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 Pests of
Fruit Crops
A Colour Handbook

David V Alford
BSc, PhD
Formerly Regional Entomologist and
Head of the Entomology Department
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food
Cambridge, UK

MANSON
PUBLISHING
Copyright © 2007 Manson Publishing Ltd

ISBN-10: 1-84076-051-6
ISBN-13: 978-1-84076-051-4

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
any form or by any means without the written permission of the copyright holder or in accordance with the
provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended), or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33–34 Alfred Place, London WC1E 7DP, UK.

Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and
civil claims for damages.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For full details of all Manson Publishing Ltd titles please write to:
Manson Publishing Ltd, 73 Corringham Road, London NW11 7DL, UK.
Tel: +44(0)20 8905 5150
Fax: +44(0)20 8201 9233
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.mansonpublishing.com

Commissioning editor: Jill Northcott

Project manager: Paul Bennett
Copy-editor: Mary Kelly
Cover and book design: Cathy Martin, Presspack Computing Ltd
Layout: DiacriTech, Chennai, India
Colour reproduction: Tenon & Polert Colour Scanning Ltd, Hong Kong
Printed by: Grafos SA, Barcelona, Spain

Plant Protection Handbooks Series

Alford: Pests of Fruit Crops – A Colour Handbook
Alford: Pests of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs and Flowers – A Colour Atlas
Biddle & Cattlin: Pests and Diseases of Peas and Beans – A Colour Handbook
Blancard: Cucurbit Diseases – A Colour Atlas
Blancard: Tomato Diseases – A Colour Atlas
Blancard: Diseases of Lettuce and Related Salad Crops – A Colour Atlas
Fletcher & Gaze: Mushroom Pest and Disease Control – A Colour Handbook
Helyer et al: Biological Control in Plant Protection – A Colour Handbook
Koike et al: Vegetable Diseases – A Colour Handbook
Murray et al: Diseases of Small Grain Cereal Crops – A Colour Handbook
Wale et al: Pests & Diseases of Potatoes – A Colour Handbook
Williams: Weed Seedlings – A Colour Atlas
 Contents

Preface 7

Chapter 1 Introduction 9

Chapter 2 Smaller insect orders 23

Order Saltatoria (crickets, grasshoppers and locusts) 23
1. Family Tettigoniidae (bush crickets) 23
2. Family Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets) 24
3. Family Acrididae (grasshoppeeers and locusts) 25
Order Dermaptera (earwigs) 26
1. Family Forficulidae 26
Order Isoptera (termites) 27
1. Family Kalotermitidae 27
Order Thysanoptera (thrips) 27
1. Family Thripidae (thrips) 27
2. Family Phlaeothripidae 31

Chapter 3 True bugs 32

1. Family Acanthosomatidae (shield bugs) 32
2. Family Pentatomidae (shield bugs) 32
3. Family Lygaeidae (ground bugs) 34
4. Family Tingidae (lace bugs) 35
5. Family Miridae (capsids or mirids) 37
6. Family Cercopidae (froghoppers) 43
7. Family Flatidae (planthoppers) 45
8. Family Membracidae 46
9. Family Cicadellidae (leafhoppers) 47
10. Family Cixiidae 57
11. Family Psyllidae 57
12. Family Carsidaridae 62
13. Family Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) 63
14. Family Lachnidae 66
15. Family Callaphididae 67
16. Family Aphididae (aphids) 68
17. Family Pemphigidae 95
18. Family Phylloxeridae (phylloxeras) 97
19. Family Diaspididae (armoured scales) 99
20. Family Asterolecaniidae (pits scales) 109
21. Family Coccidae (soft scales, wax scales) 109
22. Family Pseudococcidae (mealybugs) 120
23. Family Margarodidae (giant scales) 122
4

Chapter 4 Beetles 124

1. Family Carabidae (ground beetles) 124
2. Family Scarabaeidae (chafers) 127
3. Family Buprestidae (jewel beetles) 130
4. Family Elateridae (click beetles) 133
5. Family Cantharidae 134
6. Family Bostrychidae 135
7. Family Nitidulidae 135
8. Family Byturidae 136
9. Family Tenebrionidae 138
10. Family Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) 138
11. Family Chrysomelidae (leaf beetles) 140
12. Family Attelabidae (weevils) 145
13. Family Rhynchitidae (weevils) 146
14. Family Apionidae (weevils) 151
15. Family Curculionidae (true weevils) 152
16. Family Scolytidae (bark beetles) 171

Chapter 5 True flies 175

1. Family Tipulidae (crane flies) 175
2. Family Bibionidae (St. Mark's flies) 177
3. Family Cecidomyiidae (gall midges) 177
4. Family Tephritidae (large fruit flies) 187
5. Family Drosophilidae 190
6. Family Agromyzidae 191
7. Family Muscidae 193
8. Family Anthomyiidae 194

Chapter 6 Butterflies and moths 195

1. Family Hepialidae (swift moths) 195
2. Family Nepticulidae 197
3. Family Tischeriidae 200
4. Family Incurvariidae 202
5. Family Heliozelidae 203
6. Family Cossidae 204
7. Family Zygaenidae 206
8. Family Psychidae 208
9. Family Lyonetiidae 208
10. Family Gracillariidae 211
11. Family Phyllocnistidae 219
12. Family Sesiidae (clearwing moths) 222
13. Family Choreutidae 224
14. Family Yponomeutidae 227
15. Family Schreckensteiniidae 238
16. Family Coleophoridae (casebearer moths) 239
17. Family Oecophoridae 244
18. Family Gelechiidae 247
19. Family Blastobasidae 250
20. Family Momphidae 251
21. Family Cochylidae 252
22. Family Tortricidae (tortrix moths) 253
23. Family Pyralidae 295
24. Family Papilionidae 301
25. Family Pieridae 302
 5

26. Family Lycaenidae 304

27. Family Nymphalidae 307
28. Family Lasiocampidae 309
29. Family Saturniidae 314
30. Family Thyatiridae 315
31. Family Geometridae (geometer moths) 315
32. Family Sphingidae (hawk moths) 335
33. Family Notodontidae 343
34. Family Dilobidae 344
35. Family Lymantriidae 345
36. Family Arctiidae (e.g. ermine moths and tiger moths) 351
37. Family Nolidae 354
38. Family Noctuidae 354

Chapter 7 Sawflies, ants and wasps 379

1. Family Pamphiliidae 379
2. Family Cephidae (stem sawflies) 380
3. Family Cimbicidae 381
4. Family Tenthredinidae 383
5. Family Cynipidae (gall wasps) 400
6. Family Eurytomidae (seed wasps) 401
7. Family Torymidae (e.g. seed wasps) 402
8. Family Formicidae (ants) 402
9. Family Vespidae (true wasps) 403

Chapter 8 Mites 405

Order Prostigmata 405
1. Family Phytoptidae (gall mites) 405
2. Family Eriophyidae (gall mites and rust mites) 406
3. Family Tarsonemidae (tarsonemid mites) 419
4. Family Tetranychidae (spider mites) 421
5. Family Tenuipalpidae (false spider mites) 427
Order Cryptostigmata 428
1. Family Mycobatidae 428

