limits
this approach.
2 Which post-mortem changes allow a conclusion to 1. Quantitative measurement, mathematical description, taking
be made on the time since death? Most methods into account infuencing factors quantitatively, declaration of
precision, proof of precision on independent material.
used in practice follow this second approach.
Examples: body cooling (nomogram method), potassium in
There is extensive literature on methods proposed for vitreous humour.
estimating the time since death. However, most of these 2. Subjective description (grading), considering infuencing
factors, declaration of precision, proof of precision on
methods have never gained practical importance. Many
independent material. Example: supravital reactions.
papers on ‘estimating the time since death’ simply
3. Subjective description of post-mortem changes; infuencing
describe the time dependence of an analyte or parameter.
factors known ‘in principle’, empirical estimations instead of
However, the search for new analytes on post-mortem statistically evaluated reference values. Examples: rigor
changing parameters does not make any sense because mortis, lividity.
nearly all parameters are changing more or less with an 4. Subjective description; analogous conclusions based on
increasing post-mortem interval. Furthermore, just apply- empiricism and assumptions instead of statistically evaluated
ing new technologies (‘time since death markers have reference values. Example: gastric contents.
lagged behind the advance in technology over the past 50 5. Subjective description, velocity of progression of post-
years’) does not involve any breakthrough for the practi- mortem changes entirely depending on ambient factors;
because of the broad spectrum of ambient factors, no sound
cal purposes of death time estimation.
empirical estimation possible. Example: putrefaction.
The various methods proposed for estimating the time
since death are completely different from each other:

• Predominantly physical processes such as body Table 1.2 Objectives of Estimating the Time Since Death
cooling and hypostasis.
1. To give the police a preliminary idea on the time of an assault
• Metabolic processes such as concentration changes
in criminal connotations.
of metabolites, substrates and activity of enzymes.
2. To check whether the time since death is consistent with the
• Autolysis (loss of selective membrane permeabil- alibi of a suspect.
ity, diffusion according to Fick’s law with increase 3. When two deaths occur, especially of spouses or siblings, the
or decrease of analytes in various body fluids, order of deaths and hence survivorships.
morphological changes). 4. Registration purposes: ‘Enquire where, when and by what
• Physicochemical processes (supravital reagibility, means a person came to death’.
rigor mortis, immunological reactivity).
• Bacterial processes (putrefaction).

