REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL 6

TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2019
Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of these Occupational Standards may be reproduced,

distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording,
or other electronic or mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the
TVET CDACC, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and
certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests,
write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at the address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: [email protected]

i
 FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute
to achievement of Kenya’s development blueprint and sustainable development goals.

Reforms in the education sector are necessary for the achievement of Kenya Vision 2030
and meeting the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. The education sector had to
be aligned to the Constitution and this resulted to the formulation of the Policy Framework
for Reforming Education and Training (Sectional Paper No. 4 of 2016). A key feature of
this policy is the radical change in the design and delivery of the TVET training. This
policy document requires that training in TVET be competency based, curriculum
development be industry led, certification be based on demonstration of competence and
mode of delivery allows for multiple entry and exit in TVET programmes.

These reforms demand that Industry takes a leading role in curriculum development to
ensure the curriculum addresses its competence needs. It is against this background that
this curriculum has been developed.

It is my conviction that this curriculum will play a great role towards development of
competent human resource for the construction sector.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

ii
 PREFACE

Kenya Vision 2030 aims to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-
income country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. Kenya
intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human resource base to meet the
requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy through life-long education and training.
TVET has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the
paradigm shift to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET).

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and Sectional
Paper No. 4 of 2016 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasized the need
to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification. This called for a shift to
CBET in order to address the mismatch between skills acquired through training and skills
needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan labour force.

TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council (TVET CDACC)

in conjunction with Construction Sector Skills Advisory Committee (SSAC) have
developed this curriculum.

This curriculum is designed and organized with an outline of learning outcomes; suggested
delivery methods, training/learning resources and methods of assessing the trainee’s
achievement. The curriculum is competency-based and allows multiple entry and exit to
the course.

I am grateful to the Council members, Council Secretariat, Construction SSAC, expert

workers and all those who participated in the development of this curriculum.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. EngTech.

CHAIRMAN, TVET CDACC

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This curriculum has been designed for competency-based training and has independent
units of learning that allow the trainee flexibility in entry and exit. In developing the
curriculum, significant involvement and support was received from various organizations.

I recognize with appreciation the role of Construction Sector Skills Advisory Committee
(SSAC) members for their contribution to the development of this curriculum.
I also thank all stakeholders in the construction sector for their valuable input and all those
who participated in the process of developing this curriculum.
I am convinced that this curriculum will go a long way in ensuring that workers in the
Construction industry acquire competencies that will enable them to perform their work
more efficiently.

Dr. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD.................................................................................................................... II
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................. IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ V
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... XIII
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... XVIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background Information ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Purpose of Developing the Learning Guide ................................................. 1
1.3 Layout of the learning guide ................................................................................ 2
1.4 Learning Activities............................................................................................... 2
1.5 Information Sheet................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Self-Assessment ................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS ....................................................... 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................ 5
2.3 Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................ 5
2.3.1 List of learning outcomes ............................................................................... 5
2.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Algebra ....................................................... 6
2.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions . 12
2.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Complex Numbers ................................... 16
2.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Apply Coordinate Geometry ............................... 21
2.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion ........................... 29
2.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Apply Calculus .................................................... 32
2.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations ............... 41
2.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Carry Out Mensuration ....................................... 45
2.3.10 Learning Outcome No 9: Apply Power Series ........................................... 56
2.3.11 Learning Outcome No 10: Apply Statistics ............................................... 60
2.3.12 Learning Outcome No 11: Apply numerical methods ............................... 74
2.3.13 Learning Outcome No12: Apply Vector Theory ....................................... 77
2.3.14 Learning Outcome No 13: Apply Matrix ................................................... 83

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CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL DRAWING .................................................................... 93
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 93
3.2 Performance Standard .......................................................................................... 93
3.3 Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................. 93
3.3.1 List of learning outcomes ............................................................................. 93
3.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and Materials
............................................................................................................... 94
3.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Produce Plane Geometry Drawings .................. 108
3.3.4 Learning outcome No 3: Produce Solid Geometry .................................... 118
3.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings of
Components ......................................................................................... 125
3.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings ................... 136
CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ..................................... 151
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 151
4.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 151
4.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 151
4.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 151
4.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyze Structural Elements ............................. 152
4.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements ................................ 158
4.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare Structural Drawings ............................. 164
4.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Interpret structural drawings ............................. 168
4.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings .................. 172
CHAPTER 5: CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SCIENCE ..................................... 179
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 179
5.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 179
5.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 179
5.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 179
5.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials .... 180
5.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials188
5.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Manufacturing Construction materials .............. 194
5.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials ......... 201
5.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately .... 207
5.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Testing Construction Materials ......................... 216

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 5.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Handling Construction Materials Safely ........... 222
CHAPTER 6: WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRACTICES ................................. 229
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 229
6.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 229
6.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 229
6.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 229
6.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Masonry Tasks .................................... 230
6.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Plumbing Tasks ................................... 238
6.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Perform Carpentry Tasks .................................. 245
6.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Electrical Operations ........................... 254
6.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Perform Mechanical Operations ....................... 265
CHAPTER 7: MEASUREMENT OF WORKS AND COST ESTIMATION ........ 273
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 273
7 .2 Performance Standard ....................................................................................... 273
7.3.1 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................... 273
7.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Tender Documents ............................... 274
7.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Take Off Building Quantities ............................ 281
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Work Up Dimensions........................................ 288
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 4: Abstract Take Off Data ..................................... 295
CHAPTER 8: WATER AND WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGY .......................... 303
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 303
8.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 303
8.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 303
8.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 303
8.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles ............... 304
8.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment............................................................................................. 315
8.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Basic Irrigation and Drainage Principles323
CHAPTER 9: WATER RESOURCES, WATER SERVICES AND SANITATION
MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES ................................................................................. 330
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 330
9.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 330
9.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 330

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 9.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 330
9.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Determine Hydrological Processes ................... 331
9.3.3Learning Outcome No 2: Quantify Surface Water ..................................... 338
9.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Map Rocks and Aquifers................................... 344
9.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Establish Well Sites .......................................... 350
9.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Conserve the Environment ................................ 355
9.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Develop Water Harvesting Structures Situations362
CHAPTER 10: MATERIAL TESTING ..................................................................... 367
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 367
10.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 367
10.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 367
10.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 367
10.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare for Material Testing ........................... 368
10.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Sample Road Construction Materials ............. 376
10.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Undertake Tests on the Alignment Soils......... 385
10.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Concrete Tests ................................... 391
10.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Structural Steel Tests ...................... 398
10.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Bitumen Tests ................................... 405
10.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Timber Tests ..................................... 411
CHAPTER 11: HIGHWAY SURVEY ....................................................................... 417
11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 417
11.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 417
11.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 417
11.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 417
11.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Undertake Preliminary Site Survey ................. 418
11.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Levelling Activities ........................... 426
11.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Conduct Tacheometry Works ......................... 438
11.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Draft Road Cross-Sections .............................. 444
11.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Setting out Activities ...................... 450
11.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Traversing Works .............................. 458
11.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Traffic Engineering Survey ............... 470
CHAPTER 12: BASIC PAVEMENT STRUCTURES .............................................. 476

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 12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 476
12.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 476
12.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 476
12.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 476
12.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Conduct Site Visit ........................................... 477
12.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design Highway, Drainage and Hydraulic Structures
............................................................................................................. 484
12.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Design Road Geometrics................................. 495
12.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Design Pavement Structure ............................. 505
12.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Design Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths ............... 511
12.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Design Road Furniture .................................... 516
CHAPTER 13: ROAD CONSTRUCTION WORKS ................................................ 523
13.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 523
13.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 523
13.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 523
13.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 523
13.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Carry out Earthwork Activities ....................... 524
13.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Construct Road/Pavement Structure Layers ... 534
13.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Construct Parking Walk Ways and Cyclist Lanes,
Foot Bridges, Bus Bays ....................................................................... 540
13.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Install Road Furniture ..................................... 546
13.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Construct Erosion Prevention Structures ........ 553
13.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Construct Highway Drainage and Hydraulic
Structures ............................................................................................. 561
13.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Undertake Highway Maintenance ................... 569
CHAPTER 14: ENGINEERING STRUCTURES DESIGN .................................... 579
14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 579
14.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 579
14.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 579
14.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 579
14.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Calculate Load Estimates ................................ 580
14.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design Structural Elements ............................. 587
14.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Assess Cost Effectiveness of the Design ........ 595

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 14.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Modify Structural Designs .............................. 601
CHAPTER 15: BUILDING DRAWINGS .................................................................. 606
15.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 606
15.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 606
15.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 606
15.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 606
15.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Interpret Architectural Drawings .................... 607
15.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Structural and Civil Drawings ........... 612
15.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret Electrical Drawings .......................... 623
15.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Design Plumbing Layout ................................ 630
15.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Interpret Mechanical Drawings ....................... 637
CHAPTER 16: BUILDING WORKS ......................................................................... 643
16.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 643
16.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 643
16.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 643
16.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 643
16.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Execute Site Preliminary Works ..................... 644
16.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Execute Building Temporary Works .............. 652
16.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Execute Substructure Works ........................... 658
16.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Execute Superstructure Works ........................ 666
16.3.6 Learning Outcome No.5: Execute Building Finishes .............................. 674
16.3.7 Learning Outcome No. 6: Execute Building External Works .................. 682
CIVIL CHAPTER 17: WATER RESOURCE QUALITY MANAGEMENT ........ 689
17.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 689
17.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 689
17.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 689
17.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 689
17.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Monitor Water Resources Quality .................. 690
17.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Surface Water Quality Management ............... 698
17.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Ground Water Quality Management ............... 704
17.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Manage Wastewater Quality ........................... 708
CHAPTER 18: DESIGN OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................................................... 714

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 18.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 714
18.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 714
18.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 714
18.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 714
18.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Hydraulic Engineering Principles ........ 715
18.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Structural Elements ........................... 720
18.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Design Structural Elements ............................. 725
18.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Collect Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data730
18.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Analyse Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data735
18.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Calculate Wastewater Infrastructure Design
Parameters ........................................................................................... 740
18.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Draw Wastewater Infrastructure Units............ 745
18.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Compile Wastewater Infrastructure Design Report
............................................................................................................. 751
CHAPTER 19: CONSTRUCT WASTEWATER INFRASTRUCTURE................ 765
19.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 765
19.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 765
19.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 765
19.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 765
19.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Soil Properties ................................... 766
19.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Construction Schedule ....................... 773
19.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Organize the Construction Site ....................... 779
19.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Construct the Wastewater Infrastructure ......... 784
CHAPTER 20: DESIGNING ONSITE SANITATION FACILITIES .................... 790
20.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 790
20.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 790
20.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 790
20.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 790
20.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Collect Onsite Sanitation Design Data ............ 791
20.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Onsite Sanitation Design Data .......... 795
20.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Calculate Onsite Sanitation Design Parameters799
20.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Draw Onsite Sanitation Units ......................... 805
20.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Design Shit Flow Diagram .............................. 810

xi
 20.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Compile Onsite Sanitation Design Report ...... 815
CHAPTER 21: CONSTRUCTION OF ONSITE SANITATION FACILITIES .... 820
21.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 820
21.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 820
21.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 820
21.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 820
21.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Construction Schedule ....................... 821
21.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Organize the Construction Site ....................... 826
21.3.4 Learning No 3: Construct the Various Onsite Sanitation Facilities ......... 830
CHAPTER 22: CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT MANAGEMENT ................. 836
22.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 836
22.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 836
22.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 836
22.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 836
22.3.2 Learning No 1: Manage Project Time ...................................................... 837
22.3.3 Learning No 2: Manage Construction Project Quality ............................ 842
22.3.4 Learning No 3: Manage Project Site, Safety, Health and Security .......... 847
22.3.5 Learning No 4: Manage Construction Project Cost ................................. 851
22.3.6 Learning No 5: Manage Project Labour ................................................... 857
22.3.7 Learning No 6: Manage Project Contracts ............................................... 862
22.3.8 Learning No 7: Manage Construction Materials, Plant, Tools and Equipment
............................................................................................................. 867

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Sketched Argand diagram. ................................................................................ 18

Figure 2: Solution on plotting polar equations. ................................................................ 25
Figure 3: Histogram .......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4: Frequency Polygon ............................................................................................ 63
Figure 5: Bar Graph .......................................................................................................... 63
Figure 6: Pie Chart ............................................................................................................ 64
Figure 7: Probability Distribution ..................................................................................... 66
Figure 8: Bell curve .......................................................................................................... 67
Figure 9. Vectors ............................................................................................................... 78
Figure 10. Drafting tables ................................................................................................. 96
Figure 11.Drawing templates. ........................................................................................... 97
Figure 12. Caliper and vernier scale ................................................................................. 97
Figure 13. Drawing compass. ........................................................................................... 97
Figure 14. Loose leg divider ............................................................................................. 98
Figure 15: Pencil grades.................................................................................................. 100
Figure 16: Rulers and squares ......................................................................................... 101
Figure 17: Protractor ....................................................................................................... 101
Figure 18: Protractor and a ruler ..................................................................................... 101
Figure 19: Mini drafter.................................................................................................... 102
Figure 20: T-square ......................................................................................................... 102
Figure 21: Set square ...................................................................................................... 103
Figure 22: French curve .................................................................................................. 103
Figure 23: Eraser ............................................................................................................. 104
Figure 24: Paper holder ................................................................................................... 104
Figure 25: Lines .............................................................................................................. 109
Figure 26: Drawn line ..................................................................................................... 109
Figure 27: Open Compass ............................................................................................... 110
Figure 28: Compass Position .......................................................................................... 110
Figure 29: An arc ............................................................................................................ 110
Figure 30: End point Position ......................................................................................... 111
Figure 31: Arcs above and below line segment .............................................................. 111
Figure 32: Connected arc intersections ........................................................................... 111
Figure 33: Perpendicular line .......................................................................................... 112
Figure 34: Completed Drawing ...................................................................................... 112
Figure 35: Plane Geometry ............................................................................................. 112
Figure 36: Plane Geometry ............................................................................................. 113
Figure 37: Shapes, Cone and Pentagonal pyramid with flat tops ................................... 119
Figure 38: Cone and 4-sided pyramid ............................................................................. 119
Figure 39: Cube and rectangular Box ............................................................................. 119
Figure 40: Tetrahedron and Pyramid .............................................................................. 119
Figure 41: Pyramid with flat top and octahedron ........................................................... 120

xiii
Figure 42: pentagonal Cone and Irregular polyhedron ................................................... 120
Figure 43: Icosahedron and decahedron ......................................................................... 120
Figure 44: Half Sphere .................................................................................................... 120
Figure 45: Plan and elevation of a sphere ....................................................................... 121
Figure 46: Plan and elevation of another sphere ............................................................. 121
Figure 47: Diametric Projection...................................................................................... 126
Figure 48: Isometric Projection ...................................................................................... 127
Figure 49: Naming of views ........................................................................................... 128
Figure 50: First Angle projection .................................................................................... 128
Figure 51: The Third Angle Projection ........................................................................... 129
Figure 52: Assembly drawing ......................................................................................... 130
Figure 53: Assembly drawing without detail Specifications .......................................... 131
Figure 54: Stainless steel plates ...................................................................................... 131
Figure 55: Working of a CAD system ............................................................................ 137
Figure 56: Types of CAD software ................................................................................. 137
Figure 57: Nano CAD ..................................................................................................... 139
Figure 58: 2D user interface ........................................................................................... 140
Figure 59: Setting CAD parameters ................................................................................ 140
Figure 60: 2D CAD illustration ...................................................................................... 141
Figure 61: 3D CAD illustration ...................................................................................... 141
Figure 62: Electrical drawing.......................................................................................... 142
Figure 63: Electrical engineer design ............................................................................. 142
Figure 64: Lights symbol ................................................................................................ 143
Figure 65: Switch symbol ............................................................................................... 143
Figure 66: Fuse symbol ................................................................................................... 143
Figure 67: Ground symbol .............................................................................................. 144
Figure 68: Wires symbol ................................................................................................. 144
Figure 69: Resistor symbols............................................................................................ 145
Figure 70: Capacitor ....................................................................................................... 145
Figure 71: Power sources symbols ................................................................................. 145
Figure 72: CAD mechanical design ................................................................................ 146
Figure 73: Sketch structural members ............................................................................ 154
Figure 74: bending moment ............................................................................................ 155
Figure 75: Flow chart for manufacturing concrete ......................................................... 196
Figure 76: Flowchart for manufacturing brick................................................................ 198
Figure 77: Quality construction materials selection ....................................................... 203
Figure 78: Process of material selection ......................................................................... 204
Figure 79: Dimensional Lumber (GLUELAM) being dried up in a kiln drier. .............. 227
Figure 80: Drill press ...................................................................................................... 247
Figure 81: Mortiser ......................................................................................................... 248
Figure 82: Band saw ....................................................................................................... 249
Figure 83: Multimeter ..................................................................................................... 256
Figure 84: Wire Stripper ................................................................................................. 257
Figure 85: Fish tape ........................................................................................................ 257
xiv
Figure 86: Electric drill ................................................................................................... 258
Figure 87 power saw; source copia.co.ke ....................................................................... 258
Figure 88: AC Graph ...................................................................................................... 259
Figure 89: Transformer. .................................................................................................. 259
Figure 90: DC Graph ...................................................................................................... 260
Figure 91: Basic electric circuit ...................................................................................... 260
Figure 92: Sample Abstract sheet ................................................................................... 296
Figure 93: water pipes ..................................................................................................... 307
Figure 94: Water supply symbols ................................................................................... 311
Figure 95: International Standards Wastewater Symbols ............................................... 320
Figure 96: Irrigation method ........................................................................................... 324
Figure 97: Surface irrigation layout ................................................................................ 325
Figure 98: Evaporation Pan ............................................................................................ 340
Figure 99: Streamflow .................................................................................................... 341
Figure 100: Map rock types and aquifers ....................................................................... 346
Figure 101: Map rock types ............................................................................................ 346
Figure 102: Fanya juu terraces ........................................................................................ 357
Figure 103: Slump test .................................................................................................... 392
Figure 104: Analysis of tensile tests ............................................................................... 401
Figure 105: Compression test ......................................................................................... 412
Figure 106: Examples of shear on timber ....................................................................... 412
Figure 107: A geological sketch based on site observations .......................................... 420
Figure 108: Tacheometry ................................................................................................ 421
Figure 109: Dumpy Level ............................................................................................... 427
Figure 110: Tilting level ................................................................................................. 427
Figure 111: Tilting level ................................................................................................. 427
Figure 112: Automatic Level .......................................................................................... 428
Figure 113 : Pegs used in a site for layout ...................................................................... 428
Figure 114: Sketch to guide in levelling ......................................................................... 430
Figure 115: object glass .................................................................................................. 440
Figure 116: Defining on the ground the centerline ......................................................... 454
Figure 117: Traverse kits ................................................................................................ 459
Figure 118: Compass ...................................................................................................... 459
Figure 119: GPS Survey equipment ............................................................................... 460
Figure 120: Vertical angle .............................................................................................. 462
Figure 121: Readings or directions ................................................................................. 463
Figure 122: Vertical angle measurement ........................................................................ 464
Figure 123: Quadrantal and whole-circle bearing. ......................................................... 464
Figure 124: Types of Traverses ...................................................................................... 466
Figure 125: Closed traverse ............................................................................................ 467
Figure 126: quantity of runoff......................................................................................... 486
Figure 127: Example of a bridge, Nyali Bridge .............................................................. 488
Figure 128: Types of Horizontal Curves ........................................................................ 497
Figure 129: An Example of Crest Vertical Curve .......................................................... 499
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Figure 130: An Example of Sag Vertical Curve ............................................................. 499
Figure 131: pavement thickness...................................................................................... 507
Figure 132: Design elements .......................................................................................... 518
Figure 133: Clearing and Grubbing ................................................................................ 526
Figure 134: Traffic signs ................................................................................................. 547
Figure 135: terrace showing different base sizes ............................................................ 556
Figure 136: Sediment Basin Control Technique ............................................................. 557
Figure 137: Sub-surface drains and gullies ..................................................................... 564
Figure 138: Alligator cracking ........................................................................................ 570
Figure 139: Block cracking ............................................................................................. 571
Figure 140: Bleeding....................................................................................................... 571
Figure 141: Depression ................................................................................................... 571
Figure 142: Edge cracking .............................................................................................. 571
Figure 143: longitudinal and transverse cracking ........................................................... 572
Figure 144: Patching ....................................................................................................... 572
Figure 145: Rutting ......................................................................................................... 572
Figure 146: Shoving ........................................................................................................ 572
Figure 147: Road maintenance activities ........................................................................ 573
Figure 148: Floor plan and corresponding structural layout ........................................... 582
Figure 149: Example of load calculation of a slab ......................................................... 584
Figure 150: Design of a beam singly and doubly reinforced rectangular ....................... 591
Figure 151: Different types of dimensions and diagram ................................................ 608
Figure 152: Designed elements as per dimensions and relevant standards .................... 615
Figure 153: Detailed plan of a two-way spanning flanged beam ................................... 616
Figure 154: Relative positions adjacent to their vertical reinforcements ....................... 617
Figure 155: Reinforcement details of an end-span continuous slab (staircase) with 20mm
nominal cover.................................................................................................................. 618
Figure 156: 2750 × 600 reinforced pad footing .............................................................. 619
Figure 157: A simple Surface installation of one lamp controlled by two, two- way switches
......................................................................................................................................... 625
Figure 158: Circuit diagram ............................................................................................ 626
Figure 159: Simple Surface installation of a ring socket ................................................ 626
Figure 160: Ordinate dimension- axial measurements are displayed as text using a leader
......................................................................................................................................... 631
Figure 161: Calculation of pipe size arithmetically ........................................................ 632
Figure 162: Example of Calculation of pipe size arithmetically .................................... 632
Figure 163: Dimensions .................................................................................................. 639
Figure 164: UNION ........................................................................................................ 640
Figure 165: BENDS ........................................................................................................ 640
Figure 166: Timber vertical polling boards .................................................................... 653
Figure 167: Concrete by letting it dry and carry out curing ........................................... 661
Figure 168: Constructing masonry block wall ................................................................ 668
Figure 169: Pouring of concrete into the formwork ....................................................... 669
Figure 170: Curing Concrete .......................................................................................... 669
xvi
Figure 171: Erect building roof according to standard construction procedures ............ 670
Figure 172: Installation process of ceramic tiles flooring .............................................. 675
Figure 173: Installation process of terrazzo .................................................................... 676
Figure 174: Wood parquet .............................................................................................. 677
Figure 175: How to lay external pavers .......................................................................... 683
Figure 176: Schematic of a drainage system .................................................................. 685
Figure 177: Water quality parameters correlation matrix ............................................... 692
Figure 178: Center of gravity .......................................................................................... 721
Figure 179: Draw wastewater infrastructure units .......................................................... 746
Figure 180: Sewage treatment ........................................................................................ 747
Figure 181: Oxidation ditch ............................................................................................ 747
Figure 182: Circular primary clarifier............................................................................. 748
Figure 183: wastewater treatment process ...................................................................... 748
Figure 184: AASHTO classification ............................................................................... 768
Figure 185: Illustration of an engineering drawing ........................................................ 774
Figure 186: Preparation of the construction site ............................................................. 780
Figure 187: Design parameters for settling tank ............................................................. 800
Figure 188: Pit latrine design .......................................................................................... 802
Figure 189: Soak pit ........................................................................................................ 806
Figure 190 : Onsite sanitation facility drawings ............................................................. 807
Figure 191: SFD Promotion Initiatives Updates ............................................................. 812
Figure 192: Sanitation technologies................................................................................ 817
Figure 193: Project financial report ................................................................................ 854

xvii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The backward difference table of the data .......................................................... 75

Table 2: Classification of pencils ...................................................................................... 99
Table 3: Uses of engineering pencil grades .................................................................... 100
Table 4: How to calculate bending moment for various types of beams ........................ 161
Table 5: Bill of Quantity ................................................................................................. 181
Table 6: Materials needed to complete a project ............................................................ 182
Table 7: Initial cost estimate ........................................................................................... 182
Table 8: Bill of Quantities............................................................................................... 183
Table 9: Plumbing tools .................................................................................................. 239
Table 10: Plumbing machine tools ................................................................................. 240
Table 11: List of Tools .................................................................................................... 247
Table 12: A sample BoQ................................................................................................. 276
Table 13. Abstraction sheet columns .............................................................................. 297
Table 14 : Wastewater colour coding ............................................................................. 320
Table 15: Irrigation Water quality standards .................................................................. 326
Table 16: Hazard consideration ...................................................................................... 335
Table 17: Time frame of eons and eras ........................................................................... 345
Table 18: Minimum Safe Separation Distance in Deep Water Table ............................. 351
Table 19: Minimum Safe Separation Distance in Shallow Water Table ........................ 352
Table 20: Identification of Material Laboratory Personnel ............................................ 371
Table 21: Recording Chart .............................................................................................. 395
Table 22: Concrete Curing Duration............................................................................... 396
Table 23: Data recording table ........................................................................................ 401
Table 24: A Worked Out Tabled Using the Rise and Fall Method ................................ 432
Table 25: A worked-out table using the height of collimation ....................................... 433
Table 26: levelling table.................................................................................................. 435
Table 27: Tabulation ....................................................................................................... 436
Table 28: Procedure for computation of road levels using Rise and fall method ........... 445
Table 29: Procedure for computation of road levels using Height of Collimation method
......................................................................................................................................... 445
Table 30: Computation of reduced levels using Rise and fall method ........................... 446
Table 31: Computation of reduced levels using Height of Collimation method ............ 446
Table 32: Methods used in the calibration of traverse equipment and tools .................. 460
Table 33: Minimum Vertical Curve ‘K’ Values ............................................................. 500
Table 34: Vertical Curve Appearance Criteria. .............................................................. 500
Table 35: The member, description, bar No., spacing, bar shape, No. of bars, cut length,
total length ...................................................................................................................... 620
Table 36: Electrical devices ............................................................................................ 624
Table 37: The biological indicator commonly tested. .................................................... 692
Table 38: Quarterly schedule on Water and Effluent Monitoring .................................. 694
Table 39: Annual Water and Effluent Monitoring schedule ........................................... 694

xviii
Table 40: System Description ......................................................................................... 694
Table 41: Test reports ..................................................................................................... 695
Table 42: Quality of water .............................................................................................. 699
Table 43: Surface Water Recourses ................................................................................ 700
Table 44: Example of a water quality management plan ................................................ 701
Table 45: Quality of groundwater is based on features .................................................. 705
Table 46: Example of a water quality management plan ................................................ 705
Table 47: Sources of wastewater based on characteristics ............................................. 708
Table 48: Wastewater quality assessment report based on monitoring sites .................. 709
Table 49: Wastewater parameter concentrations before and after treatment .................. 710
Table 50: Wastewater quality assessment report based on the monitoring plan ............ 710
Table 51: Properties of fluids .......................................................................................... 716
Table 52: Tools and equipment....................................................................................... 716
Table 53: Data based on various themes......................................................................... 737
Table 54: Tools used during the calculation of Mass load ............................................. 741
Table 55: Drawing tools, equipment, supplies and materials ......................................... 746
Table 56: Waste stabilization ponds stages .................................................................... 753
Table 57: Design process ................................................................................................ 753
Table 58: Illustration of a construction work schedule ................................................... 775
Table 59: payment certificate based on progress report ................................................. 833
Table 60: Project budget according to the scope of the project ...................................... 852
Table 61: Procure, allocate and monitor site resource utilization according to the project
scope ............................................................................................................................... 853
Table 62: Construction materials .................................................................................... 868
Table 63: Construction equipment .................................................................................. 869

xix
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

This learning guide has been developed in line with the functions of TVET CDACC as
stipulated in Article 45 (1a) of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) Act No. 29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 2 of 2015 that embraces
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) system. It is, therefore, the sole intent
of this document to provide guidelines for a Competency-Based Civil engineering
curriculum for level 6.

Civil engineering level 6 qualifications consist of competencies that an individual must

achieve to create visual concepts either using a computer software or by hand,
communicate ideas that inform, captivate or inspire others via digital media, creative
publishing of advertisements, magazines, corporate reports and brochures. This learning
guide consists of interactive learning activities, content, further reading, self-assessment,
relevant and related references that enhance implemention of Civil engineering Level 6
qualification. It enables the trainee to acquire the competencies that enables him/her to
undertake the various processes in Civil engineering. The guide further provides
illustrations, web links, case studies, examples and resources on how to implement all the
learning outcomes/elements described in the Curriculum and Occupational Standards with
a particular focus on the trainee.

1.2 The Purpose of Developing the Learning Guide

Civil engineering Level 6 curriculum development process was initiated using the
DACUM methodology where jobs/occupations were identified. Further, job analysis charts
and occupational standards were generated in collabouration with the industry players
under the guidance of TVET CDACC (Curriculum Development Assessment and
Certification Council). The result of the process was Civil engineering Level 6
Occupational Standard (OS) and Curriculum. The Curriculum was further broken down
into units of learning. To effectively implement Civil engineering Level 6 Occupational
standard and Curriculum, learning guides are required to provide training content, guide
the learners and trainers on the learning process aimed at imparting the relevant knowledge,
requisite skills and the right work behaviour/attitude to the industry. Learning guides are
part of the training materials.

1
1.3 Layout of the learning guide
The learning guide is organized as per chapters. Chapter one presents the background
information and purpose of developing the trainee guide. Each of the units of learning/unit
of competency is presented as a chapter on its own. Each chapter presents the introduction
of the unit of learning/unit of competency, performance standard and list of the learning
outcomes/elements in the occupational standards.

1.4 Learning Activities

For each learning outcome, the learning activities are presented by covering the
performance criteria statements and trainee’s demonstration of knowledge in relation to the
range in the occupational standard and content in the curriculum.

1.5 Information Sheet

The information sheet is a section under each learning outcome that provides the subject
matter in relation to definition of key terms, methods, processes/procedures/guidelines,
content, illustrations (photographs, pictures, video, charts, plans, digital content, and
simulation) and case studies.

1.6 Self-Assessment
Self-assessment is linked to the performance criteria, required knowledge, skills and the
range as stated in the occupational standards. This section further provides questions and
assignments in which trainees demonstrate that they have acquired the required
competences and an opportunity to reflect on what they have acquired. It is expected that
the trainer keeps a record of their plans, their progress and the problems they encountered
which will go in trainee’s portfolio. A portfolio assessment consists of a selection of
evidence that meets the pre-defined requirements of complexity, authenticity and
reliability. The portfolio starts at the beginning of the training and will be the evidence for
the development and acquisition of the competence (summative and formative) by the
trainee. It is important to note that Portfolio assessment is highly emphasized in the learning
guide.

Finally, the guide presents tools, equipment, supplies and materials for each learning
outcome as guided by the performance criteria in the occupational standards and content
in the curriculum. References, relevant links and addendums are provided for further study.
The units of competency comprising this qualification include the following common and
core units of learning:

2
Common units of learning
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title Duration Credit
in Hours Factor
ENG/CU/CET/CC/01/6/A Applied Mathematics 80 8

ENG/CU/CET/CC/02/6/A Technical Drawing 60 6

ENG/CU/CET/CC/03/6/A Structural design and analysis 70 7

ENG/CU/CET/CC/04/6/A Material Science 90 9

ENG/CU/CET/CC/05/6/A Workshop technology practices 130 13

ENG/CU/CET/CC/06/6/A Measurement of works and cost 80 8

estimation
ENG/CU/CET/CC/07/6/A Water and wastewater technology 120 12

ENG/CU/CET/CC/08/6/A Water resources, water services

and sanitation management 120 12
principles
Total 750 75

Core units of learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title Duration Credit
in Hours Factor
ENG/CU/CET/CR/01/6/A Material Testing 150 15
ENG/CU/CET/CR/02/6/A Highway Survey 190 19
ENG/CU/CET/CR/03/6/A Designing pavement structures 120 12
ENG/CU/CET/CR/04/6/A Road construction works 150 15
ENG/CU/CET/CR/05/6/A Design of engineering structures 220 22
ENG/CU/CET/CR/06/6/A Building drawings 200 20
ENG/CU/CET/CR/07/6/A Building works 200 20
ENG/CU/CET/CR/08/6/A Water resource quality
60 6
management
ENG/CU/CET/CR/09/6/A Design of wastewater collection
200 20
and treatment infrastructure
ENG/CU/CET/CR/10/6/A Construction of wastewater
180 18
infrastructure
ENG/CU/CET/CR/11/6/A Designing onsite sanitation
80 8
facilities

3
 ENG/CU/CET/CR/12/6/A Construction of onsite sanitation
80 8
facilities
ENG/CU/CET/CR/13/6/A Civil engineering project
120 12
management
Industrial Attachment 480 48
Total 2430 243
Grand Total 3540 354

The total duration of the course is. 3,540 Hours

Entry Requirements
An individual entering this course should have any of the following minimum
requirements:
a) Civil Engineering craft certificate Level 5

Or
b) Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) C- (C Minus)

Or
c) Equivalent qualifications as determined by Kenya National Qualifications Authority
(KNQA)

Assessment
The course will be assessed at two levels: internally and externally. Internal assessment is
continuous and is conducted by the trainer who is monitored by an accredited internal
verifier while external assessment is conducted by accredited external assessors appointed
by TVET CDACC.

Certification
A candidate will be issued with a National Certificate of competency on demonstration of
competence in a unit of competency. To attain the National Civil engineering Diploma
Level 6, the candidate must demonstrate competence in all the units of competency as given
in qualification pack. These certificates will be issued by TVET CDACC in conjunction
with training provider.

4
 CHAPTER 2: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competencies required by a technician in order to apply a wide range
of mathematical skills in their work; apply ratios, rates and proportions to solve problems;
estimate, carry out measurement; collect, organize and interpret statistical data; use
common formulae and algebraic expressions to solve problems.

2.2 Performance Standard

The trainee will apply algebra, trigonometry and hyperbolic functions, complex numbers,
coordinate geometry, carryout binomial expansion, calculus ordinary differential
equations, Laplace transforms, power series, statistics Fourier series, vector theory, matrix
and numerical methods in solving engineering problems.

2.3 Learning Outcomes

2.3.1 List of learning outcomes
a) Apply algebra
b) Apply trigonometry and hyperbolic functions
c) Apply complex numbers
d) Apply coordinate geometry
e) Carry out binomial expansion
f) Apply calculus
g) Solve ordinary differential equations
h) Carry out mensuration
i) Apply power series
j) Apply statistics
k) Apply numerical methods
l) Apply vector theory
m) Apply matrix

5
2.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Algebra
2.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Algebra

Learning Activities Special

Instructions

1.1 Perform calculations involving Indices • Group

1.2 Perform calculations involving Logarithms assignments
1.3 Use scientific calculator to solve mathematical problems
1.4 Perform simultaneous equations
1.5 Calculate quadratic equations

2.3.2.2 Information Sheet No2/LO 1: Apply Algebra

Introduction
This learning outcome covers algebra and the learner should be able to: perform
calculations involving Indices as per the concept; perform calculations involving
Logarithms as per the concept; use scientific calculator is used mathematical problems in
line with manufacturer’s manual; perform simultaneous equations as per the rules. Algebra
is used throughout engineering, but it is most commonly used in mechanical, electrical,
and civil branches due to the variety of obstacles they face. Engineers need to find
dimensions, slopes, and ways to efficiently create any structure or object.

Definition of key terms

Algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these
symbols; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from
elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Calculations involving Indices are performed as per the concept
Indices
An index number is a number which is raised to a power. The power, also known as the
index, tells you how many times you have to multiply the number by itself. For example,
25 means that you have to multiply 2 by itself five times = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32

6
Laws of indices
(i) x0 = 1
1
(ii) x −n = xn
(iii) x n . x m = x n+m
(iv) x n − x m = x n−m
(v) (x n )m = x m.n
n
m
(vi) x m = √x n

Application of rules of indices in solving algebraic problems

a) y a x y b = y a+b

Examples:
24 x 28 = 212
54 x 5−2 = 52

b) y a ÷ y b = a − b

Examples
54 ÷ 58 = 5−4
74 ÷ 7−2 = 76

c) ym/n = (n√y)m

Examples
161/2 = √16 = 4
82/3 = (3√8)2 = 4

d) (y n )m = y nm

Example
25 + 84
= 25 + (23)4
= 25 + 212

e) y0 = 1

Example
50 = 1

7
1.2 Calculations involving Logarithms are performed as per the concept
If a is a positive real number other than 1, then the logarithm of x with base a is defined
By:
y = log a x or x = ay

Laws of logarithms
(i) log a (xy) = log a x + log a y
x
(ii) log a (y) = log a x − log a y
(iii) log a (x n ) = nlog a x for every real number

1.3 Scientific calculator is used in solving mathematical problems

Use the scientific calculator manufacturer’s manual on the steps to be followed in doing
so.

1.4 Simultaneous equations are performed as per the rules

Simultaneous equations are equations which have to be solved concurrently to find the
unique values of the unknown quantities which are time for each of the equations. Two
common methods of solving simultaneous equations analytically are:
(i) By substitution
(ii) By elimination

Simultaneous equations with three unknowns

Examples
Solve the following simultaneous equation by substitution methods
3x − 2y+ = 1 … … … . . (i)
x − 3y + 2z = 13 … … . (ii)
4x − 2y + 3z = 17 … … … (iii)

From equation (ii) x = 13 + 3y − 2z

Substituting these expression (13 + 3y − 2z for x gives)

3(13 + 3y − 2z) + 2y + z = 1
39 + 9y − 6z + 2y + x = 1
11y − 5z = −38 … … … … … . . (iv)
4(13 + 3y − 2z) + 3z − 2y = 17
52 + 12y − 8z + 3z − 2y = 17
10y − 5z = −35 … . . (v)

8
Solve equation (iv) and (v) in the usual way,
11y+38
From equations (iv) 5z = 11y + 38; z = 5
Substituting this in equation (v) gives:
11y+38
10y − 5 ( ) = −35
5
10y − 11y − 38 = −35
−y = −35 + 38 = 3
y = −3

11y + 38 −33 + 38 5
z= = = =1
5 5 5

But x = 13 + 3y − 2z
x = 13 + 3(−3) − 2(1)
=13 − 9 − 2
=2
Therefore, x = 2, y = −3 and z = 1 is the required solution
For more worked examples on substitution and elimination method refer to Engineering
Mathematics by A.K Stroud.

1.5 Quadratic equations are calculated as per the concept

Quadratic Equations
Quadratic equation is one in which the highest power of the unknown quantity is 2. For
example, 2x 2 − 3x − 5 = 0 is a quadratic equation.
The general form of a quadratic equation is ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are
constants and a ≠ 0 of solving quadratic equations.

1) By factorization (where possible)

2) By completing the square
3) By using quadratic formula
4) Graphically

Example
Solve the quadratic equation x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0 by factorization method

Solution
x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0
x 2 − 2x − 2x + 4 = 0
x(x − 2) − 2(x − 2) = 0
(x − 2)(x − 2) = 0

9
i.e. x − 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
x = 2 or x = 2
I.e. the solution is x = 2 (twice)
For more worked examples on how to solve quadratic equations using, factorization,
completing the square, quadratic formula refers to basic engineering mathematics by J.O
Bird, Engineering mathematical by K.A strand, etc.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to perform calculations involving Indices as per the concept; perform calculations
involving Logarithms as per the concept; use scientific calculator in mathematical
problems in line with manufacturer’s manual; perform simultaneous equations as per the
rules.

Further Reading

1. Stroud, A.K. (n.d.). Engineering Mathematics

2.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Solve the following by factorization
a) x 2 + 8x + 7 = 0
b) x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0
2. Solve by completing the square the following quadratic equations
a) 2x 2 + 3x − 6
b) 3x 2 − x − 6 = 0
3. Simplify as far as possible
a) log(x 2 + 4x − 3) − log(x + 1)
b) 2log(x − 1) − log(x 2 − 1)
4. Solve the following simultaneous equations by the method of substitution
a) x + 3y − z = 2
b) 2x − 2y + 2z = 2
c) 4x − 3y + 5z = 5

10
5. Simplify the following
1 1
1
F = (22x y 4 )4 ÷ √ x 2 y 6 x (4 √x 2 y 4 )−1/2
9

Oral Assessment
What is your understanding of algebra?

2.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.2.5 References

Khuri, A. I. (2003). Advanced calculus with applications in statistics (No. 04; QA303. 2,
K4 2003.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
Stoer, J., &Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.
Zill, D., Wright, W. S., & Cullen, M. R. (2011). Advanced engineering mathematics. Jones
& Bartlett Learning.

11
2.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions
2.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Perform calculations using trigonometric rules

2.2 Perform calculations using hyperbolic functions

2.3.3.2 Information Sheet No2/LO2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions

Introduction
This learning outcome equips the learner with knowledge and skills to perform calculations
using trigonometric rules and hyperbolic functions.

Definition of key terms

Trigonometry: This is a branch of mathematics which deals with the measurement of sides
and angles of triangles and their relationship with each other. Two common units used for
measuring angles are degrees and radians.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Calculations are performed using trigonometric rules
Trigonometric ratios
The three trigonometric ratios derived from a right-angled triangle are the sine, cosine and
tangent functions. Refer to basic engineering mathematics by J.0 Bird to read move about
trigonometry ratios.

Solution for right angled triangles

To solve a triangle means to find the unknown sides and angles; this is achieved by using
the theorem of Pythagoras and or using trigonometric ratios.

Example
Express 3 Sin θ + 4 Cosθ in the general form R Sin(θ + α)

Let 3 Sin θ + 4 Cos θ = R Sin (θ + α)

Expanding the right-hand side using the compound angle formulae gives
3 Sin θ + 4 Cos θ = R [Sinθ Cosα + Cos θ Sinα ]
= R cosα Sin θ + R Sin α Cos θ

12
Equating the coefficient of:
4
Cosθ: = R Sin α i. e Sin α =
R
3
Sin θ ∶ 3 = R Cos α i. e Cos α = R
These values of R and α can be evaluated.

R = √42 + 32 = 5
4
α = tan−1 = 53.130 or 233.130
3

Since both Sin α and Cos α are positive, r lies in the first quadrant where all are positive,
hence 233.130 is neglected.

Hence
3 Sinθ + 4 Cos θ = 5 Sin (θ + 53.130 )

Example
Solve the equation 3 Sin θ + 4 Cos θ = 2 for values of θ between 00 and 3600 inclusive

Solution
From the example above
3 Sinθ + 4 Cos θ = 5 Sin (θ + 53.130 )

Thus
5 Sin(α + 53.130 ) = 2

2
Sin(θ + 53.130 ) =
5
0 −1
θ + 53.13 = Sin 2/5
θ + 53.130 = 23.580 or 156.420
θ = 23.580 − 53.130 = −29.550
=330.450
OR θ = 156.420 − 53.130
=103.290

Therefore, the roots of the above equation are 103.290 or 330.450

For more worked examples refer to Technician mathematics book 3 by J.) Bird.

