Beer Johnston DeWolf Mazurek

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
2 Stress and Strain – Axial
Loading

Dr. Mohamed Ali

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Contents
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading Generalized Hooke’s Law
Normal Strain Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Stress-Strain Test Shearing Strain
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials Example 2.4
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Relation Among E, n, and G
Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior Sample Problem 2.5
Fatigue Composite Materials
Deformations Under Axial Loading Saint-Venant’s Principle
Example 2.1 Stress Concentration: Hole
Sample Problem 2.2 Stress Concentration: Fillet
Static Indeterminacy Example 2.6
Example 2.3
Thermal Stresses
Poisson’s Ratio

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in

the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.

• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member

forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate.

• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires

consideration of deformations in the member.

• Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under

axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Normal Strain

P 2P P P
 = = stress = = =
A 2A A A
  2 
= = normal strain = = =
L L 2L L
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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Stress-Strain Test

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity

• Below the yield stress

 = E
E = Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity

• Strength is affected by alloying,

heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

• If the strain disappears when the

stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.

• The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.

• When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
behave plastically.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Fatigue

• Fatigue properties are shown on

S-N diagrams.

• A member may fail due to fatigue

at stress levels significantly below
the ultimate strength if subjected
to many loading cycles.

• When the stress is reduced below

the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Deformations Under Axial Loading
• From Hooke’s Law:
 P
 = E = =
E AE
• From the definition of strain:

=
L
• Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
 =
AE
• With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
PL
 = i i
i Ai Ei

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.1

SOLUTION:
• Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.

• Apply a free-body analysis on each

component to determine the
internal force

• Evaluate the total of the component

Determine the deformation of deflections.
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
SOLUTION: • Apply free-body analysis to each
• Divide the rod into three component to determine internal forces,
components: P1 = 240103 N
P2 = −60 103 N
P3 = 120103 N

• Evaluate total deflection,

Pi Li 1  PL P L P L 
 = =  1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 
i Ai Ei E  A1 A2 A3 

=
1 ( ) +
( +
) ( )
 240103 0.3 − 60 103 0.3 120 103 0.4 
 
200109  581 10−6 58110−6 194 10−6 
= 1.7310−3 m

 = 1.73 mm
L1 = L2 = 0.3m L3 = 0.4m
A1 = A2 = 581 10-6 m 2 A3 = 194  10-6 m 2

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Sample Problem 2.2
SOLUTION:
• Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
• Evaluate the deformation of links AB
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two and DC or the displacements of B
links AB and CD. and D.

Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 • Work out the geometry to find the

GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 deflection at E given the deflections
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200 at B and D.
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Sample Problem 2.2
SOLUTION: Displacement of B:
PL
Free body: Bar BDE B =
AE
(− 60  103 N )(0.3 m )
=
(500 10-6 m2 )(70 109 Pa )
= −514  10− 6 m
 B = 0.514 mm 
MB = 0
Displacement of D:
0 = −(30 kN  0.6 m ) + FCD  0.2 m
PL
D =
FCD = +90 kN tension AE
 MD = 0 (90  103 N )(0.4 m )
0 = −(30 kN  0.4 m ) − FAB  0.2 m
=
(600 10-6 m2 )(200 109 Pa )
FAB = −60 kN compression = 300  10 − 6 m

 D = 0.300 mm 
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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Sample Problem 2.2
Displacement of D:

BB BH
=
DD HD
0.514 mm (200 mm ) − x
=
0.300 mm x
x = 73.7 mm

EE  HE
=
DD HD
E
=
(400 + 73.7 )mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
 E = 1.928 mm

 E = 1.928 mm 

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.

• A structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.

• Redundant reactions are replaced with

unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.

• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

reactions are determined separately and then added
or superposed.
 = L +R = 0

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.3
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.

SOLUTION:
• Consider the reaction at B as redundant, release
the bar from that support, and solve for the
displacement at B due to the applied loads.

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the

redundant reaction at B.

• Require that the displacements due to the loads

and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be zero.

• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads

and the reaction found at B.
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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.3
SOLUTION:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads with the redundant constraint released,
P1 = 0 P2 = P3 = 600  103 N P4 = 900  103 N

A1 = A2 = 400  10− 6 m 2 A3 = A4 = 250  10− 6 m 2

L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = 0.150 m

Pi Li 1.125  109
L =  =
i Ai Ei E

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

constraint,
P1 = P2 = − RB

A1 = 400  10− 6 m 2 A2 = 250  10− 6 m 2

L1 = L2 = 0.300 m

δR = 
Pi Li
=−
(
1.95  103 RB )
A
i i iE E
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First
Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.3
• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
 = L +R = 0