Furthermore, the methods for estimating the time since The estimation of the time since death at the scene of
death are not only different but also have widely varying crime has, as already mentioned, two different objectives
scientific value in terms of the underlying scientific back- (Table 1.2):
ground, the mode of investigation and the validation of
1 To give the police a preliminary idea of the time of
the method (Table 1.1). Already Camps wrote in his criti-
an assault. The time since death gives information
cal assessment that time since death estimation must have
on the time of an assault only in those instances in
a true scientific backing both on an experimental and sta-
which the survival period after an injury was short.
tistical basis for otherwise the evidence must possibly be
2 To check whether the time since death is consistent
dangerous to the interests of justice.
or inconsistent with the alibi of a suspect. Only
Methods of the highest scientific value do, of course,
in rare cases does the time of death play a major
comprise methods with a quantitative measurement of
role in court as the only evidence for or against the
post-mortem changes and a mathematical description
guilt of a suspect [20] (see also the case example at
that takes into account influencing factors quantitatively.
the end of this chapter).
Clear data on the precision of the method are available,
and the data on precision have been proved on indepen- However, the coroner, medical examiner or other author-
dent material and in field studies. ity needs to know the time and date of death for regis-
Conversely, the evidence for death time estimation of tration purposes. Indeed, the legal basis of the English
the lowest scientific value involves methods with only coroner’s jurisdiction is to ‘enquire where, when and by
a subjective description of the post-mortem change. The what means a person came to his death’.
progression of a post-mortem change is entirely depen- Other matters besides usual criminal connota-
dent on ambient factors. However, these ambient factors tions concern insurance and contract and culpabil-
cannot be taken into account quantitatively. ity issues, as well as situations in which two deaths,
 1 General Remarks on Estimating the Time Since Death 3
especially of spouses or siblings, occur close together,
and the order of those deaths—and hence survivor- 1.1.1 Design of Study (Methodology)
ship—may have profound effects on the transfer of
estate and property [12]. If new parameters are studied, the following should be
Before any suspect is questioned or charged, knowledge kept in mind: What is the nature of the underlying process
of the approximate time of death is essential if the inves- studied [3, 6,17] (Figure 1.1)?
tigating officers are to direct their enquiries in the appro-
• Predominantly physical processes (body cooling,
priate direction. The relationship of the time of death
hypostasis).
with other events, with persons in the vicinity and with
• Metabolic processes (e.g. concentration of metabo-
those who could not have been in the vicinity, will auto-
lites and substrates, activity of enzymes).
matically channel investigative efforts along certain lines.
• Autolysis (loss of selective membrane permeabil-
When several suspects are being considered, the best esti-
ity, diffusion, morphological changes).
mate of the time of death forms a primary screening pro-
• Physicochemical processes (supravital reagibility,
cedure to eliminate some putative killers, who could not
rigor mortis, immunological reactivity).
have had access to the deceased at the material time, and
• Bacterial process (putrefaction).
it may strengthen suspicion against others whose move-
ments coincided with an estimated time. There is thus a Analysing the underlying process may already prevent
heavy responsibility on the doctor who offers an opinion wrong expectations. In theory, it could be expected that a
as to the probable time of death—if they are significantly parameter with just a post-mortem increase that is solely
in error, an investigation may be dislocated at its earliest caused by diffusion would correlate much more strongly
and perhaps most vulnerable stage. with the time since death than would a parameter that
To offer an unreasonably accurate time of death is increases as a result of vital/post-mortem degradation
worse than providing such a wide range of times that the (metabolic process) and diffusion [19]. Furthermore, a
police can derive no help from it. In the latter situation, clear definition of the site of measurement or site of sample
police officers do at least then know that they have to use acquisition is necessary. Post-mortem changes should pref-
other methods in their investigations, but to mislead the erably be investigated in longitudinal studies with objective
police by some outrageously precise time runs the risk of measurements of these changes, although it should be kept
excluding the true culprit, as well as falsely implicating in mind that the objective measurement contributes only
an innocent party [12]. in a small part to a more accurate death time estimation.
For estimating the post-mortem interval, different For the early post-mortem interval with body cooling
sources are used [22]: and supravital reactions, standards in practice have been
established, and applicability and reliability were con-
1 Evidence from the body of the deceased (post-
firmed in field studies that can hardly be improved by
mortem changes).
other studies [1,4–10,14–19]. Therefore, research should
2 Information from the environment in the vicinity
focus on the later post-mortem interval. However, inves-
of the body (date of the newspaper, open television
tigations on the time course of any analyte do not make
programme).
any sense without also verifying the variability because
3 Anamnestic factors concerning the deceased’s
habits (leaving a fat, arriving at work, day-to-day
activities).

For the forensic investigation of the time since death, all Initial value
sources of information on the time since death always
Investigated Parameter

should be kept in mind. In forensic medicine much

research has been carried out on post-mortem changes.
dY
The progression of all post-mortem changes is influenced Slope
dX
by many internal or external factors, mainly the ambient
temperature. The longer the post-mortem interval, the less
accurate is the estimation of the time since death based on Measured value
post-mortem changes [22].
Post-mortem changes, especially body cooling, have
been investigated with sophisticated methods, and formu-
t0 = 0 Time Since Death tx
las developed to calculate the time since death are full of
Time of death Time of measurement
mathematics. Despite the high level of research in estimat-
ing the time since death, in practice we can often achieve Figure 1.2 Main principle of the determination of the time since
not more than a reasoned guess on the time elapsed since death (calculation from a measured value along a curve back to the
death. initial value).
4 Estimation of the Time Since Death

