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THE ASHBURNHAM PENTATEUCH AND ITS CONTEXTS
BOYDELL STUDIES IN MEDIEVAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE

ISSN 2045-4902

Series Editors

Professor Julian Luxford

Professor Asa Simon Mittman

This series aims to provide a forum for debate on the art and
architecture of the Middle Ages. It covers all media, from manuscript
illumination to maps, tapestries, carvings, wall-paintings, and
stained glass, and all periods and regions, including Byzantine art.
Both traditional and more theoretical approaches to the subject
are welcome.

Proposals or queries should be sent in the first instance to the

editors or to the publisher, at the addresses given below.

Professor Julian Luxford, School of Art History, University of St

Andrews, 79 North Street, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9AL, UK

Professor Asa Simon Mittman, Department of Art and Art History,

California State University at Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0820, USA

Boydell & Brewer, PO Box 9, Woodbridge, Suffolk IP12 3DF, UK

Previously published titles in the series are listed at the back of this
volume.
 THE ASHBURNHAM
PENTATEUCH AND
ITS CONTEXTS

THE TRINITY IN LATE

ANTIQUITY AND THE EARLY
MIDDLE AGES

Jennifer Awes Freeman

THE BOYDELL PRESS

 © Jennifer Awes Freeman 2022

The right of Jennifer Awes Freeman to be identified as the author of this

work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

All Rights Reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part

of this work may be photocopied, stored in a retrieval system, published,
performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded, or
reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner

First published 2022

The Boydell Press, Woodbridge

ISBN 978 1 78327 684 4 (hardcover)

ISBN 978 1 80010 490 7 (ePDF)
ISBN 978 1 80010 491 4 (ePUB)

The Boydell Press is an imprint of Boydell & Brewer Ltd

PO Box 9, Woodbridge, Suffolk, IP12 3DF, UK
and of Boydell & Brewer Inc.
668 Mt Hope Avenue, Rochester, NY 14620-2731, USA
website: [Link]

The publisher has no responsibility for the continued existence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites
is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Cover image: Creation, Ashburnham Pentateuch, Paris, Bibliothèque
nationale de France, MS NAL 2334, fol. 1v (Source [Link] / BnF)
For Paul Meyvaert, beatae memoriae
 CONTENTS

List of Illustrations ix
List of Abbreviations xiii

Introduction: Losing and Finding the

Ashburnham Pentateuch 1

1 Early Trinitarian Texts and Debates 20

2 The Trinity in Early Christian Images 34

3 Carolingian Conceptions of the Trinity 61

4 Carolingian Image Theory 118

5 The Carolingian Reception of the

Ashburnham Pentateuch 147

Conclusion: Possible Motivations for the Ashburnham

Pentateuch Erasures 164
Coda: The Afterlives of the Ashburnham Pentateuch 181
Acknowledgments 191
Bibliography 195
Index 215
 ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

I Creation, Ashburnham Pentateuch, fol. 1v

II Plague of the Firstborn, Ashburnham Pentateuch,
fol. 65v (detail)
III Jacob and Esau, fol. 25r (detail)
IV Hospitality of Abraham, Santa Maria Maggiore,
Rome, 435 CE
V Hospitality of Abraham, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy,
547 CE
VI Creation, Vienna Genesis, fol. 1r (detail)
VII Incipit Page of Gospel of Mark, Gospel Book of
St. Médard of Soissons, fol. 82r
VIII Apse Mosaic, Germigny-des Prés, France,
c.806 CE

FIGURES

1 “The Ashburnham Pentateuch,” Frank Leslie’s

Sunday Magazine 14 (July–Dec., 1883): 264 2
2 “The Ashburnham Pentateuch,” Frank Leslie’s
Sunday Magazine 14 (July–Dec., 1883): 265 3
3 Reconstruction of Ashburnham Pentateuch
fol. 1v (illustration) 13
4 Plague of the Firstborn, Ashburnham Pentateuch,
fol. 65v 38
5 Jacob and Esau, Ashburnham Pentateuch, fol. 25r 40
x ILLUSTRATIONS