Wild or ornamental host plants cited in the text 429

Selected bibliography 433

Host plant index 435

General index 441

6

To Inge, Ingaret, Kerstin,

Michael and Iona
 7

Preface

A Colour Atlas of Fruit Pests, published in 1984, Pests are no respecters of international boundaries
reviewed the pests occurring on fruit crops in the British and, over the years, the European fauna has been
Isles and aimed to present a detailed and up-to-date ‘enriched’ by a range of newcomers from many other
account of their recognition, biology and control. Since parts of the world. Conversely, European pests have
1984, accounts of fruit pests in Belgium (De often found a foothold in other continents (notably in
geïntegreerde bestrijding in de fruitteelt by Guido North America), and no doubt others will do so in the
Sterk), Finland (Hedelmä- ja marjakasvien tuhoeläimet future. In spite of modern plant quarantine measures,
by Tuomo Tuovinen) and the Netherlands (Schadelijke movement of pests as a result of international trade or
en nuttige insekten en mijten in fruitgewassen by the late travel (and their subsequent establishment in new areas)
A. van Frankenhuyzen) (all of which include colour is still an ongoing process. The establishment in Italy of
photographs) have also appeared. To date, however, no the American grapevine pest Phyllocnistis vitegenella is
single colour-illustrated text (apart from Schädliche und a recent example; the appearance of this insect in
nützliche Insekten und Milben an Kern- und Steinobst in Europe, however, can in no way be likened to the
Mitteleuropa by the late A. van Frankenhuyzen & H. accidental introduction into Europe in the mid-1800s
Stigter) has attempted to cover the subject on a broader (again from America) of the infamous grape phylloxera,
international scale. which then subsequently devastated the European
In this fully revised and renamed edition of ‘Fruit viticultural industry. The natural drift of species from
Pests’, the scope of the original publication has been country to country is also a continuing phenomenon, at
expanded to encompass pests of fruit crops throughout least in some instances probably encouraged and
Europe. Accordingly, greater emphasis than formerly enhanced by modern-day climate change. Similarly,
has been given to pests of crops such as almond, apricot, details of pest life cycles (including, perhaps, the
peach and grapevine, and information on pests of number of generations in a season) are liable to alter in
subtropical crops (particularly citrus, fig and olive) has the wake of temperature changes and acccording to
been added. The main aims are to provide an illustrated local conditions. Therefore, where cited, dates
account of the various pests to be found in this part of the (months) for the appearance of the various stages of
world and to serve as a source of reference that, pests are intended merely as a general guide. They also
hopefully, will be of interest and value both within apply to Europe and may well be different elsewhere, as
Europe and elsewhere. Indeed, many of the pest species in the Southern Hemisphere.
described in this book, or their close relatives, are The range of fruit pests included in this new book
present in non-European countries and several pose cannot claim to be fully comprehensive, especially in the
problems on fruit crops worldwide. case of minor pests and those of only local or sporadic
For simplicity, as in the first edition, the term ‘fruit’ is occurrence. Also, as indicated above, the situation is far
used to embrace not only conventional horticultural from static and ‘new’ pests (i.e. new regional or national
fruits, but also hops and nuts (see Chapter 1). Minor records), invasive or otherwise, are being discovered on
temperate fruit crops such as bilberry, cranberry and a regular basis. Conversely, some fruit pests formerly of
strawberry-tree, the fruits of which are largely collected considerable significance are today of lesser importance:
from wild plants (albeit, at least in the case of bilberry apple capsid (Lygocoris rugicollis) is an example. Some
and strawberry-tree, sometimes commercially), and species that might be regarded as pests in some parts of
Cucurbitace (e.g. melon and water melon, which are Europe may be rare (perhaps even protected) species
traditionally considered in tandem with other cucurbit elsewhere. The inclusion of a particular species,
crops such as cucumber, marrow and pumpkin rather therefore, does not necessarily imply that it should
than with fruit crops) are excluded, as are tropical fruit always be regarded as harmful.
crops (such as dwarf banana and mango) which are In view of the wider international coverage, unlike its
grown commercially in Europe on only a very limited predecessor, this new book excludes information on pest
scale and then in only the hottest of regions. control. The pesticides available and the strategies
8

adopted to combat particular pests can differ than a minor irritation. Alternative names for genera and
significantly from country to country, if not from region species (many of which are not strictly synonyms) are
to region; they are also under constant review. Further, excluded from the text, but are cross-referenced in the
particularly in a commercial situation, sustainable pest pest index; such names are restricted mainly to those
management as opposed to simplistic ‘control’ of commonly found in the applied literature and to those
individual pest species is also becoming more widely often still in common usage in crop-protection circles.
practised. Readers seeking information on pest control Where appropriate, vernacular names of species are
or pest management on fruit crops, therefore, should included in the pest entries (several here applied for the
refer to information relevant to their regional or local first time); again, as in the case of scientific names,
circumstances. A relatively recent review of pest frequently used alternatives are cross-referenced in the
management on fruit crops in the UK is included in the pest index.
Pest and Disease Management Handbook, published in Wherever possible, in compiling accounts of the
2000 by Blackwell Science Limited on behalf of various pests, live specimens have been examined and
BCPC (the British Crop Production Council). Other immature stages collected in the field reared through to
information is available in regularly updated booklets adulthood. The help of my family, especially my wife, in
and leaflets produced by agrochemical companies and obtaining material during field trips to various parts of
national or regional extension services. Locally relevant Europe, or in caring for such material during my
on-line electronic services providing information on pest absence, has been invaluable. My thanks are also due to
control may also be available. Alain Fraval (INRA, Paris) for helpful suggestions, to
The inclusion of many more pest species and Stuart C. Gordon, Dr Michael Maixner, Dr Michael G.
information from a wider geographical area has meant Solomon and Tuomo Tuovinen for providing live
that there could be no chapter on natural enemies. The examples of certain pests, and to Dr Chris Malumphy
new text is also restricted to insects and mites. Within (Central Science Laboratory, York) for dealing with
the various chapters, families of pests are arranged numerous queries relating to scale insects.
according to generally accepted systematic systems.
However, for ease of reference, genera within families
(and species within genera) are arranged alphabetically, David V Alford
divisions at subfamily level (for example) being ignored; Cambridge
hopefully, specialist readers will regard this as no more
 9

Chapter 1

Introduction

Most fruit pests are insects, a major group of invertebrate and ticks), crustaceans (class Crustacea: crabs, crayfish,
animals belonging to the phylum Arthropoda. Members of lobsters, shrimps and woodlice) and myriapods (class
this diverse and exceedingly successful phylum occur in Myriapoda: centipedes and millepedes) are familiar
all kinds of habitat, on land and in water, and are examples. Insects differ from other arthropods in
characterized by their often hard exoskeleton or body possessing just three pairs of legs, usually one or two pairs
shell, their segmented body and their jointed limbs. In of wings (all winged invertebrates are insects), and by
addition to insects (class Insecta), arachnids (class having the body divided into three distinct regions: head,
Arachnida: harvestmen, mites, pseudoscorpions, spiders thorax and abdomen.

External features of insects

The outer skin or integument of an insect is known as body movement. Appendages, such as legs, are developed
the cuticle. This forms a non-cellular, waterproof layer as outgrowths from the pleurons.
over the body and is composed of chitin and protein, The head of an insect is composed of six fused body
the precise chemical composition and thickness segments and carries a pair of sensory antennae, eyes
determining its hardness and rigidity. The cuticle has and mouthparts. The form of an insect antenna varies
three layers (epicuticle, exocuticle and endocuticle) and considerably, the number of antennal segments ranging
is secreted by an inner lining of cells that form the from one to more than a hundred. The basal segment is
hypodermis or basement membrane. When first called the scape; the second segment is the pedicel and
produced, the cuticle is elastic and flexible, but soon from this arises the many-segmented flagellum (each
after deposition it usually undergoes a period of segment of which is termed a flagellomere). In a
hardening or sclerotization and becomes more or less geniculate (elbowed) antenna, the pedicel acts as the
darkened by the addition of a chemical called melanin. articulating joint between the often greatly elongated
The adult cuticle is not replaceable, except in certain scape and the flagellum; such antennae are
primitive insects. However, at intervals during the characteristic of certain weevils, bees and wasps. Many
growth of the immature stages (larvae and nymphs), the insects possess two compound eyes, each composed of
‘old’ hardened cuticle becomes too tight and is replaced several thousand facets, and three simple eyes called
by a new, initially expandable, one secreted from below. ocelli, the latter usually forming a triangle at the top of
The insect cuticle is often thrown into ridges and the head. Compound eyes are large and especially well
depressions, is frequently sculptured or distinctly developed in insects, such as predators, where good
coloured and may bear a variety of spines and hairs. In vision is important. The compound eye provides a
larvae, body hairs often arise from hardened plates or mosaic (rather than a clear) picture, but is well able to
wart-like pinacula, tubercles and verrucae. In some detect movement. The ocelli are optically simple and
groups, as in beetles (order Coleoptera), features of the lack a focusing mechanism; they are concerned mainly
adult cuticle (such as colour, sculpturing or texture) are with registering light intensity, enabling the insect to
of considerable value in distinguishing between species. distinguish between light and shade. Insect mouthparts
The basic body segment of an insect is divided into are derived from several modified, paired appendages;
four sectors (a dorsal tergum, a ventral sternum and two they range from simple biting jaws (mandibles) to
lateral pleurons) which often form horny, chitinized plates complex structures for piercing, sucking or lapping.
called sclerites. These may give the body an armour-like Amongst plant-feeding (phytophagous) insects, biting
appearance and are either fused rigidly together or are mouthparts are found, for example, in adult and
joined by soft, flexible, chitinized membranes to allow for immature grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs and beetles,
10