it is often the interindividual variability that prevents the increasing. However, most of these methods have never
application of a parameter in practice (besides the fact gained any practical relevance because they do not meet
that in corpore measurements at the scene are, from the the demands of practice (being precise, being reliable
standpoint of practicability, always of higher value com- and giving immediate results). Field studies are good
pared with in vitro measurements). indicators of the practical value of a method, but, to our
Therefore, at some different times (10, 20, 30,. . ., hpm), knowledge, field studies on most methods of estimat-
post-mortem (time-dependent) investigations and taking ing the time since death are nearly completely missing
samples from some bodies should be carried out; how- in the literature compared, for instance, with studies of
ever, the ambient temperature or temperature history of body cooling or supravital reactions [1,8,9,15]. Thus,
the bodies should differ markedly (e.g. differing ambient most methods proposed for an estimation of the time
temperature for identical post-mortem intervals). This since death are of only academic interest because they
time-saving procedure already allows a first estimation describe just post-mortem changes. These methods
of the variability in comparison with established meth- gain practical relevance only if the following criteria
ods. If new parameters or methods are recommended are fulfilled: quantitative measurements, mathematical
for death time estimation, their reliability and accuracy descriptions, taking into account influencing factors
should always be compared with those of methods devel- quantitatively and declarations of precision and proof
oped for the same post-mortem period. Besides the same of precision on independent material.
post-mortem interval, a comparison of methods should Without validation of a method and field studies, the
always address the practicability and the time interval application of novel approaches in practice may be mis-
until results are available. Influencing factors governing leading, a miscarriage of justice and irresponsible.
the change of an investigated parameter should be studied
(preferably in longitudinal studies), and they should be
taken into account for the death time estimation quanti-
tatively. Without considering influencing factors, a wide
period will result. Control studies on independent case
1.2 Errors in Estimating the
material must be carried out to prove the accuracy of the Time Since Death
method. Furthermore, field studies on cases with a known
time since death are necessary to check the practicable
Camps [2] stated that estimating the time of death is not
applicability, reliability and accuracy compared with
an exact science:
standard methods. Additionally, the combination of dif-
ferent methods for a common result of death time estima-
tion should be investigated [9,15]. The best we can achieve is a reasoned guess taking
into account all the known factors and our aim should
be to limit the margin of error inherent in assessing
[Link] Case Material the effect of these factors. Aim of estimating the time
The case material should comprise different causes of since death is to give true scientific evidence and
death; diseases and the duration of the terminal epi- avoid at all costs a miscarriage of justice. . . . in other
sode may be vital points for the strength of correlations words, I feel that at present the time of death resem-
between investigated parameter and time since death, and bles somewhat the value in some people’s minds to
they must be addressed [16,18]. the lie detector [2].