6 Moses Receiving the Law, Ashburnham Pentateuch,

fol. 76r 41
7 Cain and Abel, Ashburnham Pentateuch, fol. 6r 44
8 Ark of the Covenant, Ashburnham Pentateuch,
fol. 127v (detail) 47
9 Crossing of the Red Sea, Ashburnham Pentateuch,
fol. 68r 48
10 Arles Sarcophagus, Musée de l’Arles Antique 50
11 Vatican (Dogmatic) Sarcophagus 51
12 Sarcophagus fragment, 4th c. CE, Rome
(illustration)53
13 Sarcophagus, Musée des Augustins, Toulouse
(detail, illustration) 54
14 Hospitality of Abraham, Via Latina Catacomb,
Rome (illustration) 54
15 Baptism of Jesus, ivory plaque, 6th c., British
Museum57
16 Cotton Genesis, reconstruction of fol. 1r
(illustration)59
17 Collect of the Protomartyr’s Feast, Drogo
Sacramentary, fol. 27r (detail) 68
18 Collect for the Mass of Pentecost, Drogo
Sacramentary, fol. 78r (detail) 70
19 Te Deum, Utrecht Psalter, fol. 88r (detail) 72
20 Fides Catholica, Utrecht Psalter, fol. 90r (detail) 75
21 Gloria in Excelsis, Utrecht Psalter, fol. 89v (detail) 76
22 Psalm 85, Corbie Psalter, fol. 77v (detail) 77
23 Maiestas Domini, Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram,
fol. 6v 81
24 Miscellany from Lorsch, fol. 28v (illustration) 82
25 Maiestas Domini, Gundohinus Gospels, fol. 12v 84
26 Genesis frontispiece, Moutier-Grandval Bible,
fol. 5v 89
27 Genesis frontispiece, First Bible of Charles the
Bald (Vivian Bible), fol. 10v 92
28 Genesis Incipit page, First Bible of Charles the
Bald (Vivian Bible), fol. 11r 94
29 Genesis frontispiece, Bible of San Paolo fuori le
Mura, fol. 8v 95
30 Psalm 103, Stuttgart Psalter, fol. 116v (detail) 97
31 Psalm 28, Stuttgart Psalter, fol. 50v (detail) 97
32 Cruciform poem, Bible of Theodulf, Paris,
BnF, MS lat. 9380, fol. 3r 131
33 Reconstruction of the Ark, Apse Mosaic at
Germigny-des-Prés (illustration) 137
ILLUSTRATIONS xi

34 Lot and his Daughters, Ashburnham Pentateuch,

fol. 18r 154
35 Departing from the Ark, Ashburnham Pentateuch,
fol. 10v 155
36 Louis the Pious portrait, Hrabanus Maurus, In
honorem sanctae crucis, fol. 1v 174
37 Psalter of Charles the Bald, fol. 3v 175
38 Charles the Bald, Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram,
fol. 5v 176
39 Frescoes in the abbey church at St. Julien at Tours
(illustration)187

Full credit details are provided in the captions to the images in the
text. The author and publisher are grateful to all the institutions and
individuals for permission to reproduce the materials in which they
hold copyright. Every effort has been made to trace the copyright
holders; apologies are offered for any omission, and the publisher
will be pleased to add any necessary acknowledgment in subsequent
editions.
 ABBREVIATIONS

CCSL Corpus Christianorum. Series Latina, Turnhout, 1966

CLA E. A. Lowe. Codices Latini Antiquiores, 2nd edn. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1972
CSEL Corpus Scriptorium Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna
1865–
LCL Loeb Classical Library, London, Cambridge, Mass., 1912–
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Hanover-Berlin 1826–
NPNF A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry
Wace: Series I, 1886
OCR Opus Caroli Regis contra Synodum
PG Patrologia cursus completus. Jacques-Paul Migne, Series
Graeca, Paris 1857–66; Ind. 1928–36
PL Patrologia cursus completus. Jacques-Paul Migne, Series
Latina, Paris 1841–64
 INTRODUCTION:
LOSING AND FINDING
THE ASHBURNHAM
PENTATEUCH
I n 1883, Frank Leslie’s Sunday Magazine published its fourteenth
issue, its publishing house about a ten-minute walk from the
recently opened Brooklyn Bridge. The English-born Frank Leslie
had published numerous iterations of weekly periodicals in the
United States over the span of about three decades, all richly
illustrated, as he was an established engraver. After his death in
1880, Leslie’s second wife, who went so far as to legally change her
name to “Frank Leslie” in 1881, took over the management of his
affairs. Frank Leslie’s Sunday Magazine compiles articles on the topic
of religion. However, its scope is much broader than one might
expect for its nondenominational Protestant approach – including
Christian, Muslim, and Jewish theology, practices, and material
culture in South and North America, Africa, and Asia.1
In this particular volume, nestled between articles on “Rome as
Paul Saw It” and “Sacred Books of Different Religions,” two folios
of a late antique Pentateuch were reproduced (figs. 1 and 2). At the
time, the Ashburnham Pentateuch (Paris, Bibliothèque nationale
de France, NAL 2334) had only just found a home at the British
Museum, thanks to a gift by the earl of Ashburnham, its most recent
namesake. The article in Frank Leslie’s Sunday Magazine described
the Pentateuch as “one of the most ancient, and at the same time
most curious” of the Ashburnham manuscript collection, identifying