13
Double/multiple angles
For double and multiple angles refer to Technician mathematics by J.O Bird

Factor Formulae
For worked exampled refer to Technic mathematics book 3 by J. O Bird, Pure mathematics
by backhouse and Engineering mathematics by KA Stroud.

Half-angle formulae
Refer to pure mathematics by backhouse and Engineering mathematics by K.A STROUD

2.2 Calculations are performed using hyperbolic functions

Hyperbolic functions
Definition of hyperbolic functions, Sinhx cosh x and tanh x
• Evaluation of hyperbolic functions
• |Hyperbolic identifies
• Osborne’s Rule
• Solve hyperbolic equations of the form a coshx + bSinhx = C

For all the above refer, to engineering mathematics by KA strand.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to perform calculations using trigonometric rules and perform calculations using
hyperbolic functions.

Further Reading

1. Stoer, J., &Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.

2.3.3.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. A surveyor measures the angle of elevation of the top of a perpendicular building
as190 . He moves 120m nearer the building and measures the angle of elevation as470 .
Calculate the height of the building to the nearest meter.

14
2. Solve the equation 5 cos θ + 4 Sinθ = 3 for values of θ between 00 and 3600
Inclusive.
3. Prove their identifies
a) Cash 2x = cash2 x + Sinh2 x
b) Sinh(x + y)SinhCoshy + coshySinhx
4. Solve the equation
5. 3 Sinhx + 4 Coshx = 5

2.3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.3.5 References

Khuri, A. I. (2003). Advanced calculus with applications in statistics (No. 04; QA303. 2,
K4 2003.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
O’Neil, P. V. (2011). Advanced engineering mathematics. Cengage learning.
Stoer, J., &Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.

15
2.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Complex Numbers
2.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No3: Apply Complex Numbers
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Represent complex numbers are represented

3.2 Perform operations involving complex numbers are
performed
3.3 Perform calculations involving complex numbers

2.3.4.2 Information Sheet No2/LO3: Apply complex numbers

Introduction
This learning outcome covers an introduction to complex numbers, their representation in
argand diagrams and calculations involving complex numbers using De Moivre’s theorem

Definition of key terms

Argand diagram: A diagram on which complex numbers are represented geometrically
using Cartesian axes; the horizontal coordinate representing the real part of the number and
the vertical coordinate representing the imaginary part of the number, as depicted below

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustration
A number of the form a + ib is called complex number where a and b are real numbers
and i = √−1 we call ′a′ the real part and ‘b’ the imaginary part of the complex a + ib
if a = o then ib is said to be purely imaginary, if b = 0 the number is real.
Pair of complex number a + ib are said to be conjugate of each other.

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers is achieved by adding or subtracting the real
parts and the imaginary parts.
Example 1
(4 + j5) + (3 − j2)
(4 + j5) + (3 − j2)=4 + j5 + 3 − j2
=(4 + 3) + j(5 − 2)
=7 + j3

16
Example 2
(4 + j7) − (2 − js) = 4 + j7 − 2 + js = (4 − 2) + j(7 + 5)
= 2 + j12

Multiplication of complex numbers

Example 1
(3 + j4)(2 + j5)
6 + j8 + j15 + j2 20
6 + j23 − 20 (sincej2 = −1)
=−14 + j23
Examples 2
(5 + j8)(5 − j8)
(5 + j8)(5 − j8) = 25 + j40 − j40 − j2 64
= 25 + 64 =89

A pair of complex numbers are called conjugate complex numbers and the product of two
conjugate. Complex numbers is always entirely real.
cosθ + jsinθ

Argand diagram
Although we cannot evaluate a complex number as a real number, we can represent
diagrammatically in an argand diagram. Refer to Engineering Mathematics by K.A Stroud
to learn more on how to represent complex numbers on an argand diagram. Use the same
back learn three forms of expressing a complex number.

Demoivre’s Theorem
Demoivre’s theorem states that [r(cosθ + jsinθ)]n = r n (cosnθ + jsinnθ)
It is used in finding powers and roots of complex numbers in polar

Example
Find the three cube roots of z = 5(cos2250 + jsin2250 )
1 2250 2250
Z1 = Z (Cos
3 + jsin )
3 3
1.71 (cos750 + jsin750
z1 = 1.71 (cos750 + jSin750 )

17
 3600
Cube roots are the same size (modules) i.e. 1.71 and separated at intervals of , i.e
3
0
120
z1=1.71 / 750
z2=1.71 cos (1950+jSin1950
zs = 1.71 (315+ +j Sin3150 )

1.1 Complex numbers are represented using Argand diagrams

Figure 1: Sketched Argand diagram.

Refer to engineering mathematics by K.A Stroud and learn more on how to find the
expansion of
cosn θAndcosn θ

1.2 Operations involving complex numbers are performed

LOCI problems
We sometimes required finding the locus of a point which moves in the Argand diagram
according to some stated condition.
Examples
z+1
IfZ = x + jy, find the equation of the locus [z−1] = 2
sinθZ = x + jy.
Z+1 r z [(x+1)2 +y2 ]
∴ (z−1) = r1 =(z1)= [(x−1)2)+ y2]
2 2
[(x + 1)2 + y 2 ]
(x − 1)2 + y 2
(x + 1)2 + y 2
∴ +4
(x − 1)2 + y 2
∴ (x + 1)2 + y 2 = 4 ((x − 1)2 + y 2 )
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 4(x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 )
=4x 2 − 8x + 4 + 4y 2
∴ 3x 2 -10x+3+3y 2 = 0

18
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to represent complex numbers using Argand diagrams, perform operations involving
complex numbers and Perform calculations involving complex numbers using De Moivre’s
theorem.

Further Reading

1. Atkinson, K. E. (2008). An introduction to numerical analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

2.3.4.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Find the fifth roots of −3 + j3 in polar form and in exponential form
2−j
2. Determine the three cube roots of giving the results in a modulus/ argument form.
2+j
3. Express the principal root in the form a + jb
Z−2
4. If z = x + jy, where x and y are real, show that the locus (z+2) = 2 is a circle and
5. Determine its center and radius.

Oral Assessment
1. Describe an Argand diagram according to your understanding.
2. What is a complex number?

Practical Assessment
1. Give an example of a complex number. Represent it in an Argand diagram
2. Find the root loci of the complex number above. Use De-Moivre’s theorem

2.3.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

19
2.3.4.5 References

Atkinson, K. E. (2008). An introduction to numerical analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

Stoer, J., & Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.

20
2.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Apply Coordinate Geometry
2.3.5.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Apply Coordinate Geometry
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

4.1 Calculate polar equations

4.2 Draw graphs of given polar equations
4.3 Determine normal and tangents

2.3.5.2 Information Sheet No2/LO4: Apply Coordinate Geometry

Introduction
This learning outcome covers calculation of polar equations using coordinate geometry,
drawing graphs of given polar equations using the Cartesian plane, determining normal and
tangents using coordinate geometry.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
The position of a point in a plane can be represented in two forms
i) Cartesian co-ordinate (x, y)
ii) Polar co-ordinate (r, θ)

The position of a point in the corresponding axis can therefore generate Cartesian and polar
equations which can easily change into required form to fit the required result.

4.1 Polar equations are calculated using coordinate geometry

Example
Convert r 2 = sinθ into Cartesian form.
x y
cosθ = y sinθ = x

Form Pythagoras theorem r 2 = x 2 + y 2

r 2 = sinθ
y
(x 2 + y 2 ) = x
(x 2 + y 2 )x = y
1
(x 2 + y 2 )(x 2 + y 2 )2 = y
3
(x 2 + y 2 )2 = y

21
Example 2
Find the Cartesian equation of
(i) r = a(1 + 2cos) (ii) rcos(θ − α) = p
[The Cosθ suggest the relationX = COSθ, so multiplying through by r}
∴ r 2 = a(r + 2rcosθ)
∴ x 2 + y 2 = a(√(x 2 + y 2 ) + 2x)
∴ x 2 + y 2 + 2x = a√(x 2 + y 2 )

Therefore, the Cartesian equation of r = a(1 + 2cos) is (x 2 + y 2 − 2ax)2 = a2 (x 2 + y 2 )

(ii) rcos(θ − α) = p
cos(θ − α) May be expanded
∴ rcosθcosα + rsinθsinα = p

(iii) Therefore, the Cartesian equation of rcos(θ − α) = p is xcosα + ysinα = p

Example 3
Find the polar equation of the circle whose Cartesian equation is x 2 + y 2 = 4x
x 2 + y 2 = 4x
Put x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ, then
r 2 cos2 θ + r 2 sin2 θ = 4rcosθ
∴ r 2 = 4rcosθ
Therefore, the polar equation of the circle isr 2 = 4rcosθ.

For more information on the conversion of Cartesian equation to polar equation and vice
versa refer to pure mathematics by J.K Backhouse.

4.2 Draw graphs of given polar equations using the Cartesian plane
It is shown using the below sketch

Example:
𝜋 𝜋
Given points (2, 6 ) and (−2, 6 )

22
 Sketch polar equation on the Cartesian plane

Example
Change 𝑥 = 3𝑡 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 5 to rectangular coordinates and then graph
𝑥 = 3𝑡 + 1 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)
𝑦 = 2𝑡 – 5 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

From equation 1
𝑥–1
𝑇 = 3

Substitute to equation 2
We have:
𝑌 = 2((𝑥 − 1) / 3) – 5
Simplifying
3𝑦 – 2𝑥 + 17 = 0

To graph, simply to intercept from

𝑋 𝑦
+𝑏 = 1
𝑎

𝑋 𝑦
17 + 17
−
2 2

23
Example 1 Source (www Analysemath.com)
Graph the polar equation given by 𝑅 = 4 cos t and identify the graph.

Solution
T R
0 4
π/6 3.5
π/4 2.8
π/3 2
π/2 0
2π/3 -2
3π/4 -2.8
5π/6 -3.5
Π 4

24
Figure 2: Solution on plotting polar equations.
Source www.analysemath.com

4.3 Determine normal and tangents using coordinate geometry

A tangent is a line that touches the curve. A normal is the perpendicular line to the tangent
of the curve.

Note:
The tangent to a curve of any point will be parallel to 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 if 𝜃 = 0 i.e. the derivative
at the point will be zero.

25
 𝑑𝑥
i.e. [𝑑𝑦] at (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑑𝑦
The tangent at a point to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will be parallel to 𝑌 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 if = 0 at that
𝑑𝑥
point.

Example 1
Find the point on the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥² − 2𝑥 + 1 at which the slope of the gradient is 4
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 – 2
𝑑𝑥

6𝑥 – 2 = 4
6𝑥 = 6
𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2, required point = (1, 2)

Example 3
Find the slope of tangent and normal to the curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 5 at (1, 1)
Solution:
The equation of the curve is
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 5
Differentiating (1) w.r.t, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 3 (𝑥 + 𝑦. 1) + 2𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥

Substituting𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 in (2) we get

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2 × 1 + 3 × 1 + 3 (𝑑𝑥 + 1) + 2 =0
𝑑𝑥
8
⸫ The slope of the tangent to the curve at (1, 1) is − 5

5
⸫ The slope of normal to the curve at (1, 1) is 8
Point is a set of values that describes its position on a two- or three-dimensional plane.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to calculate polar equations using coordinate geometry, draw graphs of given polar
equations using the Cartesian plane, determine normal and tangents using coordinate
geometry.

26
Further Reading

Kreyszig, E. (1999), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., John Wiley (New York).
O'Neil, P.V. (1995), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 4th ed., PWS-Kent Pub.
(Boston).

2.3.5.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Obtain the polar equation of the following loci
a) x 2 + y 2 = a2
b) x 2 − y 2 = a2
c) y = 0
d) y 2 = 4a(a − x)
e) x 2 + y 2 − 2y = 0
f) xy = c 2
2. Obtain the Cartesian equation of the following loci
a) r = 2
b) a(1+cosθ)
c) r = acosθ
d) r = atanθ
e) r = 2a(1 + sin2θ)
f) 2r 2 sin2θ = c 2
l
g) = 1 + 8cosθ
r
h) r = 4acotθcosecθ

2.3.5.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

27
2.3.5.5 References

Greenberg, M.D. (2000), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2002), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2000), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

28
2.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion
2.3.6.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Determine roots of numbers using binomial theorem

5.2 Determine errors of small changes using binomial theorem

2.3.6.2 Information Sheet No2/LO5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion

Introduction
This learning outcome seeks to equip the learner with knowledge and skills to determine
the roots of numbers using binomial theorem and to determine errors of small changes
using binomial theorem.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Carry out Binomial expansion
Binomial is a formula for raising a binomial expansion to any power without lengthy
multiplication. It states that the general expansion of (a + b)n is given as
n(n−1)an−2 b2 n(n−1)(n−2)an−3 b3
(a + b)n = an b0 + nan−1 n1 + + +…
2! 3!
Where n can be a fraction, a decimal fraction, positive or negative integer.

Example 1
Use binomial theorem to expand (2 + x)3
Solution
n(n−1)an−2 b2 n(n−1)(n−2)an−3 b3
(a + b)n = an b0 + nan−1 n1 + + +…
2! 3!
A = 2, b = x and n = 3
3(3−1)21 x2 3(3−1)(3−2)20 x3
(2 + x)3 = 23 x 0 + 3X22 x1 + + +…
2! 3!
= 8 + 12x + 6x + x 3 2

For more examples on positive power refer to Technician Mathematic Book by J.O Bird.

Binomial theorem for any index

It has been shown that:
n(n−1) 2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + 2!
x +….
The series may be continued indefinitely for any value of n provided −1 < x < 1

29
Example
1
Use the binomial theorem to expand 1−x in ascending power of x as far as the term in x 3 .
Solution
1
Since 1−x may be written(a − x + x)−1, the binomial theorem may be used. Thus
−1(−2) 2 −1(−2)(−3)
(1 − x)−1 = 1 + −1(−x) + x + +….
2! 3!
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ⋯
1−x

Provided −1 < x < 1

5.2 Practical application of binomial theorem
Example1
The radius of a cylinder is reduced by 4% and its height increased by 2%. Determine the
appropriate percentage change in its volume neglecting products of small quantities.
Solution
Volume, V = πr 2 h
Let original values be, radius = r
Height = h
New values radius = (1 − 0.04)r
Height = (1 + 0.02)h
New volume = π(1 − 0.004)2 r 2 (1 + 0.02)h
Using binomial theorem, (1 − 0.04)2 = 1 − 2(0.04) + (0.04)2 = 1 − 0.08
=πr 2 h(1 − 0.08)(1.02) = πr 2 h(0.94)
(0.94−1)100%
Percentage change = = −6%
1
The new volume decreased by 6%

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to determine the roots of numbers using binomial theorem and to determine errors of small
changes using binomial theorem.

Further Reading

1. Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (1994), System Reliability Theory: Models and
Statistical Methods, John Wiley (New York).
2. Kaplan, W. (1984), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).
3. Kreyszig, E. (1999), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., John Wiley (New
York).

30
2.3.6.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Expand as far as the third term and state the limits to which the expansions are valid.
1
a) (1+2x)3

b) √4 + x
2. Show that if higher powers of x are neglected,
1+x x2
√ =1+x+
1−x 2
bl3
3. The second moment of area of a rectangular section through its centroid is given by .
12
Determine the appropriate change in the second moment of area if b is increased by
3.5% and l is reduced by 2.5%.

2.3.6.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.6.5 References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

31
2.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Apply Calculus
2.3.7.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Apply Calculus
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Determine derivatives of functions

6.2 Determine derivatives of hyperbolic functions
6.3 Determine derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
6.4 Determine rate of change and small change
6.5 Perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two
variables
6.6 Determine integrals of algebraic functions
6.7 Determine integrals of trigonometric functions
6.8 Determine integrals of logarithmic functions
6.9 Determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse functions

2.3.7.2 Information Sheet No2/LO6: Apply calculus

Introduction
This learning outcome equips the learner with relevant knowledge, skills and attitude so
that they are able to: determine the derivatives of functions using differentiation; determine
derivatives of hyperbolic functions using differentiation; determine derivatives of inverse
trigonometric functions using differentiation; determine rate of change and small change
using differentiation; perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two
variables using differentiation; determine integrals of algebraic functions using integration;
determine integrals of trigonometric functions using integration; determine integrals of
logarithmic functions using integration; determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse
functions using integration.

Definition of key terms

Calculus: It is a branch of mathematics involving calculations dealing with continuously
varying functions. The subject falls into two parts namely differential calculus
(differentiation) and integral calculus (integration).

Differentiation: The central problem of the differential calculus is the investigation of the
rate of change of a function with respect to changes in the variables on which it depends.

32
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Differentiation from first principles
To differentiate from first principles means to find f ′ (x) using the expression.
f(x+δx)
f ′ (x) = lim { }
δx→0 δx
f(x+8x)−f(x)
δx → 0, { }
δx
f(x) = x 2
f(x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + (δx)2
f(x + δx) − f(x) = x 2 + 2 xδx + (δx)2 − x 2
=2xδx + (δx)2
f(x+δx)−f(x) 2xδx +(δx)2
=
δx δx
=2x + δx
f(x+δx)−f(x)
As δx → 0, → 2x + 0
δx

f(x+δx)−f(x)
∴ f ′ (x) = lim { }= 2x
δx→0 δx
At x = 3, the gradient of the curve i.e f ′ (x) = 2(3) = 6
Hence if f(x) = x 2 , f ′ (x) = 2x. The gradient at x = 3 is 6

6.2 Methods of differentiation

There are several methods used to differentiate different functions which include:
(i) Product Rule
(ii) Quotient Rule
(iii)Chain Rule
(iv) Implicit Rule

Example
dy⁄
Determine dx given that
a) y = x 2 Sinx

Solution
dv du
From product rule: uv(x) = u dx +v dx
u = x 2 and v = Sinx
du dv
=2x = Cosx
dx dx

dy
∴ dx= x 2 (Cosx) + Sinx (2x)
=x 2 Cos x + 2x Sin x

33
 x2 +1
b) y = x−3

Solution. Using Quotient rule:

du dv
u(x) v dx − u dx
=
v(x) v2
u = x 2 +1 v= x−3
du dv
= 2x =1
dx dx
(x−3)(2x)−(x2 +1)(1)
∴dy⁄dx= (x−3)2
2 2
2x − 6x − x − 1
=
(x − 3)2
2
x − 6x − 1
=
(x − 3)2
x 2 − 6x − 1
= 2
x − 6x + 9

For more examples on the cases of application of the other highlighted rates refer to
Engineering Mathematics by K Stroud.

6.3 Applications of differentiation

Differentiation can be used to determine velocity and acceleration of a moving body. It
can also be applied to determine maximum and minimum values.
Example: A rectangular area is formed using a piece of wire 36cm long. Find the length
and breadth of the rectangle if it is to enclose the maximum possible area.

Solution.
Let the dimension a rectangle be x and y
Perimeter of rectangle = 2x + 2y = 36
i.e.x + y = 18……………… (i)
Since it is the maximum area that is required, a formula for the area A must be obtained in
terms of one variable only.
Area = A = xy
From equation (i), y = 18 − x
Hence A = x(18 − x) = 18x − x 2
Now that an expression for the area has been obtained in terms of one variable it can be
differentiated with respect to that variable
dA
= 18 − 2x for maximum or minimum value i.e. x = 9
dx
d2 A
= −2, which is negative giving a maximum value
dx2

34
y = 18 − x = 18 − 9 = 9
Hence the length and breadth of the rectangle for maximum area are both 9 cm i.e. a square
gives the maximum possible area for a given perimeter length When perimeter is 36cm,
maximum area possible is 81cm2 .

6.4 Determine rate of change and small change using differentiation

We can always write the rate of change of one variable in terms of the other when the two
are varying with respect to time. Both the functions will be differentiated with time. We
therefore define 𝑑𝑥⁄𝑑𝑡 for the same function𝑓(𝑥).

The solution of this problem is done using the following algorithm:

i. Sketch the problem
ii. Identify the constants and variables in the equation
iii. Identify independent and dependent variables
iv. Differentiate with respect to time.
v. Evaluate at a given point.

6.5 Perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two variables using
differentiation
A stationary point k is a point 𝑥 is one at which𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0. A point of a function 𝑓(𝑥) K
is said to be maximum point if and only if 𝑓(𝑘) ≥ 𝑓9𝑥) for all the 𝑥 in the 𝑓 domain.
A point 𝑘 of a function 𝑓𝑥 said to be a minimum point if and only if for all
𝑥 in the 𝑓 domain, 𝑓(𝑘) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥).

35
𝐋𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦

The occurrence of local maximum or minimum is determined by the derivations of a

given function.
Example
Find the turning points of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥4 + 16𝑥3 + 24𝑥2 and hence determine their
nature.

Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 + 𝑏
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 + 48𝑥
= 12(𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)
= 12𝑥(𝑥 + 2)2
Solving the equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥(𝑥 + 2)2 = 0
We get 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2
= 𝑥 < −2 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0
−2 < 𝑥 < 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0
𝑥 > 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0
We can deduce that at 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −2, we get stationary point.
Also, at 𝑥 = 0 we have a minimum point and at 𝑥 = −2, is a point of inflexion.

36
6.6 Integrals of algebraic functions are determined using integration
Integration
Process of integration reverses the process of differentiation. In differentiation if f(x) =
x 2 , then f ′ (x) = 2x.
Since integration reverse the process of moving from f(x) to f ′ (x), it follows that the
integral of 2x is x 2 i. e it is the process of moving from f ′ (x) tof(x). Similarly if y = x 3
dy
then = 3x 2 . Reversing this process shows that the integral of 3x 2 is x 3 .
dx

Integration is also the process of summation or adding parts together and an elongated ′s′
shown as ⨜ is used to replace the words ‘integrated of’. Thus ⨜ 2x=x 2 and ⨜ 3x 2 = x 3
Refer to Engineering Mathematics by K.A Strand and learn those on definite and indefinite
integrals.

6.7 Methods of integration and application of integration

The methods available are:
a) By using algebraic substitution
b) Using trigonometric identities and substitutions
c) Using partial fraction
θ
d) Using t = tan 2 substitution
e) Using integration by parts

Refer to Engineering Mathematics by K. A. Strand and learn more about methods of

integration,
Also use the above stated book to learn more on application of integration to find areas,
volumes of revolutions, etc.

6.8 Determine integrals of logarithmic functions using integration

The natural logarithm function is always differentiable throughout is (0, 00) domain and
1
𝑙n(𝑥) = 𝑥 Also, in 𝑥 increase 0, ∞)
The rules of integrating logarithms functions are as follows:

f(x) ∫ 𝒇𝒙(𝒅𝒙)
𝑙𝑛(𝑥) 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
log 𝑥 (𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑘 − 𝑥) ln(10) + 𝑐
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑥(log 𝑎𝑥 − log 𝑎𝑒) + 𝑐

37
EXAMPLE:
Solve ∫ 𝑒 𝑥2 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥2 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
ii. let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2
iii. The new function is now: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥2 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 du
iv. According to laws of integration: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 thus ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑐
v. But 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥3 + 𝑐
The answer is hence: 𝑒 𝑥3 + 𝐶

6.9 Determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse functions using integration

There are six basic hyperbolic which are defined in section 6.2 above. The table below
shows the integrals of hyperbolic function:
Function Integral
sinh 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑥 sinh 𝑥 + 𝑐
tanh 𝑥 𝑙𝑛/𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ/+𝐶
𝑥
csch 𝑥 𝑙𝑛/tanh ( )/+𝐶
2
sech 𝑥 arctan(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥) + 𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥) + 𝑐)
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛/𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 𝐶

The indefinite integral of one-to-one function is expresses as

∫ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 −1 (𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 ; 𝑢 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

A definite integral is expressed as;

𝑏 𝑓−1(𝑏)
∫𝑎 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑏𝑓 −1 (𝑏) − 𝑎𝑓 −1 (𝑎) − ∫𝑓𝑦(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to determine the derivatives of functions using differentiation, determine derivatives of
hyperbolic functions using differentiation, determine derivatives of inverse trigonometric
functions using differentiation, determine the rate of change and small change using
differentiation; perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two
variables using differentiation; determine integrals of algebraic functions using integration;
determine integrals of trigonometric functions using integration; determine integrals of
logarithmic functions using integration; determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse
functions using integration.

38
Further Reading

Read more on methods of integration.

2.3.7.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Find the co-coordinator, of the points on the curve
1/3(5−6x)
y= 3x2 +2
Where the gradient is zero

4 2 1 d2 y d3 y
2. If y = 3x3 − x2 + 3x − √x . Find and
dx dx

3. Find ⨜cos6x Sin 2x dx

4 x3 −x2 −5x
4. Evaluate ∫3 dx
x2 −2x+2

Oral Assessment
1. What do you understand by differentiation and integration as applied in calculus?
2. How are they intertwined?
3. What are some of their practical applications?

2.3.7.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Computers with internet connection

39
2.3.7.5 References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

40
2.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations
2.3.8.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1. Solve first order and second order differential equations

7.2. Solve first order and second order differential equations from given
boundary conditions

2.3.8.2 Information Sheet No2/LO7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations

Introduction
This learning outcome equips the learner with knowledge and skills to solve first order
differential equations using the method of undetermined coefficients and also when given
boundary conditions.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1. Solve first order and second order differential equations using the method of
undetermined coefficients
An equation involves differential co-efficient is called a differential equation.
Examples
dy 1+ x2
(i) =
dx 1−y2

d2 y dy
(ii) + 2 dx – 8y =0
dx2

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest differential coefficient present
in the equation. Differential equations represent dynamic relationships i.e. quantities that
change, and are thus frequently occurring in scientific and engineering problems.

Formation of a differential equation

Differential equations may be formed in practice from a consideration of the physical
problem to which they refer. Mathematically, they can occur when arbitrary constants are
eliminated from a given function.

41
Example
Consider y = Asinx + Bcosx, where A and B are two arbitrary constants. If we
differentiate, we get
dy d2 y
= ACosx − BSinx and dx2 = −ASinx − BCosx = −(ASinx + BCosx)
dx
d2 y
i.e. = −y
dx2
d2 y
∴ −y=0
dx 2
This is a differential equation of the second order.

Types of first order differential equations

a) By separating the variables
b) Homogeneous first order differential equations
c) Linear differential equations
d) Exact differential equations

Application of first order differential equations

Differential equations of the first order have many applications in Engineering and Science.

Example
dθ
The rate at which a body cools is given by the equations = −kθ where θ the temperature
dt
of the body above the surroundings is and k is a constant. Solve the equation for θ given
that t = 0 ,
θ = θ0
Solution
dθ
= −kθ
dt
−1
Rearranging gives: dt = kθ
−1 dθ
Integrating both sides gives: ∫ dt = ∫
k θ
−1
i.e.t = lnθ + c………………….. (i)
k
Substituting the boundary conditions t = 0 , θ = θ0 to find c gives
−1
0= lnθ0 + c
k
1
i.e. c = k lnθ0
−1
Substituting c = lnθ0 in equation (i) gives
k
−1 1
t= lnθ + k lnθ0
k
1 1 θ
t = k (lnθ0 + lnθ) = k ln ( θ0)

42
 θ
kt = ln ( θ0)
θ0
ekt = θ
−kt θ
e =θ
0

Hence, θ = θ0 e−kt

7.2 First order and second order differential equations are solved using the method
of undetermined coefficients
Formation of the second order differential equation
For formation of second order differential equations refer to Engineering Mathematics by
K.A Strand, Technician 4 and 5 by J.O Bird.

Application of second order differential equations

Many applications in engineering give rise to the second order differential equations of the
d2 y dy
form a dx2 + b dx + cy = f(x)

Where a, b, c are constant coefficients and f(x) is a given function of x.

Examples include:
(1) Bending of beams
(2) Vertical oscillations and displacements
(3) Damped forced vibrations

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to solve first order differential equations using the method of undetermined coefficients;
and also when given boundary conditions.

2.3.8.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Solve the following equations:
dy
a) x(y − 3) 4y
dx
dy
b) (xy + y 2 ) + (x 2 − xy) dx = 0
dy
c) + ytanx = sinx
dx

43
2. Show that the change, q, on a capacitor in an LCR circuit satisfies the second order
differential equation
d2 q dq 1
L dt2 + b dt + c q = E
3. Show that if 2L = cR2 the general solution of this equation is
−t
1 1
q = ecR (Acos cR t + Bsin cR t) + cE
dq
4. If i = = 0 and q = 0 when t = 0, show that the current in the circuit is
dt
2E −t 1
i= ecR sin cR
R

Oral Assessment
1. Consider the following differential equation
dy
x(y − 3) dx = 4y. Is it of the first order or the second order?
2. Justify your answer above

2.3.8.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.8.5 References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

44
2.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Carry Out Mensuration
2.3.9.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 8:Carry Out Mensuration

Learning Activities Special Instructions

8.1. Obtain perimeter and areas of figures

8.2. Obtain volume and surface area of solids
8.3. Obtain area of irregular figures
8.4. Obtain areas and volumes using Pappus theorem

2.3.2.9.2 Information Sheet No2/LO8: Carry Out Mensuration

Introduction
This learning outcome covers perimeter and areas of figures, volume and surface area of
solids, area of irregular figures and areas and volumes using Pappus theorem.

Definition of key terms

Area: Extent of part of a surface enclosed within a boundary.

Circumference: Distance around a circle.

Dimension: Measurable extent such as length, thickness and width.

Fraction: Number expressed as a quotient of two other numbers.

Mensuration: Act or art of measuring.

Perimeter: Bounding line or curve of a plain area.

Standard: Serves as a measure of reference.

45
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
8.1 Obtain perimeter and areas of figures
Perimeter
The perimeter is the length of the outline of a shape. To find the perimeter of a rectangle
or square you have to add the lengths of all the four sides. x is in this case the length of the
rectangle while y is the width of the rectangle.

The perimeter, P, is:

P=x+x+y+y
P = 2x + 2y
P=2(x+y) x

Find the perimeter of this rectangle

7

P =7+7+4+4
P = 2⋅7+2⋅4
P = 2 ⋅ (7 + 4)
P = 2 ⋅ 11
P = 22in
Area
Area is the measurement of the surface of a shape. To find the area of a rectangle or a
square you need to multiply the length and the width of a rectangle or a square.

X
Area, A, is x times y.
y
A=x⋅y

46
Examples
Find the area of this square.
5
6

A= x⋅y
A= 5⋅6
A = 30in2

There are different units for perimeter and area. Perimeter has the same units as the length
of the sides of rectangle or square whereas the area's unit is squared.

8.2 Obtain volume and surface area of solids

The surface area of a figure is defined as the sum of the areas of the exposed sides of an
object.
The volume of an object is the amount of three-dimensional space an object takes up. It
can be thought of as the number of cubes that are one unit by one unit by one unit that it
takes to fill up an object.

Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid (Box)

SA = 2(lw + lh + wh)
l = length of the base of the solid
w = width of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid
Volume
Volume of a Solid with a Matching Base and Top

V=Ah
A = area of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid

Volume of a Rectangular Solid (specific type of solid with matching base and top)
V=lwh

l = length of the base of the solid

w = width of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid

47
Examples

2.7

4.2 3.8

This figure is a box (officially called a rectangular prism). We are given the lengths of
each of the length, width, and height of the box, thus we only need to plug into the formula.
Based on the way our box is sitting, we can say that the length of the base is 4.2 m; the
width of the base is 3.8 m; and the height of the solid is 2.7 m. Thus we can quickly find
the volume of the box to be

V = lwh = 4.2 ∗ 3.8 ∗ 2.7 = 43.092m3

Although there is a formula that we can use to find the surface area of this box, you should
notice that each of the six faces (outside surfaces) of the box is a rectangle. Thus, the
surface area is the sum of the areas of each of these surfaces, and each of these areas is
fairly straight-forward to calculate. We will use the formula in the problem

A cylinder
A cylinder is an object with straight sides and circular ends of the same size. The volume
of a cylinder can be found in the same way you find the volume of a solid with a matching
base and top. The surface area of a cylinder can be easily found when you realize that you
have to find the area of the circular base and top and add that to the area of the sides. If
you slice the side of the cylinder in a straight line from top to bottom and open it up, you
will see that it makes a rectangle. The base of the rectangle is the circumference of the
circular base, and the height of the rectangle is the height of the cylinder

Volume of a cylinder
V=Ah
A = the area of the base of the cylinder
h = the height of the cylinder

Surface Area of a Cylinder

SA=2(πr2)+2πrh
r = the radius of the circular base of the cylinder
h = the height of the cylinder
π = the number that is approximated by 3.141593

48
Find the area of the cylinder

12 cm

10
cm

SA = 2(πr2) + 2πrh
SA = 2(π. 62) + 2π(6)(10) = 603.18579

8.3 Obtain Area of irregular figures

To find the area of irregular shapes, the first thing to do is to divide the irregular shape into
regular shapes that you can recognize such as triangles, rectangles, circles, squares and so
forth. Then, find the area of these individual shapes and add them up.

4
The figure above has two regular shapes. It has a square and half a circle. Find the area for
each of those two shapes and add the results

Square
Area of square = s2
Area of square = 42
Area of square = 16

Circle
Area of circle = pi × r2
Notice that the radius of the circle is 4/2 = 2
Area of circle = 3.14 × 22=3.14 × 4
Area of circle = 12.56

49
Since you only have half a circle, you have to multiply the result by 1/2
1/2 × 12.56 = 6.28
Area of this shape = 16 + 6.28 = 22.28

Example
Circle
To get the area of the half circle, we need to know the diameter. Notice that the diameter
is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, so use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of
the diameter

c 2 = a2 + b 2
c 2 = 122 + 162
c 2 = 144 + 256
c 2 = 400
c = √400
c = 20

Therefore, the diameter is 20. Since the diameter is 20, the radius is 10

Area of circle = pi × r 2
Area of circle = 3.14 × 102
Area of circle = 3.14 × 100
Area of circle = 314

Since you only have half a circle, you have to multiply the result by 1/2

1/2 × 314 = 157

Area of this shape = 384 + 96 + 157 = 637

8.4 Obtain Areas and volumes using Pappus theorem

Pappus' centroid theorems are results from geometry about the surface area and volume of
solids of revolution. These quantities can be computed using the distance traveled by the
centroids of the curve and region being revolved.

Theorem
Let CC be a curve in the plane. The area of the surface obtained when CC is revolved
around an external axis is equal to the product of the arc length of CC and the distance
traveled by the centroid of CC.

50
Let RR be a region in the plane. The volume of the solid obtained when RR is revolved
around an external axis is equal to the product of the area of RR and the distance traveled
by the centroid of RR.
Consider the cylinder obtained by revolving a rectangle with horizontal side r and vertical
side h around one of its vertical sides (say its left side). The surface area of the cylinder,
not including the top and bottom, can be computed from Pappus' theorem since the surface
is obtained by revolving its right side around its left side. The arc length of its right side
is h and the distance traveled by its centroid is simply 2\pi r, 2πr, so its area is 2 \pi r h,
2πrh.

The volume of the cylinder is the area rh of the rectangle multiplied by the distance traveled
by its centroid. The centroid of the rectangle is its center, which is a distance of r\2 from
the axis of revolution. So it travels a distance of 2\pi\big (\frac r2\big) = \pi r2π (2r)=πr as
it revolves. The volume of the cylinder is (rh) (\pi r) = \pi r^2 h= (rh)(πr)=πr 2 h.

Example of volume of revolution

Theorem of Pappus
Let R be a region in a plane and let L be a line in the same plane such that L does not
intersect the interior of R. If Ω is the distance between the centroid of R and the line, the
volume of the solid of revolution R about the line is;
V = 2πA

r
തതതത
𝑥, ത
𝑦

𝐗: (𝐌𝐘 =)/𝐌
Using Pappus’ theorem to find the volume of the solid of revolution, the turns formed by
revolution the circle.

51
 L

R
ഥ, 𝑌ത
𝑋

X 2 + (y + 5)2 = 9
About the x-axis.
V = 2π rA
V=2πrA
2(π)5(π(3)
90π

Example 2
Use the theorem of Pappus to find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by
revolving the region bounded by the graph of:
Y=√X, Y = 0 andx = 4 about the line x = 6

b
δ ∫a x[f(x)−g(x)]dx my
b = m = xത
δ ∫a x[f(x)−g(x)]dx

Moment about y−axis

= Mass of Lamina

52
Area of shaded region
b 1
A=∫θ (x 3 ∗ dx
2
[[3] x −3 ] -4
0
2 3
[4]4
3
2 3
[9]4
3

2 3
[8]4
3

2 16
(8) =
3 3

16 64
= n= , my =
3 5
4
1
= ∫ x(x 3 )dx
θ
1
4
my=∫θ x(x 2 )dx
4
3
= ∫ (x 2 ) dx
θ
2 5
[ ∗ ]
5 2

5
2
=5 (4)2

5 5
2 2
=5 42 − 5 (0)2

2
=5 (2)5

64
=5

18 16
v = 2πrA=2π( 5 )( 3 )

567
= π
15

53
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to obtain perimeter and areas of figures, volume and surface area of solids, area of irregular
figures and areas and volumes using Pappus theorem.

Further Reading

1. Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (1994), System Reliability Theory: Models and
Statistical Methods, John Wiley (New York).

2.3.9.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. An equilateral triangle of side length rr in the first quadrant, one of whose sides lies on
the xx-axis, is revolved around the line y= -r. y=−r. The volume of the resulting solid
is c\pi r^3cπr3 for some real number c.c. What is c.c?
2. Consider the single rectangle in R2 that passes through the points A = (1,2), B = (2,1),
C = (4,3), D = (3,4) A rotating around x-axis in R3. The volume of the surface of
revolution obtained can be written as A3 Aπ unit3. Submit A
3. Revolving a right triangle with legs of length r and h around the leg of length h produces
a cone. The surface of the cone (not including the circular base) is obtained by revolving
the hypotenuse around that leg. The centroid of the hypotenuse is just the midpoint,
located halfway up the side of the cone, which travels a distance 2π/2 as it rotates. So,
the surface area is 2πr√R2 + H2
4. Consider the cylinder obtained by revolving a rectangle with horizontal side r and
vertical side h around one of its vertical sides (say its left side). The surface area of the
cylinder, not including the top and bottom, can be computed from Pappus's theorem
since the surface is obtained by revolving its right side around its left side. The arc
length of its right side is h and the distance travelled by its centroid is simply2π, 2πr,
so its area is 2πr h. 2πrh.

2.3.9.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Computers with internet connection
54
2.3.9.5 References

Kaplan, W. (2000), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).

Kreyszig, E. (2004), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., John Wiley (New York).

55
2.3.10 Learning Outcome No 9: Apply Power Series
2.3.10.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 9: Apply Power Series
Learning Activities Special Instructions

9.1 Obtain power series using Taylor’s Theorem

9.2 Obtain power series using McLaurin’s theorem

2.3.10.2 Information Sheet No2/LO9: Apply power series

Introduction
This learning outcome covers; derivation of power series using Taylor’s Theorem and
derivation of power series using McLaurin’s theorem.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
9.1 Obtain power series using Taylor’s Theorem
The power series of McLaurin’s theorem is different functions can be carried out using two
theorems.
(i) Taylor’s Theorem
(ii) Maclaurin’s theorem

Taylor’s series states that;

h2 ′′ h3 ′′′
f(x + h) = f(x) + hf ′ (x) + f (x) + f (x) + …
2! 3!

Examples
Express Sin(x + h) as a series of powers of h and hence evaluates Sin 440 correct to four
decimal places.

Solution
h2 ′′ h3
f(x + h) = f(x) + hf ′ (x) + f (x) + f ′′′ (x) + ⋯
2! 3!
f(x) = Sinx
f′(x) = cos x
f′′(x) = −sinx
f ′′′ (x) =-cosx
f iv (x) = sin x

56
 h2 h3
∴ Sin(x + h) = sin x + hcos x − sin x - cos x ….
2 6

Sin440 = sin(450 − 10 )
=Sin(π⁄4) − 0.01745
π 0.017452 0.0174s3
=sin π⁄4 + 0.01745 cos 4 - sin π⁄4 − cos π⁄4
2 6

But sin45 = cos 45 = 0.707

= 0.707 (1 − 0.01745 − 0.0001523 + 0.0000009)
= 0.707(0.982395)
= 0.69466
0.6947(4dp)
For the use McLaurin’s theorem refer to Engineering Mathematics by Strand.

9.2 Obtain power series using McLaurin’s theorem

McLaurin’s series is a special type of Taylor series where b is centred around where the
variable x or y is zero. That is; from the Taylor series.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏) + (𝑓^′ (𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑏))/1! + (𝑓′′ (𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑏)2 /2! + ⋯ We obtain the following
McLaurin’s series:
𝑓 ′′ (0)(𝑥)2
f(x)= f(0)+ 𝑓 1 (0)(𝑥) + +⋯
2!

How to find the McLaurin’s series.

i. Get the derivatives of the given function until you notice a particular pattern
For example
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑝′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑝′′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑝′′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑝′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Note that 𝑝′ (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑣 (𝑥)
𝑝′′ (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑣𝑖 (𝑥)
𝑝′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑣𝑖𝑖 (𝑥) and so on
ii. Replace the variable in the first step with 0 as the input to get the McLaurin’s series
values.
That is;
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(0) + 𝑝′ (0)𝑥1 + 𝑝′′ (0) 2! + 𝑝′′′ (0) 3! + ⋯

57
 𝑥3 𝑥5
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 0+ x+0 – +0+ +⋯
3! 5!
iii. Write what your get in step (ii) in sigma notation.
This is will enable one to obtain the final power series.
That is;
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
𝑥− + − −
3! 5! 7!
𝑥 2𝑛+1
=∑∞
𝑛=0 (2𝑛+1)! (−1)
𝑛

Example.
Obtain the McLaurin’s series for 𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓(𝑦)=5𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓 ′ (y)=5𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓 ′ ′(y)=25𝑒 5𝑦. =52 𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓 ′′ ′(y)=125𝑒 5𝑦. =53 𝑒 5𝑦.

𝑓(𝑦)=𝑒 5(0).=1
𝑓 ′ (y)=5𝑒 5(0) = 5
𝑓 ′ ′(y)=25𝑒 5(0) = 52

𝑓 ′′ ′(y)=125𝑒 5(0) = 125 = 53

5(𝑦−0) 52 (𝑦−0)2 53 (𝑦−0)3

𝑒 5𝑦 = 1 + + +
1! 2! 3!
𝑦 𝑛
= ∑∞
𝑛=0 5𝑛 𝑛!
Some common examples of the McLaurin’s series include:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯
=∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑥
𝑛
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2 + 3 + 4 +⋯
2𝑥 6𝑥 24𝑥
1
=∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! 𝑥
𝑛

Conditions for McLaurin’s series.

• The derivative of the given function, say q(x) must exist for all n i.e
𝑞 𝑛 (𝑥)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 for all 𝑛 = 1,2 … . . 𝑛
• 𝑓 𝑛 (0)must be defined for all n = 1,2 … . . , n
• The series obtained should converge to the given function say q(x).