[Link] Analyses of Results Van den Oever [25] proposed that for greater accuracy
in the estimation of the time since death, it seems that the
For statistical analysis, it is not sufficient to present only proper way is to find a suitable combination of the most
mean values of the correlation between investigated efficient known methods. Using different methods with
parameters and time since death or correlation coeffi- a different background concerning post-mortem changes
cients. Instead, statistical parameters of the deviation of and analytical approaches increases the reliability of the
single values from the mean correlation such as confi- estimation of the time since death and the self-confidence
dence limits are necessary. of the investigator. Therefore, in the protocol of a medico-
legal autopsy, as in the report of the crime scene investiga-
tion, it is better to describe ten findings that prove to be
1.1.2 Conclusions of no significance than to omit a single finding that may
be critical [21].
The huge amount of literature, especially on chemical In his famous paper on classical mistakes in forensic
methods of estimating the time since death [24], is still pathology, Alan R. Moritz [21] summarized some errors of
 1 General Remarks on Estimating the Time Since Death 5
omission in the collection of evidence required for estab- • Being unfamiliar with the scientific background,
lishing the time of death: the requirements and limitations of a method is a
problem.
1 Failure to record the rectal temperature of the body.
2 Failure to observe changes that may occur in the The main errors in estimating the time since death can be
intensity and distribution of rigor mortis—before, summarized as follows:
during and after autopsy.
• Not taking into account the post-mortem tempera-
3 Failure to observe the ingredients of the last meal
ture plateau.
and its location in the alimentary tract.
• Using rules of thumb.
A further classical mistake, especially concerning estimat- • No careful examination of the scene of the crime
ing the time since death, may be to talk too soon, too much (severe changes in cooling conditions).
or to the wrong people. This was outlined by Moritz [21] • Calculation of a mean value without confidence limits.
with an illustrative case example. The danger of releas- • Using a wrong temperature site for calculation (e.g.
ing opinions prematurely is illustrated by the following outer ear temperature is used as body core temper-
case: because the dead woman’s body was still warm and ature in the nomogram).
there was no rigor, Dr X, the pathologist, told the district • Not taking into account influencing factors.
attorney, who was eager to know the time of death, that • Post-mortem changes not seen in a context.
the woman probably died early that morning. Dr X pro-
vided this information before the autopsy had actually Factors that can introduce errors into the calculation of the
been started. The district attorney immediately passed this time since death by body cooling include the following:
information to news reporters. Shortly before the noon edi-
• The ambient temperature can vary widely and
tion of the newspapers reached the streets, the pathologist
rapidly in certain conditions and can swing both
realized that the news was released too soon. The degree
higher and lower than the final temperature as
of autolysis of the parenchymatous organs, together with
measured on discovery of the body. The tempera-
the presence of intravascular haemolysis, indicated a con-
ture of the environment is, of course, partly deter-
siderably longer post-mortem interval than he originally
mined by some of the other factors.
thought. The noon edition of the newspaper carried two
• Wind and draughts affect body temperature by
items on the first page: the district attorney’s news release
increasing convection and conduction from the
to the effect that Dr X had established that the woman was
surface and by evaporating moisture.
murdered early that morning, and a recent news bulle-
• Rain, humidity and snow, apart from the direct
tin stating that the murderer had just confessed and took
temperature effect, alter the evaporative properties
the responsibility of killing the woman during the eve-
of the skin and clothing.
ning of the preceding day. Approximately 12 hours after
• The body posture alters the rate of heat loss, by
the murder, and 2 hours before the body was found, the
varying the effective exposed surface area per unit
murderer moved the woman’s body from the warm room
mass available for convection and conduction.
where the crime occurred to the cool basement where
• The body size also alters the mass/surface area ratio.
the police found the victim. The interior of the body was
Infants and children cool more quickly for this reason
warm because it had been in a warm place during most of
because the heat gradient from the core is steeper.
the post-mortem period. There was no rigor because rigor
• Naturally, clothing (or its lack) makes a very great dif-
had developed and regressed. If the murderer had not con-
ference to cooling rates. Other coverings, such as bed-
fessed and was able to establish an alibi for the time that
clothes, other fabrics, even debris or another adjacent
the murder was supposed to have been committed, the
body, can dramatically alter the cooling characteristics.
murderer could have been proved to be innocent by using
• In the same way as clothing, body fat acts as an
the pathologist’s premature and incorrect guess.
insulator, and its deficiency or absence accelerates
General problems in estimating the time since death
cooling, and vice versa.
can be summarized as follows:
• However debatable the applicability of Newton’s
• Most methods are of help only in the first 1 or 2 law of cooling may be to human cooling, there is
days post-mortem. no doubt that the original body temperature at the
• Does the actual case meet the requirements of time of death affects the progress of heat loss. This
experimental investigations (e.g. unusual cooling is partly by the Newtonian principle of a higher
conditions with no reference values)? cooling rate where the excess of body temperature
• High ambient temperature is a problem. above ambient is large, but also from the smaller
• Is experimental reference material with calculation fall of temperature remaining above ambient.
of the margin of error available or not (e.g. preserva- • Further problems are the result of fever at death, a
tion of decomposing bodies in plastic bags)? longer agonal period and hypothermia.
6 Estimation of the Time Since Death