1 On Frank Leslie, see Joshua Brown, Beyond the Lines: Pictorial Reporting,
Everyday Life, and the Crisis of Gilded Age America (Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 2002). To view issues of Frank Leslie’s Sunday
Magazine: [Link]
and for the article in question, [Link]
532756;view=2up;seq=276;size=200 (accessed Dec. 20, 2020).
FIG. 1 “THE ASHBURNHAM PENTATEUCH,” FRANK LESLIE’S SUNDAY MAGAZINE 14 (JULY – DEC., 1883): 264
(PUBLIC DOMAIN).
FIG. 2. “THE ASHBURNHAM PENTATEUCH,” FRANK LESLIE’S SUNDAY MAGAZINE 14 (JULY – DEC., 1883): 265
(PUBLIC DOMAIN).
4 THE ASHBURNHAM PENTATEUCH AND ITS CONTEXTS

its origins as seventh-century Italy.2 The anonymous author of

this spot seems to have been most interested in the costumes and
architecture as historical evidence of the period, but also took the
effort of translating every Latin inscription of the two folios (fols.
56r and 58r) that narrate the illustrated Exodus scenes.
This article appeared on the occasion of the 1883 publication of
The Miniatures of the Ashburnham Pentateuch. Written by Oscar von
Gebhardt at the request of the earl of Ashburnham, this facsimile’s
introduction went to some lengths to explain (read: justify) how
the manuscript made its way from Tours to London in 1847.3 In
his analysis, von Gebhardt described the first extant miniature of
the manuscript (fol. 1v, Plate I), which depicts the first few days of
Creation. He observed that “the form of God, repeated four times,
is portrayed throughout in brown,” and that in the upper left-hand
corner, “The object above the outstretched right hand can no longer
be determined either as to form or as to color.”4 It was this mystery
object that would eventually reveal the manuscript’s medieval
alterations, which had passed without extant commentary for more
than a millennium.
In the early 1960s, Bezalel Narkiss viewed the Ashburnham
Pentateuch at the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris with the hope of
identifying the “object” in the upper left-hand described by Oscar von
Gebhardt. Narkiss approached the manuscript with the expectation
that it was some kind of orb, but upon studying the image in person
under ultraviolet light, Narkiss realized that it was in fact the halo
of a mostly obscured figure. In 1969 he became the first scholar to
document that, in its original state, the Ashburnham Pentateuch’s
Creation miniature presented not one but three anthropomorphic
Creators.5 It is this image, and the implications of both its iconography
and its subsequent modification, that is the focus of the present
book. That the Creation image presents an anthropomorphic Trinity
is largely consistent with late antique depictions of the Trinity and

2 “The Ashburnham Pentateuch,” Frank Leslie’s Sunday Magazine 14 (July–Dec.,

1883): 263.
3 Indeed, the Ashburnham Pentateuch was previously known as the
Pentateuque de Tours; it disappeared from its home in the municipal library and
reappeared when Guglielmo Libri sold it (along with 1,922 other manuscripts) to
the earl of Ashburnham. This episode in the manuscript’s life is further addressed
in the Coda. On the professor, see P. A. Maccioni Ruju and M. Mostert, The Life
and Times of Guglielmo Libri (1802–1869): Scientist, Patriot, Scholar, Journalist, and
Thief, A Nineteenth-Century Story (Hilversum, The Netherlands: Verloren, 1995).
4 Oscar von Gebhardt, The Miniatures of the Ashburnham Pentateuch (London:
Asher and Co., 1883), 11.
5 Bezalel Narkiss, “Towards a Further Study of the Ashburnham Pentateuch,”
Cahiers Archaéologiques 19 (1969): 45–60.
INTRODUCTION 5