58
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to derive power series using Taylor’s Theorem and power series using McLaurin’s
theorem.

Further Reading

1. Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
2. Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
(New York).
3. Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

2.3.10.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Use McLaurin’s theorem to expand ln(3x + 1). Hence use the expansion to evaluate
1 ln(3x+1)
∫0 dx to four decimal places.
x2
π
2. Use Taylor’s series to expand cos ( 3 + h) in terms of h as far as h3 . Hence evaluate
cos680 correct to four decimal places.

2.3.10.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.10.5 References

Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (2005), System Reliability Theory: Models and Statistical
Methods, John Wiley (New York).
Kaplan, W. (2003), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).
59
2.3.11 Learning Outcome No 10: Apply Statistics
2.3.11.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 10: Apply Statistics
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Perform identification, collection and organization of data. • Illustrations

1.2 Perform interpretation, analysis and presentation of data in • Oral questioning
appropriate format. • Written tests
1.3 Obtain mean, median, mode and standard deviation from • Assignments
given data • Supervised
1.4 Perform calculations based on laws of probability exercise
1.5 Perform calculation involving probability distributions,
mathematical expectation sampling distributions
1.6 Apply sampling distribution methods in data analysis
1.7 Perform calculations involving use of standard normal
table, sampling distribution, t-distribution and estimation
1.8 Determine confidence intervals
1.9 Perform testing hypothesis using large samples and small
samples
1.10 Do calculations involving correlation and regression
1.11 Do calculations involving rank correlation coefficient and
equations of regression line

2.3.11.2 Information Sheet No2/LO10: Apply Statistics

Introduction
This learning outcome covers classification of data, grouped data, ungrouped data, data
collection, tabulation of data, class intervals, class boundaries, frequency tables,
diagrammatic and graphical presentation of data e.g. histograms, frequency polygons, bar
charts and pie charts. It also covers cumulative frequency curves, measures of central
tendency mean, mode and median, measures of dispersion, variance and standard
deviation, definition of probability, laws of probability, expectation variance and S.D,
types of distributions, mean, variance and SD of probability distributions, application of
probability distributions, standard normal tables and sampling distributions and rank
correlation coefficient.

60
Definition of key terms
Mode: This is the number which is the most repeated in a series.

Standard deviation: This is the amount of variation of a set of numbers. It is the square
root variance.

𝜕 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑥1 − 𝐸𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Variance: This is the mean of the aquared differencesof the number from the mean.

Where N – size of the number

𝜇 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑥𝑖 − 𝐸𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1. Identification, Collection and Organization of data is performed
Data identification is described as the records that links the value to give more sensible
information or database such as age. Data collection on the other hand is the process of
acquiring information of the targeted variables in the system such as the ages of children
in class while data organisation refers to way of classifying where there are two main type
which grouped data and individual data.

1.2. Interpretation, analysis and presentation of Data in appropriate format is

performed
Data interpretation
This means analysing of data to infer information which enables proper answering of the
relevant question.

61
Data analysis
This means the process of cleaning and transforming the inspected data to model data with
an objective to achieve.
Data presentation
This means the arrangement of data into graphs, tables and charts. The data can be
classified as either grouped or ungrouped data.
Ungrouped data: It is the data (first data) gathered from a study or experiment.

Digrammatic and graphical presentation of Data

Histagram: IIt is an adequate representation of data and how it is distributed.
It is represented with a table which helps in showing the probability.

Figure 3: Histogram

Frequency polygon- This is a graph constructed by straight line passing on the midpoint
of the class.
For example:

62
Figure 4: Frequency Polygon

Bar chart: It is a graph or chart that uses rectangles and their differences in heights or
length to present data.

Chart Title

Category 4

Category 3

Category 2

Category 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Series 3 Series 2 Series 1

Figure 5: Bar Graph

63
Pie chart: This is a type of chart which represents data on a circle or pie where the pie is
the total number.

Sales

1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

Figure 6: Pie Chart

Cumulative frequency curves: This is a curve which shows the cumulative frequency
distribution of data mainly grouped data.
Data tabulation
Class intervals; this is the size of the individual group of data.
Class boundaries; these are the upper limit or the lower limit of grouped data.
Frequency table; it is a representation of frequency of various outcomes in a sample.

1.3. Median mode and Standard deviation are obtained from given data
Mean: It is also known as average therefore it is addition of the number divided by the
number of the numbers.
∑ 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Median: This is the number in the middle after being arranged from the lowest to the
highest number; if they are two, find the mean.
Mode: This is the number which is the most repeated in a series.
Variance: This is the mean of the squared differences of the number from the mean.
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∑(𝑥1− µ)2 /𝑛

Standard deviation: This is the amount of variation of a set of numbers known as square-
root variance.

64
1.4. Calculations are performed based on Laws of probability
Definition of probability; is a description of how likely an event or occasion to occur or
how likely to happen or true.

Laws of probability
The Law of large numbers is the principle that the more trials you have in an experiment,
the higher you get to the accurate value in probability. E.g a set of cards, probability to get
black cards in two take is 1/52𝑥2 = 1/26
𝑃(𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
Addition rule
Based on the next turn 𝑃(𝐴𝑢𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴𝑛𝐵)
Multiplication Rule
It deals with the case in and of probabilities. It means the probability of two independent
events.
𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴𝑛𝐵)

Example 2
A bag contains 3 pink candies and 7 green candles. 2 candies are taken out from the bag
with replacement. Find the probability that both candies are pink.
Solution
Let A= event that 1st candy is pink and B= event that second candy is pink
𝑝(𝐴) = 3/10
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵) = 3/10
Therefore, multiplication law we got
𝑃(𝐴𝑛𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑥 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) 3/10𝑥3/10 = 9/100 = 0.09

1.5. Calculation involving probability distributions, mathematical expectation

sampling distributions are performed

Probability distribution is all the lekely and possible values that a random variable can
take within the range. Also known as the ‘bell curve’

65
Figure 7: Probability Distribution

There are 4 common statistics in sampling distribution; the sample sum, the sample mean,
the sample variance.

Sample sum is the sum of a random variables from the data

𝑋1 + 𝑋2…, 𝑋𝑛
Sample mean is the average of the random variables:
𝑀 = (𝑋1+ 𝑋2…,𝑋𝑛 )/𝑛

𝑆 2 = ([(𝑋1 − 𝑀)2 + (𝑋2 − 𝑀)2 … , ((𝑋𝑛 − 𝑀)2 ])/(𝑛 − 1)

Note square root estimates the standard deviation of a population.
Therefore the bell curve is from the standard deviation to the mean.

Example
Draw and show the bell curve if the mean is 30 and the standard deviation is 26.
The curve for the example is shown in the next page.

66
Figure 8: Bell curve

1.6 Sampling Distribution methods are applied in Data Analysis

There are three main types;
• Normal distribution; commonly used in investing, finance, science and
engineering. It fully based on its mean and standard deviation.
• Binomial distribution: It is discrete, as opposed to continuous, since 1 or 0 / yes
or no is a valid response.
• Chi-squared distribution
• Poisson distribution

NOTE: The first and second types are the most common used during data analysis in
Kenya.

1.7 Calculations involving use of standard normal table, sampling Distribution, T-

distribution and Estimation are done

Standard normal table (known Z table)

𝑥−µ
𝑍=
𝛼
𝑋 = 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
µ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝛼 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
A Z found on the both table should be used on the table provided to known the percentile
and therefore compare.
Note if it is a negative then a table for negative values is used.

67
Sampling distribution
It is also known as probability distribution and the standard deviation of this topic is known
as standard error.
Samplig distribution mean is equal to the mean of the population.
µ𝑥 =µ
Therefore standard error is:

SE Standard error
𝜕 =Standard deviation
𝜇=Size of population
n= size of sample

If 𝑓𝑝𝑐 = 1 from factor√𝑁 − 𝑛)/𝑁 − 1), therefore standard arror formula can be
approximated by
√(x = 𝛼)/√𝑛
Distribution
It is a type of distribution similar with the normal distribution curve but with a bit shorter
and fatter tail. Therefore distribution is used because small size is small.
𝑥−µ
𝑡= 𝑠
( )
√𝑛
Where,
xത is the sample mean
µ is the population mean
s is the standard deviation
n is the size of the sample given

Estimation
This is the process of identifying a value by approximating due to a certain purpose. It can
be done by rounding off to the nearest whole number.

68
1.8 Confidence intervals are determined
It is a type of estimate computed from the statistics of the observed data It is a range of
value where a true value lies on.
Calculation
1) Find mean 𝑥̅ and standard deviation s
2) Find 2 m table to find the percentile
Z=𝑥തതതതതതതതതത
− µ/𝛼
3) Using z un the formula for the confidence interval.
𝑠
തതതതത
𝑥 ±𝑧( )
𝑛

1.9 Testing hypothesis using large samples and small samples are performed
It is an act whereby an analyst test an assumption regarding a population parameter.
They are two types
a) Null hypothesis is equal to zero
b) Alternative hypothesis is not equal to zero

Steps of hypothesis testing

a) Analyse the state the 2 hypothesis so that only can be right.
b) Formulating an analysis plan, outline how the data will be evaluated.
c) Carry out the plan and physically Analyse the data.
d) Analyse the result either reject or accept if it is null hypothesis.

1.10 Calculations involving Correlation and regression are done

They are related because both deal with relationships among variable.
Where correlation is a measure of linear association between 2 variables while regression
involves identifying the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variable.
Calculation of correlation
തതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതത
തതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതത
𝑟 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)(𝑦 − 𝑦/√{∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 )𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 𝑦)2 )

69
1.11 Calculations involving rank correlation coefficient and equations of regression
line are done
Rank correlation coefficient: It is a tool to discover the strength of link between sets of
data.
Method
a) Create a table
b) Rank the two data sets
c) Tied scores are given the mean rank
d) Square the differences

Linear regression
Formula
𝑌 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑌 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑋 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑏 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑎 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered classification of data, grouped data, ungrouped data,
data collection, tabulation of data, class intervals, class boundaries, frequency tables,
diagrammatic and graphical presentation of data e.g. histograms, frequency polygons, bar
charts and pie charts. It also covered cumulative frequency curves, measures of central
tendency mean, mode and median, measures of dispersion, variance and standard
deviation, definition of probability, laws of probability, expectation variance and S.D,
types of distributions, mean, variance and SD of probability distributions, application of
probability distributions, standard normal tables and sampling distributions and rank
correlation coefficient.

Further Reading

Read more on:

1. Correlation from the book Cox. D, Principles of applied statistics, (2011).
2. Confidence interval from the internet.

70
2.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is NOT a way of presenting data?
a) Figures
b) Chart
c) Graph
d) Table
2. Suppose the covariance between Y and X is 12, the variance of Y is 25, and the variance
of X is 36. The correlation coefficient, r, between Y and X is closest to:
a) r = 0.000
b) r = 0.013
c) r = 0.160
d) r = 0.400
3. The following represents age distribution of students in an elementary class. Find the
mode of the values: 7, 9, 10, 13, 11, 7, 9, 19, 12, 11, 9, 7, 9, 10, 11.

a) 7
b) 9
c) 10
d) 11
4. Find the mean of 8, 5, 7, 10, 15, and 21
a) 15
b) 6
c) 11
d) 4
5.The standard deviation of a sample of 100 observations equals 64. The variance of the
sample equals
a) 8
b) 10
c) 6400
d) 4096
6. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion
a) Range
b) The 5th percentile
c) The standard deviation
d) The interquartile range

71
7. In a certain game, players toss a coin and roll a dice. A player wins if the coin comes up
heads, or the dice with a number greater than 4. In 20 games, how many times will a
player win?

a) 13
b) 8
c) 11
d) 15
8. Justify the use of binomial distribution in Modern mathematics?
9. Classify the laws of probability?
10. A box contains 30 red, green and blue balls. The probability of drawing a red ball is
twice the other colours due to its size. The number of green balls are 3 more than twice
the number of blue balls, and blue are 5 less than the twice the red. What is the
probability that 1st two balls drawn from the box randomly will be red?
11. There are 3 blue, 1 white and 4 red identical balls inside a bag. If it is aimed to take two
balls out of the bag consecutively, what is the probability to have 1 blue and 1 white
ball?
12. Kamau has two children and we know that she has a daughter. What is the probability
that the other child is a girl as well? Describe the term rank correlation coefficient?

Oral Assessment
1. The average age of 6 persons living in a house is 23.5 years. Three of them are majors
and their average age is 42 years. The difference in ages of the three minor children is
same. What is the mean of the ages of minor children?
2. The arithmetic mean of a set of 10 numbers is 20. If each number is first multiplied by
2 and then increased by 5, then what is the mean of new numbers?

Practical Assessment
In a group analyses the data and form a table of the type of cars passed in the nearest road
according to type.

2.3.11.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Computers with an internet connection

72
2.3.11.5 References

Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (2010). Statistical methods for assessing agreement between
two methods of clinical measurement. International Journal of Nursing Studies,
47(8), 931-936.
McCuen, R. H. (2002). Approach to confidence interval estimation for curve numbers.
Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 7(1), 43-48.
Torabi, H., & Behboodian, J. (2007). Likelihood ratio tests for fuzzy hypotheses testing.
Statistical Papers, 48(3), 509.

73
2.3.12 Learning Outcome No 11: Apply numerical methods
2.3.12.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 11: Apply numerical methods
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1. Obtain roots of polynomials using iterative numerical methods

(Newton Raphson and Gregory Newton)

2.3.12.2 Information Sheet No2/LO11: Apply numerical methods

Introduction
This learning outcome covers Application of numerical methods, roots of polynomials, and
performing interpolation and extrapolation using numerical methods.

Definition of key terms

Numerical methods: Are algorithms used for computing numeric data.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Obtain roots of polynomials using iterative numerical methods (Newton Raphson
and Gregory Newton)
Numerical method is a complete and definite set of procedures for the solution of a
problem, together with computable error estimates. The study and implementation of such
methods is the province of numerical analysis.

Types of numerical methods

a) Bisection method
b) Newton Raphson method (Newton’s Iteration method)
c) Iteration method
d) Newton’s forward interpolation formula
e) Newton’s backward interpolation formula
f) Gauss Seided method
g) Curve fitting

Applications
• Used in computer science for root algorithm
• Used to determine profit and loss in the company
• Solving practical technical problems using scientific and mathematical tools

74
• Used for multidimensional root finding
• Network simulation
• Train and traffic signal
• Weather prediction
• Build up an algorithm

Worked example
Construct a difference table to find polynomial of the data
(1,1), (2,8), (3,27), (4,64), (6,216), (7,343),8,512).
Considering appropriate method find r, where (9,r) given.

Solution
We may construct anyone of forward backward and central difference tables. Since we
also have to; Find r for x=9, which is nearer at the end of the set of given tabular values,
so we will construct the backward difference table.

Table 1. The backward difference table of the data

X Y ∇ഥ ∇−2 ∇3 ∇4
1 1 7 12 6 0
2 8 19 18 6 0
3 27 37 24 6 0
4 64 61 30 6 0
5 125 91 36 6
6 216 127 42
7 343 167
8 512

This the required difference table:

Here:
Xn = 8, h = 1, Yn = 512
∇−2 Yn = 42, ∇3 Yn = 6, ∇4 Yn = 0
x − xn x − 8
Therefore ; P = = = (x − 8)
n 1
By newtons backward formular;
(p+1)∇yn p(p+1)(p+2)∇1yn p(p+1)(p+n−1)∇n
yn
Y(X) = Yn + p∇yn + p + -------+
2 3! n!
(x − 8) + (x − 8)(x − 8 + 1) ∗ 42
= 512 = 169
2!

75
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered apply numerical methods, roots of polynomials, and
perform interpolation and extrapolation using numerical methods.

Further Reading

2.3.12.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.12.5 References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2003), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2002), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

76
2.3.13 Learning Outcome No12: Apply Vector Theory
2.3.13.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 12: Apply Vector Theory
Learning Activities Special Instructions

12.1 Obtain vectors and scalar quantities in two and three dimensions Encourage students
12.2 Perform Operations (addition and subtraction) on vectors to practice
12.3 Obtain position of vectors
12.4 Work out resolution of vectors

2.3.13.2 Information Sheet No2/LO12: Apply Vector Theory

Introduction
This learning outcome covers vectors and scalar quantities in two and three dimensions,
operations on vectors, and position and resolution of vectors.

Definition of key terms

Vectors: A quantity having direction as well as magnitude, especially as determining the
position of one point in space relative to another. A vector has both magnitude and
direction, and both these properties must be given in order to specify it. A quantity with
magnitude but no direction is called a scalar.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
12.1 Apply Vector theory
Physical quantities can be divided into two main groups, scalar quantities and vector
quantities. A Scalar quantity is one that is defined completely by a single number with
appropriate units e.g. Lengths, area, volume, mass, time etc. A Vector quantity is defined
completely when we know not only its magnitude but also the direction in which it
operates, e.g. force, velocity, acceleration, etc.

Vector quantities are extremely useful in physics. The important characteristic of a vector
quantity is that it has both a magnitude (and size) and a direction. Both of these properties
must be given in order to specify a vector completely. An example of a vector quantity is
a displacement. This tell us how far away we are from a fixed point, and it also tells us our
direction relative to that point.

77
Another example of a vector quantity is velocity. This is speed, in a particular direction.
An example of velocity might be 60 mph due north. A quantity with magnitude alone, but
no direction, is not a vector. It is called a scalar instead. One example of a scalar is
distance. This tells us how far we are from a fixed point, but does not give us any
information about the direction. Another example of a scalar quantity is the mass of an
object.

12.2 Representing vector quantities

Represent a vector by a line segment
This diagram shows two vectors.

Figure 9. Vectors

The small arrow indicate that the first vector is pointing from A to B. A vector pointing
from B to A would be going in the opposite direction.

Position vectors
Position vectors are referred to as fixed point, an origin. The position vector of a point P
with respect to an origin O. In writing, might put OP for this vector. Alternatively, we could
write it as r. These two expressions refer to the same vector.

Notation for vectors

What does it mean if, for two vectors, a = b? This means first that the length of a equals
the length of b, so that the two vectors have the same magnitude. But it also means that a
and b are in the same direction. How can we write this down more succinctly?
If two vectors are “in the same direction”, then they are parallel. We write this down as
a//b.

78
For length, if we have a vector AB, we can write its length as AB without the bar.
Alternatively, we can write it as |AB|. The two vertical lines give us the modulus, or size
of, the vector. If we have a vector written as a, we can write its length as either |a| with two
vertical lines, or as a in ordinary type (or without the bar). This is why it is very important
to keep to the convention that has been adopted in order to distinguish between a vector
and its length.

The length of a vector AB is written as AB or |AB|, and the length of a vector a is written
as

a (in ordinary type, or without the bar) or as |a|

If two vectors a and b are parallel, we write a//b

12.3 Adding two vectors

In order to add two vectors, we think of them as displacements. We carry out the first
displacement, and then the second. So, the second displacement must start where the first
one finishes.

The sum of the vectors, a + b (or the resultant, as it is sometimes called) is what we get
when we join up the triangle. This is called the triangle law for adding vectors. There is
another way of adding two vectors. Instead of making the second vector start where the
first one finishes, we make them both start at the same place, and complete a parallelogram.
This is called the parallelogram law for adding vectors. It gives the same result as the
triangle law, because one of the properties of a parallelogram is that opposite sides are
equal and in the same direction, so that b is repeated at the top of the parallelogram.

79
Refer to Engineering mathematics by K. A Stroud to learn more on components of 0
Vector in terms of unit Vectors on page 368. Dot and cross product of vectors. The Scalar
product of two vectors is denoted by ā. 𝐛ഥ (sometimes called the ‘dot product’.
The dot product of two vectors is defined as 𝐚. 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛|𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 where θ is the angle
between a and b.

Refer to Technician mathematics 3 by J.O. Bird on page 297.

Examples
Solution
𝐚ത = 𝟐𝐢 + 𝟑𝐣 + 𝟓𝐤 And𝐛̅ = 𝟒𝐢 + 𝐣 + 𝟔𝐤, 𝐚ത. 𝐛̅
aത . bത = 2.4 + 3.1 + 5.6
= 8 + 3+ 30
=41

A typical application of scalar products is that of determining the work done by a force
when moving a body. The amount of work done is the product of the applied force and the
distance moved in the direction of the applied force.
Example
Find the work done by a force F newtons acting at point A on a body, when A is displaced
to point B, the coordinates of A and B being (3, 1, -2) and (4, -1, 0) metres respectively
and when
F = − i − 2j − k Newton’s.

Solution
If a vector displacement from A to B is d, then the work done is F. d Newton Meters or
joules. The position vector OA is 3i + j − 2k and OB is 4i − j

AB = d = OB − OA
= (4i – j) – (3i + j − 2k )
i – 2j + 2k.
Work done = F. d = (−1)/1) + (−2)(−2) + (−1)(2)
= −1 + 4 − 2
=1 Nm or joule
For more worked examples refer to Technician mathematics 3 by J. O. Bird.

80
Cross Product
The vector or Cross product of two vectors ā and bത is C where the magnitude of C is
|ā||b|Sinθ where θ is the angle between aത and b.
For more information refer to Technician mathematics 3 by J.O Bird and Engineering
mathematics by K. A Stroud.

Examples
i j k
ഥ ഥ
pത = 2i + 4j + 3k and Q = i + 5j − 2k find P x Q = |2 4 3 |
1 5 −2
4 3 2 3 2 4
=i | | − j́ | | + k| |
5 −2 1 −2 1 5
=−23i + 7j + 6k

Typical applications of vector products are to moments and to angular velocity.

Refer to Technician mathematics. 3 by J.O Bird on page 308.

12.4 Vector field Theory

Refer to further Engineering mathematics by K.A Stroud to learn and also go through the
worked examples and exercises on:
(i) Gradient
(ii) Divergence
(iii) Curl

Greens theorem: Learn how to perform vector calculations using Green’s theorem by
referring to further Engineer mathematics by KA. Stroud.

Stoke’s Theorem: Refer to further Engineer Mathematics by K.A Stroud to learn how to
perform vector calculations using Stroke’s theorem.

Gauss’s Theorem: Refer to the same book to learn how to determine line and surface
integrals using Gauss’s theorem.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered vectors and scalar quantities in two and three dimensions,
operations on vectors, and position and resolution of vectors.

81
Further Reading

1. Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).

2.3.13.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. If aത =2i - 3j + 4k and bത = i + 2j + 5k determine
(2́) aത . bത
(22́) aത x bത
2. Find the work done by a force F Newtons acting at a point A on a body, when A is
displaced to point B ,the coordinates of A and B being (5, 2, -4) and (3,-1,1) meters
respectively , and when F = −2i − 3j − 2k Newton’s.

2.3.13.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

2.3.13.5 References

Duffy, D. G. (2016). Advanced engineering mathematics with MATLAB. Chapman and

Hall/CRC.
Jeffrey, A. (2001). Advanced engineering mathematics. Elsevier.
Zill, D., Wright, W. S., & Cullen, M. R. (2011). Advanced engineering mathematics. Jones
& Bartlett Learning.

82
2.3.14 Learning Outcome No 13: Apply Matrix
2.3.14.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 11: Apply Matrix
Learning Activities Special Instructions

11.1 Obtain determinant and inverse of 3x3 matrix • Discussions

11.2 Obtained Solutions of simultaneous equations in • Projects
three unknowns are • Demonstration by the
11.3 Perform Calculation involving Eigen values and trainer
Eigen vectors

2.3.14.2Information Sheet No 2/LO11 Apply Matrix

Introduction
This learning outcome covers; the determinant of a 3𝑥3 matrix, inverse of a 3𝑥3 matrix,
solutions of three unknown simultaneous equations and the calculations on eigen values
and eigen vectors.

Definition of key terms

Matrix: This is a set of real or complex numbers arranged in rows and columns to form a
rectangular array and it is always denoted by capital letters.

Determinant: It is a physical quantity/value assigned to any square matrix. E.g. given

𝑎 𝑏
[ ] = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑑
𝑐 𝑑

Inverse: The inverse of a matrix 𝑄 −1 is the matrix than when multiplied by the original
matrix 𝑄 gives the identity matrix. i.e. 𝑄 𝑄 −1 =𝐼.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
11.1 Determinant and inverse of 3x3 matrix are obtained as per the method.
A matrix with P rows and Q columns is called a 𝑃 × 𝑄 matrix and is of order 𝑃 × 𝑄. Square
1 6
brackets [ ] or round brackets () are used when writing a matrix. For example, [ ] or
9 8
1 6
( )
9 8

83
Matrices are named by stating the number of rows followed by the number of columns. For
1 9 7
example, [6 5 4] is a 3 × 3 matrix
2 3 6
5 6 4 3
.[ 1 7 8 2] is a 3 × 4 matrix
10 9 6 5
A line matrix (row matrix) consists of one row only e.g. (5 6 4 3) while a column matrix
5
consists of one column only e.g.[ 1 ]
10
Double suffix notation
Each unit in a matrix can be defined by double suffixes. The first suffix is the row while
the second is the column.
𝑃11 𝑃12 𝑃13
E.g. (𝑃21 𝑃22 𝑃23 ) Thus 𝑃32 is on the third row and the second column.
𝑃31 𝑃32 𝑃33

Addition and subtraction of matrices

For two or more matrices to be added or subtracted, they must be of the same order. The
operation is done by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements.
Example:
5 6 7 12 9 8 17 15 15
(1 10 2)+( 6 5 3)=( 7 16 5 )
4 3 8 9 7 2 13 10 10
4 5 1 3 6 9 1 −1 −8
(2 7 8) − (5 5 4) = (−3 2 4)
3 6 9 4 12 8 −1 −6 1
Transposing a matrix
Example
3 6 9 3 5 4
Q=(5 5 4), 𝑄 𝑇 =(6 5 12)
4 12 8 9 4 8

Determinant of a 3x3 matrix

Suppose Q is a 3 × 3 matrix, the determinant of Q denoted by det Q or|𝑄| is obtained by
𝑞11 𝑞12 𝑞13
(𝑞21 𝑞22 𝑞23 )
𝑞31 𝑞32 𝑞33
𝑞22 𝑞23 𝑞21 𝑞23 𝑞21 𝑞22
det 𝑄 𝑜𝑟|𝑄| = 𝑞11 |𝑞 𝑞 | − 𝑞12 |𝑞 𝑞 | + 𝑞13 |𝑞 |
32 33 31 33 31 𝑞32
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑞11 (𝑞22 𝑞33 − 𝑞23 𝑞32 ) − 𝑞12 (𝑞21 𝑞33 − 𝑞31 𝑞23 ) + 𝑞13 (𝑞21 𝑞32 − 𝑞31 𝑞22 )
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑞11 𝑞22 𝑞33 − 𝑞11 𝑞23 𝑞32 − 𝑞12 𝑞21 𝑞33 + 𝑞12 𝑞31 𝑞23 + 𝑞13 𝑞21 𝑞32 − 𝑞13 𝑞31 𝑞22
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑞11 𝑞22 𝑞33 + 𝑞12 𝑞31 𝑞23 + 𝑞13 𝑞21 𝑞32 − 𝑞13 𝑞31 𝑞22 − −𝑞11 𝑞23 𝑞32 − 𝑞12 𝑞21 𝑞33

84
Thus
𝑞11 𝑞12 𝑞13 𝑞11 𝑞12 𝑞13
det Q= |𝑞21 𝑞22 𝑞23 | |𝑞21 𝑞22 𝑞23 |
𝑞31 𝑞32 𝑞33 𝑞31 𝑞32 𝑞33
Example
2 3 4
Q=(5 6 7)
8 9 1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = (2 × 6 × 1) + (3 × 4 × 8) + (4 × 5 × 9) − (2 × 7 × 9) − (3 × 5 × 1)
− (4 × 6 × 8)
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 27
Minors and cofactors of a 3x3 matrix
Suppose R is a 3 × 3 matrix, R=𝑟𝑖𝑗 and S is 3 × 3 matrix obtained from R by deleting its
𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column. Then the determinant of 𝑠𝑖𝑗 is called the minor of the element 𝑟𝑖𝑗 of
R.
Cofactors are obtained by multiplying (−1)𝑖+𝑗 by the submatrix of the matrix.
Example.
5 3 8 58 −1 −34
If T=(1 10 2) Minor of T =(−27 3 18 )
4 6 7 −74 2 47

58 1 −34
Cofactors of T=( 27 3 −18)
−74 −2 47

Adjoint of a 3x3 matrix

Adjoint is the transpose of the cofactors of a matrix denoted by 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑇 .
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠
58 27 −74
Adj T= ( 1 3 −2 )
−34 −18 47

Inverse of a 3x3 matrix

The inverse of T, i.e. 𝑇 −1 is given by;
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑇
. 𝑇 −1 =
𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝑇
det 𝑇 = 5(58) − 3(−1) + 8(−34) = 21
58 27 −74
58 27 −74 21 21 21
−1 1 1 3 −2
𝑇 =21 ( 1 3 −2 )= 21 21 21
−34 −18 47 −34 −18 47
( 21 21 21 )

85
11.2 Solutions of simultaneous equations in three unknowns are obtained as per the
procedure
Consider 3 sets of linear equations
𝑟11 𝑥 + 𝑟12 𝑦 + 𝑟13 𝑧=𝐶1
𝑟21 𝑥 + 𝑟22 𝑦 + 𝑟23 𝑧=𝐶2
𝑟31 𝑥 + 𝑟32 𝑦 + 𝑟33 𝑧=𝐶3
Then the values 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑍 are obtained by,
𝑥 𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13 −1 𝐶1
(𝑦)=(𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23 ) (𝐶2 )
𝑧 𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 𝐶3

Example
Obtain the values 𝑜𝑓 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 in the following system of simultaneous equations.
3𝑝 + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 5
5𝑝 + 3𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 7
9𝑝 + 8𝑞 + 7𝑟 = 3
Solution
3 1 2 𝑝 5
(5 3 2) (𝑞 ) = (7)
9 8 7 𝑟 3

𝑝 3 1 2 −1 5
(𝑞 ) = (5 3 2) (7)
𝑟 9 8 7 3
5 3 −1
−1 24 8 6
3 1 2 5 9 −4
1 −17 1 1
(5 3 2) = 24 (−17 3 4 )= 24 8 6
9 8 7 13 −15 4 13 −5 1
( 24 8 6 )
19
𝑝 6
−13
Thus (𝑞 =) 6
𝑟 −7
( 6 )
19 −13 −7
This implies that 𝑝 = 6 , 𝑞 = 6 , 𝑟 = 6

11.3 Calculation involving Eigen values and Eigen vectors are performed
If Q is a 𝑚 × 𝑚 matrix over some field N, then 𝜔𝜀𝑁 is an eigen value of Q if some non-
zero vector (column) r𝜀𝑁 𝑚 then 𝑄𝑟 = 𝜔𝑟. Thus, r is an eigen vector of Q which belong to
the eigen value w.

86
Example
Find the eigen values and the eigen
Vectors associated with the matrix.
3 1 0
Q= (0 1 −1)
0 2 4
Solution
𝜔 is an eigen value of Q is |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄|=0 where I is the identity matrix.
𝜔 0 0 3 1 0
|𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄|=|( 0 𝜔 0 ) − (0 1 −1)| = 0
0 0 𝜔 0 2 4
𝜔−3 −1 0
| 0 𝜔−1 1 |=0
0 −2 𝜔−4
𝜔−1 1
𝜔 − 3| |=0
−2 𝜔−4
𝜔 − 3[(𝜔 − 1)(𝜔 − 4) + 2 ] = 0
𝜔 − 3[(𝜔 − 2)(𝜔 − 3)] = 0 𝜔 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = 2
Thus, the eigen values are 𝜔 = 3, 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2.
For eigen vectors, solve the equation |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄| r=0
When 𝜔 = 2
|𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄| r=0
−1 −1 0 𝑝 0
(0 1 1 ) ( 𝑠 ) = (0)
0 −2 −2 𝑡 0
−𝑝 − 𝑠 = 0
𝑆+𝑡 =0
−2𝑠 − 2𝑡 = 0 𝑠 = 0 𝑡=0 𝑝=0

Example:
Find the eigen values and the eigen vectors associated with.
7 0 0
M=(6 3 1)
2 10 6
Solution
Suppose 𝜔 is an eigen value of M, then |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑀|=0
𝜔 0 0 7 0 0
|𝜔𝐼 − 𝑀|=|( 0 𝜔 0 ) − (6 3 1)| = 0
0 0 𝜔 2 10 6
𝜔−7 0 0
= | −6 𝜔−3 −1 | = 0
−2 −10 𝜔 − 6
𝜔−3 −1
𝜔 − 7| |
−10 𝜔 − 6

87
𝜔 − 7[(𝜔 − 3)(𝜔 − 6) − 5] = 0
𝜔 − 7[𝜔2 − 6𝜔 − 3𝜔 + 18 − 10] = 0
𝜔 − 7[𝜔2 − 9𝜔 + 8] = 0
(𝜔 − 7)(𝜔 − 1)(𝜔 − 8) = 0
𝜔 = 7,1 𝑜𝑟 8
Thus, the eigen values are 1, 7 and 8
For eigen vectors;
Take |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄|𝑟 = 0
𝜔−7 0 0 𝑥
( −6 𝜔−3 𝑦
−1 ) = 0
−2 −10 𝜔 − 6 𝑧
When 𝜔 = 1,
−6 0 − 𝑥
We have (−6 −2 −1) (𝑦) = 0
−2 10 −5 𝑧
−6𝑥 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑥 = 0
−6𝑦 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−2𝑥 − 10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 − 10𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−5𝑧 = 0
𝑍=0 𝑦=0
When 𝜔 = 7
0 0 0 𝑥
We have (−6 4 −1) (𝑦) = 0
−2 −10 1 𝑧
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 𝑧 = 0
When 𝜔 = 8
1 0 0 𝑥
(−6 5 −1 𝑦) = 0
) (
−2 −10 2 𝑧
𝑥=0 − 6𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−2𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 𝑦=𝑧=0

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the determinant of a 3𝑥3 matrix, solutions of three unknows
simultaneous equation and the calculations Eigen values and Eigen vectors.

88
Further Reading

Read more on
1. Multiplication of two or more matrices. Matrix algebra useful for statistics by John
Wiley and sons.
2. Eigen values and eigen values. Iterative methods for computing eigen values and eigen
vectors by Panju M.

2.3.14.3Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1.Find the determinant of the following matrix.
4 3 −1
(−17 7 9)
13 25 1

a) 46
b) 48
c) 52
d) 64
2.Find the determinant of the following matrix.
10 5 1
( 3 6 2)
4 7 9

a) 300
b) 256
c) 272
d) 302

89
3.Find the inverse of the following matrices.
3 −5 −2
( 2 −2 4 )
−3 8 −5

11 41 6
38 76 19
1 21 4
a) 38 76 19
−5 9 −1
( 38 46 19 )
76 65 11
38 38 38
21 23 9
b) 38 76 19
−10 9 −1
( 19 76 19 )
3 −5 −1
38 38 19
1 −1 2
c) 19 19 19
−3 4 −5
( 38 9 38 )

11 82 12
19 76 19
1 42 8
d) 19 76 19
−5 9 −2
( 19 76 19 )
4.Find the inverse of the following matrix
13 12 9
(2 1 3)
2 −10 8

19 −93 27
88 88 176
−5 43 −21
a) 88 88 176
−1 7 −1
( 88 8 16 )
11 −93 27
88 88 176
−3 43 −23
b) 88 88 176
−1 7 −3
(4 8 16 )

90
 21 −95 27
88 88 176
−3 47 −27
c) 88 88 176
−5 7 −3
( 88 8 16 )

3 −1 −2
4 6 3
1 1 2
d) 5 7 9
3 5
1
(7 7 )

5.Obtain the values 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 in the following equations.

3𝑝 − 2𝑟 + 6𝑞 = 7
−7𝑝 + 4𝑟 − 8𝑞 = 15
9𝑝 − 3𝑟 + 17𝑞 = 3

31 15 23
a) P=13 q= 𝑟 = 26
26
−1 5 23
b) P= 3 𝑞 = 26 𝑟 = 26
−131 −115 123
c) P= 𝑞= 𝑟=
13 26 26
131 5 17
d) P= 26 𝑞 = 16 𝑟 = 19
6.Obtain the values of 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 in the following equation
2𝑝 + 7𝑟 + 18𝑞 = 0
15𝑝 + 19𝑟 + 20𝑞 = 3
17𝑝 − 5𝑟 − 7𝑞 = −10
7 9 17
a) 𝑃 = 8 𝑞 = 10 𝑟 = 823
−1897 652 −1057
b) 𝑃 = 𝑞 = 823 𝑟=
4115 4115
97 52 57
c) 𝑝 = 115 𝑞 = 23 𝑟 = 15
5 2 1
d) 𝑝 = 6 𝑞=3 𝑟=5
2 1 0
7. Obtain the eigen values of [0 1 −1]
0 2 4
a) 3, 3, 4
b) 2, 2, 3
c) 2, 2, 2
d) 1, 2, 3
8. Evaluate how to obtain the determinant of matrix.
9. Compare between adjoint and inverse of a matrix.
10. Differentiate between minors and cofactors?
91
11. Justify whether an eigen value the same as an eigen vector.
12. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
3𝑝 + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 5
5𝑝 + 3𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 7
9𝑝 + 8𝑞 + 7𝑟 = 3
Oral Assessment
1. Define an inverse of a matrix.
2. Discuss the process of finding the eigen vector.

Practical Assessment
In a given department, 3 lecturers may teach 3 units per week. The number of hours
required on each unit to be examined are given in the table below. The department
chairperson would like to assign the lecturers the units so that the number of hours is
minimized. Find the specific unit that each lecturer should be assigned.

Lecturer Math’s Science English

P 114 116 112
Q 19 228 109
R 113 600 110

2.3.14.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculator
• 15 cm ruler
• Pen, pencil

2.3.14.5 References

Aitken, A.C (2017) Determinant and matrices Read Book Ltd.

Panju,M(2011) Iterative methods for computing eigen values and eigen vectors ar.xiv
11051185
Searle. S.R., & Khun, A.I. (2017) matrix algebra useful for statistics. John wiley & sons.

92
 CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL DRAWING

3.1 Introduction
This unit covers the competencies required to prepare and interpret technical drawings. It
involves competencies to select, use and maintain drawing equipment and materials. It also
involves producing plain geometry drawings, solid geometry drawings, pictorial and
orthographic drawings and application of Computer Aided Design (CAD) packages.

3.2 Performance Standard

Use drawing equipment and materials according to task requirements, per workplace
procedures and maintained as per manufacturer’s instructions, waste materials are disposed
in accordance with workplace procedures and environmental legislations, use personal
protective equipment according to occupational safety and health regulations, produce
plain geometry drawings, produce solid geometry drawings, produce pictorial and
orthographic drawings of components and apply CAD packages in drawings according to
standard drawing conventions and task requirements.

3.3 Learning Outcomes

3.3.1 List of learning outcomes
a) Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials
b) Produce plain geometry drawings
c) Produce solid geometry drawings
d) Produce pictorial and orthographic drawings of components
e) Apply CAD packages

93
3.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and Materials
3.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and Materials
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

1.1. Identify and gather drawing equipment • Demonstration

1.2. Use and maintain drawing equipment • Group
1.3. Use drawing materials discussion
1.4. Dispose waste materials
1.5. Use Personal Protective Equipment (dust coats, gloves and
closed leather shoes)

3.3.2.2 Information Sheet No3/LO1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and
Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers drawing equipment, drawing materials, maintenance of
drawing equipment as per manufacturer’s instructions as per workplace procedures. It also
covers on how to dispose waste materials in accordance with workplace procedures and
proper use of personal equipment. Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials.

Definition of key terms

Drawing: This is the use of lines, shapes, and sizes to construct objects or structures either
in 2-dimesnional or 3-dimensional view.

Technical drawing: This is a precise detailed representation of an idea using symbols,

lines, and signs in creating objects in the manufacturing of engineering articles.

Drafting: This is the act of producing a picture/sketch either in 2-dimesnional or 3-

dimensional view and providing dimensions and notes. It is usually a quick sketch/
presentation with details and not to scale.

Designing: This is the act of producing drawings to clearly define the requirements for
concepts or products in order to be in line with the expected outcome.

Maintenance: It is an excellent means of improving the performance and condition of

equipment and facilities.
94
A maintenance program: It is a comprehensive list of maintenance and its incidents.

A maintenance schedule: It is a list allocating specific maintenance of an area, including

equipment and tools to a specific period.

A maintenance checklist: It is a list of maintenance tasks (preventive or predictive)

typically derived through some form of analysis, generated automatically as work orders
at a predetermined frequency.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Use and maintain drawing equipment as per manufacturer’s instructions
Maintenance is an excellent means of improving the performance and condition of
equipment and facilities. An effective maintenance program identifies problems long
before any equipment or facility breaks down or deteriorate. A good maintenance system
presents the early discovery of problems, thus providing plenty of lead time for effective
maintenance planning. The trainer has to value the importance of maintaining the training
facilities, equipment and tools s/he is using or under his/her care if he values the presence
and availability of these resources for effective training and learning processes. Training
equipment is usually placed in the practical work area or the trainees’ resource area. The
sizes and uses of equipment vary in the different training qualifications and generally
classified into five (5):
a) Large items of equipment; motor vehicles, industrial sewing machines
b) Small items of equipment
c) Simple equipment; electric fan, floor polisher
d) Complex equipment; plasma cutting machine, simulator (automotive)
e) Equipment with significant health and safety implications; duplicator machine

Reasons for maintenance

• To extend the useful life of physical facilities
• To assure the operational readiness of installed equipment and maximum possible
return on investments
• To properly discard hazardous wastes
• To ensure the safety of personnel using the facilities, physical properties and the
environment

95
Importance of maintenance
• Improved morale of human resources
• Reduced operational cost
• Increased production
• Prolonged life of facilities
• Prompt delivery of services/product
• Waste/garbage reduction
• Ensured safe environment

Ways of implementing a maintenance program

The question on how do we implement the maintenance program will centre on the 5Ms as
follows:
• Manpower
• Money (financial resources)
• Methods and system
• Machines (facilities)
• Materials and supplies

Tools and equipment used in technical drawing

i. Drafting Tables/board
Draftsmen create technical drawings using a tilting table. Parallel rulers on each side of the
drawing surface align the drawing paper and provide horizontal and vertical guides for
drawing.

Figure 10. Drafting tables

Source: www.wayfair.com

ii. Curve Templates and Compasses

Draftsmen create curves using irregular curve templates made of clear rigid plastic. They
draw circles and portions of circles called arcs with an adjustable compass and calculate
angles from 1 degree to 180 degrees with clear plastic protractors.