Table 1.3 Calculations of the Time Since Death for Diferent Ambient Temperatures and Corrective Factors for the Body Weight

Henssge ([Link])
TU 27,5 27,5/27,8 28,33/28,3

f=1 15,5 +/− 3,2

12,3–18,7
Time 7.08–13.32
f = 1,1 16,9 h +/− 4,5 17,8 +/− 4,5 19,7 +/− 7
12,4–21,4 13,3–22,3 12,7–26,7
Time 4.26–13.26 3.32–12.32 23.08–13.08
f = 1,2 18,2 +/− 4,5 19,2 +/− 4,5 21,2 +/− 7
13,7–22,7 14,7–23,7 14,2–28,2
Time 3.08–12.08 2.08–11.08 21.38–11.38
Abbreviation: f = corrective factor

One of the few published accounts of an estimation of further physical opinion was ordered on the temperature
actual errors was made by James and Knight [11,13]. In time course in the room of the prostitute in the last 24
this investigation, 110 bodies with a known time of death hours. This physical evidence revealed a temperature pro-
were examined by two experienced forensic pathologists, file and was the basis for the calculation of the time since
each pathologist making the estimation alternately with no death using the nomogram method. Time since death in
knowledge of the real time of death. The estimates were the afternoon could be excluded; time since death in the
then compared with the true interval to evaluate the errors. early hours of the morning was probable.
Of the 100 bodies, the true time since death was cor- The prostitute was found in a prone position on a mat-
rectly estimated in only 11 cases, whereas underestima- tress of her bed. Room temperature at the floor at 1.47
tions occurred in 57 cases and overestimations in 32 am: 27,3°C. Temperature directly near the body: 27,5°C.
cases. In 35 of the 100 cases, the error was less than 10 Deep rectal temperature at 1.50 am: 30,7°C. Supravital
per cent, in 54 cases less than 20 per cent, in 70 cases less electrical excitability of skeletal muscle: negative. Fully
than 30 per cent, in 90 cases less than 40 per cent and in developed rigor mortis in all joints. No reestablishment
95 cases less than 50 per cent. In two cases, there was an of rigor mortis. Post-mortem lividity according to a prone
error of 100 per cent. The absolute error increased as the position. Incomplete disappearance of post-mortem livid-
interval grew longer, but, in percentage terms, appreciable ity on sharp pressure.
errors can also exist even near the time of death. According to the temperature profile in the room of the
The general experience gained from this investigation prostitute, the time since death was calculated for differ-
was that in deaths occurring less than 4 hours before ent ambient temperatures and corrective factors for the
estimation, the major problem was the variable ‘plateau’. body weight. According to the scene findings (lying naked
Seven bodies had rectal temperatures at or even above in a prone position on a mattress) at least a corrective fac-
37°C up to 4 hours post-mortem—a phenomenon con- tor of 1.1 was necessary. A time of death in the afternoon
stantly encountered since the early days of research in the could be ruled out and a time since death to 12 hours
mid-nineteenth century. prior was very probable.