but (as in butterflies and moths) may be restricted to the hardened and thickened protective flaps, called elytra,
larval stages. Stylet-like, suctorial mouthparts are and only the hindwings are used for flying; in true
characteristic of thrips and bugs (including aphids); flies, the forewings retain their propulsive function,
such insects may introduce toxic saliva into plants and but the hindwings have become greatly reduced in
cause distortion or galling of the tissue. Some biting or size and are modified into balancing organs known as
sucking insects transmit plant viruses or other halteres. Details of wing structure and venation are of
pathogens to host plants. importance in the classification and identification of
The thorax has three segments (the prothorax, the insects, and the names of many insect orders are based
mesothorax and the metathorax), whose relative sizes upon them.
vary from one insect group to the next. In beetles, for The abdomen is normally formed from 10 or 11
example, the prothorax is the largest section and is segments, but fusion and apparent reduction of the
covered on its upper surface by an expanded dorsal most anterior or posterior components is common.
sclerite called the pronotum; in true flies, the Although present in many larvae, abdominal
mesothorax is greatly enlarged and the prothoracic appendages are wanting on most segments of adults,
and metathoracic segments are much reduced. their ambulatory function, as found in various other
Typically, each thoracic segment bears a pair of arthropods, having been lost. However, appendages
jointed legs. Their form varies considerably, but all on abdominal segments 8 and 9 remain to form the
have the same basic structure: the main components genitalia, including the male claspers and the female
being the coxa (basally), the femur, the tibia and the ovipositor. In many groups, a pair of cerci are formed
tarsus (the latter subdivided into several tarsomeres). from appendages on the last body segment. These are
Wings, when present, arise from the mesothorax and particularly long and noticeable in primitive insects
the metathorax as a pair of forewings and hindwings (as in crickets, stoneflies, mayflies and earwigs), but
respectively. Basically, each wing is an expanded are absent in the most advanced form (at least in the
membrane-like structure supported by a series of adult stage). Abdominal sclerites are limited to a
hardened veins, but considerable modification has series of dorsal tergites and a ventral set of sternites;
taken place in the various insect groups. In earwigs these give the abdomen an obviously segmented
and beetles, for instance, the forewings have become appearance.

Internal features of insects

The body cavity of an insect extends into the digestion of food and absorption of nutriment occurs;
appendages and is filled with a more or less colourless, and a hindgut, concerned with water absorption,
blood-like fluid called haemolymph. This bathes all excretion, and the temporary storage of waste prior to
the internal organs and tissues, and is circulated by its disposal. A large number of blind-ending, much
muscular action of the body and by a primitive, tube- convoluted Malpighian tubules arise from the junction
like heart that extends mid-dorsally from the head to between the mid-gut and hindgut. These tubules
near the tip of the abdomen. collect waste products from the body and pass them
The brain is the main co-ordinating centre of the into the gut.
body. It fills much of the head and is intimately linked The respiratory system comprises a complex series
with the antennae, the compound eyes and the of branching tubes (tracheae) and microscopic tubules
mouthparts. The brain gives rise to a central nerve cord (tracheoles) that ramify throughout the body in contact
that extends back mid-ventrally through the various with the internal organs and tissues. This tracheal
thoracic and abdominal segments. The nerve cord is system opens to the outside through segmentally
swollen at intervals into a series of ganglia, from which arranged valve-like breathing holes or spiracles, present
arise numerous lateral nerves. These ganglia control along either side of the body. Air is forced through the
many nervous functions independent of the brain, such spiracles by contraction and relaxation of the abdominal
as movement of the body appendages. body muscles.
The gut or alimentary tract is a long, much The male reproductive system includes a pair of
modified tube stretching from the mouth to the anus. It testes and associated ducts that lead to a seminal vesicle
is subdivided into three sections: a foregut, with a long in which sperm is stored prior to mating. The male
oesophagus and a bulbous crop; a mid-gut, where genitalia may include chitinized structures, such as the
 Introduction
11

claspers that help to grasp the female during copulation. outside on the ninth abdominal segment. Many insects
Female insects possess a pair of ovaries, subdivided into have a protrusible egg-laying tube, called an ovipositor.
several egg-forming filaments called ovarioles. The Examination of the male or female genitalia is often
ovaries enter a median oviduct and this opens to the essential for distinguishing between closely related species.

Reproduction and growth of insects

Sexual reproduction is commonplace in insects, but in metamorphosis. The most advanced insects (division
certain groups fertilized eggs produce only female Endopterygota or Holometabola) show complete
offspring and males are reared from unfertilized ones metamorphosis, development including several larval
only. In other cases, male production may be wanting instars of quite different structure and habit from the
or extremely rare and parthenogenesis (reproduction adults. Here, the transformation from larval to adult
without a sexual phase) is the rule. form occurs during a quiescent pupal stage. Unlike
Although some insects are viviparous (giving birth nymphs, insect larvae lack compound eyes, but they
to active young), most lay eggs. A few, such as aphids, often possess one or more pairs of simple eyes
reproduce viviparously by parthenogenesis in spring (stemmata), arranged on either side of the head. Insect
and summer, but may produce eggs in the autumn (after larvae are of various kinds. Eruciform larvae are
a sexual phase). Insect eggs have a waterproof shell (the caterpillar-like; they have three pairs of jointed thoracic
chorion) and many are capable of surviving severe legs (true legs) and a number of pairs of fleshy, false
winter conditions in exposed situations on tree bark or legs (prolegs) on the abdomen. Many sawfly, butterfly
shoots. and moth larvae are of this type; unlike those of
Insects normally grow only during the period of sawflies, the abdominal prolegs of butterfly and moth
pre-adult development as nymphs or larvae, their outer larvae are usually provided with small chitinous hooks,
cuticular skin being moulted and replaced between known as crochets. These crochets may be of one, two
each successive growth stage or instar. The most or more sizes (e.g. uniordinal, biordinal, multiordinal),
primitive insects (subclass Apterygota) have wingless and often have a characteristic circular, linear or
adults, their eggs hatching into nymphs that are elliptical arrangement. Campodeiform larvae are
essentially similar to adults, but smaller and not elongate and dorsoventrally flattened, with well-
sexually mature. The more advanced, winged or developed antennae and thoracic limbs, but without
secondarily wingless, insects (subclass Pterygota) abdominal prolegs. Scarabaeiform larvae also lack
develop in one of two ways. In the division abdominal prolegs, but have a thick, fleshy, often C-shaped
Exopterygota (also known as the Hemimetabola), there body, with a well-developed head and thoracic legs.
is a succession of nymphal stages in which wings Campodeiform and scarabaeiform larvae are typified
usually develop externally as buds that become fully by many beetle grubs. Other insect larvae are apodous
formed and functional once the adult stage is reached. (without legs, legless): wasp and fly larvae are
In such insects, nymphs and adults are frequently of examples. Insect pupae are typically exarate (with
similar appearance (apart from the presence of wing some or all appendages – antennae, legs, mouthparts,
buds or wings), and often share the same feeding wing buds – ‘free’, i.e. not fused to the body) or obtect
habits. This type of development is termed incomplete (with the appendages fused to the body).