 = −
( )
1.125  109 1.95  103 RB
=0
E E
RB = 577  103 N = 577 kN

• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

 Fy = 0 = R A − 300 kN − 600 kN + 577 kN
R A = 323 kN

R A = 323 kN
RB = 577 kN

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Thermal Stresses
• A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
PL
 T =  (T )L P =
AE
 = thermal expansion coef.
• The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
 = T +  P = 0  (T )L +
PL
=0
AE
P = − AE (T )
P
= = − E (T )
A
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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.4
Determine the values of
the stress in portions AC
and CB of the steel bar
shown when the temperature
of the bar is -45 oC, knowing
that a close fit exists at both
of the rigid supports when
the temperature is +24 oC.
Use the values E =200 Gpa
and  = 11.7  10 -6 / oC for
steel.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
SOLUTION
We first determine the reactions at the supports. Since the problem is statically
indeterminate, we detach the bar from its support at B and let it undergo the temperature
change

The corresponding deformation (Fig. 2.4b) is

Applying now the unknown force RB at end B

(Fig. 2.4c), to express the corresponding
deformation R. Substituting

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
SOLUTION
Expressing that the total deformation of the bar must be zero as a result of the
imposed constraints, we write

The reaction at A is equal and opposite.

Noting that the forces in the two portions of the bar are P1 = P2 = 84 KN

we obtain the following values of the stress in portions

AC and CB of the bar:

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.5
The rigid bar CDE is attached to a pin support at E and rests on the 30-mm- diameter brass
cylinder BD. A 22-mm-diameter steel rod AC passes through a hole in the bar and is
secured by a nut which is snugly fitted when the temperature of the entire assembly is 20
[Link] temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised to 50 oC while the steel rod remains

20 oC at Assuming that no stresses were present before the temperature change, determine
the stress in the cylinder.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
SOLUTION

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x = x  y = z = 0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y = z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
= =− =− z
axial strain x x

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Generalized Hooke’s Law
• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,
the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

• With these restrictions:

 x  y  z
x = + − −
E E E
 x  y  z
y = − + −
E E E
 x  y z
z = − − +
E E E

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
 ( )  
e = 1 − (1 +  x ) 1 +  y (1 +  z ) = 1 − 1 +  x +  y +  z 
= x + y +z

1 − 2
=
E
(
 x + y + z )
= dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)

• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

3(1 − 2 ) p
e = −p =−
E k
E
k= = bulk modulus
3(1 − 2 )

• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
0    12

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Shearing Strain
• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will
deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
 xy = f ( xy )

• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar to the

previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
 xy = G  xy  yz = G  yz  zx = G  zx

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.6
SOLUTION:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 620 Mpa is • Use the definition of shearing stress to
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates. find the force P.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 1.0 mm. under the
action of the force, determine a) the
average shearing strain in the material,
and b) the force P exerted on the plate.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
• Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.

• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.

• Use the definition of shearing stress to find

the force P.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Relation Among E, , and G
• An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
• Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
E
= (1 +  )
2G

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Sample Problem 2.7
A 500-mm-long, 16-mm-
diameter rod made of a
homogenous, isotropic
material is observed to
increase in length by 300
µm, and to decrease in
diameter by 2.4 mm when
subjected to an axial 12-
kN load. Determine the
modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio of the
material.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
SOLUTION:
• Apply the generalized Hooke’s Law to
find the three components of normal
strain.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed
from lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or
polymers embedded in a resin matrix.

• Normal stresses and strains are related by Hooke’s

Law but with directionally dependent moduli of
elasticity,
x y 
Ex = Ey = Ez = z
x y z

• Transverse contractions are related by directionally

dependent values of Poisson’s ratio, e.g.,
y 
 xy =−  xz = − z
x x

• Materials with directionally dependent mechanical

properties are anisotropic.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.

• Concentrated loads result in large

stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.

• Stress and strain distributions

become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.

• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Stress Concentration: Hole

Discontinuities of cross section may result in  max

K=
high localized or concentrated stresses.  ave

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Stress Concentration: Fillet

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
Example 2.8

SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
Determine the largest axial load P
that can be safely supported by a • Find the allowable average normal
flat steel bar consisting of two stress using the material allowable
portions, both 10 mm thick, and normal stress and the stress
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide, concentration factor.
connected by fillets of radius r = 8 • Apply the definition of normal stress to
mm. Assume an allowable normal find the allowable load.
stress of 165 MPa.

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Statics and Mechanics of Materials
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
= = 1.50 = = 0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K = 1.82

• Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
 max 165 MPa
 ave = = = 90.7 MPa
K 1.82

• Apply the definition of normal stress

to find the allowable load.
P = A ave = (40 mm )(10 mm )(90.7 MPa )

= 36.3 103 N
P = 36.3 kN

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