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CSS: The Definitive Guide
FIFTH EDITION

Visual Styling for the Web

With Early Release ebooks, you get books in their earliest form—
the authors’ raw and unedited content as they write—so you can
take advantage of these technologies long before the official
release of these titles.

Eric A. Meyer and Estelle Weyl


CSS: The Definitive Guide
by Eric A. Meyer and Estelle Weyl
Copyright © 2023 Eric Meyer. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North,
Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales
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Illustrator: Kate Dullea

May 2000: First Edition


March 2004: Second Edition
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Revision History for the Fifth Edition
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CSS: The Definitive Guide, the cover image, and related trade dress
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While the publisher and the authors have used good faith efforts to
ensure that the information and instructions contained in this work
are accurate, the publisher and the authors disclaim all responsibility
for errors or omissions, including without limitation responsibility for
damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this work. Use of
the information and instructions contained in this work is at your
own risk. If any code samples or other technology this work contains
or describes is subject to open source licenses or the intellectual
property rights of others, it is your responsibility to ensure that your
use thereof complies with such licenses and/or rights.
978-1-098-11755-9
[TO COME]
Chapter 1. CSS and
Documents

A NOTE FOR EARLY RELEASE READERS


With Early Release ebooks, you get books in their earliest form—
the authors’ raw and unedited content as they write—so you can
take advantage of these technologies long before the official
release of these titles.
This will be the 1st chapter of the final book. Please note that
the GitHub repo will be made active later on.
If you have comments about how we might improve the content
and/or examples in this book, or if you notice missing material
within this chapter, please reach out to the editor at
[email protected].

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a powerful programming language


that transforms the presentation of a document or a collection of
documents, and it has spread to nearly every corner of the web as
well as many ostensibly non-web environments. For example,
embedded-device displays often use CSS to style their user
interfaces, many RSS clients let you apply CSS to feeds and feed
entries, and some instant message clients use CSS to format chat
windows. Aspects of CSS can be found in the syntax used by
JavaScript frameworks, and even in JavaScript itself. It’s everywhere!

A Brief History of (Web) Style


CSS was first proposed in 1994, just as the web was beginning to
really catch on. At the time, browsers gave all sorts of styling power
to the user—the presentation preferences in Mosaic, for example,
permitted font family, size, and color to be defined by the user on a
per-element basis. None of this was available to document authors;
all they could do was mark a piece of content as a paragraph, as a
heading of some level, as preformatted text, or one of a dozen other
element types. If a user configured their browser to make all level-
one headings tiny and pink and all level-six headings huge and red,
well, that was their lookout.
It was into this milieu that CSS was introduced. Its goal was to
provide a simple, declarative styling language that was flexible for
authors and, most importantly, provided styling power to authors
and users alike. By means of the “cascade,” these styles could be
combined and prioritized so that both authors and readers had a say
—though readers always had the last say.
Work quickly advanced, and by late 1996, CSS1 was finished. While
the newly established CSS Working Group moved forward with CSS2,
browsers struggled to implement CSS1 in an interoperable way.
Although each piece of CSS was fairly simple on its own, the
combination of those pieces created some surprisingly complex
behaviors. There were also some unfortunate missteps in early
implementations, such as the infamous discrepancy in box model
implementations. These problems threatened to derail CSS
altogether, but fortunately some clever proposals were implemented,
and browsers began to harmonize. Within a few years, thanks to
increasing interoperability and high-profile developments such as the
CSS-based redesign of Wired magazine and the CSS Zen Garden,
CSS began to catch on.
Before all that happened, though, the CSS Working Group had
finalized the CSS2 specification in early 1998. Once CSS2 was
finished, work immediately began on CSS3, as well as a clarified
version of CSS2 called CSS2.1. In keeping with the spirit of the
times, CSS3 was constructed as a series of (theoretically) standalone
modules instead of a single monolithic specification. This approach
reflected the then-active XHTML specification, which was split into
modules for similar reasons.
The rationale for modularizing CSS3 was that each module could be
worked on at its own pace, and particularly critical (or popular)
modules could be advanced along the W3C’s progress track without
being held up by others. Indeed, this has turned out to be the case.
By early 2012, three CSS3 modules (along with CSS1 and CSS 2.1)
had reached full Recommendation status—CSS Color Level 3, CSS
Namespaces, and Selectors Level 3. At that same time, seven
modules were at Candidate Recommendation status, and several
dozen others were in various stages of Working Draft-ness. Under
the old approach, colors, selectors, and namespaces would have had
to wait for every other part of the specification to be done or cut
before they could be part of a completed specification. Thanks to
modularization, they didn’t have to wait.
The flip side of that advantage is that it’s hard to speak of a single
“CSS3 specification.” There isn’t any such thing, nor can there be.
Even if every other CSS module had reached level 3 by, say, late
2016 (they didn’t), there was already a Selectors Level 4 in process.
Would we then speak of it as CSS4? What about all the “CSS3”
features still coming into play? Or Grid Layout, which had not then
even reached Level 1? That’s why this book is a definitive guide for
“CSS” as a whole — because there really is no such thing as CSS3.
So while we can’t really point to a single tome and say, “There is
CSS3,” we can talk of features by the module name under which
they are introduced. The flexibility permitted by modules more than
makes up for the semantic awkwardness they sometimes create. (If
you want something approximating a single monolithic specification,
the CSS Working Group publishes yearly “Snapshot” documents.)
With that established, we’re ready to start understanding CSS. Let’s
start by covering the basics of what goes inside a stylesheet.
Stylesheet Contents
Inside a stylesheet, you’ll find a number of rules which are
comprised of selectors and declaration blocks, the latter of which are
made up of one or more declarations that are themselves made up
of property and value combinations. All put together, they look a
little something like this:

h1 {color: maroon;}
body {background: yellow;}

Styles such as these comprise the bulk of any stylesheet—simple or


complex, short or long. But which parts are which, and what do they
represent?

Rule Structure
To illustrate the concept of rules in more detail, let’s break down the
structure.
Each rule has two fundamental parts: the selector and the
declaration block. The declaration block is composed of one or more
declarations, and each declaration is a pairing of a property and a
value. Every stylesheet is made up of a series of rules. Figure 1-1
shows the parts of a rule.

Figure 1-1. The structure of a rule


The selector, shown on the left side of the rule, defines which piece
of the document will be selected for styling. In Figure 1-1, h1
(heading level 1) elements are selected. If the selector were p, then
all p (paragraph) elements would be selected.
The right side of the rule contains the declaration block, which is
made up of one or more declarations. Each declaration is a
combination of a CSS property and a value of that property. In
Figure 1-1, the declaration block contains two declarations. The first
states that this rule will cause parts of the document to have a
color of red, and the second states that part of the document will
have a background of yellow. So, all of the h1 elements in the
document (defined by the selector) will be styled in red text with a
yellow background.

Vendor prefixing
Sometimes you’ll see pieces of CSS with dashes and labels in front of
them, like this: -o-border-image. These are called vendor
prefixes, and are a way for browser vendors to mark properties,
values, or other bits of CSS as being experimental or proprietary (or
both). As of early 2022, there were a few vendor prefixes in the
wild, with the most common being shown in Table 1-1.
T
a
bl
e
1
-
1
.
S
o
m
e
c
o
m
m
o
n
v
e
n
d
o
r
p
r
e
fi
x
e
s

Prefix Vendor
-epub- International Digital Publishing Forum ePub format

-moz- Mozilla-based browsers (e.g., Firefox)

-ms- Microsoft Internet Explorer

-o- Opera-based browsers

-webkit- WebKit-based browsers (e.g., Safari and Chrome)

As Table 1-1 implies, the generally accepted format of a vendor


prefix is a dash, a label, and a dash, although a few prefixes
erroneously omit the first dash.
The uses and abuses of vendor prefixes are long, tortuous, and
beyond the scope of this book. Suffice to say that they started out
as a way for vendors to test out new features, thus helping speed
interoperability without worrying about being locked into legacy
behaviors that were incompatible with other browsers. This avoided
a whole class of problems that nearly strangled CSS in its infancy.
Unfortunately, prefixed properties were then publicly deployed by
web authors and ended up causing a whole new class of problems.
As of early 2022, vendor-prefixed CSS features are nearly non-
existent, with old prefixed properties and values being slowly but
steadily removed from browser implementations. It’s quite likely that
you’ll never write prefixed CSS, but you may encounter it in the wild,
or inherit it in a legacy codebase. Here’s an example:

-webkit-transform-origin: 0 0;
-moz-transform-origin: 0 0;
-o-transform-origin: 0 0;
transform-origin: 0 0;
That’s saying the same thing four times: once each for the WebKit,
Mozilla (Firefox), and Opera browser lines, and then finally the CSS-
standard way. Again, this is no longer really necessary. We’re only
including it here to give you an idea of what it might look like,
should you come across this in the future.