Classification of insects

Class INSECTA Subclass PTERYGOTA

Subclass APTERYGOTA Division EXOPTERYGOTA (= HEMIMETABOLA)
Order Thysanura bristle-tails, silverfish Order Ephemeroptera mayflies
Order Diplura diplurans Order Odonata dragonflies
Order Protura proturans Order Plecoptera stoneflies
Order Collembola springtails Order Grylloblattodea grylloblattodeans
12

Order Saltatoria crickets, grasshoppers, Order Thysanoptera thrips

locusts Division ENDOPTERYGOTA (= HOLOMETABOLA)
Order Phasmida stick-insects, leaf-insects Order Neuroptera e.g. alder flies, lacewings
Order Dermaptera earwigs Order Coleoptera beetles
Order Embioptera web-spinners Order Strepsiptera stylopids
Order Discyoptera cockroaches, mantids Order Mecoptera scorpion flies
Order Isoptera termites Order Siphonaptera fleas
Order Zoraptera zorapterans Order Diptera true flies
Order Psocoptera psocids Order Lepidoptera butterflies, moths
Order Mallophaga biting lice Order Trichoptera caddis flies
Order Anoplura sucking lice Order Hymenoptera e.g. ants, bees, sawflies,
Order Hemiptera true bugs wasps

The main features of the groups within which pests of often very similar in appearance and habits to the adult.
European fruit crops occur are summarized below. The term Hemiptera is often abandoned, and the
suborders Heteroptera and Homoptera (see below) each
Saltatoria: medium-sized to large, stout-bodied insects, then regarded as an order.
with a large head and chewing mouthparts; compound
eyes large; pronotum large and saddle-like; adults usually Suborder Heteroptera: usually with two pairs of
with two pairs of wings, but either or both pairs may be wings, the forewings (termed ‘hemelytra’) with a
reduced or absent; forewings typically thickened (leathery) leathery basal area and a membranous tip; hemelytra
and called tegmina; tarsi usually 3- or 4-segmented; hind with or without a cuneus (a triangular area between the
legs usually much enlarged and adapted for jumping; membrane and the rest of the wing); hindwings
anal cerci 1-segmented. Metamorphosis incomplete; membranous; wings held flat over the abdomen when
development includes egg and nymphal stages: family in repose; the beak-like mouthparts (rostrum) arise from
Tettigoniidae (p. 23); family Gryllotalpidae (p. 24); family the front of the head and are flexibly attached;
Acrididae (p. 25). prothorax large; some species are phytophagous, but
many are predacious: family Acanthosomatidae (p. 32);
Dermaptera: medium-sized, elongate, omnivorous family Pentatomidae (p. 32); family Lygaeidae (p. 34);
insects, with mouthparts adapted for biting and chewing; family Tingidae (p. 35); family Miridae (p. 37).
forewings modified into very short, leathery elytra;
hindwings semicircular (fan-like) and membranous, with a Suborder Homoptera: a large group of mainly small,
radial venation; legs short, tarsi 3-segmented; anal cerci winged or wingless insects; wings, when present, either
usually modified into a pair of forceps-like pincers; membranous or hardened throughout (in the latter case
ovipositor reduced or absent. Metamorphosis incomplete; then termed ‘elytra’) and usually held over the back in
development includes egg and nymphal stages, the latter a sloping, roof-like posture when in repose (not in the
being similar in appearance to adults, but smaller and less Phylloxeridae); the beak-like mouthparts (rostrum)
strongly sclerotized: family Forficulidae (p. 26). arise from the posterior part of the head and are rigidly
attached; prothorax usually small; all members are
Isoptera: small to medium, primarily tropical, soft- phytophagous.
bodied, pale-coloured insects, with biting mouthparts;
either with or without wings; wings, when present, long Series Auchenorrhyncha: antennae very short, with
and narrow, with thickened anterior veins; forewings a terminal arista; rostrum clearly arising from the head;
and hindwings of similar appearance. Termites (often tarsi 3-segmented. Superfamily Cicadomorpha –
called ‘white ants’) are social insects and inhabit tegulae absent; antennae arise from between the pair of
colonies that contain various castes; only two species are compound eyes; hind legs modified for jumping: family
native to Europe: family Kalotermitidae (p. 27). Cercopidae (p. 43); family Flatidae (p. 45); family
Membracidae (p. 46); family Cicadellidae (p. 47);
Hemiptera: minute to large insects, characterized family Cixiidae (p. 57).
by piercing, suctorial mouthparts, known as a beak;
forewings frequently partly or entirely hardened. Series Sternorrhyncha (= Phytophthires):
Metamorphosis usually gradual and incomplete; antennae long and thread-like, without a distinct
development includes several nymphal stages, that are arista; rostrum appearing to arise from between the
 Introduction
13

forelegs; tarsi 1- or 2-segmented. Superfamily an egg, two nymphal, one propupal and two pupal
Psylloidea – antennae usually 10-segmented; tarsi stages: family Phlaeothripidae (p. 31).
2-segmented and with a pair of claws: family
Psyllidae (p. 57); family Carsidaridae (p. 62). Coleoptera: minute to large insects, with biting
Superfamily Aleyrodoidea – antennae 7-segmented; mouthparts adapted for chewing; body usually covered
wings opaque and whitish: family Aleyrodidae with a hard, often brightly coloured exoskeleton;
(p. 63). Superfamily Aphidoidea – females winged forewings modified into horny or leathery elytra, which
or wingless; wings, when present, usually large usually meet in a straight line along the back; hindwings
and transparent with few veins; abdomen usually membranous and folded beneath the elytra when in
with a pair of tube-like siphunculi; tarsi 2-segmented repose, but often reduced or absent; pronotum normally
and with a pair of claws: family Lachnidae (p. 66); large, shield-like and mobile. Metamorphosis complete.
family Callaphididae (p. 67); family Aphididae Eggs usually spherical, oval, egg-shaped or sausage-
(p. 68); family Pemphigidae (p. 95); family shaped. Larvae usually with a distinct head and three
Phylloxeridae (p. 97). Superfamily Coccoidea – pairs of thoracic legs, but sometimes apodous; often
tarsi, if present, 1- segmented and with a single claw; campodeiform or eruciform, but occasionally
females always wingless, often scale-like or cushion- scarabaeiform. Pupae normally exarate. The largest
shaped, and usually sedentary and apodous; males order of insects, with more than a quarter of a million
usually rare or absent, with a single pair of wings (or species worldwide.
wingless) and vestigial mouthparts, and developing
through a pupal stage: family Diaspididae (p. 99); Superfamily Caraboidea – a large group of mainly
family Asterolecaniidae (p. 109); family Coccidae predacious beetles, with the hind coxae fused rigidly to
(p. 109); family Pseudococcidae (p. 120); family the metasternum and extending posteriorly to the hind
Margarodidae (p. 122). margin of the first visible abdominal sternite; antennae
11-segmented and usually filiform or moniliform.
Thysanoptera: minute or small, slender-bodied insects, Larvae usually with claw-bearing tarsi: family
with a distinct head, a well-developed prothorax and a Carabidae (p. 124). Superfamily Scarabaeoidea – a
long, narrow, 11-segmented abdomen; cerci absent; large group of often very large, brightly coloured
wings, when present, very narrow, membranous and insects, some of which possess enlarged horns on the
strap-like, with few or no veins, and with hair-like head and thorax: family Scarabaeidae (p. 127).
fringes; antennae short, 6- to 10-segmented; tarsi 1- or Superfamily Buprestoidea – usually small or very
2-segmented, each with a protrusible terminal bladder- small, metallic-looking beetles, with very large eyes
like vesicle (the arolium); mouthparts asymmetrical and and short, toothed antennae, and the head retracted
adapted for piercing. Metamorphosis gradual; deeply into the thorax. Larvae mainly wood-borers:
development intermediate between that of family Buprestidae (p. 130). Superfamily
hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects, and Elateroidea – elongate beetles, with a hard
includes an egg, two nymphal and two or three inactive exoskeleton, the head sunk into the thorax, and
stages (propupae and pupae); nymphs are similar in toothed or comb-like antennae; hind angles of the
appearance to adults, but wingless, less strongly pronotum sharply pointed and often extended: family
sclerotized and with fewer antennal segments; the non- Elateridae (p. 133). Superfamily Cantharoidea – an
feeding propupae and pupae have conspicuous wing ill-defined group of narrow, elongate, soft-bodied
pads and lack the tarsal vesicles (arolia) found in beetles; elytra also soft and often clothed in a short,
nymphs and adults; in pupae, the antennae are folded velvet-like pubescence: family Cantharidae (p. 134).
back over the thorax. Superfamily Bostrichoidea – adults with the
pronotum extended forward to form a hood over the
Suborder Terebrantia: ovipositor saw-like; tip of head; most species are wood-borers, with soft-bodied,
abdomen conical in female, bluntly rounded in male; scarabaeiform larvae: family Bostrychidae (p. 135).
forewings with at least one longitudinal vein Superfamily Cucujoidea – beetles usually with five
extending to the apex. Development includes an egg, visible abdominal segments and, often, clubbed
two nymphal, and single propupal and pupal stages: antennae: family Nitidulidae (p. 135); family Byturidae
family Thripidae (p. 27). (p. 136); family Tenebrionidae (p. 138). Superfamily
Chrysomeloidea – mostly plant feeders, adults with
Suborder Tubulifera: forewings without longitudinal 4-segmented tarsi (the fourth segment very small).
veins and female without an ovipositor; tip of Larvae usually with well-developed thoracic legs: family
abdomen tubular in both sexes. Development includes Cerambycidae (p. 138); family Chrysomelidae (p. 140).
14