96
Figure 11.Drawing templates.
Source: www.bocianelli.com

Caliper and Vernier Scale

A caliper is a tool which is used for a measurement of some objects

Figure 12. Caliper and vernier scale

Source: www.amazon.com

Drawing Compass
A drawing compass is a tool for drawing circles on a specific material but also for
navigational help and measuring distances

Figure 13. Drawing compass.

Source: www.amazon.com

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Types of Drawing Compasses
Beam Compass
A beam compass is made of brass of wooden beam, and it is used for drawing circles that
are larger than those made by regular compass.

Scribe Compass
This type of compass is the simplest by form. It is used by carpenters to scribe a circle
instead of drawing it.

Loose Leg Divider

It is also used to scribe circles. Loose leg wing dividers also provide stepping off repetitive
measurements with particular accuracy.

Figure 14. Loose leg divider

Source: www.amazon.com

Proportional Compass
It is a tool consisting of two rulers which are equal length and joined by a hinge.

iii. Lettering Guides

Lettering templates guide the draftsman in the execution of uniform lettering throughout
the drawing. As a matter of common practice most creators of technical drawings hand
letter in personally developed styles that identify their work as clearly as fingerprints.

iv. Drawing Pencils

Most draftsmen use sharp 2H and 4H pencils for drawing. Pencils may be wooden or
mechanical pencils with replaceable leads. They utilize erasing shields and soft gum or
nylon erasers to make corrections.

v. Inking Pens
Technical drawings created in pencil are usually over-traced with ink to render durable
final drawings. Early inking pens consisted of a mechanical device with an adjustable nib.
Modern disposable inking pens have built in ink reservoirs and are available in many point
widths.
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Pencils
Pencil is used to draw on the paper. Any type of pencil is not suitable for drawing. There
are some limitations, the drawing appearance should be very neat and understandable.
Every line of the drawing should indicate its importance. It depends upon the hardness of
the pencil. Based on the hardness quality pencils are classified into 18 grades and they are
as shown in the table below:

Table 2: Classification of pencils

Grade of Pencil Hardness of Pencil

9H Hardest

6H, 5H, 4H Extremely Hard

3H Very hard

2H Hard

H Moderately hard

F Firm

HB Medium hard

B Moderately soft and black

2B Soft and black

3B Very soft and black

4B, 5B, 6B Very soft and very black

7B Softest

Out of the above 18 grades of pencils, the following grades are used in engineering
drawings.

99
Table 3: Uses of engineering pencil grades

Grade of Pencil Used to Draw

3H Construction lines

2H Dimension lines, center lines, sectional lines, hidden lines

H Object lines, lettering

HB Dimensioning, boundary lines

Figure 15: Pencil grades

Source: www.amazon.com

vi. Drafting Machines

Modern drafting machines combine horizontal and vertical rulers or scales and a protractor
head that allows adjustment of the rulers to required angles for drawing. The device is
permanently attached to the drawing board and uses a pair of connected arms to move
freely around the drawing surface.

vii. CAD: Computer Aided Design

Drawings and designs using computer software drastically reduce hand and machine
drafting, especially in the professional sectors. Lower drawing cost and greater degrees of
accuracy dictate increasing use of CAD as a primary tool for creating technical drawings.
Large computer screens for creating designs and plotters for printing large technical
drawings are replacing traditional technical drawing tools. Colleges and trade schools offer
CAD training to a growing number of specializing technicians who are replacing
conventional draftsmen in the drafting room.

100
viii. Rulers and Squares
Using a T-square and clear plastic triangle, draftsmen create lines. Common triangles they
use are an eight-inch triangle with forty-five- and ninety-degree sides and a ten-inch
triangle with 30- and 60-degree sides. Draftsmen measure dimensions with triangular
shaped rulers that have different scales on each of three surfaces.

A ruler is an instrument that can be used for measuring distances or to draw straight lines
in printing, geometry, technical drawing and many other things.

Figure 16: Rulers and squares

Source: www.amazon.com

The protractor is an instrument used for measuring angles. It is usually made of

transparent glass or transparent plastic

Figure 17: Protractor

Source: www.amazon.com

Figure 18: Protractor and a ruler

Source: www.amazon.com

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Mini Drafter
Mini drafter is an instrument which can be used for multiple functions in drawing. It
contains two arms which is adjustable to required angle and at the end of the lower arm a
scale set is attached.

Figure 19: Mini drafter

Source: www.vectorstock.com

T-Square
A T-square is used to draw horizontal and vertical lines on drawing sheet. It is made of
wood or plastic and in T shape. The vertical part of T is called as blade and horizontal part
of T is called as head.

Figure 20: T-square

Source: www.amazon.com

Set Squares
Set squares are used to draw lines with an angle between them. In most of the structures,
30, 45, 60 and 90-degree lines are most common. So, set squares make the work easier for
this type of drawings.

102
 Figure 21: Set square
Source: www.vectorstock.com

French Curves
French curves are made of plastic and they are in irregular shapes. Sometimes the drawing
requires irregular curves or shapes or arcs which cannot be drawn using compass. In that
case French curves are suitable.

Figure 22: French curve

Source: www.goldstartool.com

Drawing Sheet
Drawing sheet is a white paper on which an object is drawn which is available in various
sizes. The sheet used for engineering should be of good quality. It should be white in color
with uniform thickness which must resist the easy torn of paper. The surface of sheet must
be smooth.

Eraser
Eraser is used to remove the lines or spots which were drawn by mistake or with wrong
measurements. The eraser used should be of good quality and soft. It should not damage
the paper while erasing.

103
Figure 23: Eraser
Source: www.shutterstock.com

Paper Holders
When the drawing sheet is placed on the board it may not be in fixed position. To fix the
drawing sheet to the board paper holders are used.

Figure 24: Paper holder

Source: www.shutterstock.com

Disposing of waste materials so as to prevent air pollution is a recent requirement in the

history of waste disposal. Proper disposal of waste resulting from technical drawing must
be followed. Degradable waste must be disposed separately with non-degraded waste.
Broken compasses and rules must be disposed properly as they can cause harm to the
trainee in the work place. Personal protective equipment, or PPE, is designed to protect
you from hazards found on or off the job. The PPE prevent the draftsmen from hazards
when they are working in the drawing rooms. These PPE include:
• Grooves
• Closed shoes
• Dust coat
• Helmets
Proper procedures must be observed and adhered to know when to put on the protective
gears to minimize injuries during and after the exercise.

104
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with drawing equipment, drawing
materials used and maintenance of drawing equipment, drawing materials, dispose of waste
materials, and proper use of productive equipment in accordance with workplace
procedures and environmental legislations.

Further Reading

1. Engineering drawing by K. Venugopal. Published by: New Age International (p)

limited (2016).
2. Engineering drawing + Auto CAD. By: Venugopal. K PUBLISHED BY New Age
International pvt ltd

3.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The accuracy of the drawing depends on ________.
2. Which of the following instrument is made of thin strips of wood arranged in a line to
form a rectangle and on which, the drawing is made?
a) Mini-drafter
b) Drawing Board
c) Protractor
d) Scale
3. Which of the following tools is used to draw horizontal lines?
a) Mini – drafter
b) Protractor
c) T – square
d) French curve
4. Which of the following instruments can be used to draw accurate perpendicular lines,
parallel lines and angular lines?
a) Mini-drafter
b) T-square
c) Protractor
d) Set square

105
5. According to the Indian Standard Institute (ISI), which among the following
designation has the size 1000 x 700 (in mm)?
a) B0
b) B1
c) B2
d) B3
6. Which is the most common tool used for drawing circles?
a) French curve
b) Mini – drafter
c) Divider
d) Compass
7. For drawing circles with a large radius, which of the following tool is used?
a) Bow compass
b) Lengthening bar compass
c) Divider
d) Protractors
8. The preferred size of the drawing sheets is recommended by the ______
a) B.I.S.
b) ASME
c) ASTM
d) NIST
9. SP: 46 (2003) recommends the borders of _______ mm width for the sheet sizes A0
and A1, and _______ mm for the sizes A2, A3, A4 and A5.
a) 10, 20
b) 15, 20
c) 20, 10
d) 15, 10
10. The false statement regarding orientation mark.
a) The orientation mark coincides with one of the centering marks
b) Represents the direction to which sheet is placed
c) Orientation mark can be used for the orientation of drawing sheet on the
drawing board
d) Facilitate positioning of the drawing for reproduction purpose
11. Select and apply different drawing paper holders
12. Discuss the best methods of drawing waste materials disposal which is environmentally
friendly.
13. State three importance of drawing tools maintenance

106
Oral Assessment
1. State two uses of protractors in technical drawing
2. Give two types of pencils used to make faint lines

Practical Assessment
Make a sketch of a CAD design

3.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

3.3.2.5 References

Hubka, V. (2015). Principles of engineering design. Elsevier.

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing. Routledge.
Shrock, C. R. (2009). Advanced AutoCAD 2010 Exercise Workbook. Industrial Press Inc.

107
3.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Produce Plane Geometry Drawings
3.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Produce Plain Geometry Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Identify different types of lines used in drawing and their • Use correct tools
meanings (drawing and
2.2 Construct different types of geometric forms (circles, measurement)
triangles, rectangles, parallelogram, polygons, pyramids, • Demonstrations
conic sections, prisms, loci) and group
2.3 Construct different types of angles discussion
2.4 Measure different types of angles using appropriate • Use the correct
measuring tools. dimensions
2.5 Bisect angles
2.6 Conduct freehand sketching of different types of
geometric forms, tools, equipment and diagram.

3.3.3.2 Information Sheet No3/LO2: Produce Plain Geometry Drawings

Introduction
This outcome covers a variety of plain geometry drawings that include lines, triangles,
quadrilaterals, polygons, dimensioning and drawing rules, bisecting angles according to
standard and measurement of different types of angles.

Definition of key terms

Drawing instruments: These are the tools/equipment that are essential in producing
drawings.

Drawing materials: These are consumables that are utilized in technical drawing.

Plane geometry: This type of geometry involves production of drawings in two

dimensions.

Solid geometry: Solid geometry involves production of drawings in three dimensions.

108
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Plane geometry principle
A line projects as a true length when a view is taken looking perpendicular to the line. A
line parallel to the vertical plane will appear as a true length in elevation. A line parallel to
the horizontal plane will appear as a true length in plane. Parallel lines appear parallel in
every orthographic view. If a line is parallel to any line on a plane, it is parallel to the plane.
A line projects as a point when we look along its true length. A plane projects as an edge
when any line on the plane projects as a point. The true shape of a plane is seen on a
projection plane which is parallel to the plane. Two planes intersect in a line.

Line
A geometric primitive that has length and direction, but no thickness. It may be straight,
curved or a combination of these. Lines also have important relationship or conditions,
such as parallel, intersecting, and tangent. Specific length and non-specific length. Straight
line that extends to infinity from a specified point.

Relationship of one line to another line or arc

Figure 25: Lines

Bisecting a line
Steps
a) Preparing the Compass
i. Draw the line segment you need to bisect. If the line segment is not already given,
you will need to make it using a straightedge.

Figure 26: Drawn line

ii. Choose an appropriately sized compass. If you open the compass completely, and
its span is one-half the length of the line or less, you need to choose a bigger
compass.

109
 Figure 27: Open Compass
Source: alamy.com

iii. Position the compass on an endpoint. To do this, place the needle of the compass on
either endpoint. Open the compass so that it spans a little more than half the length
of the line

Figure 28: Compass Position

Source: www.alamy.com

a) Bisecting the Line

i. Draw an arc above and below the line segment. Make sure the needle stays on the
endpoint, and that you do not adjust the compass setting. The length of the arcs
does not matter.

Figure 29: An arc

Source: www.alamy.com

110
ii. Reposition the compass on the other endpoint. Make sure you do not change the
compass setting.

Figure 30: End point Position

Source: www.researchgate.com

iii. Draw another set of arcs, above and below the line segment. Make sure the needle
stays on the endpoint, and that you do not adjust the compass setting. The two sets
of arcs you’ve drawn should intersect.

Figure 31: Arcs above and below line segment

Source: www.researchgate.com

iv. Connect the arc intersections. To do this, place your straightedge on the point where
the arcs above the line intersect, and align it with the point where the arcs below
the line intersect.

Figure 32: Connected arc intersections

Source: www.alamy.com

111
 v. Draw your perpendicular bisector. The line you draw between the two arc
intersections bisects the line at a ninety-degree angle.

Figure 33: Perpendicular line

Source: www.shutterstock.com

vi. Understand why this works. You have used the compass to outline two congruent
circles centered over either endpoint. The intersecting arcs represent the endpoint
of a radii from the center of either circle. The length of the radii will be the same
since the circles are of the same size.

Figure 34: Completed Drawing

Source: www.alamy.com

Plane Geometry
Plane geometry can take various shapes.

Figure 35: Plane Geometry

Source: www.earthslab.com

112
 Figure 36: Plane Geometry
Source: www.earthslab.com

Conclusion
This outcome covered plane geometry drawings i.e. types of lines, polygons, triangles,
quadrilaterals, dimensioning and drawing rules

Further Reading

1. K Morling geometric and engineering drawing

2. Hubka,V.( 2015)Principles of engineering design, Elserier
3. Davies, B. L., Robotham, A. J., & Yarwood, A. (1991). Computer-aided drawing and
design. London: Chapman & Hall.

3.3.3.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. While drawing a perpendicular to a line from a point within the line but nearer to the
end of the line, all the arcs drawn in the process are of _______?
a) Different radii
b) Different radii but one
c) Same radii but one
d) Same radii

113
2. In the given figure which of the following construction line is drawn first?

a) Line AP
b) Arc DPC
c) Arc DQC
d) Line DC
3. For drawing parallel lines to a given line through a given point we make use of ____
a) Arcs
b) Triangles
c) Lines
d) Quadrilaterals
4. Which of the following arcs is made first to draw a parallel line to the given line PQ?

a) A
b) B
c) C
d) D
5. A tangent to a circle is a line which touches the circle at one and only one point.
a) True
b) False
6. The line perpendicular to a tangent and is passing through the point of contact is called
_____
a) Perpendicular bisector
b) Angle bisector
c) Normal
d) Tangent
7. In the following figure, the tangent at point A can be drawn by _______

114
 a) Angle bisector
b) Perpendicular bisector
c) Rectangle
d) Arc
8. How many tangents can be drawn from a point outside a given circle?
a) 4
b) 3
c) 2
d) 1
9. In the following figure, how will you make a tangent from the point outside the circle?

a) By drawing a semicircle with diameter as OA

b) By drawing a perpendicular bisector
c) By drawing an angle bisector
d) By drawing circle with the same radius from A
10. Which geometric principle is used to justify the construction below?

a) A line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to the other

b) Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect to form congruent adjacent
angles

115
 c) When two lines are intersected by a transversal and alternate interior angle
are congruent, the lines are parallel
d) When two lines are intersected by a transversal and the corresponding
angles are congruent, the lines are parallel
11. The diagram below shows the construction of the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Which statement is not true?

a) AM=MB
b) MB=1/2AB
c) AM=2AB
d) AM+MB=AB
12. Construct an isosceles triangle given the perimeter and the altitude (perimeter 150mm
and altitude 70mm).
13. Construct a rhombus given the diagonal and the length of the sides.
14. Construct a trapezium given the lengths of the parallel sides, the perpendicular distance
between them and one angle.
15. Construct a regular octagon given the diameter, i.e. within a given square.

Oral Assessment
1. Which steps are followed when bisecting a line?

Practical Assessment
1. Construct an equilateral triangle, given one of the sides, AB = 100.
2. Construct a triangle given the base, the altitude and the vertical angle (base 100mm and
vertical angle 650)
3. Construct a triangle similar to another triangle but with a different perimeter

3.3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab

116
 • Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

3.3.3.5 References

Childs, P. (2003). Mechanical design. Butterworth Heinemann.

Olkun, S. (2003). Making connections: Improving spatial abilities with engineering
drawing activities. International journal of mathematics teaching and learning, 3(1),
1-10.
Shrock, C. R. (2009). Advanced AutoCAD 2010 Exercise Workbook. Industrial Press Inc.
Yamaguchi, F. (2012). Curves and surfaces in computer aided geometric design. Springer
Science & Business Media.

117
3.3.4 Learning outcome No 3: Produce Solid Geometry
3.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Produce Solid Geometry
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Interpret drawings of patterns • Demonstrations and group

3.2 Develop patterns discussion
• Use the correct dimensions

3.3.4.2 Information Sheet No3/LO3: Produce Solid Geometry

Introduction
In this outcome, the areas covered are interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns,
surface development of interpenetrating solids and truncated solids, and interpenetration
of solids.

Definition of key terms

Straight line: It is a line such that, if any portion of it is placed with its ends in the line,
the entire portion so placed will lie in the line, however it may be applied.

A plane surface (or plane): It is a surface of unlimited extent such that whatever two of
its points are taken, a straight-line joining them will lie wholly in the surface.

A plane figure: It is a geometric figure all of whose points lie in one plane. Plane Geometry
treats of plane figure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Solid geometry: interpretation of sketches and drawings, surface development of prisms,
cylinders, truncated prisms, cones and pyramids. Development of surfaces of
interpenetration cylinders and truncated solids, and interpenetration of cylinder to cylinder
and cylinder to prism or prism to prism of equal and unequal diameters.

118
Design elements
Solid geometry

Figure 37: Shapes, Cone and Pentagonal pyramid with flat tops
Source: www.conceptdraw.com

Figure 38: Cone and 4-sided pyramid

Source: www.conceptdraw.com

Figure 39: Cube and rectangular Box

Source: www.conceptdraw.com

Figure 40: Tetrahedron and Pyramid

Source: www.conceptdraw.com

119
Figure 41: Pyramid with flat top and octahedron
Source: www.conceptdraw.com

Figure 42: pentagonal Cone and Irregular polyhedron

Source: www.conceptdraw.com

Figure 43: Icosahedron and decahedron

Source: www.conceptdraw.com

Figure 44: Half Sphere

Source: www.conceptdraw.com

120
Use these shapes to draw your geometrical diagrams and illustrations
1. The sides of the quadrilateral are in the ratio of 2:3:4:5. The triangle BCE is half
the area of the quadrilateral.
a) Draw the given figures showing clearly how the points C, D and E are
obtained.
b) Draw a square which shall have the same area as the figure ABCDE.

Figure 45: Plan and elevation of a sphere

2. The figure below shows the plan and elevation of a sphere with a point P on its
surface. The elevation of a cone which is in contact with the sphere is also shown.
a) Draw the plan and elevation of both solids and show the position of the
point P in the plan.
b) Draw the plan and elevation of another sphere, having a diameter of 40mm,
which shall be in contact with the given sphere at point P.

Figure 46: Plan and elevation of another sphere

121
Conclusion
This outcome covered interpretation of sketches and drawings, surface development of
solids, and interpenetration of surfaces.

Further Reading

1. Davies, B. L., Robotham, A. J., & Yarwood, A. (1991). Computer-aided drawing and
design. London: Chapman & Hall.

3.3.4.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. A cylinder is placed on H.P on its base and section plane is parallel to V.P cutting the
solid the section gives ______________
a) parabola
b) circle
c) rectangle
d) ellipse
2. A cylinder is placed on H.P on its base and section plane is parallel to H.P cutting the
solid the section gives ______________
a) Parabola
b) Circle
c) Rectangle
d) ellipse
3. A cylinder is placed on H.P on its base and section plane is inclined to V.P and
perpendicular to H.P cutting the solid the section gives ______________
a) Parabola
b) Circle
c) Rectangle
d) ellipse
4. If a plane is inclined with both the reference plane then the plane come under
____________
a) auxiliary plane
b) oblique plane
c) perpendicular plane
d) cross planes

122
5. If a plane is inclined to both the reference planes then the traces would meet at
_________ line except the plane perpendicular to picture plane.
a) XY reference
b) Vertical reference
c) Above the XY reference plane
d) Below the XY reference plane
6. Draw a radial element (0, 1) in one of the orthographic views. Find the points on the
line of interpenetration (i.e., p & q) and project them to the other views. Repeat with
more radial elements until you have enough points to draw the lines of interpenetration.

7. An isometric view of a shaped solid is shown the figure below.

a) Draw an elevation of the solid looking in the direction of the arrow.
b) Project a plan from the elevation.
c) Project a new elevation from the plan of the solid which will show the true
shape of the surface

123
Oral Assessment
What is solid geometry

Practical Assessment
Given pyramid is cut by plane, ⊥ to the frontal plane and inclined at 70o to the top plane.
The cutting plane cuts the axis of the pyramid at 15mm from the apex. Draw the projections
of the remaining part of the pyramid and the true shape of the cut section.

3.3.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

3.3.4.5 References

Aouad, G., Wu, S., Lee, A., & Onyenobi, T. (2013). Computer aided design guide for
architecture, engineering and construction. Routledge.
Bergen, S. D., Bolton, S. M., & Fridley, J. L. (2001). Design principles for ecological
engineering. Ecological Engineering, 18(2), 201-210.
Liu, S. X., Hu, S. M., Chen, Y. J., & Sun, J. G. (2001). Reconstruction of curved solids
from engineering drawings. Computer-Aided Design, 33(14), 1059-1072.

124
3.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings of
Components
3.3.5.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings of
Components
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

4.1 Identify and interpret the meaning of symbols and

abbreviations
4.2 Interpret and produce first and third angle orthographic
drawings
4.3 Dimension orthographic elevations
4.4 Interpret and produce isometric drawings
4.5 Produce
3.3.5.2 and interpret
Information Sheetassembly
No3/LO4:drawing
Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings
of Components

Introduction
This outcome covers meaning of pictorial and orthographic drawings, sectioning, symbols
and abbreviations, drawing of isometric, oblique, axonometric, auxiliary and perspective
views, drawing of first and third angle projections, sectioning of components, and free hand
sketching of tools, equipment, components, geometric forms and diagrams.

Definition of key terms

Axonometric (Pictorial) Projections- These are drawings in which the object is drawn in
three dimensions (3-D) i.e. three sides of the object

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Solid geometry principles
All views presented in a solid geometry are assumed to be from the same object, and only
the particular object but from different points of view and that all views are at the same
scale. All the visible edge is depicted by a line and assumptions are made that those edge
progress away from the viewer to form faces that are flat but at right angles. The true angle
between a line and a plane is seen in a view showing the line as a true length and the plane
as an edge. All horizontal sections of an upright or inverted right cone are circles. A sphere
appears as a circle in every view.

125
A sphere and cone in contact will have a common tangent plane. When two spheres touch
one another: the point of contact lies on the line joining the two centers, the distance
between their centers is equal to the sum of the radii, and the point of contact can be located
in any view, by dividing the line in the ratio of the radii. The vertical trace of a plane is the
line in which the plane meets the vertical lane. The horizontal trace of a plane is the line in
which the plane meets the horizontal plane.

Axonometric (Pictorial) Projections

These are drawings in which the object is drawn in three dimensions (3-D), i.e. three sides
of the object appear in one drawing. Normally only one drawing is prepared/used.
• They are used extensively in artistic drawing.
• A three-dimensional view (i.e. shows length, width and height of the object
simultaneously).
• Provides only a general impression of the shape of the object by allowing the
observer to see three of its sides as well as its three overall dimensions.
• An exact and complete description of its shape, particularly as applied to its slots
on the underside is lacking.

Two standards are currently used for axonometric projections: diametric projection and
isometric
Projection.

Diametric Projection
In diametric projection, all dimensions along two axes are drawn to TRUE SIZE. The
dimensions along the third axis are HALVED. This projection is preferred when one view
of the object is to be emphasized than the other two views (i.e. when that one view is of
more interest than the other views).

Figure 47: Diametric Projection

126
Isometric Projection
In isometric projection, all dimensions along all the three axes are drawn to TRUE SIZE.
Isometric projection is preferred when the three views of the object are of equal importance
for accurate presentation of the object.

Figure 48: Isometric Projection

4.3 Orthographic Projections

To present an object in a unique way, generally more views (and sometimes sections) are
required. In orthographic projection, the views are seen in directions that make right angles
(i.e. 900) with each other. The number of views needed should be sufficient to represent
the object completely and conveniently, but it should be kept to the minimum. For most
purposes, three views are usually sufficient.
• Engineering (Technical) drawings usually utilize orthographic views (OV) rather
than pictorial views.
• Orthographic (OV) help to record the shapes of objects exactly and completely.
• OV is a two-dimensional (2-D) drawing. It shows only one side of an object and
two of its overall dimensions.
• A minimum of two OV is required to show the three dimensions of any object and
therefore to describe its shape completely Some features of the object that do not
directly appear on viewing the object from any specific direction (known as hidden
details) are shown on the drawing as dotted lines.

Naming of Views
In orthographic projection, three views are normally drawn. The three chosen views may
be any of the six hypothetical faces of the object. These views are named as shown below.

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 Figure 49: Naming of views
The Front View (ABCD) – abbreviated as FV, is that view of utmost importance in
representing the object (normally the most complicated of all the views) as seen when the
object is placed directly in front of the viewer. This view generally serves to represent the
object (e.g. a work piece) in the most common position in which it is used. It is normally
the first view to be drawn – other views following thereafter. The Rear View – RV (EFGH)
is directly opposite the FV at the back of the object. The Right-Hand Side View – RHSV
(BFGC) and the Left-Hand Side View – LHSV (AEHD) appear on the right and left sides
of the object, respectively. The Top (ABFE) and Bottom (DCGH) Views are at the top and
bottom sides of the FV. As you must have noted, these six views are at right angles to one
another.

4.4 Standard Orthographic Projections

Two standards are commonly in use in orthographic projection of drawings; the First
Angle Projection and the Third Angle Projection (American projection). It should be noted
that corresponding views are identical in both methods of projection except for their
relative positions on the drawing paper.

The First Angle Projection

Symbol:

Figure 50: First Angle projection

In here, the front view (A) is the basis (reference) and the other views are drawn as
‘shadows’ of that view. That is, the left-hand side view for instance is drawn on the right
side of the front view. Similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the bottom of the front
view, etc.

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The Third Angle Projection
Symbol

Figure 51: The Third Angle Projection

In here, the front view is the basis (just as before) but the other views are drawn as
‘reflections’ of that view. The left-hand side view is drawn on the left-hand side of the front
view. Similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the top of the front view.
Example: The Front View (FV), Left Hand Side View (LHSV) and Top View (PLAN) of
the given object

SOLUTION I
First Angle Projection

SOLUTION II

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Third Angle Projection

Assembly Drawings
As the name indicates, assembly drawings are nothing more but a collection of detail
drawings (each of which forms part of that assembly) put together in a logical way. The
drawing serves someone who is to assemble the individual parts so as to get a single unit
in its working condition.
Notes
• Only the external extreme dimensions of the assembly are indicated.
• Each component is identified by its part reference number. This number is used in
the parts list.
• (Where details of that part are indicated e.g. the drawing number for its detail
drawing).
• Sectional views are in most cases preferred as they show in a detailed form how the
parts interact in an assembly.
• Only one view is normally drawn, unless where the unit is so complex such that the
interaction of all parts cannot be clearly presented in one view.

Figure 52: Assembly drawing

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If the unit has one or more moving parts, the extreme positions of the moving part are
indicated in dotted lines (and the dimensions). This allows for consideration on space
limitation during installation

Figure 53: Assembly drawing without detail Specifications

Detail specifications of the individual parts are never shown on an assembly drawing (as
they already appear on the respective detail drawing of the respective part)

Exercise to summarize
1. Draw an assembly of two stainless steel plates (SS 306) held together by a bolt and
a nut (SS 318).

Figure 54: Stainless steel plates

NOTE: Materials SS 306 and SS 318 are different

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 2. Draw the orthographic projections of the following points.
a) Point P is 30 mm above HP and 40 mm in front of VP
b) Point Q is 25 mm above HP and 35 mm behind VP
c) Point R is 32 mm below HP and 45 mm behind VP
d) Point Sis 35 mm below HP and 42 mm in front of VP
e) Point T is in HP and 30 mm. is behind VP
f) Point U is in VP and 40 mm below HP
g) Point V is in VP and 35 mm above HP
h) Point W is in HP and 48 mm in front of VP

Projection of Lines
The shortest distance between two points is called a straight line. The projectors of a
straight line are drawn therefore by joining the projections of its end points. The possible
projections of straight lines with respect to V.P and H.P in the first quadrant are as follows:
i. Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other.
ii. Parallel to both the planes.
iii. Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other.
iv. Inclined to both the planes.

Conclusion
This outcome covered orthographic views, pictorial drawing, oblique drawings, sectioning,
axonometric, auxiliary first, and third angle projections, and free hand sketching.

Further Reading

1. Geometric and Engineering drawing Third Edition K Morling.

2. Engineering Drawing with CAD Applications by O. OSTROWSKY

3.3.5.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Orthographic projection is drawn using two methods which is ___________
a) Second angle and third angle method
b) First angle and third angle method

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 c) First angle and fourth angle method
d) Second angle and fourth angle method

2. The method in which the object is placed in the first quadrant is known as ____ method.
a) Third angle
b) Second angle
c) First angle
d) Fourth angle
3. In first angle method the top view is drawn _______ of the front view.
a) Above
b) Right Side
c) Left side
d) Bottom
4. The method in which the object is placed in the third quadrant is known as __________
method.
a) Third angle
b) Second angle
c) First angle
d) Fourth angle
5. In third angle method the top view is drawn _______ of the front view.
a) Above
b) Right Side
c) Left Side
d) Bottom
6. Question that fall is for the diagram drawn below:

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7. Taking ‘A’ as the FRONT VIEW. Which view will letter ‘D’ represent?

a)

b)

c)

d)

Oral assessment
What is the difference between orthographic projection and isometric drawing?

Practical Assessment
Draw the orthographic of vehicle engine

3.3.5.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

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3.3.5.5 References

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing. Routledge.

Shrock, C. R. (2004). Exercise workbook for beginning AutoCAD 2005. Industrial Press
Inc.
Yamaguchi, F. (2012). Curves and surfaces in computer aided geometric design. Springer
Science & Business Media.

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3.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings
3.3.6.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Select CAD packages • Provide all the

5.2 Apply CAD packages in production of electrical information of the object
drawings to be drawn i.e.
dimensions
3.3.6.2 Information Sheet No3/LO6: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings

Introduction
This outcome covers use of CAD applications to draw pictorial and orthographic drawings
and sectioning, symbols and abbreviations, 2D and 3D drafting technique and apply CAD
packages in production of electrical drawings.

Definition of key terms

CAD (Computer Aided Design): It is the use of computer software to design and
document a product’s design process.

Engineering drawing: The use of graphical symbols such as points, lines, curves, planes
and shapes.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
CAD (Computer Aided Design) is the use of computer software to design and document a
product’s design process. To many engineering problems, a solution requires a
combination of organization, analysis, problem solving principles and a graphical
representation of the problem. Objects in engineering are represented by a technical
drawing/drafting that represents designs and specifications of the physical object and data
relationships. Since a technical drawing is precise and communicates all information of the
object clearly by use of Computer Aided Design. CAD is used to design, develop and
optimize products. CAD is used in the design of tools and equipment required in the
manufacturing process as well as in the construction domain.

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How CAD software system works

Figure 55: Working of a CAD system

CAD software enables

• Efficiency in the quality of design
• Increase in the Engineer’s productivity
• Improve record keeping through better documentation and communication

Types of CAD Software

• 2D CAD
• 3D CAD
• 3D Wireframe and Surface Modelling
• Solid Modelling

Figure 56: Types of CAD software

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2-Dimensional CAD (2D CAD)
2D CAD is the pioneer of CAD software, developed in the early 70s. It relies on basic
geometric shapes like lines, rectangles, circles, etc. to produce flat drawings. Autodesk is
one of the pioneering companies that has played a significant role in developing CAD
software.

3-Dimensional CAD (3D CAD)

It is a step up from the 2D CAD software. It allows creation of 3D images that are realistic.
These images are called 3D models as they can be viewed and rotated in any direction –
X, Y or Z.

Classification of CAD software in terms of their operating parameters

a) Single-file-mode systems: This type of CAD software that allows only a single
user to work on a single file at a time.
b) Referenced file-mode systems: This type of software, users work on their own
files with the files of other users attached as a background. This enables users to
leverage other users' work as background data.
c) Collabourative-mode systems: These CAD systems take the referenced-mode
system to the next level. They allow a team of users to collabouratively work with
each other's data and see the changes other users make to the data as they go. The
giants in this field e.g. AutoCAD is used in different modes of an operation.
d) Wire-frame models: They create skeleton like models with lines and arcs. Since
they appear to be made of wires, and everything in the background is visible, they
are called wire-frame models.
e) Surface models: These models are created by joining 3D surfaces. The surface
models are quite realistic.
f) Solid models: They are the most useful CAD models. They also have additional
properties like weight, volume and density, just like actual physical objects. These
models are commonly used as prototypes to study engineering designs.
g) Nano CAD: It is a professional grade CAD tool that is used by thousands of
engineers and designers around the world. Nano CAD plus comes with some
additional features. Both of the versions are available at a low-cost annual
subscription including timely updates and priority online support.

138
Figure 57: Nano CAD
Source: www.actcad.com

Features
• Nano CAD and Nano CAD versions are designed For Microsoft Windows (Vista
7, 8, and 10).
• Nano CAD software provides great user experience as it is a multipurpose free
drafting software.
• The classic-style CAD user interface offers a command set and UI elements that
are familiar and comfortable to users of many other compatible applications of
CAD.
• Nano CAD software natively uses the industry-standard DWG (*.dwg) file format.
• It has a powerful Excel-style table editor having an extensive set of capabilities.
• ActiveX Automation and LISP to automate everyday routine tasks.
• C++/C# API and several other types of API to build CAD applications.

User interface and various tool bars and commands

CAD has a very versatile user interface that allows you to control the program in several
different ways. At the top of the window is a row of menus. Clicking on the Home, Insert,
or Annotate causes another selection of menus to appear. This new selection of commands
is frequently called a Ribbon or a Dashboard. You can operate the program by clicking on
the icons in these menus.

139
Figure 58: 2D user interface
Source: www.actcad.com

Application of CAD in engineering (2D and 3D)

Set the CAD parameters as per the drawing’s requirements.

Figure 59: Setting CAD parameters

Source: www.actcad.com

140
Apply different commands to produce engineering drawings.

Figure 60: 2D CAD illustration

Source: www.archdaily.com

Figure 61: 3D CAD illustration

Source: www.archdaily.com

Electrical drawings
Electrical drawings are technical documents that depict and notate designs for electrical
systems. Workers use these documents to install systems on-site. Every type of component
and connection has its own specialized symbol and every detail matter in electrical
drawings.

141
Figure 62: Electrical drawing
Source: www.electrical-engineering-portal.com

CAD enables these engineers to create electrical and electronic diagrams, control circuit
diagrams, schematics and documentation. CAD certainly improves the productivity of
electrical engineers as they are able to build default circuits and reuse them later. CAD
comes with libraries of parts and symbols which allow electrical engineers to automate
design tasks and generate bills of materials (BOM) reports. It’s possible to create electrical
schematic designs based on wire material type, temperature and maximum voltage drop.

Figure 63: Electrical engineer design

Source: www.electrical-engineering-portal.com

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How to read electrical drawings
Symbols used to notate components in an electrical drawing
Lights
Use AutoCAD tools to diagram lighting sources

Figure 64: Lights symbol

Source: www.electrical-engineering-portal.com

Switches
From single-pole to multiple-pole, AutoCAD can help you diagram electrical circuits.

Figure 65: Switch symbol

Source: www.electronicshub.org

Fuses
Fuses limit the flow of current to prevent damage to other components. With AutoCAD,
fuses are easier to design and diagram.

Figure 66: Fuse symbol

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Ground
Electrical circuits must connect to the ground to maintain safety. the correct ways to
diagram electrical grounds with AutoCAD

Figure 67: Ground symbol

Source: www.electronicshub.org

WIRES
Wires connect components, and AutoCAD gives you the design power to specify what you
need.

Figure 68: Wires symbol

Source: www.electronicshub.org

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Resistors
AutoCAD gives you the design tools to diagram resistors, which reduce current flow, adjust
signal levels, divide voltages, and more.

Figure 69: Resistor symbols

Source: www.electronicshub.org

Capacitors
Capacitors store potential energy; they're polarized or non-polarized. The AutoCAD
Electrical toolset enables you to diagram capacitors correctly.

Figure 70: Capacitor

Source: www.electronicshub.org

Power sources
AutoCAD makes the planning and design from DC to AC currents and batteries process
easy.

Figure 71: Power sources symbols

Source: www.electronicshub.org

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Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineers are concerned with the improvement and modification of mechanical
components and systems. They research, design, develop and test mechanical devices.
They also research designs and make recommendations based on industry standards and
regulations. CAD comes in handy as engineers can design components and assemblies to
fit their strict technical specifications. Some CAD programs can also automatically
generate a bill of materials (BOM) for a particular design, based on a library of
components. Mechanical engineers also make use of simulation to test everything from
stress to measuring vibrations in order get the perfect output without having to create and
modify real-world prototypes.

Figure 72: CAD mechanical design

Source: www.cadpro.com

Advantages of CAD
• Designs can be altered without erasing and redrawing.
• It offers "zoom" features analogous to a camera lens, whereby a designer can
magnify certain elements of a model to facilitate inspection.
• Computer models are three dimensional and can be rotated on any axis, much as
one could rotate an actual three-dimensional model in one's hand, enabling the
designer to gain a fuller sense of the object.
• Lend themselves to modelling cutaway drawings, in which the internal shape of a
part is revealed, and to illustrating the spatial relationships among a system of
parts.

146
Disadvantages of CAD
• Have no means of comprehending real-world concepts, such as the nature of the
object being designed or the function that object will serve.
• Function by their capacity to codify geometrical concepts thus the design process
using CAD involves transferring a designer's idea into a formal geometrical model.

Benefits of CAD to the Engineering Industry

• More precision and control
• Faster design execution
• Cost efficiency
• Better documentation and collabouration

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered types of CAD and 2D and 3D drafting technique.

Further Reading

1. https://www.scan2cad.com/cad/how-engineers-use-cad/

3.3.6.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The computer-aided design (CAD) hardware doesn’t include ___________
a) Graphic display terminals
b) Computer
c) Computer programs
d) Keyboard
2. How many types of CAD are there?
a) 6
b) 4
c) 2
d) 5
3. Modem CAD systems are based on ____________
a) ICG
b) GCI
c) GIF
d) IFG

147
4. The computer communicates with the user via ___________
a) CPU
b) CRT
c) Graphics
d) Display button
5. The process of designing consists of __________ identifiable steps.
a) 8
b) 5
c) 4
d) 6
6. The functionality areas of CAD application can be grouped into __________
categories.
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
7. The colour on CRT screen is obtained by the combination of ____________
a) Red, yellow, blue
b) Red, green, blue
c) Green, black, yellow
d) Red, black, yellow
8. The input devices in CAD can be divided into _____________
a) 2
b) 5
c) 3
d) 4
9. An orthographic projection map is a map projection of __________
a) Sphere
b) Earth
c) Cartography
d) Top view

Oral Assessment
1. What are the benefits of CAD?
2. What are the uses of CAD in mechanical engineering?

148
Practical Assessment
1. Use CAD application to draw the following views of the figure below in first angle
projection.
a) Front elevation looking from the direction arrow A
b) End elevation looking from the direction arrow B

3.3.6.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

149
3.3.6.5 References

Hubka, V. (2015). Principles of engineering design. Elsevier.

Morling, K. (2012). Geometric and Engineering Drawing. Routledge, amazon

150
 CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
This Unit describes the competencies required to Perform Structural Design and Analysis.
It involves analysing structural designs, designing structural elements, preparing structural
drawings interpreting structural drawings and applying structural drawings

4.2 Performance Standard

Analyse structural elements, design structural elements, prepare structural drawings,
interpret structural drawings and apply structural drawings according to building codes,
structure, drawing and support requirements, and structural design requirements.

4.3 Learning Outcomes

4.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Analyse structural elements
b) Design structural elements
c) Prepare structural drawings
d) Interpret structural drawings
e) Apply and use structural drawings

151
 4.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyze Structural Elements
4.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Structural Elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Determine methods used in analyses of structural • Demonstration by trainer

members • Practical work by trainee
1.2 Work loadings • Demonstration videos
1.3 Sketch structural members • Projects
1.4 Determine maximum moments in each section • Group discussions
1.5 Draw shear force and bending moments diagram

4.3.2.2 Information Sheet No4/L01: Analyse Structural Elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Analyses of structural elements, Preparation of sketches,
Determination of maximum moments and Structural designs.

Definition
Building codes: These are laid down standards for any building structure.

Bending moments: These are structural reactions when a structure is subjected to moment
or applied load.

Shear force: This is the reaction imposed by a structure when loads are imposed.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Determine Methods used in analyses of structural members according to building
codes
Several methods are used in the analysis of structural members. A structural system is made
up of different members and each member is analysed differently. The methods of analysis
used in beams include:
a. Energy methods
Two methods are commonly used i.e.
• Methods of virtual work
• Castigliano’s theorem

152
 b. Displacement methods of analysis
• Slope deflection methods
• Moment distribution methods
c. Approximate methods of analysis.
• This method is used in the analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
d. Double integration method
• In this method, sign convention and boundary conditions are well defined. It
is mostly used in determining deflections.
e. Elastic beam theory
• The method relates to slope, displacement as well as the internal moments of
a beam. Its development is fully dependent on this.
f. Moment area methods
• This method is mainly used when checking for deflection. It involves
determining slope and deflection of an elastic curve.
g. Conjugate- beam method
• This method relies mainly on statics for determining deflection in beams.
h. Stiffness method of analysis

1.2 Work loadings on according to the structure

These are loadings that are subjected to a structure. Different structures are subjected to
different loadings depending on the location, height as well as purpose of use.
a. Dead loads
• These are loads that are permanent in a structure. They include the self-weight
of the structure, finishes, masonry etc.
• During analysis, these loads are taken into considerations to ascertain the
safety of the structure.
b. Live loads
• These are loads that are temporary. They include people, furniture, etc.
• There are other types of live loads such as impact loads (loads imposed by
moving cars), highway bridge loads (caused by traffic), wind loads and snow
loads.

153
1.3 Sketch structural members as per the drawings and support requirements

i. Column ii. Frame iii. Beam

iv. Truss
Figure 73: Sketch structural members

1.4 Determine maximum moments in each section in accordance with appropriate

methods
Maximum moments in different sections of a structural member is determined using
mathematical equations.
It is also necessary to note that maximum moment occurs at zero- shear force.
The line of influence method of determining maximum moment is often used for
statically determinate structures.
The method assumes that summation of shear force area under the influence line is
the moment at any given section in the structure.

