Biostatistics tutorials
DAY 1
Exercise 1.1
Answer the following questions.
a. Use an example to explain the difference between a population and a sample.
b. Indicate which symbols are used for the mean and the standard deviation in a population and in a
sample.
c. Think of a numerical example that clearly illustrates the differences between mode, median and
mean.
d. Explain the meaning of variance and standard deviation of a set of numbers.
Exercise 1.2
The following variables differ in scale:
Speed: 3 m/s, 5 m/s, 10 m/s
Time: 1950, 1970, 1999
Exam grades: 5, 6, 7
Colours: yellow, blue, red, green
Determine for each variable whether the scale is a nominal, ordinal, interval or a ratio scale. Give
reasons for your answer.
Exercise 1.3
A student measures the phosphate concentration of a solution. To increase the accuracy, he carries
out the measurement three times, giving him results of 1.22, 1.40 and 1.30 mg/L. In his report, the
student claims that the phosphate concentration is 1.30667 mg/L. Is it permitted to state the
concentration in this manner? Give reasons for your answer.
Exercise 1.4
The following values were obtained from a contents measurement: 100.3250; 99.9962; 100.0123;
100.2543 and 100.1234. Calculate the mean and the standard deviation. What is the number of
significant figures of these observations? Round the measurements.
Exercise 1.5
Someone calculates the standard deviation of a series of 10 observations. He finds the following
intermediate results: ΣX = 24 and ΣX2 = 56. How can he tell that he has made a calculation error?
Exercise 1.6
A researcher wants to use a sample to find out the mean income of pharmacists. He realizes that
there is a big difference in income between managing pharmacists, second pharmacists, hospital
pharmacists, pharmacists working in industry and pharmacists who work in the public sector.
a. He wants to take a representative sample of 100 pharmacists from the total population of
approximately 2,100 pharmacists. How will he do this?
b. He decides to take a sample of 30 from the group of 630 second pharmacists. Which pharmacists
will be selected?
Exercise 1.7
Use the example of weighing scales to explain that a precision instrument is not necessarily an
accurate instrument. Use the terms accuracy, precision and bias.
Exercise 1.8
The weight (in kilograms) of 129 men was determined. The obtained weights – ranked from low to
high – are shown in the following table.
a. Calculate the mean, the median, the variance and the standard deviation.
b. Subdivide the weights into classes with a class width of 3 kg. Start with the group 57, 58, 59.
Create a table in which you state the frequency and the cumulative relative frequency for each class.
Draw a histogram and a cumulative frequency polygon. What is the mode?
DAY 2
Exercise 2.1
Of a group of patients, 25% are given a medicinal drug. Of the entire group of patients, 10% develop
headaches. Of the patients who were given the medicinal drug, 25% develop headaches. What
percentage of patients with headaches have taken a medicinal drug?
Exercise 2.2
In Groningen, 40% of the population have blue eyes, 30% have blond hair and 20% of the population
have both blue eyes and blond hair. Based on this information, show that blue eyes and blond hair
do not occur independently in the population.
Exercise 2.3
A batch of 1,000 ampoules was prepared. Of these ampoules, 1% are non-sterile. A random,
independent sample of 5 ampoules is taken without putting the ampoules back. What is the
probability that the batch will be approved? (Hint: none of the 5 ampoules are non-sterile.)
Exercise 2.4
A sample of 50 patients is prescribed the medicinal drug DUISAL. It is known that 90% of patients
taking DUISAL are cured and that the drug causes dizziness as a side effect in 5% of patients.
a. What is the probability that more than 5 patients in the sample will not be cured?
b. What is the probability that more than 6 patients in the sample will experience dizziness as a side
effect?
Exercise 2.5
2,423 samples of 5 mice were taken of a population of mice. Of this population 40% is infected. The
number of infected mice was recorded for each sample. The data are shown in the table below.
a. Create a graph of the frequency distribution.
b. What is the theoretical frequency distribution of the sample called and which parameters
characterize it? Calculate these parameters and draw the theoretical frequency distribution in the
graph produced in part a.
Exercise 2.6
A filter from a Laminar Air Flow Cabinet lets an average of 3.5 particles through per m3 of air. One
m3 of air is being tested. What is the probability of detecting more than 5 particles in this volume of
air?
Exercise 2.7
It is known that a test to diagnose lung cancer has a sensitivity of 78% and a specificity of 98%. Lung
cancer is diagnosed in 1% of the population.
a. Calculate the predictive values of the test.
b. What is the probability of a test being positive in the population of patients with lung cancer?
c. What is the probability of a test being negative in the population of patients with lung cancer?
d. If, following the test, lung cancer is detected in a patient, the patient will be referred for
radiotherapy. Is the diagnostic test suitable to be applied to all 76,369 women in Groningen? Explain
your answer.