References
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M, Madea B, Oehmichen M, Pollak S, Püschel K, Seifert
[Link] Case Example (for the Basics on body D, Teige K. Zur Anwendung des Rektaltemperatur-
Todeszeit-Nomogramms am Leichenfundort. Z Rechtsmed
cooling, see also Chapter 6.1)
1990;103:257–78.
A prostitute was found murdered in her apartment in an 2. Camps F. Establishment of the time since death: a critical
Eros Center. A main question at court was if she was killed assessment. J Forensic Sci 1959;4:73–6.
in the afternoon or already 12 hours earlier in the early 3. Henssge C. Todeszeitbestimmung: eine Methodenkritik. Beitr
morning. According to the prosecution, time of death Gerichtl Med 1986;44:109–16.
4. Henssge C. Rectal temperature time of death nomogram:
was in the early afternoon. During the main hearing, the
dependence of corrective factors on the body weight under
criminal court changed the time of death to early morn-
stronger thermic isolation conditions. Forensic Sci Int
ing, that is 12 hours prior. The case was twice overturned
1992;54:51–6.
by the Supreme Court because the time change was not 5. Henssge C. Temperature-based methods II. In: Henssge
sufficiently proved. For the preparation of the third trial, a C, Knight B, Krompecher T, Madea B, Nokes L (eds.). The
 1 General Remarks on Estimating the Time Since Death 7
Estimation of the Time Since Death in the Early Postmortem 15. Madea B, Henssge C. Electrical excitability of skeletal muscle
Period. 2nd ed. London, Edward Arnold, 2002. postmortem in casework. Forensic Sci Int 1990;47:207–27.
6. Henssge C, Madea B. Methoden zur Bestimmung der Todeszeit 16. Madea B, Henssge C. Eye changes after death. In: Henssge
an Leichen. In: Arbeitsmethoden der medizinischen und C, Knight B, Krompecher T, Madea B, Nokes L (eds.).
naturwissenschaftlichen Kriminalistik, vol. 18. Lübeck, The Estimation of the Time Since Death in the Early
Schmidt-Römhild, 1988. Postmortem Period. 2nd ed. London, Edward Arnold,
7. Henssge C, Madea B. Estimation of the time since death in the 2002, pp 103–33.
early post-mortem period. Forensic Sci Int 2004;144:167–75. 17. Madea B, Henssge C. Time since death. In: Payne-James J,
8. Henssge C, Althaus L, Bolt J, Freislederer A, Haffner HT, Busuttil A, Smock W (eds.). Forensic Medicine: Clinical and
Henssge CA, Hoppe B, Schneider V. Experiences with a com- Pathological Aspects. London, Greenwich Medical Media
pound method for estimating the time since death. I. Rectal Limited, 2003, pp 91–114.
temperature nomo-gram for time since death. Int J Legal Med 18. Madea B, Henssge C, Hönig W, Gerbracht A. References
2000;113:303–19. for determining the time of death by potassium in vitreous
9. Henssge C, Althaus L, Bolt J, Freislederer A, Haffner HT, humor. Forensic Sci Int 1989;40:231–43.
Henssge CA, Hoppe B, Schneider V. Experiences with a 19. Madea B, Käferstein H, Hermann N, Sticht G. Hypoxanthine
compound method for estimating the time since death. II. in vitreous humor and cerebrospinal fluid: marker of post-
Integration of non–temperature-based methods. Int J Legal mortem interval and prolonged (vital) hypoxia? Forensic Sci
Med 2000;113:320–31. Int 1994;65:19–31.
10. Henssge C, Knight B, Krompecher T, Madea B, Nokes L. (eds.). 20. Madea B, Potente S, Duval I. Time since death as evidence at
The Estimation of the Time Since Death in the Early Postmortem court? Arch f Kriminol. 2021;248:11–30 (in German).
Period. London, Edward Arnold, 1995 (2nd ed., 2002). 21. Moritz AR. Classical mistakes in forensic pathology. Am J Clin
11. James E, Knight B. Errors in estimating the time since death. Pathol 1956;26:1383–92.
Med Sci Law 1965;5:111–16. 22. Pounder D. Postmortem changes and time since death.
12. Knight B. General introduction. In: Henssge C, Knight B, In: Department of Forensic Medicine. Scotland, Dundee,
Krompecher T, Madea B, Nokes L (eds.). The Estimation of University of Dundee, 1995.
the Time Since Death in the Early Postmortem Period. 2nd ed. 23. Sabucedo AJ, Furton KG. Cardiac troponin I: a time since
London, Edward Arnold, 2002, pp 1–2. death marker. Forensic Sci Int 2003;134:11–16.
13. Knight B. Errors in estimating the time since death. In: Henssge 24. Schleyer F. Determination of the time since death in the
C, Knight B, Krompecher T, Madea B, Nokes L (eds.). The early post-mortem interval. In: Lundquist F (ed.). Methods of
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14. Madea B. Is there recent progress in the estimation of the post- 25. Van den Oever R. A review of the literature as to the present
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