That is, Mmax= Summation of area under shear

✓ For statically indeterminate structures, the force method is used in which,
𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ----- fixed support beams
8

𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ------ Simply supported beams
8

154
1.5 Draw shear force and bending moments diagram according to structural design
requirements
Drawing shear force and bending diagrams is very essential since it creates an image of
how a structure will fail.
Before doing so, one is required to follow certain procedures as discussed below:
Shear force diagram
a. Determine Shear, V at distance x. Distance x is always the distance from
one load application to another.
b. Plot a graph of V against x
Bending moment diagram
a. Determine moment, M by find the area under shear in the SFD.
b. Plot a graph of moment M, against distance x.
The diagram attached below is an example of how to draw a bending moment diagram
(BMD) as well as the shear force diagram (SFD)

Figure 74: bending moment

Source: Structural mechanics, 2008

155
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered Analyses of structural elements, Preparation of sketches,
Determination of maximum moments and Structural designs.

Further Reading

4.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Which one of the following is a type of load?
a) Furniture load
b) Rail truck load
c) Live load
d) Steel load
2 Which of the following is a method is used to analyze statically indeterminate
structure?
a) Influence line analysis method
b) Superposition
c) Energy methods
d) Finite element method.
3 The following methods are used in the analysis of trussed which one is not?
a) Method of joints
b) Method of sections
c) Virial work methods
d) Influence line methods
4 Which of the following is not a displacement method of analysis?
a) Castigliano’s theory
b) Slope deflection equations
c) Moment distribution method
5 Which of the following is not a structural member?
a) Beams
b) Walls
c) Columns
d) Frames
6 Define what is a structure

156
7 Explain the importance of structural analysis
8 Differentiate between Structural design and structural analysis
9 What is the difference between influence line and shear force and bending moment
diagram?
10 Differentiate
1. Column
2. Beam
3. Frame
4. Truss
11 Discuss Displacement methods in details
12 For each of the methods outlined, discuss their shortcomings.

Oral Assessment
1. What is analysis?
2. Why do we need to analyze structures?

Project Assessment
1. Analyze a one-story building.

4.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British Standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

4.3.2.5 References

Bhavikatti, S. (2010). Structural analysis. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

Hibbeler, R. (2012). Structural analysis. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Kaveh, A. (2004). Structural mechanics. Baldock, England: Research Studies Press.
Stanford, J. (2012). Structural Analysis Made Easy.

157
4.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements
4.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Gather Design recourses • Demonstration by trainer

2.2 Identify types of structural elements • Practical work by trainee
2.3 Identify different methods of designs • Demonstration videos
2.4 Identify different types of standard design codes • Projects
2.5 Determine maximum moments used in design • Group discussions
2.6 Identify and gather design tools and equipment
2.7 Design structural elements

4.3.3.2 Information Sheet No4/L02 Design structural elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Structural designs, Methods of designs, Design codes,
Design tools and equipment, Structural elements designs and Schedules for different
elements.

Definition of key terms

Structural elements: Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is
concerned with preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the
ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in
the world as a physical object.

Structural designs: This refers to the process of undertaking a structural analysis and
selecting materials, member types, configuration and size to safely carry and transfer the
intended loads both in a serviceability and ultimate limit state.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Gather Design recourses according to standard design requirements
In design, it is said that there is no one way of solving a design problem. Focusing on just
one solution instead of considering other alternatives is almost certain that you are
overlooking other attractive solutions. Generating design options is a phase in project
planning known as conceptual design and it includes producing ideas and taking into
account the advantage and limitations of implementing those ideas.

158
This is done to manage costs, minimize the likelihood of errors, evaluate success and assess
risks of undertaking the intended project. Some of the design recourses undertaken in
project include:
i) Changing the materials.
ii) Changing the member types.
iii) Changing the member configuration and arrangement.
iv) Changing the member sizes.

2.2 Identify types of structural elements as per building codes

Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is concerned with
preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the ultimate limit state and
the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in the world as a physical
object. The following are some of the structural elements:
i) Foundations: The foundation is part of an engineered system that transmits to
the underlying soil or rock the loads supported by the foundation itself and its
self-weight in such a way that the soil is not overstressed or excessive settlement
occurs.
ii) Columns: These are vertical members that majorly resist axial compressive
loads.
iii) Beams: These are horizontal members that primarily carry vertical loads and
resist failure in bending.
iv) Walls: A wall is a structure that demarcates the different spaces in a building
as well as the external boundary. Some walls are load bearing and carry the
structural loads of the building.
v) Ties: This is a slender structural element that carries the loads in tension.
vi) Struts: This a structural member that carries the loads in compression only.
vii) Trusses: This a structure that is composed of a series of struts and is used to
carry loads in compression.
viii) Frames: This type of structure is composed of beams and columns that are
either pin or fixed connected.
ix) Slabs: This are horizontal structures built to provide a flat surface in buildings.

2.3 Identify different methods of designs as per the design manuals

The following are the design methods according to BS 5950:
i) Simple design method: The connections between members are assumed not to
develop moments adversely affecting either the members or structure as a
whole. So, the structure is assumed to be pinly-jointed for analysis.
ii) Semi-rigid design method: Are capable of transmitting some moments. Here
the joints are capable of transmitting partial moment.

159
 iii) Rigid design method: Connections are assumed to be capable of transmitting
100% moment required by analysis assuming full continuity.
iv) Experimental verification: The code states that where design of a structure or
elements by calculation in accordance with any of the above methods is not
practical, the strength will be confirmed by loading tests.

2.4 Identify different types of standard design codes according to construction

materials
The following are some of the design codes currently in use in Kenya:
i) Design of reinforced concrete structures- BS 8110
ii) Design of steel framed buildings- BS 5950
iii) Design of timber structures- BS 5628
iv) Design code on the occupancy load requirements of a building- BS 6399 Part
1.

2.5 Determine maximum moments used in design according to standard

specification manuals
The maximum bending moment occurs in beam where the shear force is zero. Below is a
table showing how to calculate bending moment for various types of beams:

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Table 4: How to calculate bending moment for various types of beams

Source: www.learneasy.info

2.6 Identify and gather design tools and equipment according to standard design
manuals
Check the tools, equipment, supplies and materials section.

2.7 Design structural elements as per the design codes

The following is the procedure followed in the design of a beam according to BS 5950:
i) Determine the loading condition of the beam.
ii) Calculate the design load of the beam.
iii) Perform structural analysis to determine the design moment and the design
shear.
iv) Perform a strength classification and section classification.
v) Choose a section based on its moment capacity equation.
vi) Perform a moment capacity check.
vii) Perform a shear capacity check.
viii) Evaluate whether it’s a low or high shear load.
ix) Perform a deflection limits check.
x) Perform a web bearing check.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered structural designs, methods of designs, design codes, design
tools and equipment, structural elements designs and schedules for different elements.

Further Reading

1. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of reinforced concrete structures-BS 8810.

BSI.
2. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of steel structures-BS 5950. BSI.
3. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of timber structures-BS 5628. BSI.

4.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a type of foundation?
a) Mat
b) Isolated footing
c) Retaining wall
d) Combined footing
2. Which of the following is not a check done during the design of reinforced concrete
beam?
a) Shear capacity check.
b) Moment capacity check.
c) Web buckling check.
d) Deflection check
3. Which of the following is not a phase during design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. Which of the following is not a structural element?
a) Ties
b) None
c) Trusses
d) Joists
5. Design a reinforced concrete beam of your choosing according to the design code BS
8110.

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6. Describe the various type of foundations and when should be used.
7. Describe the design principles that should guide an engineer during the design process.
8. Describe the main design theories.
9. Write an essay describing the how an engineer with poor communication skills can
lead to poor quality construction.

Project Assessment
1. Using a BIM software application of your choice obtain architectural drawings from
the internet and develop a corresponding structural model.

Oral Assessment
1. Describe how you as a student pursuing a diploma of civil engineering can develop
shop drawings for fabrication of steel members when requested by the professional
engineer.
2. What skills have you gained as a result of performing the project assessment described
above.

4.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

4.3.3.5 References

Abdy Kermani (2008) Structural timber design. Blackwell science, London.

N. Subramanian (2010). Steel structures design and practice. Oxford university press, New
Delhi.
W.H Mosley, R. Hulse, J.H Bungey (2012). Reinforced Concrete Design. Red Globe Press,
New York.

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4.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare Structural Drawings
4.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare structural drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify and gather drawing resources • Demonstration by trainer

3.2 Determine methods of drawing for structural • Practical work by trainee
members • Demonstration videos
3.3 Prepare standard working structural drawings for • Projects
various elements • Group discussions
3.4 Prepare materials schedules

4.3.4.2 Information Sheet No4/ L03 Prepare structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Drawing tools and equipment, Methods of drawing, Standard
structural drawings and Preparation of material schedules.

Definition of key terms

Drawing resources: This refers to the various resources required in order to produce the
complete set of structural drawings.

Structural members: Structural members have to do with the part of the building that is
concerned with preserving the physical integrity.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify and gather drawing resources according to structural elements designed
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

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3.2 Determine methods of drawing for structural members as per the designs
Structural drawings confine themselves to the load-carrying members of a structure.
The following outlines the methods for drawing structural members:
i) Structural plan. These drawings show the floor, foundation and roof plan of a
building and provide information like location and size of different elements
present in the plans.
ii) Elevations. These shows the exterior walls of a building or structure and the
structural properties of elements present in the walls and cannot be seen in plan
drawings.
iii) Sections. These are referenced in the plan drawings and provide more
information about elements that may not be seen in plan drawings.
iv) Detail drawings. These provides particular information on how to connect or
construct the structural elements.

3.3 Prepare standard working structural drawings for various elements as per
designs
Structural drawings have to be produced as the design process evolves since the drawings
are required in construction of the structure. Production of structural drawings takes place
as follows:
i) The schematic architectural drawings are obtained from the architect.
(Conceptual design phase)
ii) The engineer determines the loadings applied to the structure based on the
drawings and performs design to size the members according to the forces
applied to the building. (Developed design phase)
iii) As the design process evolves the engineer produces more detailed drawings,
bar bending schedules, notes, specifications, details and at the end of this stage
we have construction ready documents. (Technical design phase)
iv) The drawings are included in a tender pack to be tendered together with
drawings from other disciplines during the bidding and tendering process.

3.4 Prepare materials schedules as per design codes

A material schedule is a detailed list of construction materials required to complete
construction of the intended project.
i) Decide what is required. This requires that you thoroughly interrogate the
drawings and specifications to determine the required materials.
ii) Decide whether to prefabricate the materials or construct on-site. This involves
deciding whether to purchase materials for construction on-site or purchase
prefabricated components.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered drawing tools and equipment, methods of drawing, standard
structural drawings and preparation of material schedules.

Further Reading

1. N.Krishna Raju (1992) Structural design and drawing: Reinforced concrete and steel.
Universities Press.
2. Leonard Koel. (1999) Construction print reading. Delmar Cengage Learning.

4.3.4.4 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a method of drawing structural members?
a) Specifications
b) Structural plans
c) Elevations
d) Details
2. Which of the following is not among the drawing resources required to produce
structural plans?
a) Computers
b) Computer software
c) Standard design manuals
d) Office equipment
3. Which of the following is not a phase during design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. State the various computer software required in the production of structural drawings.
5. Explain the procedure of developing shop drawings.
6. Describe what is detailing of structural drawings.
7. Write an essay describing Building Information Modelling (BIM) and its impact on the
production of structural drawings.

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Project Assessment
Obtain a set of structural drawings for a project from the internet and interpret them to draw
up a material schedule.

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the skills required to competently interpret structural drawings.
2. Explain the steps followed in interpreting structural drawings.

4.3.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

4.3.4.5 References

R.K Dhawan (2012). A textbook of engineering drawing. S.Chand 3rd rev.

Leonard Koel. (2000) Construction print reading. Delmar Cengage Learning.

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4.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Interpret structural drawings
4.3.5.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret structural drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify project • Demonstration by trainer

4.2 Identify and obtain structural drawings • Practical work by trainee
4.3 Obtain and prepare steel schedules and • Demonstration videos
materials schedules • Projects
• Group discussions

4.3.5.2 Information Sheet No4/ L04 Interpret structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Identification of project, Structural drawings, Steel and
material schedules preparation and Standard construction procedures

Definition of key terms

Steel schedules: This is a list that explains the location, mark, type, size, length and number
of each steel bar in a reinforcement drawing of a structure.

Structural drawings: These are plans illustrating in detail how a structure or building
should be constructed. Engineers come up with structural drawings from performing
checks using the loads that the structure is to carry, co-currently with standard codes.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Identify project according to the contract document
Project Identification is one of the major stages of a project cycle
Steps taken in identifying a project:
• Preliminary stakeholder analysis
• Analyzing the problem
• Setting of Objectives
• Analyzing alternatives
• Analyzing accountability
• Logical framework thinking
• Analyzing assumptions and associated risks
• Definition of Progress indicator
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4.2 Identify and obtain structural drawings as per design manuals
Structural drawings
These are plans illustrating in detail how a structure or building should be constructed.
Engineers come up with structural drawings from performing checks using the loads that
the structure is to carry, co-currently with standard codes.

Structural drawings should basically include the following information;

• Setting out dimensions
• Notes describing the specifications
• Sections, plans and elevations
• Compass direction – North point

Reinforcement Drawing
These are drawings describing the location, number, size, type of reinforcement and
illustrate the direction in which the reinforcement is to be laid.

Standard Details
This is a description of certain standard details that keep recurring in several structural
drawings and are kept for use whenever necessary.
Standard details include;
• Notes
• Expansion joints details
• Concrete box culverts
• Pile caps and column bases

Record Drawings
This is a drawing that has been revised to cater for unforeseen challenges. A revision letter
is normally included in the revised drawing to indicate that it is a revision.

4.3 Obtain and prepare steel schedules and materials schedules according to
construction procedures
Factors to be considered when preparing a Steel Schedule
• Location of reinforcement
• Mark of reinforcement
• Type of reinforcement
• Size of reinforcement – diameter of steel
• Length of reinforcement
Factors to be considered when preparing a Materials Schedule
• Type of material
• Amount of material

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of project, structural drawings, steel and
material schedules preparation and standard construction procedures.

Further Reading

Read further on the Project cycle

4.3.5.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Structural drawings should basically include the following information. Which one is
not among them?
a) Setting out dimensions
b) Notes describing the specifications
c) Sections, plans and elevations
d) Amount of material
2. While developing a steel schedule, the site engineer left out one crucial detail
necessary. Which one of the following is it?
a) Color of reinforcement
b) Location of reinforcement
c) Dimensions of structure
d) Height of the structure
3. Define the term Structural drawings
4. State three types of construction drawings
5. Discuss in detail the steps taken in project identification

Oral Assessment
Why is it necessary to master the art of interpreting structural drawings?

Practical Assessment
Get construction drawings of a given structure and point out the different structural element
present and come up with a steel schedule for the reinforcement

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4.3.5.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

4.3.2.5 References

McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design. Prentice Hall, 4th edition. ISBN:013221816X
Segui (2006). Steel Design. Cengage-Engineering, 4th edition. ISBN: 0495244716

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4.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings
4.3.6.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Identify and obtain construction resources • Demonstration by trainer

5.2 Gather statutory documents • Practical work by trainee
5.3 Determine setting out activities • Demonstration videos
5.4 Establish foundation • Projects
5.5 Prepare structural members • Group discussions
5.6 Develop and adhere to working drawing, steel
schedules and materials schedules

4.3.6.2 Information Sheet No5/ L05 Apply and use structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Interpretation of drawings, Statutory requirements,
Foundation engineering, Preparation of structural elements and Development of working
drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules

Definition of key terms

Statutory documents: This refers to documents with instructions or requirements which
are applicable by virtue of law enacted by the government.

Steel schedules: This is a list that explains the location, mark, type, size, length and number
of each steel bar in a Reinforcement Drawing of a Structure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Identify and obtain construction resources as per the tender documents
Construction resources – this is basically the materials and personnel necessary for the
construction process from start to finish.

Construction resources include;

a) Time – Time as a resource in construction is very sensitive since most construction
projects are working under a certain time frame requested by the client. The fact
that some construction works such as concrete works which require curing time
makes the resource of time quite valuable.

172
 b) Materials – Construction materials are a great resource since they sum up the
ingredients necessary to have a finished structural work. These include but are not
limited to building blocks, cement, sand, water, ballast etc.
c) Labour – this includes human personnel, from the manual worker to the
construction experts such as engineers.
d) Plant and Machinery – These are necessary in order to have some finished
products such as concrete which requires a concrete mixer.
e) Health and safety equipment – This is whereby we have guard rails at the edge
of high-rise buildings under construction, the use of bright coloured tape
surrounding shafts, presence of fire extinguishers on site and health and safety
training for all personnel.
f) Technology – technology such as a crane which is necessary for lifting heavy
construction materials such as steel, scaffolding, shuttering, buckets of concrete etc.
g) Works Requirement – This comprises of the working drawings and specifications
required for the construction project.
h) Construction site – This is the very place where the proposed structure is to be
constructed.

5.2 Gather statutory documents as per the project requirements

Statutory documents
This refers to documents with instructions or requirements which are applicable by virtue
of law enacted by the government. Almost every proposed development project has
statutory obligations that do not arise out of the contract, but are imposed by law. These
obligations are applicable to the design, construction and operation of buildings and will
depend on the specific nature of the proposed development.

Statutory documents are required for the following areas when drafting construction
contracts:
Labour
• The Employment Act 2007
• The Labour Institutions Act
• The Labour Relations Act

Tax
• The Income Tax Act
All workers in any construction project must be subject to the payment of income tax

Health and Safety

• Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 (OSHA)
• Work Injury Benefit Act, 2007

173
Environment and Pollution
• Environmental Management and Coordination Act

Noise
• Legal Notice No.61 (NEMA)

Traffic
• The Road Traffic Act

Building
• Building Regulations

Planning
• The Urban Planning Act

Public Procurement
• The Social Value Act

Products and Services

• The Supply of Goods and Services Act

5.3 Determine setting out activities according to the approved drawings and standard
construction processes
Setting Out – the act of establishing the location points of site boundaries, columns,
foundations, center-lines of walls and any other necessary structural part.

Types of Setting Out

• 3-4-5 method
Used especially in setting out right angles from certain points on the base line.
• Rope method
The rope method is used in setting out a perpendicular line in reference to the base
line, beginning from a point which is not on the base line.
• Single and Double Prismatic Square
This is used in setting out both right angles and perpendicular lines.
The methods of setting out listed above are used in conjunction with the total station,
prisms, etc.

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Steps undertaken in Setting out a building
• Clearing the site
• Obtain the working drawing of the proposed building
• Ensure that the materials for construction are ready
• A parallel line is then established
• The 3-4-5 setting out method is then used for setting out
• Profiles are then established
• The points of excavation on the profiled are nailed
• The points of the column on the profile are then nailed.

5.4 Establish foundation as per the working drawings and standard construction
procedures
Factors to be considered when establishing the foundation
• Excavation depth and volume
• Soil bearing capacity
• Base area of foundation
• Proximity to property lines

5.5 Prepare structural members in accordance with the working drawings

Structural Members
These are simple structural elements that when viewed or put together, make up the
structural body in a drawing

Structural members include;

• Columns – these are vertical elements that carry loads from slabs and beams.
• Beams – these are horizontal elements that carry loads from slabs and
sometimes walls
• Slab – these is a horizontal element that covers a described portion in the x-
plane and carries both fixed and static loads depending on the use of the
structure
• Stairs – are structural elements that are in the z-plane. They can be diagonal or
vertical in the y-plane and are horizontal in the x-plane.
• Walls – These are vertical elements constructed using masonry and can carry
loads.
• Foundations – this is a substructure element that transfers the loads of the
superstructure to ground

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5.6 Develop and adhere to working drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules
according to standard construction processes
Factors to be considered in developing Working Drawing
• Internal forces – Moment and Shear (ULS – Ultimate limit state)
• Safety Checks on deflection, cracking, corrosion and fire resistance
• Loads – dead loads and imposed loads
• Partial Safety factors – On dead loads a partial safety of 40% (1.4Gk) and a partial
safety factor of 60% on imposed loads (1.6Qk)
• Moment distribution

Factors to be considered when developing a Steel Schedule

• Location of reinforcement
• Mark of reinforcement
• Type of reinforcement
• Size of reinforcement – diameter of steel
• Length of reinforcement

Factors to be considered when developing a Materials Schedule

• Type of material
• Amount of material

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered interpretation of drawings, statutory requirements,
foundation engineering, preparation of structural elements and development of working
drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules.

Further Reading

Read further on statutory documents necessary for construction works in Kenya.

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4.3.6.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Sophia is a student undertaking a diploma course in civil engineering. While arranging
a bookshelf at her home, she came across structural drawings to their proposed new
home in Ruai. Which of the following was not a structural member in the drawings?
a) Columns
b) Beams
c) Slab
d) Steel reinforcement
2. Victor a recently graduate civil engineer was asked to come up with a steel schedule
back at work. Which of the following is not a factor he should consider while
developing the steel schedule?
a) Location of reinforcement
b) Size of reinforcement
c) Color of reinforcement
d) Length of reinforcement
3. In an interview for a civil engineering job, an interviewee was asked to state the steps
undertaken when setting out a building. Which of the following should have been his
first step?
a) Establishing the profile
b) Using the 3-4-5 method to set out
c) Clearing the site
d) Establishing a parallel line
4. State construction resources necessary for the construction process
5. State 5 factors to be considered when developing a working drawing
6. Using examples, define statutory documents
7. Discuss the significance of partial safety factors on loads and materials

Performance Based Evidence

Oral Assessment
What are the factors considered when selecting concrete cover?

Practical Assessment
Given a 4 by 5 two-way spanning solid slab, with the aid of a structural drawing, develop
a steel schedule for the slab.

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4.3.6.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

4.3.6.5 References

McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design. Prentice Hall, 4th edition. ISBN:013221816X
Segui (2006). Steel Design. Cengage-Engineering, 4th edition. ISBN: 0495244716

178
 CHAPTER 5: CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SCIENCE

5.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competence in applying building materials science. It involves
identifying essential construction materials, selecting quality construction materials,
testing construction materials and demonstrating knowledge in use of construction
materials.

5.2 Performance Standard

Identify essential construction materials, identify properties of construction materials,
manufacture construction materials, and select quality construction materials, use
construction materials, test construction materials and handle construction materials safely
based on construction requirements and project scope.

5.3 Learning Outcomes

5.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Identify essential construction materials
b) Identify the properties of construction materials
c) Manufacture construction materials
d) Select quality construction materials
e) Use construction materials appropriately
f) Test construction materials
g) Handle construction materials safely

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5.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials
5.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1. Obtain and interpret Bills of Quantities and working Visit construction
drawings sites.
1.2. Identify essential construction materials (stones, Conduct practical
bricks, clay and clay products, lime, cement, timber lessons.
and timber products, metals and alloys, paints and
varnishes and roofing materials)

5.3.2.2 Information Sheet No5/LO1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and
construction materials.

Definition of key terms

Bill of Quantities: This is a document typically prepared by the quantity surveyor that
provides a project’s specified measured quantities of the items of work in accordance with
the drawings and specifications in the tender documentation. Also referred to as BOQs or
BQ.

Drawings: These are visual representations of structures or objects which provide

dimensional and graphical information that can be used by a contractor in construction
works or suppliers to fabricate components of the work.

Specifications: They describe the specific materials and level of workmanship required
i.e. by compliance with manufacturers’ requirements.

Construction material: This refers to any material used for construction purposes.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1. Bills of Quantities and working drawings are obtained and interpreted
Bills of Quantities list all the materials required to complete the design for a construction
project of any structure. The BQs assist tenderers in the calculation of the construction cost
of their tender. The quantities may be measured in number, length, area, volume, weight
or time.

How to prepare Bills of Quantity (BQs)

Preparing a Bill of Quantity requires that the design is complete and a specification has
been prepared.

A standard method of measurement (SMM) is a reference document used to determine

the localized technique of construction measurement procedure needed to produce a valid
and good Bill of Quantity which is then incorporated into the contract document for the
project. Preparing a BQ based on SMM will help a contractor price the tender in a realistic
way. A standard method of measurement is reflective of actual works.

Set up a spreadsheet for the BQ (bill of quantity)

This includes columns to fill the item number, the rate for the item and total cost for the
item.

Table 5: Bill of Quantity

Item No Description Unit Quantity Rate Total Cost

The columns on the rate and total cost will be filled in by the contractor or binding on the
project. Technically you won’t have any values in those columns while drafting your BQ

List all the materials needed to complete the project

From the architect's plan, write a list of the building materials required and the amounts
needed for each. The architect can also specify the type of materials recommended for the
project. For example, when building a residential house, one might need bricks, concrete,
flooring materials etc. It is important to identify the unit of measurement for each of the
materials. Once you have determined the materials needed, fill your spreadsheet i.e,

181
Table 6: Materials needed to complete a project
Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Total
no cost
Excavations
Clear the site of all shrubs and
A undergrowth S.M. 249 50
Excavate vegetable soil average 150mm
B deep S.M. 249 100

Categorize the project into specific sections.

Since different parts of the project will be handled by different subcontractors, it is good
to split the list into sections. This makes it easier for the contractors or subcontractors to
know exactly what their cost will be for the project.

Make an initial cost estimate based on the architect's design

The standard method of measurement provides the prices of materials and labour required.
Summing up all these cost estimates gives a rough idea of the project cost even before it
starts. Materials suppliers, on the other hand, give different costs during the bidding.
Comparing bids from contractors ensure that one gets the best bid for their project.

Table 7: Initial cost estimate

Item No Description
A Element No 1

Substructures
B Excavations

A Element No 2
Superstructure
B Reinforced concrete

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Example: Proposed residential house
Table 8: Bill of Quantities
Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Total
cost
Element No 3
Internal Finishes
FLOORS
Cement and sand (1: 4) screeding smooth
trowelled
A 32mm thick sand cement screed prepared SM 120 36,000.00
to floor 300
B 32mm thick screed prepared to receive SM 120 66,000.00
ceramic tiles
TOTAL FOR ELEMENT NO 8
(CARRIED TO SUMMARY)

Advantages of Bills of Quantities

• Assist tenderers in the calculation of construction costs for their tenders
• Provides a schedule of rates assisting with the valuation of variations s
• Helps in valuing interim payments or the labourers
• For tenderers, it helps to create a low-risk and low-cost tendering environment

Working Drawings
These are construction drawings provided by the architect, to the contractor to facilitate
construction of works, or given to suppliers to fabricate components of the works.
Working drawings describe plans, sections, and elevation.

Types of Construction Drawings

• Architectural drawings: These demonstrate where the building will be located
and where all the building parts will be placed provided by the architect to the
contractor on site
• Structural drawings: They are drawings Prepared by the structural engineer
showing information about the structure, like the strength of different structural
elements, size and placement of reinforcement
• Electrical drawings: These are prepared by the electrical engineer showing details
and location of electrical wiring, fixtures, sub-station etc
• Plumbing and Sanitary drawings: Prepared by the services engineer, they show
location of sanitary, piping for water supply systems, fixtures and process to
connect every fixture.

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Essential construction materials
Building /construction materials refer to any substance either natural or manmade which is
used for construction purposes to create structures and buildings.
Some of the most building materials include;
a) Stone
It is the most commonly used material in Kenya.
There are two types of stones;
• Manually cut stones

b) Fired bricks
Commonly used for constructing walls and also arches, as a substitute to stone. How bricks
are made-clay is compressed to form blocks. It is then left to dry in the air. After drying,
they are burnt or fired in a kiln to permanently harden them.

c) Metal
Steel is the most popular metal used in the structural framework of buildings. It is preferred
in construction because it is strong, flexible and long-lasting. Other metals used are
aluminium and copper because of their rust and corrosion resistance. Copper is used for
electric wires, piping for water supply etc. Aluminium is used as roofing sheets, gutters,
decorations etc.

d) Sand
Used together with cement to make mortar, or masonry work and plaster.

e) Cement
Cement is mixed with sand and gravel aggregates to form concrete, used in building floors,
roads, bridges etc.
• It is the most essential building material.
• It is used in masonry work as an adhesive to hold bricks, blocks and stones in place.
• It is also used in plastering

f) Wood
Wood is used mostly in flooring, panelling and finishes. It is also popularly used in the
construction of roofs (trusses), doors etc

g) Roofing tiles
Most commonly known as clay tiles, they are durable and good in harvesting rainwater.
The tiles are thin flat slabs of fired clay, concrete, cement or metal laid in rows to form a
cover. Other types of construction materials include; glass, bamboo, EPs panels, glazed
ceramic tiles etc.

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The choice of building materials to be used in construction is determined by the following
factors;
• Availability
• Cost
• Durability

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and
construction materials.

Further Reading

1. Read more on building materials in modern industry from building material (2002) by
SK Nugget.

5.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is the purpose of a working drawing?
a) To convert a design into construction information and communicate to different
players in construction.
b) Present to the client for presentation works
2. Which material among the following is preferred as a load-bearing?
a) Fired bricks
b) Glass
c) Manually cut stones
3. Cement is mixed with gravel and sand aggregates to form?
a) Concrete
b) Tiles
c) Blocks
4. What is the role of an architect in relation to identification of materials?
a) Provide a Bill of Quantities
b) Generate construction drawings which will be used by the contractor

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5. Which of the following is not a virtual building material?
a) Images
b) Text
c) Wood
6. Is finishing drawing also a type of working drawing?
a) Yes
b) No
7. Which of the following is not a roofing material
a) Clay tiles
b) Aluminium sheets
c) Cement
8. Describe the difference between presentation drawings and working drawings?
9. Justify the roles of a quantity surveyor in relation to Material identification.
10. Using relevant examples, construct five types of working drawings
11. Steel is a preferred metal in construction. Justify.
12. Mention and explain 5 popular building materials in modern industry

Oral Assessment
1. Summarize the properties of building stone as a Building material.
2. Mr Waweru wants to construct a two bed room house. As an architecture, you have
been contracted to oversee the project and advice. Prepare a list of the materials he is
likely to use and justify the reasons.

Practical Assessment
Generate a complete Bill of Quantities from the information provided by the lecturer
Use the standard method of measurement (SMM) as a reference document

5.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

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5.3.2.5 References

S.K. Duggal (2000). Building Material, New York: New International Publishers
The federation of civil engineering contractors (2015) Civil Engineering Standard Method
of Measurement: ICE Virtual Library
The constructor (2009), Building Technology Guide. Nairobi: New International
Publishers

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5.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials
5.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

2.1. Identify physical properties (porosity, surface texture, • Demonstration

strength, density, thermal conductivity and wear and tear) of • Practical
construction materials assessment
2.2. Identify chemical properties (corrosion resistance and • Direct
chemical resistance) of construction materials instruction
2.3. Identify mechanical properties (toughness, hardness,
fatigue, strain and stress and creep and stress rupture) of
construction materials

5.3.3.2 Information Sheet No5/LO2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers physical properties of construction materials, chemical
properties of construction materials, mechanical properties of construction materials
engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and construction materials.

Definition of key terms

Code of practice: It is a document containing guidelines on how professionals in a specific
industry are supposed to conduct themselves in different situations when they appear as
consultants.

Chemical properties: It is any material’s character that showcases itself during or after its
interaction with the environment or other materials.

Mechanical properties: These are physical properties that construction materials exhibit
when forces (tension, compression and shear forces) are applied in different ways. Some
of these include tensile strength, elongation, fatigue limit and hardness.

Physical properties: These refer to physical attributes of materials that can be measured
or observed without changing the composition of materials. They include
porosity/permeability, surface, density, thermal conductivity and wear and tear.

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Building code: This refers to a document created/drafted by a government to control or act
as a standard for which all activities and specifications within the industry have to be met.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Physical properties of construction materials
Porosity
It is the measure of void spaces within the composition of a material and forms the basis
of telling how permeable material is (permeable-ease with which fluids percolate through
the voids of a material). It majorly affects materials such a masonry blocks and bricks
among others. It can be determined by checking the weight change of a material after it has
been submerged in water for a specific period of time by a structural engineer or
experienced masons. It affects the choice of the place where the material will be used
whether indoors or as an external material.

Surface texture
• It refers to the overall appearance of a material in its natural form and varies from
smooth to rough.
• It is necessary as it influences additional activities that are required for it to perform its
intended purpose and appearance.
• It is mostly decided by the client and architect based on the desired appearance.
• Its value is internationally determined but also subject to local trading laws and desired
profit margins by manufacturers.

Strength
• It refers to the ability of a material to bear an applied force without failure or
deformation.
• The desired strength of building material is determined by a structural engineer before
construction during the design stage when calculating the loading.
• It majorly affects loads bearing materials like columns and beams (concrete and steel
reinforcement) among others.
• It’s the measure that determines structural soundness.
• It’s determined by calculating comprehensive strength.

An important strength calculation in buildings is that of steel and it’s done through the
formula
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ÷ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎.

𝐶𝑆 = 𝐹 ÷ 𝐴

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Density
It refers to the mass per unit volume of a material. Knowledge of density is important as
it provides necessary information for the distribution of loads for structural purposes.
It’s calculated by the formula.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
It’s mostly relevant to the structural engineer.

2.2 Chemical properties of construction materials

Corrosion resistance
Corrosion refers to a process through which metallic materials change into more stable
compound namely oxides, sulfides and hydroxides in a natural gradual destruction process
due to exposure to elements. Corrosion-resistance refers to how well a material can
withstand damage from exposure to elements such as moisture and wind. It’s determined
by carrying out experiments in controlled environments by manufacturers. It majorly
affects reinforcement window and door frames and roofing materials.

Chemical resistance
It refers to the strength of a material to withstand changes from interaction with other
chemicals or solvents. It majorly affects the choice of paints and construction adhesives.
It’s measured and rated by manufactures with consideration made to the ISO standards. It
is necessary as it aims products that have zero to minimal effect on the people using the
spaces the materials are used. This is rather important when choosing materials for internal
finishes as use of toxic substances cannot be allowed in (reader's digest, 2020) (reader's
digest, 2020)living spaces. This is rather important when choosing materials for internal
finishes as toxic substances cannot be allowed in living spaces.

2.3 Mechanical properties of construction materials

Toughness:
It refers to a material strength to understand adverse conditions or rough handling.
It is necessary as fragile materials are handled with care while tough ones can even be left
exposed to the elements. The degree of toughness also affects the location and mode of
storage as well as when they would be ordered, purchased and delivered on-site.
Manufactures normally outline their materials degree of toughness and how to install and
handle them. It’s necessary as it enables professionals to avoid loses due to poor handling
and installation.

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Hardness
It refers to the comparative resistance of a mineral to scratching or the ability of a material
to resist deformation, indentation or penetration by means such an abrasion, drilling, impact
and wear measure in Mohs hardness scale. It’s important as it affects the workability of
materials.

Fatigue
It refers to the weakening of material in a progressive and localized manner caused by
repeating application of load. In structures, damage occurs when the materials experienced
stress range is considerably higher than material rating. It is calculated by manufactures
who then produce products with different ranges. On-site cracking of members shows that
there is fatigue.

Strain, stress, creep and stress rupture

These are forces that affect materials.
• Strain: Occurs as a result of tensional forces along the long axis.
• Stress: It refers to force per unit area that a material experiences which can be
tensile or compressive majorly external forces.
• Creep: Refers to the tendency of a solid material to slowly change in position or
deform when exposed to long term forces.
• Stress rapture: Its sudden and complete failure of a material under stress.

The impact of forces on materials is carried out by manufacturers and structural engineers
refer to their standards in designing. As the spectrum of ranges is rather varied it is
necessary to conform to standards.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered physical properties of construction materials, chemical
properties of construction materials, mechanical properties of construction materials
engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and construction materials.

Further Reading

From the internet read more on:

1. Properties of manufactured products/ engineered materials
2. Special materials such as rubber.
3. ISO standards

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5.3.3.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the followings, not a construction material property?
a) Surface texture
b) Density
c) Corrosion
d) Hardness
2. Which of the following properties is necessary when choosing a waterproof material?
a) Density
b) Surface texture
c) Fatigue
d) Hardness
3. Which of the below is not a physical construction material property.
a) Thermal conductivity
b) Wear and tear
c) Strength
d) Corrosion resistance
4. When a material undergoes permanent deformation, we say it has undergone? I.e. (over
a long period of time gradually)
a) Stress
b) Creep
c) Strain
d) Stretch
5. Who is in charge of calculating the strength of building materials?
a) Construction manager
b) Structural engineer
c) Client
d) Architect
6. Why is calculating of forces necessary?
a) To avoid fatigue
b) To cut on cost
c) To enhance the construction rate
d) To produce quality.
7. What does porosity affect?
a) Permeability
b) Toughness
c) Fatigue
d) Hardness

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8. Analyse permeability in reference to selection of Building materials.
9. Name two factors that affect the strength of building materials.
10. Summarise chemical properties that affect strength of materials during construction.
11. The mechanical properties of materials affect the strength of the material. As an
architect, justify.
12. Evaluate ways in which the toughness of a material affects its handling and storage?

Oral assessment
1. John has been advised to buy bricks to build a 5-storey building. Compose a report
outlining the advantages and physical properties of Brick.
2. State two mechanical properties of materials.

Practical Assessment
With reference to this learning outcome, carry out a project within a period of a weeks.
Collect 5 samples of building materials and produce a properties document for
presentation.

5.3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Calculators.
• A computer for research/ smartphones

5.3.3.5 References

Adam, S., Ogier, J. M., Cariou, C., Mullot, R., Labiche, J., & Gardes, J. (2000). Symbol
and character recognition: Application to engineering drawings. International
Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition, 3(2), 89-101.
Chang, S. Y., Al Bahar, S. K., & Zhao, J. (2012). Advances in Civil Engineering and
Building Materials. CRC Press.
Pacheco-Torgal, F., Jalali, S., & Fucci, A. (Eds.). (2012). Toxicity of building materials.
Elsevier.

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5.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Manufacturing Construction materials
5.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Manufacturing construction materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1. Identify raw materials • Demonstration

3.2. Manufacture construction materials • Use of charts
• Field trips

5.3.2.2 Information Sheet No5/LO3: Manufacturing construction materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identifying raw materials based on construction materials to
be produced and manufacturing construction materials as per manufacturing procedures.

Definition of key terms

Raw materials: Raw materials are substances or materials used in the initial
manufacturing and production of materials

Concrete: It is a material comprising a mixture of aggregate and cement or asphalt.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1. Raw materials are identified based on construction materials to be produced
There are three main types of construction materials in Kenya:
• Cement: Primary raw materials are limestone (supplies the lime in bulk) and clay,
marl or shale (supplies the silica, alumina and ferric oxide in bulk). Other
supplementary materials such as fly ash / pulverised fuel ash (PFA), sand or
ironstone to achieve the desired bulk.
• Brick: The raw material is clay.
• Concrete: The raw materials are fine and coarse aggregate, water and cement.

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3.2 Construction materials are manufactured as per manufacturing procedures
Cement: Cement manufacturing is a complex procedure that begins with mining and
grinding raw materials which include clay and limestone, to a fine powder known as raw
meal, which is then heated to a sintering temperature as high as 14500c in a cement kiln. In
this process, the chemical bonds of the raw materials are broken down and recombined into
new compounds which are known as clinker, which are rounded nodules between 1mm
and 2.5mm across. Clinker is ground to a fine powder in a cement mill and mixed with
gypsum to create cement. The powdered cement is then mixed in water and aggregates to
form the concrete that is used in construction.
Clinker quality depends on raw materials composition, which has to be closely monitored
to ensure cement quality.

Concrete
The main concrete manufacturing process is as follows
• Batching
• Mixing
• Transporting
• Placing
• Compacting
• Curing

Batching: This is a major stage in the manufacturing of concrete. There is a measuring of

materials (raw materials) such as aggregates, cement and water necessary for the
preparation of different grades.
There are two processes:

• The volume batching is by mixing volume of the materials.

• The weight batching is by mixing materials with its volume. it has a ratio according
to standard codes such as M10, M20, M25, and M30 for concrete

Mixing: This is done to produce high quality and uniform concrete. Separate paste mix
shows the mixing of water and cement into a paste then combines with aggregates. This
increase the compressive strength of concrete. This mix of paste in shear-type mixer is at
high speed with 0.30 to 0.45 water-cement ratio. Aggregates are blended with premix paste.
The remaining batch final and water mix complete in a rotating concrete mixing equipment.

Transporting - After mixing, it should be transported on the site with great care. The
concrete transporting by trucks reach the construction site early and are more efficient.

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Placing: In a good manner without segregation to reach maximum efficiency. The height
depends on the separation of cement paste and aggregates; the higher the height the more
probability of separation. Segregation of concrete causes honeycomb.
Compacting: Is the process which expels air trapped from freshly placed concrete and
packs the particles together to increase the density of the concrete.

Curing: This is done to provide the best hardness and strength to concrete which helps the
concrete to gain strength. It prevents cracking at the surface and avoids freezing and
overheating of concrete.

Flow chart for manufacturing concrete

Figure 75: Flow chart for manufacturing concrete

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Brick
There are four main different operations are involved.
• Preparation of clay
• Moulding
• Drying
• Burning

a) Preparation of clay
It is done in six steps:
i. Unfailing of clay- Pure clay is needed, the top layer of soil contains impurities,
therefore, 200mm depth of clay is thrown away
ii. Digging- Clay is dug out from the ground and spread on the plain ground
iii. Cleaning- is the removal of stones and vegetable matter, then it is washed and cleaned.
iv. Weathering- The clean clay is exposed to the atmosphere for softening. The period
maybe 3-4 weeks.
v. Blending- Addition of any ingredient to the clay by making the clay loose and
spreading the ingredients over it.
vi. Tempering- Addition of water to clay and mixing or pressing. The pressing is done
by cattle or men according to the scale of the project.

b) Moulding of clay
The prepared clay is moulded into a brick shape. It can be done in two ways (according to
the scale of the project)
• Hand moulding for small scale
• Machine moulding for large scale

c) Drying of raw bricks

It is done otherwise they may be cracked while burning. The process is done naturally.
Therefore, it is to remove moisture from the bricks.

d) Burning of brick
The dried bricks are burned either in kilns (for large scale) or clamps (for small scale) up
to a certain temperature. The required temperature required for burning is about 11000c.
this stage, the bricks gain hardness and strength as require.

197
Figure 76: Flowchart for manufacturing brick

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered identifying raw materials based on construction materials
to be produced and manufacturing construction materials as per manufacturing procedures.

Further Reading

1. Building Materials by S.S Bhavikatti

2. Building Materials by S.K Duggal
3. Fundamentals of Building Construction by Edward Allen

5.3.4.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which process stage is not in the manufacturing of concrete?
a) Compacting
b) Burning
c) Batching
d) Curing

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2. How many degrees are needed in burning during the manufacturing of bricks?
a) 11000c
b) 15000c
c) 6500c
d) 9000c
3. Which is the supplementary material information of cement?
a) Water
b) Clay
c) Limestone
d) Fly ash
4. Which batching ratio is not according to standard code?
a) M10
b) M25
c) M40
d) M30
5. What is the purpose of compacting in concrete manufacturing?
a) To remove impurities for the concrete
b) To strength the concrete
c) To make the concrete durable
d) To remove entrapped air from the concrete
6. Which one is not a stage in preparation of clay?
a) Digging
b) Moulding
c) Weathering
d) Blending
7. What determines the type of moulding will be done?
a) The scale of the project
b) The number of raw materials
c) Time of the year
d) The workmanship of the workers
8. Demonstrate batching of different types of materials.
9. Briefly discuss the main stages in concrete manufacturing.