Whitespace Handling
CSS is basically insensitive to whitespace between rules, and largely
insensitive to whitespace within rules, although there are a few
exceptions.
In general, CSS treats whitespace just like HTML does: any sequence
of whitespace characters is collapsed to a single space for parsing
purposes. Thus, you can format the hypothetical rainbow rule in
the following ways:

rainbow: infrared red orange yellow green blue indigo


violet ultraviolet;

rainbow:
infrared red orange yellow green blue indigo
violet ultraviolet;

rainbow:
infrared
red
orange
yellow
green
blue
indigo
violet
ultraviolet
;

…as well as any other separation patterns you can think up. The
only restriction is that the separating characters be whitespace: an
empty space, a tab, or a newline, alone or in combination, as many
as you like.
Similarly, you can format series of rules with whitespace in any
fashion you like. These are just five examples out of an effectively
infinite number of possibilities:

html{color:black;}
body {background: white;}
p {
color: gray;}
h2 {
color : silver ;
}
ol
{
color
:
silver
;
}

As you can see from the first rule, whitespace can be largely
omitted. Indeed, this is usually the case with minified CSS, which is
CSS that’s had every last possible bit of extraneous whitespace
removed, usually by an automated server-side script of some sort.
The rules after the first two use progressively more extravagant
amounts of whitespace until, in the last rule, pretty much everything
that can be separated onto its own line has been.
All of these approaches are valid, so you should pick the formatting
that makes the most sense—that is, is easiest to read—in your eyes,
and stick with it.

CSS Comments
CSS does allow for comments. These are very similar to C/C++
comments in that they are surrounded by /* and */:
/* This is a CSS1 comment */

Comments can span multiple lines, just as in C++:

/* This is a CSS1 comment, and it


can be several lines long without
any problem whatsoever. */

It’s important to remember that CSS comments cannot be nested.


So, for example, this would not be correct:

/* This is a comment, in which we find


another comment, which is WRONG
/* Another comment */
and back to the first comment */

WARNING
One way to create “nested” comments accidentally is to temporarily comment
out a large block of a stylesheet that already contains a comment. Since CSS
doesn’t permit nested comments, the “outside” comment will end where the
“inside” comment ends.

Unfortunately, there is no “rest of the line” comment pattern such as


// or # (the latter of which is reserved for ID selectors anyway).
The only comment pattern in CSS is /* */. Therefore,
if you wish to place comments on the same line as markup, then you
need to be careful about how you place them. For example, this is
the correct way to do it:

h1 {color: gray;} /* This CSS comment is several lines */


h2 {color: silver;} /* long, but since it is alongside */
p {color: white;} /* actual styles, each line needs to */
pre {color: gray;} /* be wrapped in comment markers. */
Given this example, if each line isn’t marked off, then most of the
stylesheet will become part of the comment and thus will not work:

h1 {color: gray;} /* This CSS comment is several lines


h2 {color: silver;} long, but since it is not wrapped
p {color: white;} in comment markers, the last three
pre {color: gray;} styles are part of the comment. */

In this example, only the first rule (h1 {color: gray;}) will be
applied to the document. The rest of the rules, as part of the
comment, are ignored by the browser’s rendering engine.

NOTE
CSS comments are treated by the CSS parser as if they do not exist at all, and
so do not count as whitespace for parsing purposes. This means you can put
them into the middle of rules—even right inside declarations!

Markup
There is no markup in stylesheets. This might seem obvious, but
you’d be surprised. The one exception is HTML comment markup,
which is permitted inside style elements for historical reasons:

<style><!--
h1 {color: maroon;}
body {background: yellow;}
--></style>

That’s it, and even that isn’t recommended any more — the
browsers that needed it have faded into near-oblivion.
Speaking of markup, it’s time to take a very slight detour to talk
about the elements that our CSS will be used to style, and how
those can be affected by CSS in the most fundamental ways.
Elements
Elements are the basis of document structure. In HTML, the most
common elements are easily recognizable, such as p, table, span,
a, and article. Every single element in a document plays a part in
its presentation.

Replaced and Nonreplaced Elements


Although CSS depends on elements, not all elements are created
equally. For example, images and paragraphs are not the same type
of element. In CSS, elements generally take two forms: replaced and
nonreplaced.

Replaced elements
Replaced elements are those where the element’s content is
replaced by something that is not directly represented by document
content. Probably the most familiar HTML example is the img
element, which is replaced by an image file external to the
document itself. In fact, img has no actual content, as you can see
in this simple example:

<img src="howdy.gif" alt="Hello, friend!">

This markup fragment contains only an element name and an


attribute. The element presents nothing unless you point it to some
external content (in this case, an image file whose location is given
by the src attribute). If you point to a valid image file, the image
will be placed in the document. If not, the browser will either display
nothing or will show a “broken image” placeholder.
Similarly, the input element can also be replaced—by a radio
button, checkbox, text input box, or other, depending on its type.
Nonreplaced elements
The majority of HTML elements are nonreplaced elements. This
means that their content is presented by the user agent (generally a
browser) inside a box generated by the element itself. For example,
<span>hi there</span> is a nonreplaced element, and the text
“hi there” will be displayed by the user agent. This is true of
paragraphs, headings, table cells, lists, and almost everything else in
HTML.