Superfamily Curculionoidea – a very large superfamily, Larvae eruciform, most often with three pairs of
including weevils and bark beetles; weevils often have thoracic legs and five pairs of abdominal prolegs, the
a very elongated snout (rostrum), which bears the latter usually armed with crochets – prolegs are
mouthparts and antennae; in most weevils the usually present on abdominal segments 3–6 and 10,
antennae are geniculate, with an elongated basal the last-mentioned often being termed ‘anal claspers’
segment (scape), but in some families the antennae are (descriptions of the arrangement of crochets on the
filiform and all segments are of a similar length. abdominal prolegs usually do not apply to the anal
Larvae usually apodous, often with an enlarged claspers); head usually strongly chitinized, with
thoracic region: family Attelabidae (p. 145); family several ocelli, and with a pair of silk glands (modified
Rhynchitidae (p. 146); family Apionidae (p. 151); salivary glands); body often with setae or longer hairs
family Curculionidae (p. 152); family Scolytidae arising from distinctive plates, pinacula or verrucae,
(p. 171). and sometimes marked with more or less complete
longitudinal stripes or lines; larvae typically
Diptera: minute to large insects, with a single pair of phytophagous, often leaf-mining, rarely carnivorous.
membranous wings; hindwings reduced to knobbed Pupae normally obtect, the tip of the abdomen often
(often drumstick-like) stalks, called halteres, that with a characteristic cluster of hooks, spines or bristles
function as balancing organs during flight; mouth- frequently borne on a distinctive outgrowth termed the
parts suctorial, but sometimes adapted for piercing. cremaster.
Metamorphosis complete. Eggs usually oval or cigar-
shaped. Larvae apodous and usually maggot-like, with Suborder Monotrysia: very small to very large
a reduced, inconspicuous head. moths; mandibles absent; labial palps 2- or
3-segmented; venation of forewings and hindwings
Suborder Nematocera: antennae of adults with usually similar.
a scape, pedicel and flagellum, the latter comprising
numerous, similar-looking segments (flagellomeres), Superfamily Hepialoidea – adults with non-
each bearing a whorl of hairs. Larvae usually (not in functional, vestigial mouthparts and short antennae:
the family Cecidomyiidae) with a well-defined head family Hepialidae (p. 195). Superfamily
and horizontally opposed mandibles: family Nepticuloidea – adults with wing venation reduced;
Tipulidae (p. 175); family Bibionidae (p. 177); family ovipositor soft: family Nepticulidae (p. 197); family
Cecidomyiidae (p. 177). Tischeriidae (p. 200). Superfamily Incurvarioidea –
small, day-flying moths; antennae of males often
Suborder Cyclorrapha: antennae of adults with very long: family Incurvariidae (p. 202); family
a scape, pedicel and flagellum, the latter usually Heliozelidae (p. 203).
forming an enlarged, compound segment tipped by
a short, bristle-like arista. Larvae maggot-like, Suborder Ditrysia: very small to very large
often tapering anteriorly, with distinctive insects; maxillary palps 1- to 5-segmented or
rasping ‘mouth-hooks’ (forming part of the vestigial; labial palps 3-segmented, rarely
cephalopharyngeal skeleton), but head small and 2-segmented; venation of hindwings reduced, but
inconspicuous. Pupation occurs within the last rarely reduced in forewings.
larval skin, which then forms a protective barrel-
like puparium from which the adult eventually Superfamily Cossoidea – heavy-bodied moths,
escapes by forcing off a circular cap (the with a primitive wing venation: family Cossidae
operculum): family Tephritidae (p. 187); family (p. 204). Superfamily Zygaenoidea – mainly
Drosophilidae (p. 190); family Agromyzidae colourful, metallic-looking moths; antennae usually
(p. 191); family Muscidae (p. 193); family clubbed or bipectinate: family Zygaenidae (p. 206).
Anthomyiidae (p. 194). Superfamily Tineoidea – primitive moths, with
narrow or very narrow wings: family Psychidae
Lepidoptera: minute to large insects, with two pairs (p. 208); family Lyonetiidae (p. 208); family
of membranous wings that have few cross-veins; Gracillariidae (p. 211); family Phyllocnistidae
wings and appendages usually scale-covered; adult (p. 219). Superfamily Yponomeutoidea – an
mouthparts suctorial, often forming a long, coiled indistinct and rather diverse group: family Sesiidae
proboscis, with mandibles vestigial or absent. (p. 222); family Choreutidae (p. 224); family
Metamorphosis complete. Eggs extremely variable in Yponomeutidae (p. 227); family Schreckensteiniidae
form and colour; often with a sculptured surface. (p. 238). Superfamily Gelechioidea – a large group
 Introduction
15

of relatively small moths, often with long, narrow and thorax joined without a conspicuous
wings: family Coleophoridae (p. 239); family constriction or ‘waist’. Larvae mainly plant-feeding
Oecophoridae (p. 244); family Gelechiidae (p. 247); and eruciform; most possess abdominal prolegs, but
family Blastobasidae (p. 250); family Momphidae (unlike those of Lepidoptera) these never bear
(p. 251). Superfamily Tortricoidea – a major group crochets.
of relatively small moths, with mainly rectangular
forewings. Larvae mainly leaf-folding or leaf- Superfamily Megalodontoidea – a small group
rolling: family Cochylidae (p. 252); family of primitive sawflies, with a flattened abdomen;
Tortricidae (p. 253). Superfamily Pyraloidea – a fore tibiae with two apical spurs; cenchri present:
very large group of mainly slender-bodied, long- family Pamphiliidae (p. 379). Superfamily
legged moths, often with long, narrow forewings; Cephoidea – fore tibiae with one apical spur;
family Pyralidae (p. 295). Superfamily cenchri absent; abdomen narrow, and constricted
Papilionoidea – day-flying adults (butterflies), with between the first and second segments: family
clubbed antennae; antennal tips unhooked: family Cephidae (p. 380). Superfamily Tenthredinoidea –
Papilionidae (p. 301); family Pieridae (p. 302); the main group of sawflies; fore tibiae with two
family Lycaenidae (p. 304); family Nymphalidae apical spurs; cenchri present; ovipositor saw-like:
(p. 307). Superfamily Bombycoidea – often large to family Cimbicidae (p. 381); family Tenthredinidae
very large moths, with non-functional mouthparts; (p. 383).
male antennae strongly bipectinate: family
Lasiocampidae (p. 309); family Saturniidae Suborder Apocrita: the main group of
(p. 314). Superfamily Geometroidea – mainly hymenopterous insects, the first abdominal segment
slender-bodied moths, with broad wings; larvae being fused to the thorax and separated from the rest
usually with a reduced number of functional of the abdomen (termed the gaster) by a narrow,
abdominal prolegs; family Thyatiridae (p. 315); waist-like constriction. Larvae apodous, translucent
family Geometridae (p. 315). Superfamily to whitish and usually with a well-developed head.
Sphingoidea – large-bodied, strong-flying moths, The suborder is composed of two groups: the
often with a large proboscis; larvae usually with a Parasitica (e.g. gall wasps, seed wasps and a very
prominent dorsal horn: family Sphingidae (p. 335). large number of parasitoids), in which the ovipositor
Superfamily Notodontoidea – a small group of is adapted for piercing animal or plant hosts; and the
moths, sometimes included within the Noctuoidea: Aculeata (ants, bees and social wasps), in which the
family Notodontidae (p. 343); family Dilobidae ovipositor is modified into a sting and has lost its
(p. 344). Superfamily Noctuoidea – the largest egg-laying function.
group of lepidopterous insects, with a wide variety
of, mainly stout-bodied, forms: family Lymantriidae Superfamily Cynipoidea – minute or very
(p. 345); family Arctiidae (p. 351); family Nolidae small, mainly black-bodied insects, with the gaster
(p. 354); family Noctuidae (p. 354). compressed laterally; antennae with a short scape;
includes gall wasps: family Cynipidae (p. 400).
Hymenoptera: minute to large insects, usually with Superfamily Chalcidoidea – minute or very small
two pairs of transparent, membranous wings that have insects, with the gaster not laterally compressed;
relatively few veins; hindwings the smaller pair and, as antennae usually geniculate, and with a long scape;
in bees and wasps, often interlocked with the wings, when present, with a much reduced
forewings by small hooks (hamuli) or, as in certain venation; includes seed wasps: family Eurytomidae
sawflies, by small tubercles (cenchri); mouthparts (p. 401); family Torymidae (p. 402). Superfamily
adapted for biting, but often also for lapping and Formicoidea – ants, usually readily identified by
sucking; females always with an ovipositor, modified their characteristic appearance and habits;
for sawing, piercing or stinging. Metamorphosis antennae geniculate, and usually 4- to 13-
complete. Eggs usually sausage-shaped. Larvae segmented; first or first and second gastral
usually apodous or eruciform, and usually with a segments small, but often with distinctive
well-developed head. Pupae typically exarate (rarely outgrowths: family Formicidae (p. 402).
obtect) and usually formed in a silken cocoon. One of Superfamily Vespoidea – wasps, with the
the largest insect orders. pronotum extending back to the tegulae; eyes
deeply notched (emarginate); wings folded
Suborder Symphyta: includes sawflies, insects longitudinally when at rest. Larvae carnivorous:
with a well-developed ovipositor and the abdomen family Vespidae (p. 403).
16