Oral Assessment
1. Demonstrate the process of manufacturing of bricks?
2. Identify the raw materials used in cement, concrete and brick respectively?
3. Outline the procedure for preparing concrete

Practical Assessment
In groups of five with the aid of teacher bake ten bricks in the school workshop.

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5.3.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

5.3.4.5 References

Cachim, P. B. (2009). Mechanical properties of brick aggregate concrete. Construction and

Building Materials, 23(3), 1292-1297.
Rajgor, M., & Pitroda, J. (2013). Stone Sludge: Economical solution for the manufacturing
of bricks. International journal of innovative technology and exploring engineering,
2(5), 16-20.
Roberts, L. R., & Taylor, P. C. (2007). Understanding cement-SCM-admixture interaction
issues. Concrete International, 29(1), 33-41.

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5.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials
5.3.5.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1. Evaluate and analyse cost implications of construction • Written tests

materials • Oral
4.2. Select quality construction materials • Practical
tests/Project

5.3.5.2 Information Sheet No4/LO4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers evaluating and analysing cost implications of construction
materials and selecting quality construction materials based on their costs and project
requirements.

Definition of key terms

Cost implications: This refers to the technique used to derive the duration, cost and energy
required to manufacture and maintain construction materials.

Quality of construction material: This is the stability, durability and cost-efficiency of

construction material.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1. Cost implications of construction materials are evaluated and analysed
The cost implication of construction materials involves analysis of time, money and energy
required to efficiently produce and maintain building materials. Currently, the construction
industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors of any economy, be it in developed countries
or developing ones. The urge to deliver the best product output in terms of a well-designed
building project, which is able to satisfy the client’s needs and ultimate users cannot be
emphasized (Safiki. A, Solikim. M, Nursahid. M, 2015). This can also be expressed by the
value of money i.e. having to incur costs that cannot be dealt with. It is essential to calculate
the most likely cost of a project to check if the project will be able to start and finally be
successful. As an architect, you have to balance the need to maintain adequate internal
control of a project while still constraining the construction budget. This is done to satisfy
the needs of the client according to his/her budget. To do this, an effective control system
is vital to making sure that long- term investment goals are achievable.

201
There are two types of cost implications that affect construction materials i.e. direct and
indirect cost implications.
a) Direct cost implications
This focuses on how building strategies can affect the annual budget of a project. For
instance, hiring additional casual labourers to a site to increase the rate of
construction/manufacturing building materials might be too expensive for small
firms/construction companies. Therefore, the number of casual labourers are decreased to
increase the rate of affordability. This also improves, the quality of production improves
due to efficiency in quality check.

b) Indirect cost implications

Efficiency in operations and productivity can be affected by the indirect cost of a project.
For instance, managing manual cash in a site through verification of transactions e.g.
purchase of steel, cement or stone; payment authorization from the lead
consultant/contractor; and account reconciliation procedures between the parties. All these
might lower efficiency resulting in wastage of time in production resulting in fewer
products.

A change to the work or design as per the contract will incur additional charges that will,
in turn, increase the cost of construction. This can occur through time lag between
completion of designs and the time the project is to start depending on client’s finance. As
a result, friction between the client and contractor can result to cost overrun. If this is not
solved, then the project might end up being abandoned. To control the variations in a
project, the architect ensures that the variations are valid. I.e. they exist in writing, signed
by the lead consultant, and finally submitted to registered offices for approval purposes.

4.2. Quality construction materials are selected based on their costs and project
requirements
Materials will determine the aesthetics of your design or building. By ensuring high-quality
materials, the level of workmanship is assumed to be of high quality. The factors that
promote material and process selection include; the number of elements to be constructed,
the size of elements, weight of the component and the precision required to satisfy the
needs of the client. In terms of material, evaluation of material selection focuses on the
ability of the material to be manufactured and processed into a finished structure. For
instance, how easily can steel be cut on-site as compared to the manufacturing company?
Also, the sustainability of the products i.e. whether or not the materials manufactured can
be reused for a different purpose as compared to what it is designed for. The quality of
materials is determined by defect-free, the surface finish, dimensional accuracy and
tolerance from external factors. From this, one can establish economic considerations
which include, the cost to be considered, the quantity according to the volume of
commodity and the rate of production of the commodity.
202
Figure 77: Quality construction materials selection

203
Figure 78: Process of material selection

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered evaluating and analyzing cost implications of construction
materials and selecting quality construction materials based on their costs and project
requirements.

Further Reading

1. Read further on cost implications and its effect on the built environment.
2. Read further on the selection of materials in relation to quality, availability and cost.

204
5.3.5.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Who of the following is in charge of ensuring variations are in the contract?
a) Contractor
b) Architect
c) Clients
d) Structural engineer
2. Why should cost implications be derived?
a) To produce sustainable materials
b) To derive solutions to construction
c) To supply goods efficiency
d) To efficiently connect pre-fabricated materials.
3. Which of the below is not a factor that promotes material and process selection?
a) Size of materials
b) Process of materials
c) Weight of materials
d) Number of materials
4. Identify the type of cost implication from the following?
a) Cost implication variable
b) Material cost implication
c) Direct cost implication
d) Serviceability cost implication
5. How can a building strategy affect the annual budget?
a) Following the contract variable
b) Addition of construction material
c) Reduction of time for a project
d) Employing additional casual labourers
6. Which activity is material selection in design associated with?
a) Technical design
b) Manufacturing
c) The efficiency of the product
d) Processing.
7. What factor describes the quality of the product?
a) Availability
b) Location of production
c) Freedom from defects
d) Ease of use

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8. Justify the quality of construction materials used in building wood houses.
9. Evaluate freedom from defects?
10. Summarize the process of determining the quality of workmanship?
11. Briefly describe the process planning?
12. Justify material experience?

Oral Assessment
1. Propose the strategy will you use to ensure efficient cost analysis.
2. Evaluate material selection in reference to Construction.

Case study
Dunhill towers, Nairobi constructed a skyscraper using masonry concrete and steel. With
references, produce a cost-benefit analysis and cost implications of the project.

5.3.5.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

5.3.5.5 References

Lotey .J. (2020). Cost Implications Of Internal Control. Retrieved From Https: // Small
Business. Chron.Com/Cost-Implications-Internal-Control 81335.Html
Ruegg, R., & Marshall, H. (2013). Building Economics: Theory and Practice. Springer
Science & Business Media.
Science Direct (2020). Material Selection Process. Retrieval from
Htpp//Ww.Sciencedirect.Com/Topics Engineering/ Material Selection Process

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5.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately
5.3.6.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1. Assemble construction materials, tools and equipment • Demonstration

5.2. Use Construction materials depending on the construction • Oral assessment
process • Written assessment

5.3.6.2 Information Sheet No4/LO5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately

Introduction
In this learning, outcome covers assembling construction materials, tools and equipment
based on the construction method and using construction materials based on the
construction process.

Definition of key terms

Construction tools: This is any manufactured product component or equipment that is
used in the construction process

Construction equipment: This is a variety of heavy-duty vehicles, tools and machinery

which are capable of withstanding the harsh conditions experienced throughout the
construction site.

Construction methods: These are the procedures and techniques that are used during the
building process.

Building: It is the relatively permanent enclosed construction over a plot of land, having
roof, windows doors often have a different use such as living, entertainment, manufacturing
or residential.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1. Construction materials, tools and equipment are assembled based on
construction methods
In order to come up with a structurally strong building and completion of a construction
project, appropriate use of materials is one of the key elements. Use of materials majorly
determined by the use of the building which includes the following:
• Residential building
• Education
• Assembly
• Storage
• Infrastructure
• Institutional
• Commercial

Construction materials
This is any manufactured product compound or equipment that is useful in the construction
process. The most common materials used are:
• Stone
• Brick
• Lime
• Cement
• Concrete

a) Stone
Use of stone
• Structure- stones are used for foundation walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs,
floors, damp proof.
• Aesthetic- stones are adapted to give the massive appearance to the structure wall
of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades.
• Paving stones- these are used to cover the floor of buildings of various types such
as residential commercial, industrial etc.
• Basic material- are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for
cement concrete forum of roads

b) Bricks
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning them.

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Properties of bricks as a construction material:
• Durability
• Colour
• Texture
• Size variation
• Compressive strength
• Absorption

Classification of Bricks
First-class brick (A-type)
Thoroughly burnt bricks are deep, red, or copper colour. The surface of these bricks is
smooth and rectangular with sharp and straight edges and square corners.
It is used for painting, exposed face work in a masonry structure, flooring and
reinforcement brickwork. The water absorption is about 12%- 15%.

Second class (B-Type)

They are supposed to have some of the requirements in 1st class though they have some
cracks and distortions and have more absorption power of about 16%- 20%
They are used in important hidden masonry works and centring of reinforced brick
structures.

Third class bricks (C-Type)

These are under burnt bricks. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when
struck against each other. Their absorption power is about 25% of dry weight. They are
used in building temporary structures.

Fourth class bricks (D-Type)

Fourth class bricks are over burnt and badly distorted in shape, size and are brittle in nature.
Used in filling foundation and floors.

a) Concrete
The cement and water form a paste that hardens and bonds the aggregated together.
It composes of
• water
• Aggregate
• Chemical mixture
• Cement

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Properties of concrete
• Concrete has a higher compressive strength.
• It is a corrosion-resistant material and atmospheric agent has no effect on it.
• It is more economical than steel.
• It forms hard surface cable for resisting abrasion.
• Concrete walls and floors slow the passage of heat moving through and reduce
temperature swing.
• Being naturally five resistant concrete forms a highly effective barrier to five
spread.

Reinforced cement concrete

Strong in compression as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. Weak in
tension as the cement holding aggregate in place can crack allowing the structure to fail.
Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing bars, steel
fibres, glass fibre, or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads.

Use
RCC is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is required: Like in
footing, columns, beams, lintels, and stairs.

d) Cement
The crystalline compound of calcium silicate and other calcium compounds having
hydraulic properties.
Use.
• Main use in the fabrication of concrete and mortars.
• Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, brick, mortars, panels, plaster)
• Transport (roads, pathways, crossing bridges viaduct tunnels)
• Water (pipes, drains, canals, dams, banks, pools)
• Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing, poles, pylons, fencing)
• Agriculture (building, processing, house irrigation)

e) Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite
which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

Uses.
• It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime
• (Calcium oxide), slacked lime (calcium hydroxide) cement and mortar.
• It is crushed for use as aggregate- the solid base for many roads.

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Construction Equipment
This is a variety of heavy-duty vehicles, tools and machinery which are capable of
withstanding the harsh conditions experienced throughout the construction site.
Criteria to select construction equipment
The type, size and other particulars of equipment. Whether the equipment is to be
purchased, rented or to be procured hire-cum-purchase arrangement.

Advantages
• Increase the rate of output through work progress with the best effective and
efficient methods.
• Reduce overall construction cost especially for large contracts.
• Carry out activities which cannot be done manually or to do them more
economically and much faster.
• Eliminate the heavy manual work by human thus reducing fatigue and eliminates
various other hazards and health issues.
• Maintain the planned rate of production where there is a shortage of skilled or
unskilled labour.

Disadvantages
• If the machine breaks down, it can cause delay of construction work.
• Electric tools can cause a short circuit which may result to fire.
• Only skilled labour can operate the equipment.
• Special assistance is required to operate them as it may harm people on the site.
• Contractors in small projects create an issue over buying or rating of equipment
and may charge high charges.

Types of Equipment
• Electric hand tools
• Vibrators
• Pumps
• Compactors
• Rollers
• Concrete mixers
• Hand pumps for ready-mix- concrete
• Transport equipment

Electric Hand Tools

A power tool is an instrument that is actuated by an additional power source and
mechanism other than the solely manual labour uses with hand tools.

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They include:
• Saws
• Drills
• Polishers
• Plate compactors
• Concrete vibrators
• Electric drivers
• Ceramic file cutter
• Jackhammer

5.1. Assembling construction materials, tools and equipment based on the

construction method.
Procedure
i. Site clearing
This is the removal of vegetation and topsoil from the site.
For this, you assemble equipment such as
Bulldozers, excavators and graders for a large project but for small projects normal digging
with jembes are recommended.

ii. Foundation
This is the structure in a building that transmits building load to the ground and holds the
building firmly into the soil.
For this, it requires the use of the following materials:
• Steel (for reinforcement)
• Cement(adhesive)
• Concrete (structural strength)
• Scaffolding (to hold the concrete in place)

Assembled equipment include:

• Concrete mixers
• Vibrator

iii. Superstructure
This includes partitions, beams and columns.
For this process the following materials are assembled:
• Stone (masonry) used as a partition.
• Cement (Adhesive) to bind stone together.
• Concrete (for the making of columns and beams)
• Steel (Reinforcement in the concrete)

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The beams and columns are laid out with the use of moulds. They are left to cure as water
is poured. Masonry stone is laid out to create partitions according to the drawings.

iv. Roofing.
This is the top covering of the structure. The following materials are assembled:
• Iron sheets or roofing tiles which are the topmost covering of a house.
• Wood- laid out as a skeleton to hold the iron sheets in place.
• Nails- to hold the wood to the iron sheets.

5.2. Construction materials are used based on the construction process

Construction process
a) Foundation
The building site is graded and excavated and the boundaries of the foundation are laid out
before the basic plumbing is installed the foundation is poured. The clearing of the site is
done with equipment such as excavator and Levelized by graders. The foundation to be
poured is majorly concrete on top of the stones used for pack filling of the foundation
trenches.
b) Framing
The interior and exterior walls are installed. The wall is made of masonry stone from the
quarry or machine cut stone, they are joined together using cement. In other places such as
the exterior wall back is used for aesthetic purposes.

c) Plumbing, mechanical and electrical configuration

A host of installation occurs during this phase as the water and wastewater piping is
installed along with the electrical wiring, ducting HVAC system and water heater.

d) Insulation and drywall installation

The walls are insulated and then the drywall is installed over the walls. At this stage, you’ll
be able to see your vision start taking form.

e) Exterior and interior

The final touches are made to the construction project. All remaining electrical mechanical
HVAC and plumbing system are installed and the ceiling, doors, window sills, cabinets,
tiles, countertops, mirrors, light and other fixtures are finalized. If a driveway is involved.
It’s at this stage that it is completed along with the sidewalk modification and landscaping
can begin for your garden and footpath.

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Conclusion
The learning outcome covered assembling construction materials, tools and equipment
based on construction methods and, using construction materials based on the construction
process.

5.3.6.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What do you understand by the word construction material?
a) An instrument used in construction.
b) The powder used as an adhesive in building
c) Any manufactured product component or equipment that is used in the
construction process.
2. Which of the following is construction equipment?
a) Spade
b) Excavator
c) Spoon
3. The tool used to drive a nail in a piece of wood is called?
a) Hummer
b) Cement
c) Sand
4. Which material is most appropriate for the making of foundation?
a) Concrete
b) Reinforced concrete
c) Sand
5. Justify the advantages of reinforced concrete over ballast.
6. Analyse the properties of bricks that make it an appropriate construction material.
7. As an architect, evaluate the advantages of State one advantage of construction
equipment.
8. State one disadvantage of construction equipment.
9. Explain the construction process.

Oral Assessment
1. Define construction material
2. Outline construction materials are seen in any construction site you have visited

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Practical Assessment
With the help of trained personnel use the following materials to come up with a foundation
slab of measurements 1m×1m×0.5m
a) Cement
b) Ballast
c) Sand
d) Water
e) Steel reinforcement

5.3.6.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Hand tools
• Machine tools
• Chats with the picture and names of construction equipment.
• Drawing books.
• Rulers and T- square

5.3.6.5 References

Francis D.K. Ching (2008) Building construction illustrated (New Jersey) John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
Frederick. S. Merrit (2000) Building Design and Construction Handbook (California)
McGraw Hill
Roy Chudley (2014) Building Construction Handbook (London) Routledge

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5.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Testing Construction Materials
5.3.7.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Testing Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1. Sample construction materials randomly • Trainer to conduct field

6.2. Identify test parameters trips
6.3. Test construction materials
• Conduct lab tests
• Trainer to conduct field
trips
• Trainer to carry
out demonstration

5.3.7.2 Information Sheet No5/LO6: Testing Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers randomly sampling construction materials as per SOPs,
identifying test parameters (compression, weathering, durability, water absorption,
impurity test and tensile tests) as per the construction requirements and engineer’s
instructions and testing construction materials as per SOPs.

Definition of key terms

Impurity test: They are aimed at the identification and management of the presence of
foreign substances in a material.

Weathering: Refers to decaying and decomposition of materials caused by physical or

chemical agents

Test parameters: Refers to the various aspects of a material that can be subjected to tests

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1. Construction materials are sampled randomly as per SOPs
Construction materials basically refer to manufactured and naturally occurring substance
that may be used in the building of houses, bridges etc. The standard operating procedures
(SOP’s) govern matters such as quality of the construction materials and their compliance
to regulations as per the zones where construction will take place. Sampling is generally
conducted so as to allow for tests to be carried out on the construction materials.

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Construction materials are samples based on quality availed for construction, extraction of
material e.g. by manufacturing a natural occurrence and also by the construction process
that would be required for certain construction material. Ideally, the most reliable method
to ascertain the sample of the materials to be tested include the whole scope of a
construction process by incorporating a stratified random sampling procedure into the
sampling process to ensure a successful implementation of this divide the samples into a
recommended number of equal groups in accordance with the standard. In the event that
the groups are of an unequal size weighing the samples to ensure a reliable sampling
process is necessary. For example, sampling for wood or timber construction materials may
be conducted by selecting model trees in a test area and sticks specimen. The selection may
be based on their girth. The specimen selected shall be clear and straight, free from
decomposition and protection from moisture and weather is necessary.

6.2. Test parameters (compression, weathering, durability, water absorption,

impurity test and tensile tests) are identified as per the construction requirements and
engineer’s instructions.
Test parameters refer to the characteristics or qualities of a material to be used in
construction that can and should be subjected to tests since the various qualities would
affect the quality of a construction project if they go unchecked. The parameters may
include the strength of a material, climatic compliance of a material i.e. how the material
is affected by different climates for example rains or too much heat, maintenance demand,
water absorption capabilities of a material, impurity content etc. The need for identification
of these parameters is to ensure productivity and efficiency of building materials.
Identification of these parameters helps to keep within the originally approved budgets
since identified parameters are addressed during testing and budgeted, improve the quality
of building and infrastructure. The most desirable parameters to be considered for a choice
of a building material include:

• Ease of installation
The ease or complications of installing a material may, in the long run, affect the budget
thus consideration should be put on how easy it is to install the material.

• Durability
The construction materials should be weather compliant so as to reduce the cost incurred
in replacing a material that has been damaged by adverse weather conditions. Tests should
be conducted on the material to gain knowledge on the effects the weather will have on it.

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• Health safety
The effects a certain building material will have on health need to be identified through
tests. Different materials may have effects such as the release of pollutants by asbestos
materials and fire management.
Tests on fire hazards such as ignitability, the spread of flame and fire resistance need to be
carried out to ensure that the occupants can live safely from such hazards. Harmful effects
can be contained by limiting the use of substances that contain harmful solvents, provision
of good ventilation and following manufacturer’s recommendations (Daily monitor, 2007).

• Test for compression

This is where variables such as strain and deformation are measured in a material by
determining its response to compressive load. This helps to determine the materials elastic
limit, yield strength etc. therefore determining the suitability of the materials for a purpose.

• Test for weathering

This is a test to determine how the material is affected by different weather elements and
the rate to which elements can be exposed e.g. for roofing materials and which need to be
protected from weather elements.

• Test for water absorption

This test determines the coarse and fine aggregates water holding capacity. The purpose of
this test is to measure the strength and quality of the material.

• Impurity test
This is a test to enable realization and control of foreign substances in a material that would
compromise the materials structural integrity.

• Tensile tests
This test is usually done by measuring the force required to elongate the test material to its
breaking point. This helps professionals determine how materials will behave in their
intended applications.

6.3. Construction materials are tested as per the SOPs

Testing of construction materials basically refers to the procedures intended to establish
the quality and the reliability of structural materials that would be used to build projects
from foundations to roof. The tests to be carried may be physical, chemical, verification of
quantity and checking for damage.

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Construction materials are tested for the purpose of:
• Complying with regulatory requirements
The government of every particular state or regulatory bodies have a set standard to be met
by manufacturers of every material. This helps to restrict the manufacturing of substandard
or hazardous materials.

• Material and treatment selection

Testing of the materials enables one to understand and determine whether certain material
or treatment is suitable for a specified application

Product design and improvement

Testing quantifies the strength, hardness, elasticity etc. of a structure. Testing, therefore,
helps to determine the most appropriate design that will hold up at a particular site.
Materials tested may include soils and aggregates which are tested during excavation
activities, asphalt, concrete, masonry etc. are tested to ensure that the specified conditions
meet the acceptable criteria specified.

Destructive tests on construction materials are used to understand a specimen’s failure to

learn how it behaves under different loads. Destructive tests destroy the specimen such that
even if it passes the test it is no longer fit for service while non-destructive tests, the
specimen can be used for service (TWT, 2017)

For example, the concrete slump test is as follows:

a) Put the mould for the slump test in a frustum
b) Put the base on a smooth surface and concrete-filled in three layers
c) When the mould is filled, the top surface is struck off
d) Carefully lift the cone vertically let the unsupported concrete slump.
Precaution for slump test: Inside of the mould and its base should be moistened.

Conclusion
The learning outcome has covered randomly sampling construction materials as per SOPs,
identifying test parameters (compression, weathering, durability, water absorption,
impurity test and tensile tests) as per the construction requirements and engineer’s
instructions and testing construction materials as per SOPs.

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Further Reading

1. Read on other tests for concrete and soil

2. Read on ideal locations to carry out construction materials testing.

5.3.7.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The resistance of the soil with depth is measured by a tool called?
a) Seismometer
b) Ammeter
c) Potentiometer
d) Penetrometer
2. What is the average depth of a test pit?
a) 10 M
b) 2 M
c) 1.5 M
d) 15 M
3. Shocks that travel within the soil are measured by an instrument called?
a) Microphone
b) Geophone
c) Receiver
d) Sensors
4. Which of the following has more fire-resisting characteristics?
a) Granite
b) Compact sandstone
c) Marble
d) Limestone
5. Due to the effects of dry rot, the timber?
a) Cracks
b) Shrinks
c) Reduces to powder
d) None of these

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6. For testing the compressive and tensile strength of cement, the cement mortar is made
up by mixing and standard sand in properties of:
a) 1: 2
b) 1: 3
c) 1: 4
d) 1: 6
7. Clay and silt content in good brick earth must be at least?
a) 50%
b) 40%
c) 30%
d) 25%
8. Evaluate the uses of a retarder in concrete?
9. Iron ore has different levels of purity, Summaries.
10. Justify the use of Stretcher bonds in masonry.
11. Summarise the different types of rocks.
12. Distinguish the different effects of excess alumna on bricks.

Oral Assessment
1. Which material is used in binding mortar?
2. What is the content of carbon in wrought iron?

Practical Assessment
Carry out stratified random sampling to be used to sample timber

5.3.7.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

5.3.7.5 References

Foster (2007). Mechanical testing of metals and alloys. New York. Oxford university press
Heinemann (2006). Building construction handbook. Oxford Routledge publishers
Williams (2007). Increase in greenhouse emissions from projects. Washington. The
sightline institute

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5.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Handling Construction Materials Safely
5.3.8.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Handling Construction Materials Safely
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1. Identify construction materials • Written tests

7.2. Identify Safety requirements • Oral
7.3. Safely handle construction materials
• Practical
tests/Project

4.3.8.2 Information Sheet No5/LO1: Handling Construction Materials Safely

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers identifying construction materials to be handled, identifying
safety requirements based on the construction materials and safely handling construction
materials based on the safety requirements. Construction materials are materials used for
construction purposes. Material handling is the movement, protection and storage of these
materials. Therefore, handling and storing of construction materials involves diverse
operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane, driving a truck loaded with concrete
blocks carrying bags of materials manually; and stacking palletized bricks or other
materials such as barrels and lumber.

Definition of key terms

Safety requirements: These requirements that are defined for purposes of risk reduction
e.g. all-new powered industrial trucks except vehicles intended primarily for earth moving
or the over the road hauling must meet the design and construction requirements for
powered industrial trucks established in the American National Standard for Powered
Industrial trucks, Part2, ANSI B56.1-1969

Safety measures: These are activities and precautions taken to improve safety on-site
mainly to reduce the number of accidents associated with workplace equipment; employees
in the proper use and limitations of the equipment they operate e.g. Proper use of cranes on
site.

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Material handling: This is the movement, protection and storage of construction materials
on-site in a safe manner. For example, never lift a load over an obstacle and perform lifts
in areas with adequate footing, space and lighting.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1. Construction materials
Construction materials refer to any materials used for construction purpose. They are
materials used for house building. These include wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks,
concrete, and clay. The choice of these materials is based on their cost-effectiveness for
building projects.

Types of building materials used in construction

Wood
It is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants used for construction purpose
when cutting or pressed into lumber and timber such as fiberboards and plants. It is a
generic building material and is used in building about any type of structure in most
climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending and is
incredibly strong when compressed vertically. Wood is also basically used and preferred
in interior design because it is timeless in nature and does not increase in value.

Historically, wood for building large structures was used in its unprocessed form as logs.
The trees were just cut to the needed length, sometimes stripped of bark and then notched
or lashed into place. Currently with the invention of mechanizing saws came the mass
production of dimensional lumber. This made buildings quicker to put up and more
uniform, thus the modern western styles home was made.

Advantages of Dimensional Lumber (Glulam)

i. Size- one can get the very huge size of wood depending on how you glue the wood
strips.
ii. Architectural freedom- the wood can span long distances past 6m and 8m e.g. In
open spaces such as Amphitheaters.
iii. Quality of wood is good since the control processes of drying and bonding of the
wood strips are done in the factory.
iv. There is the efficient use of lumber grades-there is minimum wastage of wood since
wood is placed where it is needed most.
v. It is environmentally friendly.

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Brick and Block
A brick is a block made of kiln-fired materials usually clay or shale but it also may be of
lower quality mud etc.
Clay bricks are formed in moulding (the soft mud mothered) or in commercial manufacture
more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper
size the stiff mud process). Bricks were widely used as a construction material in 1700,
1800 and 1900s. This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant
than wood in the ever-crowding countries and fairly cheap to produce. Another type of
block replaced clay bricks in the late 20th century. It was the Cinderblocks made mostly
from concrete. An important low-cost material in developing countries is the sand rete
block which is weaker but cheaper than the fired clay bricks.

Concrete
Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate
(composite) and a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland
cement concrete which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand) Portland
cement and water. After mixing the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-
like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term
concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather tensile strength,
it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars known as robes. This strengthened
concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimize any bubbles that
would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained
when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the
predominant material in this modern age due to its longevity, formability and ease of
transport.

Metal
It is used as a structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers or as an external
surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel, for instance, is
a metal alloy whose major component is iron and is the usual choice for metal structural
construction. It is strong and flexible and if refined well and well treated last a long time.
Corrosion is metals, prime enemy, when it comes to longevity. The lower density and better
corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin are sometimes overcome by their greater
cost. Brass was more common in the past but it is usually restricted to specific uses or
specialty items today. Other metals used include titanium, chrome, and gold, silver.
Titanium can be used for structural purposes but is much more expensive than steel.

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Glass
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a
building. They provided human with the ability to both let light into the rooms while at the
same time keeping demand weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand
and silicates and is very brittle. Modern glass “curtain walls” can be used to cover the entire
façade of a building.
Glass can also be used to span over a wide roof structure in a space frame.

Ceramics
They are such things such as tiles, fixtures etc. They are mostly used as fixtures or
coverings in buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, countertops even ceilings. Many countries
use ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just specialized
form of clay pottery firing in kilns but it has evolved into more technical areas.
• Plastics
Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness and resiliency. Combined with this
adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastic ensures their
use in almost all industrial applications today.

• Brush
Are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in the tropics. These are mostly
built with branches, twigs and leaves and bark similar to a beaver’s top.

7.2. Safety requirements are identified based on the construction materials

Safety requirements are requirements that are purposefully set for risk reduction on a
construction site. They include:
i. Scaffold must be sound, rigid and sufficient- to carry its own weight plus four times
the maximum intended load without settling or displacement. It must be erected on
solid footing.
ii. Employees should consider using aerial lifts or elevated platforms in a case where
there are unstable working surfaces so as to provide safer elevated working
surfaces.
iii. Provide or erect guardrail systems with tool boards and warning lines or install
control line systems to protect workers near the edges of floors and roofs so as to
prevent cases of fall.
iv. Ladders and stairways are other sources of injuries and fatalities among
construction workers. Make sure there is the use of the correct ladder for the task
and make sure the ladders are long enough to safely reach the work area.

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 v. Slips, trips and falls on stairways are a major source of injuries and fatalities among
construction workers. Ensure stairways treads cover the entire step and landing.
Ensure also that the stairways having four or more risers or rising more than 30
inches must have at least one hand drain.
vi. Sloping- maximum allowable slopes for excavations less than 20 feet (6.09M)
based on the soil type and angle to the horizontal.
vii. Failure to recognize the hazards associated with chemicals can cause chemical
burns, respiratory problems and fires and even explosions. Ensure that you maintain
an MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) for each chemical in the facility.
viii. Serious head injuries as a result from blows to the head- ensure that the workers
wear hard hats where there is potential for objects falling from above, bumps to
their heads from fixed objects, or accidental head contact with electrical hazards.
ix. Trench collapsing injuries to the employees- ensure no employee enters an
unprotected trench.
x. Existing energized (not) electrical circuits should be prohibited to avoid accidents.

7.3. Construction materials are handled safely based on the safety requirements
i. Do not place the construction materials within 6 feet of any hoistway or inside floor
openings or within 10 feet of an exterior wall that does not extend above the top of
the material sheet.
ii. Stack bagged materials by stepping back the layers and cross keying the bags at
least every ten bags high.
iii. Do not stack brick more than 7 feet in height. When stacks of bricks reach 4 feet
height, start tapering it back 2 inches for every foot of height above the 4-foot level.
iv. Masonry blocks typically stack easier than brick but when stacking masonry blocks
higher than 6 feet, taper the stack back one-half blocks per tier above the 6-foot
level.
v. For lumber stacked by machine, the piles cannot exceed 20 feet in height. Lumber
that is going to be handled manually can’t be stacked more than 16 feet high. For
lumber storage;
• Remove all used nails before stacking
• Stack lumber on level and solidly supported sills
• Stack lumber so it is stable and self- supporting
• Do not store excess materials on the scaffolds’ or runways. Keep only the
amount needed for immediate operations.

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 Figure 79: Dimensional Lumber (GLUELAM) being dried up in a kiln drier.

Conclusion
The learning outcome has covered identifying construction materials to be handled,
identifying safety requirements based on the construction materials and safely handling
construction materials based on the safety requirements.

5.3.8.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Material handling consists of movement of material from
a) One machine to another.
b) One shop to another shop
c) Stores to shop
d) All of the above
2. Principle of “unit load” states that
a) Materials should be moved in lots
b) One unit should be moved at a time.
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above.
3. The economy in material handling can be achieved by
a) Employing gravity food movements
b) Minimizing the distance of travel
c) By carrying material to destination without using manual labour
d) All of the above.
4. The forklift truck is used for
a) Lifting and lowering
b) Vertical transportation
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above

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5. Cranes are used for
a) Lifting and lowering
b) Vertical transportation
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
6. Wheelbarrows are used for
a) Lifting and lowering
b) Vertical transportation
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above.
7. Which one of the following is not a construction material?
a) Concrete
b) Ceramics
c) Wood.
d) Bill of quantities
8. Mention three types of building materials in construction
9. What is the difference between safety requirements and material handling and storage?
10. Classify different safety measure to be observed while handling lumber as a building
material.
11. Analyse safety requirements.
12. Develop a check list on the properties to consider while identifying materials.

Practical Assessment
Visit a potential construction site. Observe how the construction materials are being
handled safely on site. Mix cement and sand aggregates using the concrete mixer in a clean
and safe manner; using appropriate ratios of 1: 2

4.3.8.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing books
• Reference books
• Set Squares
• T-squares

4.3.8.5 References

Code of Federal regulation. (2002) Concrete and Masonry construction.US OSHA

Code of Federal regulation. (2004) Control of Hazardous Energy. US. OSHA
Job Hazard Analysis. (2002) Personal Protective Equipment. The US.OSHA

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 CHAPTER 6: WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRACTICES

6.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competence in applying workshop technology practices. It entails
performing masonry, plumbing and carpentry tasks. It also involves performing electrical
and mechanical operations.

6.2 Performance Standard

Perform masonry tasks, plumbing tasks, carpentry tasks, electrical operations and
mechanical operations as per Manufacturer’s specifications and as per SOPs.

6.3 Learning Outcomes

6.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Perform masonry tasks
b) Perform plumbing tasks
c) Perform carpentry tasks
d) Perform electrical operations
e) Perform mechanical operations

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6.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Masonry Tasks
6.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Masonry Tasks
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Identify the safety requirements in the workshop environment. • Video instruction
1.2 Use masonry hand tools appropriately to perform tasks in • Research
masonry workshop • Group discussion
1.3 Use masonry machine tools appropriately to perform tasks in • Drawings
masonry workshop • Direct
1.4 Maintain Masonry tools used in construction work Instructions

6.3.2.2 Information Sheet No6/LO1: Perform Masonry Tasks

Introduction
This learning outcome covers safety requirements in the learning environment, appropriate
use and performance of masonry hand tools, appropriate use of masonry machine tools and
maintenance of masonry tools as per manufacturer’s specifications.

Definition of key terms

Course: Refers to a horizontal continuous layer of masonry units

Wythe: Refers to the vertical section of masonry, one unit in thickness.

Mortar: Refers to the mixture of cement, aggregate and water used as a binding for
material such as blocks and bricks.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Safety Requirements in the Workshop Environment are identified
• Always check tools against defects before using
• Use the correct and appropriate tools, instruments or equipment as per the task
required.
• Always wear personal protective equipment (PPE) e.g. gloves, goggles, hard hat,
safety boots and others all the time.
• Follow instructions provided by the authority of the person in charge

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 • Report any malfunction of tools, equipment or instrument of any incident to the
person in charge.
• Provide materials that show no-go zone such as fencing, these no-go zones may
include possible collapse zones.
• Provide designs and materials for temporary supports
• Building walls and cross walls at the same time to ensure they support each other
• Avoid stacking material against masonry walls
• Wait for masonry walls to attain the correct strength before backfilling.
• Establishing stop heights to allow the masonry walls to achieve or gain strength.
• Provide temporary supports for walls considering its characteristics
• Designing walls to provide additional stability during the construction phase i.e.
adding sequential core filling with reinforcing.

1.2 Masonry Hand Tools are Used Appropriately to Perform Tasks in Masonry
Workshop
A hand tool is a device or equipment that does not require electric power and instead relies
on human hand energy supply to operate and used to perform a particular intended purpose.
The commonly used hand tools include:

• Floats
Used for levelling, filling voids and smoothening surfaces before trowelling. Mainly made
of aluminium, wood, stainless steel or magnesium. There are two types of floats depending
on the scale of use.
• Bull float – used in large areas of concrete
• Hand float – used in small areas of concrete

• Trowel
Trowel comes in different sizes and shapes and is made using stainless steel for the purpose
of durability and quality. Handles are commonly made of wood or plastic. Larger towels
are used for spreading mortar and also random cutting of soft bricks. Smaller trowels are
used for repairing damaged mortar joint. Learning how to hold and load a trowel is a skill
to develop over time.

• Mason’s Hammer
This tool has two ends, square and flat end for hammering nails and the other sharp-chisel
like the end for breaking blocks and bricks. To break blocks and bricks, light blows are
subjected along and around the required point of split and then a sharp blow using a
hammered end will give the required cut. The cut is then cleaned off of burrs, surplus
material and straightening edges and surfaces to greater accuracy using the chisel-like side.

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 • Blocking Chisel
A blocking chisel is made of steel and comes in a variety of shapes and sizes/ they are
heavier and wider. They are required when more or several blocks or bricks are needed to
be split. They are operated by holding the narrow end while striking continuously using a
mashing hammer, sledgehammer or mullet against the bricks to give a clean cut.
Levels
Levels are used to ensure, keep and check horizontal surfaces and planes at 180 degrees
and vertical planes and surfaces at 90 degrees. To achieve the level surface or the right-
angle plane, the bubble inside the tube should line up between two lines at the centre of the
tube.

Mason’s Line
Mason line is a nylon or Dacron string stretches close to the masonry wall from one end or
corner to the other. It is required to make laying blocks or bricks easier and in a straight
line i.e. without bulges and hollows.

Steel Square
This tool is used for checking and verifying a 90-degree angle at the corners of a rectangular
or a square wall while it is being built.

Plumb Bob
This tool is used for laying blocks/bricks and checking a 90-degree angle on walls while
during construction. It consists of a string tied to a weight called bob and straight wood
board with uniform edges and a hole for the string at the centre. On a vertical wall, the
plumb bob must be in the groove line.

Masonry Hammer
Used to strike chisel while splitting a brick/block

Mixing tools
These are tools required for mixing mortar. They include:
The Shovel; used for scooping and measuring aggregate
Hoe; mixing the mortar sand, cement and water, with two holes for ease of use.

1.3 Masonry machine tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in masonry
workshop
Concrete mixer
This is a mechanical device that consists of a rotating drum powered by a mortar that mixes
cement, aggregate and water to form concrete at a slightly higher rate.

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Masonry saws
This is a powered tool used to cut concrete block/bricks, tiles etc. into precise shapes and
sizes.

Process of Using a Mixer

i. Measure the required amount of material needed for the structure
ii. Connect the mixer to a power source and start the machine
iii. Pour the ingredients into the cement mixer starting with a measured amount of
water followed with cement and ballast if needed.
iv. Allow the machine to rotate until the ingredients are mixed evenly and ready for
use
v. Tilt the mixer and pour the mixture into a carrier (wheelbarrow)
vi. Repeat as needed

Stone Cutting machine

A tile cutter is used in the splitting of tiles to fit uneven flooring. The following are
operational principle;
i. Select the appropriate tile cutter, 2.5 cm longer than the dimensions of the tile
ii. An experienced professional should conduct the process to avoid wastage and loss
of valuable material
iii. Make a mark where you need to cut. Trace a line using a pencil and a ruler to mark
this point. The cuts will correspond with the dimensions of the floor or space.
iv. Double-check the dimensions to make sure that it’s the required size
v. Side the lever of the cutter towards you until the cutter stops
vi. Place a tile with the glazed side facing up. Centre the tile beneath the block rails
and push it forward until it fits snugly against the end stop.

1.4 Masonry tools used in construction works are maintained as per manufacturer’s
specifications
Maintenance of Masonry Tools
i. Use the appropriate and right tool for the tasks to prevent tool and user damage.
ii. Keep all tools in good condition and perform regular checks against defects. Only
qualified professionals should install or repair equipment to avoid mechanical
failure.
iii. Clean tools after use and store the dry tools in a dry place.
iv. Ensure that each tool is free from damage before use to avoid further damage.
v. Avoid altering tools in ways that reduce the performance and effectiveness of the
tool.

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 vi. Comply with manufacture’s manual guide and instructions most pieces of
equipment come with guidelines on procedures of using and maintaining them to
ensure machine effectiveness.
vii. Store all tools in dry places to avoid rust and mechanical damage caused by
dampness.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered safety requirements in the learning environment,
appropriate use and performance of masonry hand tools, appropriate use of masonry
machine tools and maintenance of masonry tools as per manufacturer’s specifications.

Further Reading

1. Study more on other masonry hand and machine tools and their appropriate use.

5.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. How is mortar cleaned from tools?
a) Waiting for the mortar to dry up and then can be easily removed
b) Cleaning immediately using water
c) Cleaning immediately using linseed oil and kerosene
d) Soaking in water and leaving it
2. What is the best way of preventing tools from rusting?
a) Oiling the tools
b) Clean the tools and immediately store in air-conditioned room
c) Keep the tools clean and dry before storage
d) Store wet tools in airtight boxes
3. Which of the following tools is used for checking vertical walls?
a) Level
b) Plumb bob
c) Masons line
d) Steel square

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4. Most moving parts of masonry machine tools are maintained by?
a) A cleaning agent provided by the manufacturer
b) Clean water
c) Oiling
d) None of the above
5. The following are safety requirements in the workshop environment except one. Which
one is not?
a) Provide signs and perimeters to no go zones
b) Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) while performing tasks
c) Follow instructions from the supervisor
d) Construct masonry walls beyond stop heights to finish construction time
6. Identify one way of maintaining masonry tools?
a) Storing tools in a dry place
b) Cleaning tools before storage
c) Oiling moving parts of tools
d) All of the above
7. Why are tools such as hammers frequently checked against signs of cracking, chipping
or defects?
a) To maintain their cost value
b) To ensure that they are in good condition
c) To ensure that the tools are well-classified
d) To ensure that the tools are not missing
8. Propose some of the tools to be used while constructing a brick wall.
9. Examine the components of mortar?
10. Give four personal protective equipment required during masonry instruction
11. Create a list of safety precautions to observe while handling masonry tools.
12. Distinguish hand tools and power tools

Oral Assessment
1. Classify different masonry tools.
2. Summarise the maintenance of the above tools

Practical Assessment
Construct one-meter high wall 3-meter long brick wall under the supervision of the
instructor

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6.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Spade
• Shovel
• Vibrator
• Pneumatic hammer
• Bench shears
• Anvil
• Pipe wrench
• Pliers
• Bending machine
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hammer
• Marking gauges
• Hand drill
• Portable drill machine
• Screwdriver
• Pliers
• Leather gloves
• Hand vices
• Pliers
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps

Materials and supplies

• Lumber
• PPR pipes
• PVC pipes
• GI pipes
• Pipe fittings
• Cement
• Sand
• Lime
• Sheet metal
• Steel plates
• Electrical materials
• Electrical appliances
• Plumbing appliances
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 • Fuel
• Grease
• Oil
• Filters

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls
• Dust masks
• Gas masks
• Dust coats

6.3.2.5 References

Ainsld. (2003).Working with concrete (for pros by pros). Newton. Tanton press.
Gilbera. (2003). Roofing and Siding. Califonia.Sunset books incorporated.
Wolan. (2010) Concrete construction Califonia craftsman Book Company

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6.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Plumbing Tasks
6.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Plumbing Tasks
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment • Practical projects

are identified • Demonstration
2.2 Plumbing hand tools are used appropriately to • Oral assessment
perform tasks in plumbing workshop • Direct instruction
2.3 Plumbing machine tools are used appropriately to
perform tasks in plumbing workshop
2.4 Plumbing tools used in construction works are
maintained

6.3.3.2 Information Sheet No6/LO2: Perform Plumbing Tasks

Introduction
This learning outcome covers plumbing workshop safety requirements, plumbing hand
tools, and plumbing machine tools, maintenance of Plumbing tools and use of Plumbing
tools.