the concerns of early Christian theological debates. In the early

Middle Ages, the image was modified to present a single Creator
figure, which, as will be demonstrated below, was likewise consistent
with Carolingian images of the Creation narrative in Genesis.
Focusing on this single folio – while also considering some of the
manuscript’s other images and contexts – offers an opportunity to
understand better the application of Carolingian image theory in
the aftermath of the Byzantine iconoclastic controversy, as well the
mutual influence between art, theology, and politics during Late
Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. This study demonstrates
that even as the Carolingian Renaissance relied upon and invoked
the Roman past, it also reinterpreted that past in the formation of
Carolingian identity.
About a century after the article in Frank Leslie’s Sunday
Magazine, the Ashburnham Pentateuch returned to the American
imagination in an exhibition of late Roman and early Byzantine
art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. In his
review, Thomas B. Hess described the exhibition as “probably the
best scholarly show ever presented by the museum,” and, among its
many treasures, noted that, “The Ashburnham Pentateuch is one of
the most sumptuous, eccentric illuminated books ever accomplished;
its seventh-century images look back to Roman illusionism and
forward to Carolingian classicism like some kind of inspired Janus.”6
These responses to the Ashburnham Pentateuch’s images resonate
with my own initial encounter with the physical manuscript, which
occurred in the reading room at the Richelieu campus of the
Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. One’s first impression
of the miniatures is that of densely packed action. The dynamic
compositions are filled with crowds of figures, flocks of animals,
and delicate white archways; explanatory inscriptions fill many
of the negative spaces. The miniatures’ bird’s-eye view is a
notable departure from the comparatively sparse compositions
of the manuscript illustrations that preceded the Ashburnham
Pentateuch, as well as the subsequent revival of the classical style
in the seventh century.
Any study of the Ashburnham Pentateuch must proceed with a
certain amount of caution, as the details of its production remain
unknown. The manuscript has been dated to the late sixth or early
seventh century,7 and I tend to agree with David H. Wright, who has
made the most strongly worded argument for a sixth-century date:

6 Thomas B. Hess, “The Greek Connection,” New York Magazine (Dec. 19, 1977):
124, 127.
7 Von Gebhardt, The Miniatures of the Ashburnham Pentateuch, 3, 5, 8; CLA 5,
6 THE ASHBURNHAM PENTATEUCH AND ITS CONTEXTS

The Ashburnham Pentateuch must be placed in the

second half of the sixth century, most likely the third
quarter, since the figure style is not dominated by linear
patterns as it is in the mosaics of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura
(late in the reign of Pelagius II, 579–90), or the Gospels
of St. Augustine, probably made in Rome for Gregory
the Great to be sent to Augustine in Canterbury in 601.8
Wright’s use of style to date the Ashburnham Pentateuch is
instructive: while he uses it to confirm the received date of the
manuscript, it would be difficult to use style to challenge the date
on account of the manuscript’s singularity. As Lawrence Nees
has argued regarding Insular art, early medieval sources are too
incomplete, and therefore unrepresentative, to make stylistic dating
a reliable practice.9
The scholarly back-and-forth over the dating of the Ashburnham
Pentateuch makes it apparent that a paleographic assessment alone is
insufficient, as uncial and half-uncial scripts are notoriously difficult
to pin down in regard to both date and location. Codicological
attributes of the Ashburnham Pentateuch, such as intercolumnar
pricking, might also prove useful in dating when considered
alongside additional information. In an extensive study on methods
of manuscript pricking, Leslie Webber Jones observed that such
prickings began to appear in the fourth century, peaked in the fifth,
and diminished in the sixth and seventh centuries.10 The paintings