Mites

Mites (subclass Acari) form part of the Arachnida, The respiratory system in the Acari usually includes a
a major class of arthropods. Unlike insects, mites have pair of breathing pores known as stigmata. Their
no antennae, wings or compound eyes, and are usually position on the body, or their absence, can form a basic
8-legged. The body is composed of just two main character for naming the various acarine orders.
sections: a relatively small, head-like gnathosoma; and a However, selected names of orders and other
large, sac-like idiosoma. The gnathosoma bears subdivisions (see below) differ widely from authority to
a pair of sensory pedipalps and paired chelicerae, the authority.
latter being adapted for biting or piercing and Mite development, from egg to adult, usually
functioning as mouthparts. The idiosoma is typically includes a 6-legged larva and two or three 8-legged
subdivided by a subjugal furrow into the propodosoma nymphal stages known as protonymphs, deutonymphs
and the hysterosoma, each of which bears two pairs of and tritonymphs. These immature stages are generally
legs. The body and limbs of a mite possess various setae, similar in appearance and habits to the adult, but are
the arrangement and characteristics of which are of smaller and sexually immature. Many phytophagous
considerable value in the identification and mites are free living, but others (notably, in the
classification of species. Determination of species, superfamily Eriophyoidea) inhabit distinctive plant
however, is usually a specialist task that often requires galls, formed in response to toxic saliva injected into the
the detailed examination of microscopical features. host during feeding (see Chapter 8).

Classification of mites

The classification of mites is subject to considerable Superfamily Eriophyoidea – minute, sausage-

disagreement, and is also frequently subject to shaped or pear-shaped mites, with just two pairs of
modification. The following is an example in which legs, located anteriorly, each terminating in a
mites are subdivided into seven orders. branched feather-claw; body with a distinct
prodorsal shield; hysterosoma more or less
Subclass ACARI annulated, with a dorsal series of tergites and a
Superorder ANACTINOTRICHIDA ventral series of sternites: family Phytoptidae
Order Notostigmata notostigmatid mites (p. 405); family Eriophyidae (p. 406). Superfamily
Order Holothyrida holothyridid mites Tarsonemoidea – minute, often barrel-shaped
Order Mesostigmata mesostigmatid mites, with short, needle-like mouthparts; hind legs
mites of females without claws; hind legs of males
Order Ixodida ticks modified into claspers: family Tarsonemidae
Superorder ACTINOTRICHIDA (p. 419). Superfamily Tetranychoidea – small,
Order Prostigmata prostigmatid mites spider-like mites, with long, needle-like chelicerae:
Order Astigmata astigmatid mites family Tetranychidae (p. 421); family Tenuipalpidae
Order Cryptostigmata beetle mites (p. 427).

The main features of the groups within which pests of Cryptostigmata: small, dark-bodied, hard-shelled,
fruit crops occur are summarized below. more or less spherical mites; chelicerae forceps-like;
idiosoma with a pair of ridge-like or wing-like
Prostigmata: mites with stigmata located between the expansions (pteromorphs). Most members of this
chelicerae, and with one or two pairs of sensory hairs group are inhabitants of top soil and leaf litter, but
(trichobothria) on the propodosoma. Most phytophagous several are associated with plants: family Mycobatidae
mites are included in this order. (p. 428).
 Introduction
17

Host crops

Brief details of the crops under consideration in Stone fruits

Chapters 2 to 8 are given below.
Botanically, stone fruits (family Rosaceae) are classified
as drupes, in which the edible flesh (the epicarp) overlies
Pome fruits a hard ‘stone’ (the endocarp) that encloses the seed (the
kernel).
Pome fruits (family Rosaceae) consist of an enlarged,
firm and fleshy receptacle. This encloses a core Apricot (Prunus armeniaca): of Asian origin, now
(consisting of several united, seed-containing, carpels) widely cultivated commercially in the warmer parts of
that forms the central axis of the fruit; this extends from Europe and sometimes grown further north, as garden
the point of attachment on the tree (by way of a stalk: the trees. The fruits are consumed fresh or are sent for
pedicel) to the remains of the calyx, the so-called ‘eye’. canning or dried for long-term storage. The main
The skin-coated receptacle forms the edible part of the European areas of commercial production are located in
fruit; the skin may or may not be edible. France, Hungary, Italy and Spain.

Apple (Malus pumila): unlike the wild crab apple (Malus Bullace – see under Plum
sylvestris), which is native to Europe, cultivated apple
trees are of Asian origin. They are now grown throughout Cherry (Prunus spp.): the marble-like fruits are an
the world in suitably temperate regions, including most of important commercial crop in Europe. Sweet cherries
Europe. The vast range of cultivars in production include (Prunus avium) are usually produced for the fresh-fruit
dessert, culinary and cider apples. The fruits, either fresh, market, but occasionally also for making jam and for
pulped or pureed, have a wide range of uses and make flavouring, as in the confectionery industry. Morello
excellent pie fillings. Apple juice is also a major (= sour) cherries (Prunus cerasus), which have a more
commercial product, some of which may be distilled to acid taste, are preserved (bottled or canned) and used for
produce apple brandy. Apart from cider apples, nowadays, jam-making or in pies; they are also used to make drinks
apple trees are usually grown on dwarfing rootstock. such as cherry brandy and kirsch. The best cherry-
growing regions in Europe are to be found in France,
Medlar (Mespilus germanica): medlar trees, although Germany and Switzerland, and in various other parts of
widely grown in Europe, are of little or no commercial central Europe.
significance; they occur mainly as individual trees in
private gardens, but small orchards can be found in Cherry-plum – see Myrobalan
southern regions. Fully ripened or partly rotted fruits
can be eaten fresh, but they are most often made into Damson – see under Plum
jam or jelly.
Greengage – see under Plum
Pear (Pyrus communis): originating in central Asia,
pears are now cultivated widely in central Europe. Pears Mirabelle – see under Myrobalan
do not tolerate dry conditions and also require warmer
summers than apples; much of northern and southern Myrobalan (Prunus cerasifera): a minor fruit crop, the
Europe, therefore, is unsuitable for them. The fruits are trees producing small, round (usually red) fruits with a
eaten fresh or are canned; some cultivars are suitable for less sweet taste than greengages. The fruits make
making a cider-like perry. The juice may also be distilled excellent jam, and are much favoured in central and
to produce pear brandy. southern Europe. However, myrobalan is rarely planted
for fruit production, although fruits are often collected
Quince (Cydonia oblonga): the hard, pear-like fruits are from trees planted as hedges and windbreaks; myrobalan
inedible unless cooked and are most often used in jams is often used as a rootstock for plum trees. Mirabelle,
and jellies or as additional flavouring to other pome fruit which bears larger, sweeter fruits, is a hybrid between
dishes. Pear trees are often grafted onto quince Prunus cerasifera and P. domestica.
rootstock. Large-scale commercial production in Europe
is centred on Portugal and Spain. Nectarine – see under Peach
18