Definition of key terms

Workshop: It is a fully equipped space containing tools and equipment specific to a
particular task. E.g. a plumbing workshop containing plumbing machinery and equipment.

Plumbing hand tools: These any plumbing tools that function using mechanical means
only without the use of external power.

Plumbing machine tools: These are plumbing tools that use electric power to run their
mortars. They cannot function by mechanical means only.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustration
2.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified
The safety requirements are important to keep both the students and instructor safe and
should be observed at all times in workshops.

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They include:
• Listening carefully to the instructor and following instructions
• No running in the workshop
• Know where the emergency stop buttons are positioned
• Know where the emergency exits are located.
• Always wear an apron to hold loose clothing
• Put all stools away when attempting practical work
• Do not bring bags to the workshop
• Not use machines that one has not been shown how to use properly.
• Keep hands away from moving machinery
• Use tools carefully
• Report any damaged equipment

The safety procedures are identified by observing the type of machinery in the workshop
and by reading instruction manuals of specific machines.

2.2 Plumbing hand tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in plumbing
workshop
Plumbing hand tools include pipe fitters, telescopic tube cuter, adjustable spanner,
adjustable pipe wrench, slip joint pliers, locking pliers, pipe bender, plunger etc.
Table 9: Plumbing tools
Tool Use
Pipe cuter • It is used to cut through most piping with ease. They are
quicker and produce a designer cut than hacksaws.
• They can be used in tight spaces
Telescopic tube cutter • It can cut pipes made of copper clearly and neatly
• It cuts pipes and tubing with a thickness of 6-35 mm
Adjustable spanner • Used to turn nuts and any type of fastening
• They are easily adjusted to fit multiple bolt sizes
Adjustable pipe wrench • It is one of the most basic and essential tools
• It is used to grip onto objects like bolts and surfaces and can
be used to remove stuck objects
Slip joint pliers • They are also known as water pump pliers
• They are used for gripping and holding tops

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How to use an adjustable pipe wrench
i. Select the proper pipe wrench and attach it to the pipe correctly. Adjust the wrench
to fit the appropriate size of the bolt.
ii. One should always make sure to leave some space (about 1.3 cm) between the
shank of the hook jaw on the pipe wrench and the pipe itself. This is because the
gripping action is better with the gap introduced.
iii. When the grip is secure make sure the pipe sits in the “V” of the hook and is in
contact with either side of the “V” to avoid slipping
iv. Proceed to turn the wrench in the desired direction over and over again until the
bold is either tightened or loosened depending on the need.

2.3 Plumbing machine tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in plumbing
workshop
Plumbing machine tools include a sink auger, drill and laser tape measure.

Table 10: Plumbing machine tools

Machine tool use
Sink auger • To break up and clear clogs in sinks and tub
drain

Drill • This is a machine used to drill holes pipes and

other materials
Laser tape measure • It is used to measure distances such as lengths
widths and heights accurately

How to use a sink auger to unclog a drain?

The auger has a corkscrew end attached to a flexible cable that is coiled within a drum
canister. It also has a thumbscrew in the collar for locking the cable when the clog is
reached.
• First, remove the stopper from the drain.
• Loosen the setscrew at the collar to pull out the cable and then insert it into the drain
opening.
• Proceed to push the cable into the opening and when you feel the clog pull out an
extra 30 cm and tighten the set screw.
• Press the button to turn the cable or turn the crank in a manual auger.
• Once the cable is pulled back clean the cable and remove the P-trap.
• Clean and maintain the auger.

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2.4 Plumbing tools used in construction works are maintained as per manufacturer’s
specifications
Plumbing tools are prone to contamination of bacteria due to exposure to sewers and other
contaminated matter.

How to clean and disinfect

Larger tools and equipment are cleaned using a spray disinfectant between regular
clearings.
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment
• Removes debris
• Wipe or spray all the surfaces with the recommended disinfectant
• Wait for recommended contact time
• Discard all wipes
• As recommended in the instructions follow up with regular cleaning and oiling

Plumbing tools should be maintained by the users or professional maintenance crew for
complex machinery.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered plumbing workshop safety requirements, plumbing hand
tools, and plumbing machine tools, maintenance of Plumbing tools and use of Plumbing
tools.

Further Reading

1. More tools and equipment used for plumbing

2. Methods of using professional equipment

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6.3.3.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following cannot be used to tighten a bolt?
a) Pipe cutter
b) Shovel
c) Adjustable pipe wrench
d) Masking tape
2. Which tool is the best among the following to be used to make clean fine cutting copper
tubes
a) Telescope tube cutter
b) Slip joint pliers
c) Sink auger
d) Drill
3. Which one of the following is a plumbing machine tool?
a) Hand saw
b) Auger
c) Telescope tube cutter
d) Adjustable spanner
4. Propose some of the safety requirement in a workshop
5. Distinguish between plumbing hand tools and plumbing machine tools.
6. Describe the use of a drill in plumbing.
7. Demonstrate the use of ae an adjustable pipe wrench.
8. On a given drawing material, illustrate the use of a sink auger.

Oral Assessment
1. Outline the safety measures to be observed while carrying out a plumbing exercise.
2. Compare and contrast the uses of a pipe cutter and a handsaw when cutting a 10 mm
pipe?

Project Assessment
Make a well-detailed drawing and analysis of a cold-water system in a simple maisonette.
The house is assumed to have 5 bedrooms, 2 of which are unsuited and one extra share
bathroom. The ground floor has 1 unsuited room and one toilet and the first floor has 1
unsuited room, 3 extra rooms, one bathroom and one toilet.
Use clear illustrations to support your answer.

242
6.3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Spade
• Shovel
• Vibrator
• Pneumatic hammer
• Bench shears
• Anvil
• Pipe wrench
• Pliers
• Bending machine
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hammer
• Marking gauges
• Hand drill
• Portable drill machine
• Screwdriver
• Pliers
• Leather gloves
• Hand vices
• Pliers
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps

Materials and supplies

• PPR pipes
• PVC pipes
• GI pipes
• Pipe fittings
• Cement
• Plumbing appliances
• Fuel
• Grease
• Oil
• Filters

243
Personal protective equipment (PPEs)
• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls
• Dust masks
• Gas masks
• Dust coats

6.3.3.5 References

Miller, Rex, Mark Richard (2004). Audel Plumbers Pocket Manual (10th Ed), Wiley
Publishing
The Copper Development Association (2006). Copper Tube Handbook, New York, USA,
The Copper Development Association

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6.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Perform Carpentry Tasks
6.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Carpentry Tasks
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify safety requirements in the workshop environment • Demonstration

3.2 Use carpentry hand tools appropriately to perform tasks in • Group work
carpentry workshop • Practical assessment
3.3 Use carpentry machine tools appropriately to perform tasks
in carpentry workshop
3.4 Maintain carpentry tools used in construction works

6.3.4.2 Information Sheet No6/LO3: Perform Carpentry Tasks

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of carpentry machine tools in the carpentry workshop,
appropriate use of carpentry machine tools to perform tasks in the carpentry workshop and
maintenance of carpentry tools used in construction work as per the manufacturer’s
specifications.

Definition of key terms

Welding: This refers to the act of joining together metal or plastic parts by exposing the
surface to heat and pressure.

Carpentry: This is the act of shaping, cutting, joining and sculpting of wood or timber
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified
Safety requirements in a workshop
All persons using workshops should apply good housekeeping practices which are;
• Removal of rings and lose jewellery before operating machinery.
• Always keep a tidy workplace which makes it easier to spot and avoid hazards.
• Always wear appropriate footwear and clothing such as gloves, overalls and
safety glasses.
• Only use the workshop for its intended purpose.
• Do not operate electrical machinery using wet hands.

245
 • Long hair should be tied up and nails kept neat and short
• The workshop should be well lit.
• The workshop should have adequate sanitary and hygienic washing facilities.
• The workshop should be equipped with adequate fire-fighting equipment.

3.2 Carpentry hand tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in carpentry
workshop
Carpentry hand tools
All carpentry hand tools should be used and stored appropriately to perform tasks in a
carpentry workshop. Some of the carpentry hand tools used in the making of a quality end
product are listed below:
• Claw hammer
• Tape measure
• Utility knife and blades
• Moisture meter
• Chisel
• Level
• Screwdriver
• Nail set
• Sliding level
• Layout square
• Pliers
• Anvil

a) The claw hammer: This is a tool primarily used for driving nails or pulling them
out from an object
b) Tape measure: This is a tool primarily used to measure the distance from one point
to another. It consists of metal, ribbon, plastic or fibreglass with linear
measurements markings.
c) Utility knife and blades: This is a tool used for general cutting consisting of a
blade usually 4-7 inches.
d) Moisture meter: This is a digital instrument used to detect the level or amount of
moisture content in materials.
e) Chisel: This refers to a tool shaped cutting edge of a blade on its end used for
carving, sculpting or cutting materials such as wood.
f) Level: This is a tool consisting of a small glass tube containing alcohol or a similar
liquid and an air bubble used to indicate the horizontal plane of a material or a
surface.

246
How to use a level?
Place the level on a flat surface and mark at the end of the level. Make another mark along
the side of the level under the flacon in the Centre. Take the reading of the position of the
bubble.

3.3 Carpentry machine tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in carpentry
workshop
Carpentry machine tools
Carpentry machines are usually powered by electric motors intended ro process wood.
Some of these machines are listed below;

Table 11: List of Tools

Drill press Wood lathe
Bench grinder Panel saw
Mortiser Pin router
Band saw Nail gun
Combination machine Chain saw
Drum sander Electric drill
Jointer Thicknesses

• Drill press

Figure 80: Drill press

Source: Https: //gistgear.com

Also known as pedestal drill, pillar drill or bench drill is a machine mounted on a stand or
bolted on the floor used for producing holes in hard materials.

247
How to use a drill press?
Open the chuck, side in a bit snuck the chuck by hand around the bit’s shaft, then tighten
the chuck’s three jaws with the key. Make sure to remove the chuck. When drilling large
holes, drill a smaller pilot hole first. Set the table to the desired height for the operation you
have to perform. Secure the workpiece to be drilled. Make sure the drill is operational and
introduce it to the bit of the workpiece. Once you have finished drilling, release pressure
on the level and it would return to its original position.
• Bench grinder
This is a benchtop or worktop type of machine used to drive abrasive wheels for grinding
materials.
• Mortiser

Figure 81: Mortiser

Source: Https: //www.gdmlindex.co.uk

This is a machine used to cut square or rectangular holes in a piece of timber. Some types
of mortises include; square chisel, horizontal or slot mortise and chain mortiser.

248
 • band saw

Figure 82: Band saw

Source: Https: //www.toolnut.com
This is a machine consisting of a long, sharp blade with a continuous band of toothed metal
stretched between two wheels used in cutting materials.

• Combination machine
This is a machine that combines the functionality of two or more separate machines into a
single unit used for woodworking and customized craftsmanship.

• Drum sander
This is a powerful machine with replaceable abrasive sheets which sand wooden surfaces
to a shiny smooth finish.

• Jointer
This is a machine used to merge two edges or surfaces in order to produce a wider board
by producing flat edges on boards.

3.4 Carpentry tools used in construction works are maintained as per manufacturer’s
specifications
Maintenance of carpentry tools
After performing woodworking activities and processes, the tools and equipment should
be properly cleaned and stored to prevent damage to the tools and promote their life cycle
through;
i. Proper storage of tools through hanging them on pegboards, putting them in boxes
or drawers or chests
ii. Clean, inspect and care for tools through wiping using a rag so as to be sure they
are free of residual debris.
iii. Inspect tools for wear and damage in order to prevent additional costs for the
purchase of new equipment.

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 iv. Lubricate moving machine parts so as to prevent rusting, wear and tear.
v. Keep batteries, plugs and wipes in shape so as to prevent them from intertwining
causing breakages and acid leakage from batteries.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of carpentry machine tools in the carpentry workshop,
appropriate use of carpentry machine tools to perform tasks in the carpentry workshop and
maintenance of carpentry tools used in construction work as per the manufacturer’s
specifications.

Further Reading

From the internet, research more on the safety requirements in a workshop, examples and
use of carpentry hand tools and machinery.

6.3.4.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following mortises is false?
a) Signature chisel mortiser
b) Circular chisel mortiser
c) Horizontal mortiser
d) Chain mortiser
2. Which one of the following is not an example of a carpentry hand tool?
a) Claw hammer
b) Mallet
c) Tape measure
d) Level
3. Which one of the following is a machine used to cut square or rectangular holes in a
piece of timber?
a) Square chisel
b) Horizontal mortise
c) Slot mortiser
d) Chain mortise

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4. Among the following; which one is not a carpentry machine use in a workshop?
a) Jointer
b) Drum sander
c) All of the above
d) None of the above
5. In a level, a specific liquid is usually placed in the air bubble to identify the liquid
among the following choices
a) Alcohol
b) Spirit
c) Water
d) Oil
6. Which of the following is not an example of a carpentry hand tool?
a) Claw hammer
b) Level
c) Mortise
d) Combined machine
7. Which of the following materials is not used when marking the linear measurements in
a tape measure?
a) Ribbon
b) Metal
c) Wood
d) Plastic
8. Outline the uses and function of a mortise.
9. Compare and contrast the types of mortise.
10. Develop a plan to carry out machinery maintenance in a simple workshop.
11. Investigate the function of a combination machine
12. Develop a safety guide for a workshop.

Oral Assessment
1. Propose hand tools to use when building a wooden bench
2. Classify the different machine tools.

Practical Assessment
Among the methods and procedures of maintenance of hand tools, carry out one of the
methods of tool maintenance and take sufficient photographs showing how you carried out
the task in a systematic order.

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6.3.4.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Spade
• Shovel
• Vibrator
• Pneumatic hammer
• Bench shears
• Anvil
• Pipe wrench
• Pliers
• Bending machine
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hammer
• Marking gauges
• Hand drill
• Portable drill machine
• Screwdriver
• Pliers
• Leather gloves
• Hand vices
• Pliers
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls
• Dust masks
• Gas masks
• Dust coats

252
6.3.4.5 References

Alban J. Lynch. (2005). The history of grinding. New York: Springer

Black & Decker. (2018). Carpentry made simple. Minneapolis: Cool springs.
Brian Porter. (2013). Carpentry and joinery, vol.2. London: Routledge.

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6.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Electrical Operations
6.3.5.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Perform electrical operations
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are • Demonstration

identified • Practical
4.2 Conventional tools used in the electrical workshop are assessment
identified • Oral assessments
4.3 Power supply sources are identified
4.4 Basic electrical circuits are installed and maintained

6.3.5.2 Information Sheet No6/LO4: Perform Electrical Operations

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, identification of conventional tools as per SOPs, identification of power
supply sources as per SOPs, installation and maintenance of basic electrical circuits as per
IEE regulations.

Definition of key terms

IEE wiring regulations.
Are based on the British standards (7671) which set the standards for all domestic and
industrial installations and wiring.

Side cutter
This is a tool used to cut the wire and the leads of components in electrical devices as well
as in stripping the insulation from wires.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified as per SOPs
When working in an electrical workshop, safety and caution must be observed to avoid
injury or in extreme cases death. Safety requirements can be identified and given form
verbal instructions from the supervisor, written instructions from the manuals obtained
from some equipment in the workshops, general and careful observations of students
and common knowledge.

254
 The basic safety requirements for an electrical workshop include;
a) Avoid working with both hands since it increases the likelihood of current passing
through the chest cavity.
b) Assume all electrical devices to be live to avoid ignorant accidents or incidents.
c) Disconnect devices from the power source before doing any repair works.
d) Do not use tools with conducting handles when working with electrical devices to
avoid cases of electrocution.
e) Wear nonconductive protective clothes to handle plugged in equipment and
devices.
f) In case of spillage, do not move live equipment or devices away from the source
but instead shut off power at the main switch or circuit breaker.
g) Ensure all conductors and contacts are properly enclosed to avoid injuries and
accidents.
h) Do not handle equipment with wet hands, feet or body when standing on a wet
floor to avoid electrocution.
i) Highly flammable fluids should not be stored near electrical equipment to avoid
any accidents arising.
j) Avoid equipment with damaged insulation or broken plugs.
k) Drain capacitors before removing them from a circuit to avoid electric shock.
l) Wear goggles and avoid fumes when soldering circuit boards.
m) Do not overload electric outlets.
n) Use non-metallic drawing equipment like pencils and rulers as well as non-
metallic watchbands and jewellery to avoid electrical shock.

4.2 Conventional tools used in the electrical workshop are identified as per SOPs
Electrical tools are essential for carrying out electrical operations effectively. These tools
have been proven over the years to meet the demands of the current generation but there
remain tools that every electrical personnel require. They can be further be classified into
hand tools and machine tools.
a) Hand tools
These are tools that are operated without the use of external power sources and can be
operated by hand and are usually portable.
Examples of hand tools
• Multimeter
It is a flexible instrument as it is able to measure voltage, current resistance and capacitance
among others. They can either be analogue or digital depending on preference.

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Figure 83: Multimeter
Source: Https: //www.uline.com

How to use a digital multimeter

A multimeter has 3 main parts: Display, selection knob and ports.

On measuring voltage,
i. Plug the black test lead into the terminal labelled “COM” for voltage to measure
both AC and DC voltage.
ii. Move the dial to V- for AC voltage (voltage in a socket) or V- for DC voltage (
power sources directly i.e. batteries)
iii. Turn the dial to a higher voltage than the one expected or if unsure set it in a
generally high region before lowering it to get a better reading.
iv. Connect the black probe to the batteries ground/’-and the red probe to power or ‘+’
to measure the DC voltage.
v. Put probes in corresponding wall socket slots to measure AC voltage but avoid
probes from contacting each other. Additional caution is required when dealing with
AC current as it can be dangerous. Thus, a noncontact tester is preferred than a
digital multimeter.
vi. Observe the multimeter to acquire the reading needed to show whether the voltage
is appropriate.

NOTE: If you encounter a negative reading on the multimeter, it simply means the red and
black probes are switched.

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Wire stripper
It is a handheld tool used to strip or cut off wire insulation and is designed with various
sized cutting teeth to accommodate different sizes of wires. It also includes cutting jaws
for trimming wire ends. There are some types that combine the use of crimping wires and
stripping the vinyl insulation from wires.

Figure 84: Wire Stripper

Source: Https://saudi.souq.com

Fish tape
This is a tool used to pull wires through electrical and PVC conduits by creating a new
route for wiring.
This is done by pulling the tape out of the wheel by pressing a button or pulling a lever
then feeding the tape into the conduit until it emerges from the other end where the wires
are attached to the fish tape in order to pull them through the conduit.

Figure 85: Fish tape

Source: Https: //www.homedepot.com

Pliers
There are various types of pliers required for electrical operations with the main ones
including side cutting pliers specially designed for trimming wires and cutting small wires.
Longnose pliers are used for cutting and holding of fine wires in tight spaces. Other types
of pliers include slip joint pliers, retainer ring pliers and snap ring pliers.

Screwdrivers
They are essential to most crafts and technical disciplines including electrical operations.
They are used to loosen or tighten screws with slotted heads.

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The different types of screwdrivers include electronic screwdrivers, multi-tip screwdrivers,
precision screwdriver sets and many more.

b) Machine tools.
i. electric drill.
It is a motor-driven power drill with a replaceable drill bit used to make holes in wood,
metal, plastic. It is especially useful with larger products.

Figure 86: Electric drill

Source: Https: //haiwangtool.en.made-in-china.com
ii. Power saw
Power saw varies with the type and scope of the work being done with examples of saws
used for electrical work including hole saws, cut off saws and portable band saws. They
are especially useful to ensure clean cuts at optimum speed and high performance.

Figure 87 power saw; source copia.co.ke

4.3 Power supply sources are identified as per SOPs

A power supply source is an electrical device used to provide electrical supply to electrical
and electronic equipment.

There are two main types of power supply;

a. AC power supply
An AC power source such as AC mains used to supply power to homes acquires voltage
from the mains supply and uses a step up or step down the voltage.

AC power supply is further classified into:

• Single-phase systems.
• Three phased systems

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Figure 88: AC Graph

c. DC power supply
These are power sources that produce DC currents as the output basic DC is built with 4
circuits each with a core function.

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

Figure 89: Transformer.

Step-up/step down voltage.

Rectifier
Provides a pulsating DC signal.

Filter
Change/convert DC signal to non-pulsating DC signal.

Regulator
• Smooth DC signal.
• Provides constant voltage at the output.

There are other types of the power supply based on AC and DC current including linear
power supply, switched power supply, uninterrupted power supply, regulated power
supply, programmable power supply, computer power supply and linear power supply.

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Figure 90: DC Graph

4.4 Basic electrical circuits are installed and maintained as per IEE regulations
An electrical circuit is a continuous path or loop that allows electrical current to flow
from the power source through the wiring to the electrical device and back to the power
source.
Electrical circuits essentially convert electrical energy to another source of energy at the
load (electrical device) such as a bulb.
There are generally two types of circuits; AC and DC-based on the power supply but
there are other types such as series circuit, short circuit, open circuit and closed circuit
based on the construction of the circuit.

Figure 91: Basic electric circuit

Installation of basic circuits

Installation procedure described as per IEE regulations of a switched socket which in this
case is a 15A switched socket outlet for 50Hz, 240V AC power supply.

Material requirement.
• PVC box for 15A switched socket outlet.
• 1 switched outlet.
• 1 MCB 16A from an already installed Distribution Board (DB).

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Preparation
i. Install socket outlet box at the required position.
ii. Lay 13mm PVC conduit from the Distribution Board to the receptacle position.
iii. Colour code wires correctly.

Procedure
i. Ensure power is isolated (shut down).
ii. Connect the phase (live wire) to the outgoing side of a 16A MCB from Distribution
Board.
iii. Connect the neutral wire to the neutral link provided in the DB and draw 15A
receptacle and connect to the terminal marked N.
iv. Connect the earth wire to the earth link provided in the DB.
v. It is advisable to number the phase and neutral wires at the DB for easy identification.

Maintenance of electrical circuits

Lubricate rollers and bearing surfaces in the operating mechanism to avoid drying out
which slows down the operating speed of the circuit breaker.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, identification of conventional tools as per SOPs, identification of power
supply sources as per SOPs, installation and maintenance of basic electrical circuits as per
IEE regulations.

Further Reading

1. Specifications required for power supply.

2. Features of AC and DC power supplies.
3. IEE wiring regulations.
4. Single-phase systems.
5. Three-phase systems.

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6.3.5.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which measuring tool is used to measure more than one function?
a) Voltmeter.
b) Multimeter.
c) Fish tape.
d) Tape measure.
2. What is the function of a filter in a DC power supply?
a) Convert DC signal to AC signal.
b) Convert AC signal to DC signal.
c) Convert DC signal to non-pulsating DC signal.
d) Convert AC signal to non-pulsating DC signal.
3. Which tool is used to strip or cut off the insulation from wires?
a) Pliers.
b) Wire stripper.
c) Screwdriver.
d) Electric drill.
4. Which one is not an example of a hand tool?
a) Screws.
b) Power saw
c) Fish tape.
d) Pliers.
5. How many circuits are found within a basic DC supply?
a) 2.
b) 6.
c) 1
d) 4
6. Which one is not a type of electrical circuit?
a) Series circuit.
b) AC circuit.
c) Parallel circuit.
d) Conduct circuit.
7. What does SOPs stand for?
a) Standard operating procedure.
b) Standard occupational procedure.
c) Short operating procedure.
d) Specific operating procedure.

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8. Sketch a simple electric circuit using a cell and two bulbs
9. Outline safety requirements for an electric workshop.
10. Develop a safety requirement plan for a busy workshop.
11. Compare and contrast direct current and alternating current
12. Why is it important to avoid using both hands in the workshop? Explain

Oral Assessment
1. Demonstrate the use of a multimeter.
2. Given electrical drawings, derive the materials required to perform the electrical tasks.

Practical Assessment
Design an electric layout plan for a simple 2-bedroom bungalow and thereafter create a
simple electric circuit for wiring a fluorescent lamp using 1 36W 4ft fluorescent lamp, 1
starter and base, 2 fluorescent lamp holders, 1 MCB of 6A from an already installed
Distribution Board, 1, 2.5 microfarad correction capacitor.

6.3.5.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Pliers
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hand drill
• Screwdrivers
• Close-cut saw
• Portable drill machine
• Long nose
• Side cutter
• Draw in wire
• Electrical knife
• Electrical hammer

Materials and supplies

• Electrical materials
• Electrical appliances

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots

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 • Overalls
• Dust masks
• Dust coats

6.3.5.5 References

Grant, Casey C. (2013) interoperable electronic safety equipment; performance

requirements for compatible and interoperable electronic equipment for emergency
first responders. New York: Springer science and business media.
Lenk, Ron. (2005). The practical design of power supplies. New York. Wiley/IEEE.
Mark, Raymond A. (2005) demystifying switching power supplies, Oxford: Newness

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6.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Perform Mechanical Operations
6.3.6.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Perform mechanical operations
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

5.1 Identify Safety requirements in the workshop • Practical tests

environment • Direct
5.2 Use Mechanical hand tools appropriately to perform tasks instruction
in the mechanical workshop • Oral
5.3 Identify diesel and petrol engine components assessment
5.4 Operate diesel and petrol engines
5.5 Perform simple engine maintenance
5.6 Identify water pumps based on the working principle
5.7 Perform basic maintenance on water pumps

6.3.6.2 Information Sheet No6/LO5: Perform Mechanical Operations

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of mechanical hand tools to perform tasks in the mechanical
workshop, identification of diesel and petrol engine components, operation of diesel and
petrol engines, maintenance of the simple engine, identification of water pumps and
performance of basic maintenance on water pumps.

Definition of key terms

Tinsnips: Also known as shears they are designed to cut and trim sheet metals and other
tough materials.

Centrifugal: This is moving or directed away from the axis or centre. A centrifuge is an
equipment that applies a centrifugal force that puts an object in rotation around a fixed
centre.

Reciprocating pump: This is a class of positive displacement pumps where a volume of

liquid is collected in an enclosed space and discharged using pressure.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified as per sops
Before using any machine or equipment in the workshop all persons should read the
following carefully and understand the safety requirements which include;
• Always listen carefully and follow the teacher’s instructions
• No running in the workshop, it could cause an accident
• Locate the position of all the emergency exits and stop buttons in the workshop.
• Always wear overall, dust coat or apron to protect your clothes and the safety of
the eyeglasses to protect your eyes.
• Wear heavy-duty boots when coming to the workshop.
• Always wear reflective jackets and helmet when operating machinery.
• Put all stools away when working on practical.
• Do not operate a machine without supervision unless you have been shown how to
operate it safely.
• Report any damages to tools, machines or equipment immediately

Safety procedures in a workshop can be identified through;

i. Completely reading the instruction manuals for machinery and equipment.
ii. Observing the type of machinery and equipment in the workshop
iii. Careful listening to the instructions given by the teacher or instructor

5.2 Mechanical hand tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in mechanical
workshop
Mechanical hand tools are tools which are driven by hand and not powered by electricity
or a motor. These tools are categorized by;
a) Wrenches- it is used to loosen or tighten, bolts, screws, nuts, mechanical caps and
casing. They are classified into
• Key: They look like old fashioned keys without teeth and are specialized i.e.
bottle openers, window cranks and Allen wrenches
• Socket: It can either be a handle that is attached to a cylindrical socket or a
single piece
• Spanners: It has pins or hooks and is used to turn spanner handle i.e. adjustable
wrenches
b) Pliers: It is used to firmly hold objects, bend and compress materials. The different
types of pliers include;
• Hose clamp pliers; it compresses hose and spring clamps.
• Snap ring pliers; used for gears on mountain bikes and similar vehicles
• Battery pliers; maintain bolts on car batteries and jumper cables.

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c) Snips; used for cutting and trimming sheet metal and other tough materials. They are
categorized as:
• Tinnier snips: Straight pattern
• Compound action snips: Cut down aluminium in the construction of aircrafts
• Configuration snips: Snips that are different in configuration.

d) Screwdrivers: Used for removing or installing screws. It is classified by its tip i.e.
• Slotted drivers; it has a single slot on the head of the screw and is driven by a
flat-bladed screwdriver.
• Cruciform drivers; the head of the fastener has cross shape i.e. reason
screwdriver

Procedure on how to use a wrench

i. Identify the item to be tightened or loosened is it a bolt, nut, screw, mechanical cap
or casing
ii. Turn the screw mechanism to open the adjustable wrench to fit the size of the screw
iii. Slip the open jaw over the screw then turn the screw mechanism to clamp tightly
iv. Turn the wrench clockwise or anticlockwise to tighten or loosen respectively
v. Loosen the screw mechanism on the adjustable wrench to remove it

5.3 Diesel and petrol engine components are identified based on their functions and
engine system
A diesel engine is any internal combustion engine which air is compressed to a sufficiently
high temperature in the cylinder to ignite diesel fuel through mechanical compression.

Components of a diesel engine

• Cylinder block: Solid casting including cylinder and water jackets
• Cylinder holes: Found in the cylinder block and contain the piston
• Pistons: Movable plugs open at one end which transfer explosion force to the
connecting rod.
• Connecting rod; a link between the piston and crankshaft
• Crankshaft; changes the reciprocating motion of the piston to the rotary motion in
the power train.
• Crankshaft gear drivers- idle gear/camshaft
• Camshaft; have cam lobes which operate the values
• Timing gear; drives the camshaft
• Cam lobes; eccentrics on the camshaft which operate values
• Timing rods; rod links that transfer motion from the lifter to the rocket arm
• Rocket arm; transfer motion from pushrod to a valve
• Valve lifter; rides on the camshaft so that the cam lobe raises it to operate the valve.
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 • Cooling passageways; hollow spaces in the block through which coolant circulates.
• Wrist pin; floating connecting piece for piston and connecting rod.
• Oil pump; minimizes friction by providing pressure to circulate oil to rotate engine
parts
• Oil pan; a reservoir for engine or oil
• Intake valve; allows air to enter the cylinder.
• Exhaust valve; allows exhaust gases to be expelled from the engine
• Flywheel; attached to the end of the camshaft and provides inertia to carry the
crankshaft from one firing impulse to the other
• Pushrods; links that transfer motion from the lifter to the rocker arm.
• Valves; open and close the cylinder to allow air to enter or gases to leave.

These parts or components of an engine can be identified through instructions by a teacher

or instructor through illustrations from a model of an engine. The petrol engine is an
internal combustion engine with sparks, ignition or spark plugs and the air end fuel are
mixed after compression to ignite the air-fuel mixture. It comprises of
• Spark plugs; supply the plugs that ignite the air-fuel mixtures
• Valves; intake and exhaust valves open and close to let in air and fuel and expel
exhaust respectively
• Piston; a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder
• Piston rings; provides a sliding ring between the outer edge of the piston and the
inner edge of the cylinder to prevent air-fuel mixtures and exhaust from leaking
into the sump and prevent oil from the sump from leaking into the combustion area
• Connection rod; connects the piston from the crankshaft
• Crankshaft; turns pistons up and down in a circular motion
• Sumps; contains oil/ reservoir (oil pan)

5.4 Diesel and petrol engines are operated based on the manufacturer’s manual
Operating a diesel engine
i. When the piston begins to move down, the inlet valve opens and the air is sucked
in
ii. Then the inlet valve closes at the bottom of the stroke and the piston rises to
compress air
iii. At the top of the stroke fuel is squirted in which then ignites and forces the piston
down
iv. When the piston is travelling upwards the exhaust valve opens and the burnt gas/
exhaust is expelled.

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5.5 Simple engine maintenance is performed as per manufacturer’s specifications
• Perform regular oil changes to prevent the accumulation of black sludge
• Regular checking of the engine coolant and the cooling system to prevent the engine
from overheating
• Regular changing of oil filters to ensure that the air entering the engine is clean free
from debris.

Simple engine maintenance could be done through checking the engine oil, coolant and air
filters in an existing engine and determining if they are up to standard or functioning.

5.6 Water pumps are identified based on the working principle

A water pump is a machine that moves water from one point to another through mechanical
action. They are categorized as;
• Direct lift
• Displacements
• Gravity pumps

Types of water pumps

• Gravity pumps: Water is lifted by gravity and gravitational force.

• Impulse pumps: It uses the pressure created by gas where the gas trapped in the liquid
is released and accumulated in the pump which creates pressure which creates pressure
which pushes the liquid upwards.

• Centrifugal pumps: It uses centrifugal force to pump water and is mostly operated by
an electric motor. Water pumps can be identified by reading the instruction manual to
understand how it functions in order to determine the type.

5.7 Basic maintenance is performed on water pumps as per sops

• Double-check to ensure that speed of water pumps corresponds with the output of
horsepower
• Examine for any damages, leakages, or wear and tear
• Check and clean seals and oiling bearings

Performing basic maintenance could be done through checking of the:

• Functioning
• Output
• Sound

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of mechanical hand tools to perform tasks in the mechanical
workshop, identification of diesel and petrol engine components, operation of diesel and
petrol engines, maintenance of simple engines, identification of water pumps and
performance of basic maintenance on water pumps as per sops.

Further Reading

From the internet, read more on:

1. Parts of pliers
2. Parts of screwdriver
3. Operating a petrol engine
4. Borewell compressor
5. Shallow good pumps
6. Pressure booster pumps

6.3.6.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. In a diesel engine, the fuel is injected by
a) Igniter
b) Heat resulting from compression
c) Spark
d) Injected fuel
2. A diesel engine has
a) One valve
b) Two valves
c) Three valves
d) Four valves
3. All are safety wears expect
a) Overall
b) Training boots
c) Helmet
d) Reflector jackets

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4. All the following are mechanical hand tools except
a) Allen wrench
b) Battery pliers
c) Tinsnips
d) Power saw
5. The moving part of a centrifugal pump is called a
a) Impeller
b) Volute
c) Diffuser
d) Suction nozzle
6. In a centrifugal pump, the liquid enters the pump
a) At the centre
b) At the bottom
c) At the top
d) From sides
7. To carry out engine maintenance you do the following except
a) Regular oil changes
b) Changing of oil filters check and mend seals
c) Checking engine coolant
8. Analyse five parts of a diesel engine
9. Evaluate on cooling passageways
10. Compare and contrast between the diesel engine and petrol engine.
11. Evaluate two basic maintenance of a water pump
12. Develop a safety plan to be carried out in a workshop in case of emergency

Oral Assessment
1. Simulate how a diesel engine work?
2. Analyse a cooling passage?

Case Study Assessment

Mr Karanja who is an architect was going for a site visit discovered that his car was
expelling black smoke from its exhaust. As a mechanical operations consultant explain to
Mr. Karanja what he should do to avoid polluting the environment

6.3.6.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Centrifugal
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps
• Hand grinder

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Materials and supplies
• Fuel
• Grease
• Oil
• Filters

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls

6.3.6.5 References

Edgan T. West bury (2007) Model Petrol Engines Maharashtra; Knowledge publications
James Rishel (2001) Water pumps and Pumping Systems. New York; M.C. Grow Hill
Education
Klaus Mollenhaver, Helmut Tschoke (2010). Handbook of Diesel Engines. New York;
Springer Science and Business Media

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 CHAPTER 7: MEASUREMENT OF WORKS AND COST ESTIMATION

7.1 Introduction
This unit describes competencies required to perform measurement of works and cost
estimation. It involves preparing tender documents, taking off quantities, working up
dimensions and abstracting measured quantities

7 .2 Performance Standard
Prepare tender documents, take off quantities, work up dimensions and abstract measured
quantities as per the client’s requirements, SOPs, specifications and drawings, nature of the
project, conditions of the contract, and nature of the contract.

7.3.1 Summary of Learning Outcomes

a) Prepare tender documents
b) Take off quantities
c) Work up dimensions
d) Abstract measured quantities

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7.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Tender Documents
7.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Tender Documents
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Working drawings (Architectural, Structural, Electrical, • Direct instruction

Mechanical, Civil) are prepared • Project
1.2 Identify Specifications (Material, Workmanship) are • Case studies
prepared • Field trips
1.3 Bill of quantities is prepared
1.4 Schedule of rates are prepared
1.5 Condition of contract is prepared
1.6 Form of agreement is prepared
1.7 Form of tender is prepared

7.3.2.2 Information Sheet No7/LO1: Prepare Tender Documents

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers prepare tender documents, working drawing, specification
and bill of quantities.

Definition of key terms

Bill of quantities: These are documents that contains all measured quantities required for
the completion of the project.

Tender documents: This is a document containing specifications, BoQ, schedules as well

as working drawings that are to be used during the project.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Working drawings (Architectural, Structural, Electrical, Mechanical, Civil) are
prepared as per client requirements
Working drawings are a guide to how the final outcome should resemble. These drawings
should be followed closely and interpreted in the right way to ensure that the project being
undertaken meets the desires of the client.
Such drawings include:

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 a. Architectural drawings
Architectural drawings form the back bone for all construction works. This is because, it
defines the site plan as well as the placing of objects and the required type of material
needed for the construction works.

b. Structural drawings
Structural drawings define the specific sizes of the structural members. These structural
members could be beams, columns, and load bearing walls as well as trusses.
The structural drawings are fully dependent on the architectural drawings.

c. Electrical drawings
These drawings normally show the position of electric switches as well as positions for
electronics installations.

d. Mechanical drawings
e. Civil drawings
These includes drawings for highway/ transport projects. They define the materials to be
used as well as the thickness of the transport system.
Apart from the transport system drawings, civil drawings also define the positions of water
and waste water pipes.

1.2 Identify Specifications (Material, Workmanship) are prepared as per SOPs

Specifications are such as designs, drawings, blueprints etc.
• They describe the work, material as well as the kind of work that need to be done
by the contractor.
• The type of material and its required quality should never be compromised for any
project.
• It is very important to ensure that as a contractor you have clearly understood the
specifications of your work and hire someone to interpret to you if need be.
• Also, the contractor is expected to involve only experts in the given field to work
with otherwise, he/she, might compromise the quality of the work done.

1.3 Bill of quantities is prepared based on specifications and working drawings

Bill of Quantities, (BOQ) is a document that contains all measured quantities required for
the completion of the project. The BoQ is prepared in such a way that it meets
specifications and drawings provided.
Below is a sample BoQ.

275
Table 12: A sample BoQ.
Item Quantity Unit price Total price
1 Cement 25bags 1000/= 25000/=
2 Ballast 20 lorries 800/= 16000/=
3 Sand 15 lorries 1500/= 22500/=
4 Steel, T16 250kg 100/= 25000/=
5 Steel, T12 400kg 200/= 80000/=
6 Masonry 20 lorries 300/= 6000/=

Note: The data above is only used for the purpose of demonstrating how a BoQ looks like.
The values are not correct.

1.4 Schedule of rates are prepared as per SOPs

These are provided by the contractor pertaining the rates of plants hire, man power costs
as well as rates of work completion. The schedule of rates is commonly developed by the
contractor who submits it to the client. This is important as it gives a clear indication on
what is expected on site and the client can easily supervise the kind of work done.
Due to the variation in contracts types, schedule of rates differs as well.

1.5 Condition of contract is prepared based on nature of the project

Contract is a legal agreement between two or more parties. For example, an agreement
between the client and the contracting company. Every contract is unique in its own way
depending on the nature of the project. The key elements in any contract are;
• Payment considerations
• Exists an offer and an acceptance
• Both parties have an intention to create a legal relationship
The different types of contracts are:
a. Lump sum contract
• This type of contract is also known as fixed contract.
• In this type of contract, the contractor agrees to do a specified amount of work
at a fixed amount of money.
b. Admeasurement contracts
• It is also known as measure and value contract.
• For this contract, the client provides the Bill of Quantities and the contractor
quotes against each of the listed items in the BoQ.
• The sum of the item costs forms the total project cost.
• Other types of contracts under admeasurement contracts include; -
 Cost plus contracts
 Unit price contracts

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c. Turnkey contract
• In this type of contract, the contractor is given the work and has to delivered the
project in a completion. The client doesn’t take part in any decisions in this type
of contract.
• Instead, he/she can hire a developer who makes such decision for them.
d. Design and build
• As the name states, the contractor agrees to do both design and construction
works.
• This method has become common these days as many engineers are turning
into contractors and do the entire design and construction works.

1.6 Form of agreement is prepared as per the conditions of the contract

These are standardized forms in which the agreement of the client and the contracting
company is put.
Standard forms (forms of agreement) differ based on;
• Type of the project
• Main contract or sub-contract
• Public or private works
• Local or international

Some of the standard forms include:

• Joint Building council Kenya (JBC)
• The FIDIC
• Public Procurement Oversight Authority (PPOA)
• The Orange book

1.7 Form of tender is prepared based on the nature of the contract

Also known as the tender document. As discussed above there are different contracts.
Different contracts contain different tender forms.
However, certain elements in the tender forms are common and they include: -
• Work Drawings
• Specifications
• Bill of quantities
• General conditions
• Construction schedule
Tender forms are normally issued before the contract can be awarded to a contractor.
Once the form is filled with the relevant information, it is submitted back to the client who
gives consideration to one contractor who meets the threshold of his specifications putting
budget into considerations.

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Conclusion
This unit covers competencies required to perform measurement of works and cost
estimation. It involves preparing tender documents, taking off quantities, working up
dimensions and abstracting measured quantities

Further Reading

7.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following are types of contracts which one is not?
a) Turn key
b) Lumpsum contract
c) Design and build contract
d) Public contracts
2. Which of the following is not included in the BoQ?
a) Quantity
b) Unit price
c) Specifications
d) Item
3. Working drawings are necessary for any engineering works. Which of the following is
not a working drawing?
a) Civil drawings
b) Mechanical drawings
c) Civil works
d) Electrical drawing
4. Which of the following is not a standard contract form?
a) JBC
b) PPOA
c) BoQ
d) FIDIC

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5. Nature of the contract document depends on the following except?
a) Public/private works
b) Local/international works
c) Type of the project
d) Time of the year
6. Tender forms have the following except?
a) Specifications
b) Construction schedule
c) FIDIC
d) BoQ
7. What is not included in a contract document?
a) Payment considerations
b) Exists an offer and an acceptance
c) Both parties have an intention to create a legal relationship
d) Specifications
8. Define turnkey contracts
9. What is Bill of quantities
10. Why is it important to tender?
11. What are civil drawings?
12. Define civil drawings
13. Compare and contrast Turnkey contracts and design and build contracts
14. Describe the different types of working drawings

Oral Assessment
1. In your own understanding define tendering
2. Who is eligible for tendering?