693a. Cf. Bernhard Bischoff, Latin Paleography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages,
trans. Dhaíbí Ó Cróinín and David Ganz (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1990), 193; David Wright, “Review of André Grabar and Carl Nordenfalk,
Early Medieval Paintings from the Fourth to the Eleventh Century,” The Art Bulletin
43:3 (1961): 250; Dorothy Hoogland Verkerk, Early Medieval Bible Illumination
and the Ashburnham Pentateuch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004),
44. Although he initially followed Lowe’s early seventh-century dating, Bezalel
Narkiss boldly argued for a fifth-century date (and claimed that Galla Placidia
was the patroness) in his 2007 commentary on the manuscript. Bezalel Narkiss,
“Reconstruction of Some of the Original Quires of the Ashburnham Pentateuch,”
Cahiers Archaéologiques 22 (1972): 19–38; Narkiss, El Pentateuco Ashburnham
(Valencia: Ediciones Patrimonio, 2007), 478–9. To my knowledge, the only scholar
even willing to entertain such an early date (and such a specific patron) is the
historian Hagith Sivan, who cites Narkiss’s commentary in her biography of Galla
Placidia. Hagith Sivan in Galla Placidia: The Last Roman Empress (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2011), 128–33.
8 David H. Wright, “Review of Dorothy Verkerk, Early Medieval Bible
Illumination and the Ashburnham Pentateuch,” Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 69,
BD., H. 3 (2006): 412.
9 Lawrence Nees, “Recent Trends in Dating Works of Insular Art,” in Insular
and Anglo-Saxon Art and Thought in the Early Medieval Period, ed. Colum
Hourihane (Princeton: Index of Christian Art, Princeton University, 2011), 14–30.
10 Leslie Webber Jones, “Where are the Prickings?” Transactions and Proceedings
of the American Philological Association 75 (1944): 71–86.
INTRODUCTION 7

of the Ashburnham Pentateuch were recently subjected to analysis

in a “non-invasive way by means of UV–visible diffuse reflectance
spectrophotometry with optical fibres (FORS), spectrofluorimetry
and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) in order to characterise
its palette and to compare it with those of other early medieval
manuscripts.”11 This study found that the artist(s) used Egyptian blue
in addition to indigo throughout the manuscript and that the colors
were used without a discernible symbolic hierarchy (as one might
expect the more valuable Egyptian blue to be used for symbolically
significant figures). The investigators hypothesized that “two
different painters worked at the decoration, the first using Egyptian
blue to paint the miniatures and another, possibly in a later period,
who repainted the backgrounds in order to add the white text.”12 The
use of Egyptian blue is noteworthy in that it was thought not to be
in regular use after the fall of the Roman Empire. The study also
revealed that the particular composition of the Egyptian blue in the
Ashburnham Pentateuch indicates a non-traditional manufacture of
the pigment.13 In short, the analysis of the manuscript showed that
it had been decorated with pigments that were largely consistent
with other early medieval manuscripts as well as some pigments
belonging to the ancient Roman tradition (namely Egyptian blue
and green earth), consistent with its late sixth-/early seventh-century
proposed date and Mediterranean origin.14
To paleographic and codicological considerations must be added
iconographic and textual analyses – for example, an in-depth study
of the inscriptions and their relationship to the text of the Vetus
Latina may yield important information for dating the manuscript.15
Additionally, some of the visual elements could provide a useful
comparison for dating. For instance, the representations of altars in
the manuscript might be compared with any fifth- and sixth-century
images, such as the mosaics of San Vitale. That said, it is beyond the
task of this book to make a new investigation into the Ashburnham
Pentateuch’s date given that the present focus is to understand the
reception and alteration of the manuscript during the Carolingian

11 Maurizio Aceto et al., “New Evidence of Non-Traditional Egyptian

Blue Manufacture in the 6th century Ashburnham Pentateuch,” Journal of
Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020): 1–8.
12 Aceto et al., “New Evidence of Non-Traditional Egyptian Blue Manufacture,” 5.
13 Aceto et al., “New Evidence of Non-Traditional Egyptian Blue Manufacture,” 7.
14 Aceto et al., “New Evidence of Non-Traditional Egyptian Blue Manufacture,” 8.
15 As suggested to me by David Ganz. The Vetus Latina texts are still being
published: Vetus Latina; die Reste der atlataeinischen Bibel, Nach Petrus Sabatier
neu gesammelt und hrsg. von der Erzabtei Beuron (Freiburg, Germany: Herder,
1949–). The main text of the Ashburnham Pentateuch follows the Vulgate with
some variations. Verkerk, Early Medieval Bible Illumination, 47–9.
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