Peach (Prunus persica): of Asian origin, now cultivated Boysenberry (Rubus fruticosus): essentially similar to
commercially in all parts of the world with a warm, blackberry, but bearing larger, raspberry-flavoured
temperate climate. Peaches, as sweet, juicy, white- or fruits, often used for canning. Commercial production
yellow-fleshed, downy-skinned fruits, are sold for the in Europe is limited.
fresh market or sent for canning. Nectarines (var.
nectarina) are essentially similar to peaches, but smaller Loganberry (Rubus loganobaccus): a vigorous,
and smooth skinned. Southern Europe and warmer parts heavy-cropping shrub, with long stems that require
of central Europe are important production areas. In support. The large, red fruits are more acidic than
more northerly regions, peaches are usually grown as raspberries, making them particularly suitable for
individual trees in sheltered private gardens. culinary rather than fresh use. Unlike raspberries, the
fruits do not ‘plug’ on picking. Commercial production
Plum (Prunus domestica ssp. domestica): an in Europe is limited; however, loganberries are often
aggregation, probably arising from a cross between wild grown as a garden crop, especially in the British Isles.
blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and myrobalan
(P. cerasifera); plums are grown throughout most of Raspberry (Rubus idaeus): the main commercial cane
Europe and are an important commercial crop. Damson fruit, with a wide range of cultivars grown in Europe.
(ssp. insititia) (including bullace) and greengage (ssp. Summer-fruiting and autumn-fruiting cultivars are
italica) are also cultivated widely. Plums (including available. European raspberries typically produce red
damsons and greengages) are often consumed fresh and fruits (= ‘red raspberries’); less vigorous, yellow-fruited
they make excellent jams and pie fillings. They are also cultivars (sometimes known as ‘white raspberries’) are
preserved (e.g. bottled and canned), and may be used to also available. The so-called black-red raspberry (which
make strong alcoholic drinks, including the well-known produces purple berries) is also grown; this is a cross
slivovitz of central and eastern Europe. Notably in between Rubus idaeus and the American black raspberry
southern France, dark-skinned fruits are dried to (R. occidentalis). When ripe fruits are picked, the central
produce prunes. plugs remain attached to the plant; this avoids the need
for them to be removed prior to consumption or
processing. Raspberries are consumed fresh; they freeze
Cane fruits well, are also canned, and are widely used for flavouring
(as in ice-cream).
Cane fruits (family Rosaceae) include a range of species
and also various so-called hybrid berries. Blackberry Tayberry (Rubus idaeus × Rubus fruticosus ‘Aurora’):
(bramble), for example, is an aggregate of several this hybrid berry bears elongate, red fruits that are larger
hundred species and subspecies, and is often hybridized. and more aromatic than loganberries. They are grown
Botanically, the fruits are not true berries, but are mainly by amateur gardeners.
compound fruits that consist of a number of drupelets
grouped on a central ‘plug’ (the remains of the flower
receptacle) that extends beyond the calyx. Each drupelet Bush fruits
consists of a fleshy outer layer that encloses a hard,
seed-containing, pip-like achene. For fresh consumption Bush fruits produce ‘true’ berries, in which the edible
and for culinary purposes, the achenes are usually skin-coated flesh surrounds two or more pips or seeds
consumed as part of the fruit, but they may be strained that are not themselves enclosed by a stony endocarp.
off when, for example, making jellies.
Black currant (Ribes nigrum) (family Grossulariaceae):
Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.): a rambling plant, a small, spineless, many-stemmed shrub, producing
usually grown commercially in rows on supporting bunches of small, round fruits that hang in racemes.
wires. A large number of cultivars are grown in Black currants are widely cultivated, especially in
cultivation, many of which produce larger, superior central and northern Europe. The fruits ripen to black,
fruits compared with their wild equivalents. Thornless and are used in pies, for making jam and for flavouring;
cultivars are often grown, especially in private they may also be eaten raw. Black currants are an
gardens. Blackberries are consumed raw or may be important source of vitamin C and are extensively grown
used in pies or to make jam. Unlike raspberries, the to produce black currant syrup and juice. Fruits of red
fruits do not ‘plug’ on picking. Commercial currant (Ribes sativum agg.) and white currant (Ribes
production, although widespread, is usually on a sativum agg.) also have dessert and culinary uses. Red
relatively small scale. currant and white currant bushes are usually grown on
 Introduction
19

single stems and are cultivated mainly in central and Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) (family Rosaceae):
northern Europe, usually on a small scale. All three are this American hybrid forms the bulk of the world’s
popular with amateur gardeners. commercial strawberry production. Botanically,
strawberries are ‘false’ fruits, the edible flesh being
Gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa) (family formed from the swollen receptacle which bears
Grossulariaceae): a hardy, spiny, bush-like shrub that numerous small, brown achenes (‘seeds’) on the surface.
grows well and is widely cultivated in central and Strawberries are consumed fresh, as a dessert fruit, or are
northern Europe. The ripe fruits are eaten fresh, but are used to make jam or for flavouring, as in confectionery
often picked early and preserved, or used in pies or for and ice-creams. Strawberries are widely cultivated
making jam. Dessert and culinary cultivars are throughout Europe, either as open-field crops or under
available. protection (under cloches or plastic tunnels, or in
greenhouses). In addition, there is limited commercial
Highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) (family production of the alpine strawberry (Fragaria vesca), a
Ericaceae): a large bush, often 1m or more tall, producing plant producing smaller, but less acidic, fruits with a
blue-black fruits 10 mm or more in diameter. These are superior flavour.
used in pies and for making jelly and jam. Blueberries are
of American origin and form a complex aggregation of
species and cultivars. They are widely grown in the USA Nuts
and, nowadays, are also grown commercially in several
parts of Europe. Almond (Prunus communis) (family Rosaceae):
almond is native to North Africa and western Asia and
Jostaberry (Ribes nigrum × Ribes uva-crispa) is grown commercially in all regions with a
(family Grossulariaceae): a vigorous-growing cross Mediterranean climate, especially Italy and Spain. The
between black currant and gooseberry, producing trees are also grown on a decreasingly smaller scale
bunches of purple fruits (intermediate in size between through central Europe and parts of northern Europe.
currants and gooseberries) that are especially popular The velvet-skinned, somewhat hairy, fruits (drupes –
for jam-making. see ‘stone fruits’ above) are grown for their kernels. The
inedible kernels of bitter almonds (var. amara) are
Red currant and White currant – see under Black crushed for oil; those of sweet almonds (var. dulcis) are
currant. consumed as either whole or flaked nuts, or are used as
a paste. Peach × almond hybrids, which bear larger,
Worcesterberry (Ribes divaricatum) (family more fleshy fruits, occur; these are often used as
Grossulariaceae): an American species, with long, arching rootstock for peach trees.
branches that bear small, purple, gooseberry-like fruits. In
Europe, it is usually grown only by amateur gardeners. Chestnut (Castanea sativa) (family Fagaceae): also
known as sweet chestnut or Spanish chestnut, this nut-
producing tree is a native of south-east Europe and is
Other small fruits widely grown, especially in poorer, upland regions of
central Europe. The reddish-brown nuts occur in threes,
Grape (Vitis vinifera) (family Vitaceae): grapevines are within a globose, green outer casing (involucre) that
woody trailing or climbing plants that require warm or bears numerous long, fine spines. Sweet chestnuts, not
hot conditions for their fruits (grapes) to ripen to be confused with the fruits (nuts) of horse-chestnut
satisfactorily. Grapes are true berries, with the seeds (Aesculus hippocastanea), are usually roasted or
surrounded by a fleshy, juicy pulp; seedless cultivars pureed.
also occur. Grapes are commonly grown for the fresh
market (table grapes) and for the production of wine; in Cobnut and Filbert – see under Hazelnut.
addition, the mature fruits may be dried to produce
currants, raisins and sultanas. Viticulture is a major Hazelnut (Corylus avellana) (family Corylaceae): this
world industry, with many European countries (notably well-known shrub occurs naturally throughout much of
France, Italy and Spain) featuring amongst the most Europe and in parts of Asia, and nowadays is often
prolific of all wine producers. In order to avoid planted commercially in plantations. Botanically, the
infestations of grape phylloxera (see Chapter 3), fruits (unlike those of, for example, almond and walnut)
European vines are usually grafted onto American are true nuts, in which the hardened shell is the pericarp
rootstock. and the edible seed the kernel. Hazelnuts are mainly
20