Oral Assessment
1. Why do you think it’s important to tender?
2. How is the tendering system in Kenya today?

Practical Assessment
Obtain a Tender document and try to interpret it.

7.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule

279
7.3.2.5 References

Ashworth, A. Contractual procedures in the construction industry.

Ashworth, A. Cost Studies of Buildings.
Brook, M. (2004). Estimating and tendering for construction work. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann.

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7.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Take Off Building Quantities
7.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Take Off Building Quantities
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Prepare dimension sheet/paper • Demonstrate using

2.2 Prepare List of quantities to be measured charts
2.3 Book Dimensions • Practical
2.4 Describe booked items assessment
• Group work

7.3.3.2 Information Sheet No.7/LO2: Take Off Building Quantities

Introduction
This learning outcome covers Acquiring and interpreting Building plans as per workplace
procedures, Preparing Dimension sheet/paper based on the standard format, Preparing List
of quantities to be measured based on SMM, calculating Quantities based on the unit of
measure Book Dimensions based on the principles of measurement and Describing Booked
items based on the standard method of measurement for building and associated civil works
(SMM) and civil engineering standard method of measurements (CESMM).

Definition of key terms

Dimension sheet/paper- a piece of paper divided into a series of columns concerning
multiplication factors, dimensions, squaring and work descriptions used in taking off

Building plans: A set of drawings prepared by the design consultant as a means of

communicating construction information in form of floor plans, elevations, cross sections,
site plans.

Civil engineering standard method of measurements (CESMM): This is an

interpretation format used by civil engineers to prepare bills of quantities for civil work.

281
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Dimension sheet/paper is prepared based on the standard format
A dimension sheet is an important part of taking off as it is a tool that assists in the
identification, measurement and pricing of elements for construction works.
A dimension paper is made up of a series of columns each concerned with informational
specific aspect. The most commonly used method of ruling of dimension paper conforms
to the requirements of B.S 3327: 1961-Stationery for Quantity Surveying

Procedure for preparation of dimension sheet

i. Split the sheet of paper into two identically ruled parts each consisting of four
columns.

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Column 1 is known as the “timesing column” in which multiplying figures are entered
when there is more than one of the particular item being measured.

Column 2 is known as the “dimension column” in which the actual scaled dimensions are
provided in the drawing are entered.

Column 3 is known as the “Squaring Column” in which the length, area or volume
obtained by multiplying together the figures in column 1 and 2 is recorded, ready for
transfer to the abstract or bill.

Column 4 is known as the “description column” in which a written description of each

item is entered.
ii. For each work item input the material information provided in the appropriate
column.
iii. Compute the qualities and generate the accompanying costs.

282
1.2 List of quantities to be measured is prepared based on SMM
The items used in the taking off procedure may be determined through the following
procedure:
i. Analyzing the scope of work to be done based on the drawings given.
ii. Break down the work into construction tasks.
iii. Systematically arrange the tasks into a check list with work activities following
a chronological order.
iv. Generate the material requirements list with regard to the specific tasks being
covered.
v. Consider items with no given material but require a cost.

1.3 Quantities are calculated based on the unit of measure

Computation phase of the taking off process is usually done using the information
contained in the first three columns that is the time sing dimension and the squaring
column.

Procedure for computational of building process

i. In the time sing column, indicate the number of times an item with the
measurement appears; to avoid replicating calculations.
ii. In the dimension column, indicate the measurement value provided in the
drawings.
iii. In the squaring column, multiply the measurement value provided with the
factor indicated in the time sing column. The value obtained should be correct
to 2 d.p.
iv. Repeat these steps for all recurring items within a specific task.
v. Add the values obtained together in the squaring column and double underline
the total value of measurement.

Check list (work items)

• Site clearance
• Excavate vegetable soil
• Excavate for foundation
• Concrete blinding
• Concrete footing
• Foundation walling
• Backfilling
• Hardcore fill
• Blinding to hardcore above
• DPM
• BRC mesh

283
 • Concrete in floor bed
• Apply plaster to walls
• Paint walls

Item 1 Site Clearance

A B C D

2/ 11.10 O.40
2/ 0.20 1.00
0.50

11.10
0.40
1.00 12.50

2/ 6.00
2 O.20 0.40
0.50

6.00
0.40
1.00
1.00
12.50
7.40
7.40

92.50

Clear the site of all bushes and burn/dispose the arising.

1.4 Dimensions are booked based on the principles of measurement

The dimensions are entered into the dimension sheet following the principles below:
• They are set down in order of horizontal length, horizontal width and finally
vertical depth.
• The units of measurements used include

LM- Linear meter i.e. 2M

SM- square meter i.e. 2M*2M
CM- cubic Meter i.e. 2M*2M*2M

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KG- Kilogram
Enumerated Items i.e. Nr 3
The dimensions are then put in the dimension column as illustrated in the table below.

1.5 Booked items are described based on the standard method of measurement for
building and associated civil works (SMM) and civil engineering standard
method of measurements (CESMM)
The items that are entered into the dimension sheet are usually described in the description
column. The description used is dependent on the format used; whether SMM or CESMM
for CESMM refer to the example below
CESMM Page 15, Class F: In Situ Concrete:
Item descriptions for components classed as other concrete forms shall include:
• The principal dimensions of the concrete component.
• The type or mark number of a concrete component whose principal
dimensions are given on the drawings.
• A statement identifying or locating a concrete component whore principal
dimensions are given on the drawings.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Acquiring and interpreting Building plans as per
workplace procedures, Preparing Dimension sheet/paper based on the standard format,
Preparing List of quantities to be measured based on SMM, calculating Quantities based
on the unit of measure Book Dimensions based on the principles of measurement and
Describing Booked items based on the standard method of measurement for building and
associated civil works (SMM) and civil engineering standard method of measurements
(CESMM)

Further Reading

1. Read on the method of description of booked items from SMM 7th edition
2. Read further on the principles of taking off from Building Quantities Explained by I.H.
Sehley
3. Principles of Measurement from the principles of measurement for works of
construction by the RICS group.

285
7.3.3.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The measurements used in taking off should be rounded off to?
a) d.p
b) d.p
c) d.p
d) 1 d.p
2. Linear measurement are recorded in the
a) Dimension column
b) Squaring column
c) Description Column
d) Timensing Column
3. Which of the following is not a unit of measurement?
a) LM
b) CM
c) MM
d) KG
4. Which column of the dimension sheet is not used during computation of quantities?
a) Dimension
b) Squaring
c) Description
d) Timensing.
5. Who among the Following consultants is not involved in the preparation of bills of
quantities?
a) Architect
b) Engineer
c) Quantity Surveyor
d) Construction Manager
6. Which of the following is not considered when preparing a measurement list during a
pre-contact stage?
a) Scope of work
b) Chronology of tasks
c) Nonmaterial costs
d) Contractors estimate

286
7. How many classes of work are contained in the CESMM?
a) 26
b) 30
c) 15
d) 20
8. What is meant by the term dimension sheet?
9. Enumerate the uses of SMM
10. Compare and contrast SMM and the CESMM?
11. Describe how plans are acquired and interpreted.
12. The dimension sheet is based on which industry standard(s)?

Oral Assessment
1. Analyse the principle of measurements
2. Develop a presentation on the preparation of dimension sheet.

Practical Assessment
You have been provided with the building documents for A 4-bedroom bungalow. Using
this information;
a) Derive the building quantities.
b) Prepare a bill of Quantities (BOQ)

7.3.3.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Dimension sheets
• Abstract sheets
• Billing sheets
• Measuring tools
• Calculators
• CESSM/SMM

7.3.3.5 References

Harris, F., & McCaffer, R. (2013). Modern construction management. John Wiley & Sons.
Ashworth, A., & Perera, S. (2015). Cost studies of buildings. Routledge.
RICS. (1979) Principles of Measurement. London. RICS Business Services Limited
revised 2004

287
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Work Up Dimensions
7.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Work Up Dimensions
Learning Activities Special Instruction

3.1 Carry out Timesing of dimensions • Conduct group

3.2 Determine Quantities discussions
• Practical assessments
• Project demonstrations

7.3.4.2 Information Sheet No7/LO3 Work Up Dimensions

Introduction
This learning outcome covers Carrying out Timesing of dimensions as per SOPs and
Determining Quantities as per SOPs.

Definition of key terms

SOPs: (Standard Operating Procedures). These are the documented processes that a
company has in place to ensure services or products are delivered consistently overtime

Timesing: This is the multiplication of measurements taken from taking off of the
drawings in the dimension column during the preparation of Bill of Quantities.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Complex numbers are represented using Argand diagrams
Argand diagram
A diagram on which complex numbers are represented geometrically using Cartesian axes.
The horizontal coordinate representing the real part of the number and the vertical
coordinate the complex part.

The vertical axis represents imaginary numbers. The axes cross ta zero, again just like in a
Cartesian graph, eg a complex number like 𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖 would have the co-ordinates
(3, 4) on an Argand diagram.

288
The horizontal axis is labeled Real (Z) and the vertical axis is labeled Imag (Z) where the
word imaginary has been shortened to Imag.

The Argand diagram is used in the calculation of dimensions during the casting up and
setting out during the construction.

3.2 Operations involving complex numbers are performed

A complex number is a number that can be put in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 + 𝑏 where a and b are
real numbers and i is called the imaginary unit, where 𝑖𝑧 = −1 𝑖2 = −1. Complex numbers
have applications in many scientific areas, including signal processing, control theory,
electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, and cartography and vibration
analysis. Complex operations involve addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc, defined on
ordered pairs of scalars according to conventions of complex algebra eg in the preparation
of the abstraction sheet and the transfer of booked quantities within the sheet and the
multiplication of the items to get the amount.

Example
Complex numbers in the running through dimensions in the Bill of Quantities in the taking
off of quantities.

289
Complex numbers evident in the symbols used in the construction of the Bill of Quantities.
Some of the operations of complex numbers are as follows:
3
1. Simplify 2𝑖

3 3 𝑖 3𝑖 3𝑖 −3𝑖 −3𝑖
= ∙ = 2= = =
2𝑖 2𝑖 𝑖 2𝑖 −2 2 2

Whereby, 𝑖 2 = −1

3
2. Simplify 2+𝑖

Differentiation of squares in Complex Numbers

(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖) = 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏𝑖 + 𝑎𝑏𝑖 − (𝑏𝑖 2 )

= 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (𝑖 2 )
= 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (−1)
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏2

The meanings of the symbols used in the running through dimensions is as follows:

𝑎2 → 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
(−) → 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3
→ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
2 + 𝑎2

3𝑖 ∙ 𝑎2 (∙) → 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

290
The symbols come in handy in the running through dimensions eg on site as follows.

𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 12 ∗ 8 = 96𝑐𝑚2

3.3 Calculations involving complex numbers are performed using De Moivre’s

theorem
De Moiré’s Theorem
De Moiré’s theorem gives a formula for computing powers of complex numbers. The
theorem is applied during the multiplication of complex numbers by squaring the complex
numbers.

The theorem states that:

(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛 𝜃) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑛𝜃) ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 − 1.

The examples
Given any complex number 𝑐o𝑠 𝜃+i𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and any integer n,
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃+i𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃
Whereby:
(1) [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − i 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃
(2) [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]−𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
(3) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)−𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
(4) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = i(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

Example One
If z= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃), show that 𝑍 𝑛 + 1⁄𝑍 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 and
𝑍 𝑛 − [1⁄𝑍 𝑛 ] = 𝑍𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
By de Moivre’s solution;

𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃

𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃
1
= 𝑍 −𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑍𝑛

291
 1
Therefore, 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃) + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃)
1
𝑍 𝑛 + 𝑍 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃

1
Similarly, 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃) − (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃)

The 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 are among the symbols used in casting up and running through e.g in
calculations of the angles of a site during design.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Carrying out Timesing of dimensions as per SOPs and
Determining Quantities as per SOPs.

Further Reading

Research further on the applications of De Moivre’s theorem and applications of complex

numbers in construction industry.

7.3.4.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is timesing?
a) Division of measurements during taking off on site.
b) Multiplication of measurements during taking off.
c) Measurements of site dimensions.
d) Using a tape measure to determine dimensions of site.
2. What is the threshold requirement of the column numbers in an abstracting sheet
a) Four
b) Six
c) Three
d) Five
3. Which of the following best states the De Moivre’s theorem mathematically?
a) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃)∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ∗ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
c) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑖
d) None of the above

292
4. What is the meaning of this symbol as used in work up dimensions? 𝑎2
a) Division of the number
b) Multiplication of the number
c) Square of the number
d) Subtraction of the number
5. Which of the following is not part of running through dimension
a) Dimension of the measured variables
b) Symbol of the measurement
c) The extended line
d) Arrowheads
6. On an abstracting sheet, the stroke symbol below an entry of the first column
represents?
a) Divide
b) Multiply
c) Add
d) Subtract
7. Which of the following procedures is often indicated on the third column of abstracting
sheet
a) Dimensioning
b) Multiplication
c) Squaring
d) Description
8. What is meant by timesing?
9. Outline the De Moivre’s theory and state its application
10. Explain the meanings of three symbols used in work up dimensions
11. Describe the applications of complex numbers in dimensioning.
12. Elabourate on the procedures performed during timesing

Oral Assessment
3
1. Simplify 2+𝑖
2. If z= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃), show that 𝑍 𝑛 + 1⁄𝑍 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 and
𝑍 𝑛 − [1⁄𝑍 𝑛 ] = 𝑍𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Practical Assessment
1. Use De Moivre's formula to find z7 where z=1+i.
2. Perform the indicated operation and write your answer in standard form.
a) (4 − 5𝑖)(12 + 11𝑖)

b) (−3 − 𝑖) − (6 − 7𝑖)
c) (1 + 4𝑖) − (−16 + 9𝑖)

293
7.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Dimension sheets
• Abstract sheets
• Billing sheets
• Measuring tools
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• CESSM/SMM
• Stationer
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

7.3.2.5 References

Doebelin, E. O., & Manik, D. N. (2007). Measurement systems: Application and design.
Hirose, A. (2011). Nature of complex number and complex-valued neural networks.
Frontiers of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in China, 6(1), 171-180.
Hunter, R. (2007). Can you convince me: Learning to use mathematical argumentation?
Proceedings of PME 31, 3, 81-88.

294
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 4: Abstract Take Off Data
7.3.4.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No. 4: Abstract Take Off Data
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Prepare Abstracting sheet • Classroom

4.2 Transfer Description of booked items to the abstracting instructions
sheet • Group work
4.3 Transfer Quantities (Cubic, Square, Linear, Numbers activities
(enumeration)) to the abstracting sheet • Practical work
4.4 Calculate Net quantities
4.5 Carry out Running through dimensions

7.3.4.2 Information Sheet No. 7/LO. 4 Abstract Take Off Data

Introduction
This learning outcome covers: Preparing abstracting sheet based on the standard format,
transferring description of booked items to the abstracting sheet as per sops, transferring
quantities (cubic, square, linear, numbers (enumeration)) to the abstracting sheet,
calculating net quantities as per sops and carrying out running through dimensions as per
SOPs.

Definition of key terms

Abstracting sheet – this is the tabulated summary of an in-depth building or any
construction analysis mainly done by the quantity surveyor for all the construction work.

Taking off – this refers to the detailed measurement of materials and labour to the required
specifications that are needed to ensure the successful completion of construction projects.
This entails the breakdown of the project into specific units that are easier to measure.

Booked quantities – these are quantities shown on a sale order which are not restricted by
any means and are not associated with any particular orders.

295
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Abstracting sheet is prepared based on the standard format

Figure 92: Sample Abstract sheet

An abstract sheet is normally prepared by a quantity surveyor and is mainly divided into
several sections depending on the complexity and size of the construction project. Within
those sections, there are specific requirements that need to be fulfilled in order to achieve
the accurate measurements for all quantities. On the abstracting sheet, there is usually the
name of the project e.g. KENCOM Towers. This project name is usually stated at every
stage and each stage is normally arranged in a chronological order as per the activities that
will be carried on the ground. In each section, there is a list of activities that will be carried
out and, on each activity, there is a list of building materials to be used.

Dimensions must be provided for each of the materials used and areas where necessary in
case one is accounting for materials such as poured concrete. An abstract sheet is normally
prepared during the design stage of a project after all the architectural designs are prepared
and before construction commences. It is normally done to measure the accurate
dimensions of the building materials to be used for proper costing.

4.2 Description of booked items are transferred to the abstracting sheet as per SOPs
The items to be transferred to an abstracting sheet are obtained from the working drawings
and specifications of the building materials by the architect. Once the quantity surveyor
has analysed the architect’s specifications, he/she writes them down in the abstracting sheet
in the required thickness e.g. Structural timber rafters of 100mm by 50 mm. (Insert picture,
specifications sample 1 and 2).

After writing down the required material thickness the quantity surveyor calculates the
required size of the building materials in accordance with the standards units of
measurements (Si units) whether in dimensions. (Length and Width) or in other areas.

296
These calculations are derived from the architectural plans and elevations provided by the
architect. During this stage, the booked items are normally transferred to a rough
abstracting sheet where all the calculations are done before transferring them to a clean
sheet.

4.3 Quantities are transferred to the abstracting sheet

When transferring the quantities to an abstracting sheet, the following procedure must be
followed.

Note: The abstraction sheet contains four columns

Table 13. Abstraction sheet columns
A B C D
This is the This is the This is the squaring This is the
multiplication dimension column. column. All description column
column All quantities in quantities in this
this column are column are added
added as per the as per the specific
specific section. section.
i. At the beginning of the abstract sheet, all sections are stated in a chronological order
as per the activities to be carried out during the construction process.
ii. Dimensions of each quantity are then recorded in the second column of the abstract
sheet.
iii. Write down the number of quantities of quantities required to be multiplied on the
first column in order to determine the total dimensions required for the specific
quantity. If there is only one quantity required, there is no need to fill the first
column. When indicating the number of multiplied, always use the stoke symbol
below the number e.g. 6/ to indicate that the quantity needs to be multiplied by six.
iv. After multiplying, fill in the new dimensions on the third column where all
quantities of the same nature are added up.
v. Provide a brief description of the specific quantity stating its thickness for instance
in wood, ratios in case of concrete or any other detail of a material that is specific
to it.

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4.4 Net quantities are calculated as per SOPs
Description of calculations on the fourth column
A B C D
5/ 5/ This represents an item that has been repeated 5
times
4/ 1/ 4/ This means the same item can be expressed as 4
multiplied by 1
5.00 5.00 This means that the length of the item is 5 meters.
NB: The difference between 5.00 and the 5 at the
first row is the decimal point. Once a decimal point
is introduced. The item ceases to be in quantity and
becomes a measurement.
8.00 12.00 This means that the lengths of 8 meters and 4 meters
4.00 are added together to get 12 meters
8.00 32.00 This means that the area if the item is 32 square
4.00 meters and it has sides measuring 8 meters and 4
meters.
3.00 6.00 This section shows two areas that add up to 48 square
2.00 meters. Whereas in the second column, lack of a line
7.00 42.00 below a measurement means multiplication with the
6.00 48.00 underlying measurement, in the third column, lack of
a line means addition.
5.40 This means that the item has been measured as a
3.60 volume of 972 cubic metres consisting of a length of
50.00 972.00 5.4 metres, width of 3.6 metres and a depth/height of
50 metres
5.00 The lines separating the dimensions indicate three
3.00 separate linear measurements that ass up to 15 meters
7.00 15.00 unlike the three measurements in the above row
which indicate a volume.

4.5 Running through dimensions is carried out as per SOPs

A running dimension is that which is taken from one end of the structure to another end
but has multiple points in between that increases consistently. Running dimensions are
usually used to mark out boundaries and other linear measurements of items which
constitute a perimeter whether on regular or irregular polygons when setting out. The
dimension itself has one extension line, one arrow head and a numerical value of the item
being dimensions.

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Below is an example.

Running Dimension

When carrying out running through dimensions, one must first identify the number of
complete sides and partitions that a proposed project has. Using a tape measure, measure
the lengths of each sides and partitions of the proposed construction project. Draw and
extended line along the side of the partition with arrowheads at both ends. Write the
dimensions of the sides or partitions on top of the extended line. Repeat the above
procedure to all the other sides and partitions hence making up their running through
dimensions.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered: Preparing abstracting sheet based on the standard
format, transferring description of booked items to the abstracting sheet as per sops,
transferring quantities (cubic, square, linear, numbers (enumeration)) to the abstracting
sheet, calculating net quantities as per sops and carrying out running through dimensions
as per SOPs.

Further Reading

1. Find and research more on the various standards and formats of abstracting sheets.

299
7.3.4.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following procedures is normally indicate on the fourth column of an
abstracting sheet?
a) Dimensioning
b) Squaring
c) Description
d) Multiplication
2. On an abstracting sheet, the stroke symbol below on entry on the first column
represents?
a) Divide
b) Add
c) Multiply
d) Subtract
3. Which one of the following is not part of a running through dimension?
a) Arrowheads
b) Dimension unit of measurement
c) An extended line
d) Symbol of measurement
4. Which one of the following clearly shows the difference between 5 and 5.00 on an
abstracting sheet?
a) One is a measurement unit while the other shows the quantity of an item.
b) Both are the same
c) One has a decimal point and the other does not
d) None of the above
5. When is an abstracting sheet prepared?
a) During construction of a project
b) Before architectural drawings are prepared
c) During project commissioning
d) After preparation of architectural drawings but before construction
6. During transferring of booked quantities on an abstracting sheet, which of the following
is not included?
a) Number of booked quantities
b) Description of booked quantities
c) Price of the booked quantities
d) Dimensions of the booked quantities

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7. What is the minimum number of columns that a standard format abstracting sheet have?
a) Four
b) Six
c) Three
d) Five
8. Enumerate procedures represented by each column on an abstracting sheet.
9. Elabourate the use of underlined quantity on an abstracting sheet.
10. Using a sketch illustration, draw and state the various parts of a running through
dimension.
11. Outline the basic standard units of measurement used in abstracting sheets.
12. Compare and contrast between booked items and net quantities in relevance to
abstracting take off data.

Oral Assessment
1. Outline the steps taken when ferrying quantities to an abstracting sheet.
2. Analyse the relevance of preparing an abstracting sheet in quantity surveying.

Practical Assessment
In groups of five members, prepare an abstracting sheet for an architectural drawing that
one of your members has done.

7.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Dimension sheets
• Abstract sheets
• Billing sheets
• Measuring tools
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• CESSM/SMM
• Stationer
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

301
7.3.2.5 References

Duncan P. Cartlidge. (2002). New Aspects of Quantity Surveying Practice. Oxford:

Elsevier Butterworth – Heinemann.
Lee, Sandra, Trench W. & Willis A. (2005). Willis’s Elements of Quantity Surveying.
United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers.
Steve Pittard & Peter. Sell. (2016). BIM and Quantity Surveyors. London: Rutledge
Publishers.

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 CHAPTER 8: WATER AND WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGY

8.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit describes the competence required to apply water & wastewater technology
practices. It involves applying basic water supply principles, principles of wastewater
collection & treatment and basic irrigation & drainage principles.

8.2 Performance Standard

Apply basic water supply principles, principles of wastewater collection and treatment, and
basic irrigation and drainage principles based on particular use, demand, water source,
water characteristics and quality, design, international standards, water system, and code
of practice.

8.3 Learning Outcomes

8.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Apply basic water supply principles
b) Apply principles of wastewater collection and treatment
c) Apply basic irrigation and drainage principles

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8.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles
8.3.2.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Calculate water demand • Direct instruction

1.2 Identify sources of water • Field trips
1.3 Identify water abstraction methods • Discussions
1.4 Identify water treatment processes • Demonstration by
1.5 Identify water pipes and appurtenances trainer
1.6 Identify water supply symbols • Practice by the
1.7 Identify water distribution systems trainee
1.8 Identify water storage structures • On-job training
1.9 Observe work safety

8.3.2.2 Information Sheet No8/lo1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers water demand, sources of water, water abstraction methods,
water treatment processes, water pipes and appurtenances, water supply symbols, water
distribution and water storage structures.

Definition of key terms

Appurtenances- Is a sub class of something belonging to a broader class.

Water abstraction- It’s obtaining water from its source to serve different purposes as
chosen by human beings like irrigation.

Water Appurtenances- distinct devices needed to regulate water movement during supply

304
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Calculate water demand based on particular use
Water demand also referred to as water use is the mean daily use per person (per capita).
Water demand include;
• Industrial:130-140 l/d
• Domestic: 48-52 l/d
• Institution and comercial: 18-24 l/d
• Public and civil use: 8-10 l/d
• Agriculture
• Recreation

Calculation of demand per capita

q=total yearly use of the city in litres/ (365*design population)
Design population will vary according to particular use for example industrial use design
population will be given by the industrial area or the capacity of blending beverage.

1.2 Identify Sources of water based on demand and particular use.

There are three major providers (sources) of water.
i. Surface water include lakes, rivers, oceans etc.
ii. Ground water include aquifers etc.
iii. Rainwater
For a long time, the surface water sources were used to satisfy water needs but due to
increased water demand and industrialisation man come up with other ways to obtain more
water to cater for the rising demand since ground water was also not readily available for
use.

1.3 Identify Water abstraction methods based on the water source

Water abstraction methods are ways through which water is taken away from its source
either permanently or temporarily mostly for agricultural purposes like irrigation or water
curing for drinking and they include;
• Surface water abstraction- which is acquiring water from a river by laying a
perforated drain pipe below the river bed to collect water.
• Ground water abstraction – involves acquiring water from a ground provider e.g.
aquifer.

305
1.4 Identify Water treatment processes based on water characteristics and water
quality.
Water treatment processes methods
Water treatment is the improvement of the physical, chemical and microbiological
properties of water (water quality) to make it acceptable for a particular use in the end or
for environmentally safe discharge back to the hydrological cycle.
Water characteristics include; polarity, cohesion, adhesion and high specific heat and also
have to reach the acceptable standards. Waste water has these characteristics distorted and
thus has to be restored for example it has a very unpleasant smell, increased temperature
due to bio-chemical activities, high turbidity due to suspended material among others.
Water treatment process include;

Waste, surface and storm water treatment process

• Collection- is water from different places is brought together via a system of
pipes which normally contains household water.
• Screening and staining-this is the removal of objects like plastic and metal that
can cause damage and cogging of downstream equipment
• Chemical addition-chemicals like sodium chloride and potassium chloride are
added and aid in the organic contaminant removal by exchange of ions.
• Coagulation and flocculation- removal of suspended solid from water.
• Sedimentation and clarification-is the removal of the suspended matter by
adding compounds and stirring. These suspended materials vary in property and
the added compounds cause them to collide and grow hence they seize to be
suspended and thus easily removed.
• Filtration- is the separation of the solid from the liquid using a filter
• Disinfection- is the killing of germs and can be done using UV chlorine among
others
• Storage- keeping the water before it is released to the public as different tests are
being run on it to confirm treatment
• Distribution- supply of water to users after treatment

Other treatment methods include reverse osmosis where excess ions are removed
depending on the end use of the water. There is also ocean water treatment that removes
the excess salts among others like bottled water treatment, containerised water treatment
etc.

306
1.5 Identify Water pipes and appurtenances based on the design
Water pipes –are hollow tubes designed to transport treated water to the final user
They include:

Figure 93: water pipes

Source; Lee Wallender, the Spruce

1. PEX Pipe
PEX, or cross-linked polyethylene, pipe is one of the newest and most popular pipes to hit
the plumbing market. PEX is used only to supply water. PEX is a pipe that is rigid enough
to withstand the pressures of water supply but flexible enough to weave throughout walls,
ceilings, basements, and crawlspaces. PEX has truly delivered water-supply plumbing into
the hands of do-it-yourself and professional plumbers.
Pros
• Color-coded red for hot water and blue for cold water
• Highly flexible, with 90-degree curves possible
• Attaches with push-fit plumbing fittings, among other types
• Inexpensive
• Able to join with copper pipe
• Cuts easily

Cons
• Long-term capabilities untested
• May leak with push-fit plumbing fittings
• Cannot be recycled

1. PVC Pipe
PVC, or polyvinyl chloride, pipe is a drain or vent line type of plumbing pipe. PVC initially
gained popularity because it was lighter and easier to work with than traditional galvanized
steel pipe. PVC pipe is moderately easy to install and requires little more than a hacksaw
and a meter box to cut. PVC glues together with solvents.

307
Pros
• Diameters clearly marked on the white surface of the pipe
• Inexpensive and can be used for long runs such as for irrigation
• Easier to work with than steel or copper

Cons
• The pipe cannot be unjointed and must be cut
• Glued pipes can be prone to leaking
• Degrades in sunlight

2. Rigid Copper Pipe

Rigid copper is often used for water supply lines within the home. Rigid copper is easily
cut with a hacksaw or with a special copper tube cutter. The connection is a different matter,
as it requires a practiced hand to solder copper pipe together. Rigid copper pipe is great for
water supply because it does not come with any health risks.
Pros
• Though it is called rigid, this pipe can be slightly bent
• Handles heat well
• Stands up against intense pressures
• Easy to recycle and waste copper pipe even has monetary value

Cons
• Difficult for do-it-yourselves to work with due to soldered connections
• Expensive
• Develops pinhole leaks
• Inside of pipe may eventually corrode and impede water flow

3. ABS Pipe
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) pipe is mainly used as a vent and drain line. ABS
pipe looks very much like PVC pipe, except that it is black and slightly softer.

Pros
• Stronger than PVC pipes
• Good for underground exterior use
• Works well in cold temperatures

308
Cons
• Often not permitted by building code
• Warps and deforms at certain temperatures

4. Flexible Copper Pipe

Flexible copper pipe or tubing is used for final runs to water heaters, refrigerators, and
some sinks. Flexible copper is used only for short runs and can be cut with ease with a
hacksaw. It can be bent to fit around corners.

Pros
• High heat Fits in tight, unusually shaped areas
• tolerance

Cons
• Expensive
• Thin and prone to breaking

5. Galvanized Steel Pipe and Cast Iron

Two additional types of pipe are sometimes found in older homes and are infrequently
installed, especially by do-it-yourself steel and cast-iron pipe. Galvanized steel pipe was
used for decades for drainage, water supply, gas supply, and any number of other purposes.
While galvanized steel pipe is still around (particularly for gas supply) it is far less used
and is never used for water supply in new construction or remodel projects. Each end of
the pipe is threaded, and individual pipes are screwed into each other with connecting
joints. Cast iron pipe was often used for sewer and other drainage purposes. Cast iron pipe
is still found in many homes. Cast iron pipe is viable until the point that it rusts completely
through. Cast iron is very heavy and difficult to cut. Retrofits tend to replace cast iron pipe
with rigid plastic pipes such as ABS.

Pros
• Galvanized steel pipe has the advantage of being extremely strong.

Cons
• Galvanized steel pipe eventually corrodes and blocks water flow.
• Some galvanized steel pipe may pass lead into the water supply.

Others include;
• Metallic (GI, Steel, ductile iron, cast iron)
• Plastic (PVC, uPVC, CPVC, PE, PPR, PEX)
• Cement (RC pipes)

309
Appurtenances – these are devices needed to control the flow water, cub leakages and
carry out other functions in water supply systems.
Reasons for using appurtenances include;
• For efficient and less hectic water supply
• To regulate opposite direction flow of water the pipe
• To reduce wastage and leakages in pipes
• To control the flow of water
• To ensure water is used for the intended function

Properties of these appurtenances includes:

• Strength- should be very strong
• Durability-highly durable
• Cost- should be economical
• Resistance- should have high resistance to corrosion
• Flexibility- should be easy to remove and maintained and repair

The appurtenances include;

1. Valves- devices that regulate the flow and pressure within a system
Types of valves ;( gate valve, sluice valves, ball valves, globe valves, butterfly valves,
check valves, PRV, pressure relive valves, float valves, air valves, washouts)

Functions of valves;
a) Release or allow in air
b) Regulate water flow
c) Regulate the pressure build up
d) Regulate direction of flow
e) Stop or start flow

2. Meters- device used to determine the amount of water being discharged through a pipe
Types of meters; (displacement meters, velocity meters, ultra-sonic, electromagnetic.)
a) Properties of a good meter;
b) Should have low resistance to water flow
c) Should be less reactive
d) Should have high accuracy to avoid error
e) Should be cost effective
3. Fittings (couplings, adapters)
4. Tanks and bib cocks (taps which are used to stop or allow outflow of water from a
system)

310
1.6 Identify Water supply symbols based on international standards
Water supply symbols- water supply is the providing of water by public service,
commercial organisation or individuals while the symbols are diagrammatic expressions
of the different parts in the supply system and they are shown below.

Figure 94: Water supply symbols

Source; Design Elements-Pipes (part 1) Plumbing and piping plans

1.7 Identify Water distribution systems based on design

Water distribution systems-ensures water supply using technically synced hydrological
and hydraulic components. The main function of a distribution system is to ensure
satisfactory quality and quantity of water.

Characteristics of a good distribution system

• Water quality should be maintained
• Pressure should be maintained at all intended places
• Pipes should be laid 1m apart
• It should be a watertight system to minimize losses

311
Below are the types of water distribution systems
• Grid iron system- in this system the main line lies at the centre and the branches
• Radial system- in this system the area is divided into subareas with a central water
storage at a higher elevation than the distribution pipe and is located radially from
the edge of the distribution sub area
• Dead end or tree system - the main pipe lines at the centre of the area then sub
branches branch from both sides in a manner demarcating the area and have further
sub branches.
• Circular or ring system- the main line forms a circle around the distribution area
and the branches cross the main and each other too

1.8 Identify Water storage structures based on water system

Water storage structures- these are manmade features that serve a purpose of storing
water
• Weirs and Dams- a dam is barrier across a river and form a reservoir upstream
while a weir is a small-scale dam and raises water level upstream
• Tanks (elevate, surface and sub-surface)- large container for water storage
• Water pans& ponds

1.9 Observe Work safety based on code of practice

Work safety refers to general precaution are important in every scope of life. Safe to
prevent injuries, loss of life and property damage. Work safety rules while operating tools
and machinery includes:
• Operate a machine when you are well conversant with it and you have the
necessary authority.
• Clean and arrange tools after use
• Take heed to any operating instruction
• Put on PPE’s and other protective gadgets
• No operation of unauthorised machinery
• Follow operating instructions
• Be aware of fire hazards

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered water demand, sources of water, water abstraction methods,
water treatment processes, water pipes and appurtenances, water supply symbols, water
distribution and water storage structures.

312
Further Reading

Read further on advantages and disadvantages of each water distribution system.

https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/module-2-centralised-and-decentralised-
systems-water-and-sanitation-1/network-design-and-dimensioning

10.3.2.3 Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Explain and differentiate the following water sources.
a) Ground water
b) Runoff water
c) Surface water
d) Rainwater
2 Select which of the following is not an appurtenance and explain their function.
a) Gate
b) Sluice
c) Butterfly
d) Tap
3 Which one is not a characteristic of water?
a) Adhesion
b) Polarity
c) Flowrate
d) Specific heat
4 Summarize 5 functions of valves in the water distribution system
5 Classify 3 types of pipes used in the water supply system
6 Distinguish and name any 7 water supply symbols
7 Explain 6 characteristics of a good water distribution system
8 A dam is a structure built across a river while a weir is a small-scale dam. Distinguish
the two and summarize what each structure entails.

313
Oral Assessment
1. Evaluate the importance of adhering to work safety practices as per the code of
standards?
2. Explain the importance of water treatment in the water supply chain

Case Study Assessment

You have been given an area around Lake Victoria to come up with a water distribution
method. After a field survey select a distinguished system and explain its relevance.

Performance Based Evidence

Oral Assessment
Distinguish between flocculation and coagulation?
Explain the chemical treatment of water. What happens and which chemicals are used.

Practical Assessment
Class visit to Nairobi water and evaluate which distribution system is commonly used in
Nairobi and prepare a report on the field visit.

8.3.2.4 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationery
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Projector

10.3.2.5 References

Clark, R. M., Sivaganesan, M., Selvakumar, A., & Sethi, V. (2002). Cost models for water
supply distribution systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, 128(5), 312-321.
Matilainen, A., Lindqvist, N., Korhonen, S., & Tuhkanen, T. (2002). Removal of NOM in
the different stages of the water treatment process. Environment international,
28(6), 457-465.

314
8.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment
8.3.3.1 Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2 .1 Identify Need for wastewater collection and disposal • Direct

2 .2 Identify Sources of waste water instruction
2 .3 Illustrate Sewer system layout • Field trips
2 .4 Identify Sewerage systems • Discussions
2 .5 Illustrate Sewer appurtenances • Demonstration
2 .6 Characterize Wastewater by trainer
2 .7 Identify Wastewater treatment processes • Practice by the
2 .8 Describe Principles of Wastewater treatment trainee
2 .9 Identify Wastewater symbols • On-job training
2 .10 Identify Wastewater colour coding for pipes and
exhauster trucks
2 .11 Observe Work safety

8.3.3.2 Information Sheet NO8/L02: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and

Treatment

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Sources of waste water, Types of sewers, Sewerage systems,
Characteristics of wastewater, Sewer appurtenances, Wastewater Treatment processes and
disposal, Wastewater symbols and Wastewater colour coding for pipes and exhauster
trucks.

315
Definition of key terms
Sewer- is an underground tunnel for carrying sewage

Sewer appurtenances are devices along a sewerage system placed at reasonable

intervals to aid in the proper function of the system

Wastewater refers to contaminated water and not fit for human use

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2 .1 Identify Need for wastewater collection and disposal based on water quality
standards
Waste water is water that has been contaminated and therefore cannot be released in to the
environment without the removal of the contaminants themselves because of the factors
listed below;
i. To avoid ground water pollution- when the waste water is left uncollected and
disposed on land it seeps underground leading to ground water contamination
which supposed to be a source of water for future generations thus unsustainability
ii. To avoid killing marine life which may further lead to extinction of some species
as this waste water if not treated finds its way to the seas and oceans and due to its
distorted composition, it cannot support marine
iii. May lead to an imbalance in the ecosystem since every part of the ecosystem
depends on water and if this water is

2 .2 Identify Sources of waste water based on water quality standards

Sources of waste water-main supply of waste water. Waste water characteristics vary
depending on its source
• Industrial- waste produced by industrial processes
• Domestic waste- is waste generated from the house water that include grey water
and black water
• Storm waste-waste generated from runoff water
• Agricultural waste- waste generated mostly from the farm that include fertilizers

2 .3 Illustrate Sewer system layout based on sewerage design manual

Sewer system layout is a plan of system of conduits that carry waste from the point of
generation to where it is treated.
There are two types of sewer system layouts; domestic and industrial and storm system lay
out

316
 Requirements for system layout;
• The outlet for the system must be specified
• The area of coverage by the tributary should be estimated
• The site for the main sewer and tank should be identified
• Identify suitable location for a pump
• The system should adheres to the topography of the area and the main sewer
should be at a lower topography
• The mains should be designed to take in future loads as well
• Minimum distance of 3m between waste water pipes and clean water pipe
should be observed as per the code
• Manhole should be positioned at the layout junction
• During construction the area is first excavated after all considerations have
been put in place then the pipes are laid.

2 .4 Identify Sewerage systems based on the design

Sewerage systems is a combination of tunnels from the generation source to treatment them
release of waste water. There are 3 types
• Domestic and industrial system-normally involve treatment before release
into the environment
• Storm system- involves a temporary storage before its channelled and
disposed back to stream or river
• Combined system where storm is mixed with domestic and industrial waste
and treated the same way

2 .5 Illustrate Sewer appurtenances based on sewer code

Sewer appurtenances are devices along a sewerage system placed at reasonable
intervals to aid in the proper function of the system and they include
• Manholes (Shallow, Deep, Drop), -is an opening to a confinement
underground and is used to access the sewer system
• Inlet- pathway from the manhole top
• Catch basins- infrastructure engineered to drain of excess water from
surfaces or pavements
• Clean out –used to remove unwanted material
• Flushing tank- this is the collection point
• Flushing units,
• Lamp holes

317
2 .6 Characterize Wastewater based on effluent discharge regulations (NEMA).
Wastewater is water which has lost its water determining characteristics through human
use contamination
There are physical characteristics;
• Odour-bad smell due to contamination
• High temperature due to increased reaction
• High turbidity due to dissolved substances

2.7 Identify Wastewater treatment processes based on wastewater characteristics

Wastewater treatment processes- deals with the process that take place during waste
water treatment
i. Collection- is water from different places are brought together via a system of
pipes which normally containing household water majorly.
ii. Screening and staining-this is the removal of objects like plastic and metal that
can cause damage and cogging of downstream equipment
iii. Chemical addition-chemicals like sodium chloride and potassium chloride are
added and aid in the organic contaminant removal by exchange of ions.
iv. Coagulation and flocculation
v. Sedimentation and clarification-is the removal of the suspended mater by
adding compounds and stirring. These suspended materials vary in property and
the added compounds cause them to collide and grow hence they seize to be
suspended and thus easily removed.
vi. Filtration- is the separation of the solid from the liquid using a filter Sludge
digestion,
vii. Sludge drying
viii. Waste stabilization ponds (Anaerobic, Facultative, and Maturation)
ix. Disinfection- is the killing of germs and can be done using UV chlorine among
others
x. Storage- keeping the water before it is released to the public as different tests
are being run on it to confirm treatment
xi. Distribution- supply of water to users after treatment

2.8 Describe Principles of Wastewater treatment based on treatment unit.

Principles of Wastewater treatment- deals with the process that take place during waste
water treatment
• Collection- is water from different places are brought together via a system of pipes
which normally containing household water majorly.
• Screening and staining-this is the removal of objects like plastic and metal that can
cause damage and cogging of downstream equipment

318
 • Chemical addition-chemicals like sodium chloride and potassium chloride are
added and aid in the organic contaminant removal by exchange of ions.
• Coagulation and flocculation
• Sedimentation and clarification-is the removal of the suspended mater by adding
compounds and stirring. These suspended materials vary in property and the added
compounds cause them to collide and grow hence they seize to be suspended and
thus easily removed.
• Filtration- is the separation of the solid from the liquid using a filter Sludge
digestion,
• Sludge drying
• Waste stabilization ponds (Anaerobic, Facultative, and Maturation)
• Disinfection- is the killing of germs and can be done using UV chlorine among
others
• Storage- keeping the water before it is released to the public as different tests are
being run on it to confirm treatment
• Distribution- supply of water to users after treatment

2.9 Identify Wastewater symbols based on international standards

Wastewater symbols

319
 Figure 95: International Standards Wastewater Symbols
Source; https://www.edrawsoft.com

2.10 Identify Wastewater colour coding for pipes and exhauster trucks based on