Element Display Roles


CSS has two basic display roles: block formatting context and inline
formatting context. There are many more display types, but these
are the most basic, and the types to which most if not all other
display types refer. The block and inline contexts will be familiar to
authors who have spent time with HTML markup and its display in
web browsers. The elements are illustrated in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2. Block- and inline-level elements in an HTML document

Block-level context
In HTML, block-level elements generate an element box that (by
default) fills its parent element’s content area and cannot have other
elements at its sides. In other words, it generates “breaks” before
and after the element box. The most familiar block elements from
HTML are p and div. Replaced elements can be block-level
elements, but usually they are not.
In CSS, this is referred to as an element generating a block
formatting context. It also means that the element generates a block
outer display type. The parts inside the element may have different
display types.

Inline-level elements
In HTML, inline-level elements generate an element box within a line
of text and do not break up the flow of that line. The best inline
element example is the a element in HTML. Other candidates are
strong and em. These elements do not generate a “break” before
or after themselves, so they can appear within the content of
another element without disrupting its display.
In CSS, this is referred to as an element generating an inline
formatting context. It also means that the element generated an
inline outer display type. The parts inside the element may have
different display types. (In CSS, there is no restriction on how
display roles can be nested within each other.)
To see how this works, let’s consider a CSS property, display.
DISPLAY

Values [ <display-outside> ‖ <display-inside> ] | <display-


listitem> | <display-internal> | <display-box> | <display-
legacy>

Definitions See below

Initial value inline

Applies to All elements

Computed As specified
value

Inherited No

Animatable No

<display-outside>
block | inline | run-in

<display-inside>
flow | flow-root | table | flex | grid | ruby

<display-listitem>
list-item && <display-outside>? && [ flow | flow-root
]?

<display-internal>
table-row-group | table-header-group | table-
footer-group | table-row | table-cell | table-
column-group | table-column | table-caption |
ruby-base | ruby-text | ruby-base-container |
ruby-text-container

<display-box>
contents | none

<display-legacy>
inline-block | inline-list-item | inline-table |
inline-flex | inline-grid

You may have noticed that there are a lot of values here, only two of
which we’ve mentioned: block and inline. Most of these values
will be dealt with elsewhere in the book; for example, grid and
inline-grid will be covered in a separate chapter about grid
layout, and the table-related values are all covered in a chapter on
CSS table layout.
For now, let’s just concentrate on block and inline. Consider the
following markup:

<body>
<p>This is a paragraph with <em>an inline element</em>
within it.</p>
</body>

Here we have two elements (body and p) that are generating block
formatting contexts, and one element (em) with an inline formatting
context. According to the HTML specification, em can descend from
p, but the reverse is not true. Typically, the HTML hierarchy works
out so that inlines descend from blocks, but not the other way
around.
CSS, on the other hand, has no such restrictions. You can leave the
markup as it is but change the display roles of the two elements like
this:

p {display: inline;}
em {display: block;}

This causes the elements to generate a block box inside an inline


box. This is perfectly legal and violates no part of CSS.
While changing the display roles of elements can be useful in HTML
documents, it becomes downright critical for XML documents. An
XML document is unlikely to have any inherent display roles, so it’s
up to the author to define them. For example, you might wonder
how to lay out the following snippet of XML:

<book>
<maintitle>The Victorian Internet</maintitle>
<subtitle>The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the
Nineteenth Century's On-Line Pioneers</subtitle>
<author>Tom Standage</author>
<publisher>Bloomsbury Pub Plc USA</publisher>
<pubdate>February 25, 2014</pubdate>
<isbn type="isbn-13">9781620405925</isbn>
<isbn type="isbn-10">162040592X</isbn>
</book>

Since the default value of display is inline, the content would


be rendered as inline text by default, as illustrated in Figure 1-3.
This isn’t a terribly useful display.
Figure 1-3. Default display of an XML document

You can define the basics of the layout with display:

book, maintitle, subtitle, author, isbn {display: block;}


publisher, pubdate {display: inline;}

We’ve now set five of the seven elements to be block and two to be
inline. This means each of the block elements will generate its own
block formatting context, and the two inlines will generate their own
inline formatting contexts.
We could take the preceding rules as a starting point, add a few
other styles for greater visual impact, and get the result shown in
Figure 1-4.
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