consumed as dessert nuts. Cobnut or filbert (Corylus ripening of the fruits requires very hot summers, and
maxima) and Turkish hazel (Corylus colurna) produce most of those sold on the European market are grown
larger, more elongate fruits and are widely grown in Israel. Commercial production in Europe is
commercially; in the following chapters, the term confined mainly to Cyprus, Greece and southern
‘hazelnut’ is used in its wider sense to embrace these. Spain.
Major hazelnut-producing countries include France,
Italy, Spain and Turkey. Lemon (Citrus limonum): lemon trees are distinctly
thorny and bushy, 3–6 m tall. The unmistakable fruits
Pistachio (Pistacia vera) (family Anacardiaceae): a are yellow, with a nipple-like apical swelling; the
subtropical plant of Middle Eastern origin, widely flesh is acidic. Both the peel and juice have a range of
grown in the Mediterranean basin; in Europe, uses; in addition, the pips are a source of oil (lemon
commercial production is restricted mainly to pip oil). Italy and Spain are the main European
Greece, Sicily and southern Spain. The fruits are, producers.
botanically, drupes (see ‘stone fruits’ above) and are
grown for the edible kernels. These are consumed Mandarin (Citrus reticulana): a small, often spiny
lightly roasted and salted, and also used for culinary tree; the pale yellow to orange-coloured fruits (the
purposes. latter often called tangerines) are characteristically
flattened at both base and apex. Mandarins are usually
Walnut (Juglans regia) (family Juglandaceae): produced for the fresh market, but are also preserved as
a large tree, of Eurasiatic origin and widely canned segments. The crop is grown commercially in
naturalized throughout Europe; often known as various parts of southern Europe, the crop extending
English or Persian walnut. Botanically, the fruit is a further north than its other, less hardy relatives.
drupe (see ‘stone fruits’ above), the edible nut (kernel) Clementines are essentially similar to mandarins, but
being contained within a woody, 2-valved shell the fruits are smaller and have deeper-coloured skins
(endocarp); this is surrounded by a thick, more or less that are difficult to peel; they are widely grown in
leathery outer skin (epicarp) that is eventually shed. southern Europe.
Walnuts are grown mainly for the dessert market; they
also have a range of confectionery and culinary uses. Orange (e.g. Citrus sinensis): orange trees are of
Additionally, the young fruits may be pickled and Chinese origin and grow up to 12 m in height, bearing
then eaten; walnut oil, obtained from the kernels, is globular fruits that are typically orange when ripe.
also produced. Most commercial European walnuts Fruits of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) are mainly
are grown in France. Italy, Romania and Turkey are eaten fresh or are crushed to produce juice. Sweet
also major producers. oranges are grown throughout the world in warm or
tropical countries, Italy and Spain being amongst the
world’s top producers. The rough, thick-skinned and
Citrus fruits highly aromatic fruits of sour orange (Citrus
aurantium) have smaller segments than those of sweet
Citrus fruits (family Rutaceae) are subtropical crops orange and the flesh is sour tasting; they are used
that require hot conditions to ripen and flourish. The mainly to produce marmalade, Spain being the largest
fruit itself is a berry, known as an hesperidum, with a European producer. Bergamot orange (Citrus
leathery outer rind (epicarp) and the inner flesh bergamia), often considered to be merely a cultivar of
divided by skin-like septa into several distinct sour orange, is grown as a source of essential oils;
segments. The epicarp contains numerous aromatic oil nowadays, its commercial production in Europe is
glands, as do the leaves. The leaf stalks (petioles) are restricted to southern Italy.
often winged, noticeably so in the case of bergamot
orange, grapefruit, pomelo and sour orange. Pomelo (Citrus grandis): although sometimes
consumed as a fresh fruit, and widely grown in southern
Clementine – see under Mandarin. Asia, this crop is upstaged by grapefruit and is of little
economic importance in Europe.
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi): grapefruits are grown
on spreading trees, 8–15 m tall. The fruits have a Tangarine – see under Mandarin.
characteristic, slightly bitter taste, and are consumed
mainly in the form of juice, but also as fresh fruits or
as canned (often fragmented) segments. Satisfactory
 Introduction
21

Miscellaneous crops then cut and sold as ‘hop asparagus’. European

centres of hop production include various parts of
Avocado (Persea americana) (family Lauraceae): an central Europe, northwards to the British Isles and
evergreen, mainly tropical, tree (in cultivation usually Scandinavia, and eastwards to Russia.
no more than 5 m in height), with three principal races
originating in Guatemala, Mexico and the West Indies. Japanese persimmon – see Chinese persimmon.
European-grown cultivars are derived from Mexican
stock and are cultivated only in the hottest of Kaki – see Chinese persimmon.
Mediterranean regions. The highly nutritious, pear-
shaped fruits (single-seeded berries) are usually Kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis) (family
consumed raw, as half-fruits laced with lemon juice and Actinidiaceae): kiwi fruit, also known as Chinese
salt, or in mixed salads. gooseberry or yang tao, originated in China and
commercial production elsewhere (notably in New
Chinese persimmon (Diospyros kaki) (family Zealand) did not begin until the 1960s. Nowadays, the
Ebenaceae): a deciduous subtropical tree, originating in crop is grown commercially in various parts of
China and now grown throughout the World in the southern Europe (including France, Italy and Spain).
subtropics. Commercial production in Europe (e.g. in The plant is a woody, twining climber, with large,
southern France, Italy and Spain) is relatively recent. heart-shaped leaves, and is usually grown on wood and
The fruits are large, juicy, tomato-like berries, with a wire trellising. The juicy fruits (berries) are usually
large, persistent, basal calyx. They are consumed fresh consumed raw, after peeling; they also have limited
or cooked, and have a range of dessert uses; they are culinary uses.
frequently used to make jam.
Mulberry (Morus spp.) (family Moraceae): black
Date plum – see Chinese persimmon. mulberry (Morus nigra) and white mulberry (Morus
alba) trees grow to 10 m; they have robust trunks and
Fig (Ficus carica) (family Moraceae): a spreading, branches, and relatively large, thick leaves. The fruits
deciduous, subtropical shrub or small tree; although (botanically known as syncarps) are formed from a
widely grown in Europe, the fruits ripen only under collection of united, seed-containing carpels
suitably hot conditions. Botanically, the fruit is known (drupelets); superficially, they are similar in appearance
as a syconium; this is a hollow structure, formed from to blackberries and raspberries, but each drupelet is
the fleshy receptacle, with an apical hole (ostiolum) subdivided into four segments. The fruits of black
leading to an inner lining of florets and developing mulberry are virtually stalkless and usually purple or
seeds. Figs are consumed fresh or dried, and may also black when ripe; those of white mulberry are white,
be cooked. Commercial production in Europe is pink or purple and are borne on long (1–2 cm) stalks.
restricted to Mediterranean regions. Mulberries may be consumed raw, but are more
frequently used for producing jam, jellies and wine.
Hop (Humulus lupulus) (family Cannabaceae): hop is Small-scale commercial production occurs in various
a perennial climber, with the bines (often arising parts of southern Europe. Further north, mulberry trees
from earthed-up ‘hills’) traditionally grown on an are usually grown for home-garden use or planted in
elaborate system of very tall supports, 4–5 m in parks and gardens as ornamentals.
height. Hops are propagated vegetatively, using stem-
base cuttings (sets). Recently, dwarf cultivars have Olive (Olea europaea var. europaea) (family Oleaceae):
been introduced; these so-called dwarf hops are cultivated olive is an evergreen tree, with narrow,
grown on trellises (c. 2 m in height), to form a lanceolate leaves (dark green above and grey below)
hedgerow-like system. Hops are cultivated for their coated with minute, silvery scales. The fruits (drupes)
papery, cone-like fruits (strobili) (often known as ripen to black and are then harvested; some, however,
burrs), formed from several wing-like bracts (each may be picked whilst immature and still green, pink or
containing a small, basal nutlet) arranged around a red. Olives are cultivated throughout the Mediterranean
central axis (the strig). Lupulin, a substance that basin, with no more than about two per cent produced in
imparts a bitter flavour to beer, is extracted from the other parts of the world. Most are grown for their oil,
cones during processing; lupulin also checks some for consumption as table olives, and some for both
bacterial growth, thereby acting as a preservative. purposes.
There is also a minor, specialist market for young
bines emerging from the soil in the spring, which are Oriental persimmon – see Chinese persimmon.
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