DAY 3
Exercise 3.1
For each of the following variables, state whether you would expect a binomial, Poisson or normal
distribution. Explain your answer.
a. The number of viral infections contracted by an individual in one year
b. The dissociation time of tablets
c. The number of women in a sample of 20 patients taken from a population that has a male : female
ratio of 2:3
d. The number of new mutations in a bacterial culture that occurs within a certain time period.
Exercise 3.2
The weights of a population of tablets show a normal distribution with µ = 1,000 mg and σ = 10 mg.
a. What percentage of tablets has a weight of more than 1,010 mg?
b. What percentage of tablets has a weight of more than 930 mg?
c. Above which lower limit in tablet weight do 20% of the population lie?
d. Above which lower limit in tablet weight do 75% of the population lie?
e. Between which limits (choose symmetrically) do 25% of the population lie?
f. Between which limits (choose symmetrically) do 98% of the population lie?
g. What percentage of tablets have a weight between 990 and 1,025 mg?
Exercise 3.3
Codeine tablets are produced from a homogeneous mixture that contains exactly 10.0% codeine. A
large number of tablets are weighed: the mean weight is 102.1 mg and the standard deviation is 1.8
mg. What is the mean codeine contents of a tablet and what is the standard deviation of this
contents? What is the probability of there being a tablet in this batch with a codeine contents of
10.57 mg or more?
Exercise 3.4
A supplier supplies tritium-labelled flunitrazepam that has an activity of 5,500 Bequerel/ml (1 Bq is
the decay of 1 atomic nucleus per second). Radioactivity follows a Poisson distribution. Between
which limits do 95% of the population lie?
Exercise 3.5
When carrying out a titration three times, we obtained the following results: 99.135, 98.857 and
98.812 mg. What is the number of decimal places to which these results are rounded when
presenting the data? Calculate the mean and the standard error. How many decimal places should
we use to present the mean?
Exercise 3.6
A testing laboratory carries out a pharmacopoeia test using 2 different samples. The results are
shown below.
Sample A: 91.82, 91.62
Sample B: 93.50, 93.17, 93.67, 93.10, 93.41
a. Calculate the mean and the standard deviation for both samples.
b. What is the standard error of the difference between the means?
DAY 4
Exercise 4.1
A manufacturer tests a batch of aspirin, which has to contain at least 98% acetylsalicylic acid, by
performing a titration in duplicate. The standard deviation of the titration is known to be 0.5%. The
established acetylsalicylic acid contents were 98.7% and 99.1%.
a. Test whether the batch can be approved. State the hypotheses. Calculate the p-value and state
your conclusions. Also test the approval using the confidence interval. A more rapid
spectrophotometric test has a standard deviation of 1%. Performing the test in duplicate results in
the same values: 98.7% and 99.1%.
b. Does this change the conclusion you reached under a.?
c. How can you achieve the same performance for the spectrophotometric test as for the duplicate
titrations? The batch is approved and supplied to a pharmacy. The pharmacist tests the batch using
the spectrophotometric test (σ = 1%) and determines the duplicate values: 97.1% and 97.9%.
d. What hypotheses does the pharmacist draw up to test whether the batch meets the requirement
(at least 98%)?
e. Does the batch meet the requirement? P-value? Also test the approval using the confidence
interval. What are your conclusions and recommendations to the pharmacist?
Exercise 4.2
In a clinical study comparing the effects of two medicinal drugs on blood pressure, 20 patients were
tested with both drugs. The change in blood pressure compared to the baseline blood pressure was
measured. The σ, measured as the difference between individuals, is estimated to be 5, based on
previous observations.
a. If the statistical test is performed at a 5% level, what is the test’s power of decision if you wish to
see
a difference of 3 mmHg (HA: µ1 - µ2 = 3 or µ1 - µ2 = -3)?
b. How many patients must be tested to show a difference of 3 mmHg or more, using a β of 1%
(power = 99%)?
Exercise 4.3
Consider the following three problems. For each problem, state the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis. In each case, describe the meaning of type I and type II errors and which error
is worse. Use this to determine whether you would recommend a significance level (α) of 0.01, 0.05
or 0.10.
a. Someone has developed a new material to produce a reactor vessel for a nuclear power station.
He claims that the new material is cheaper. A materials expert claims that there are reasons to doubt
the new material’s safety. You have to test whether the old and the new material are equally safe.
What are your hypotheses and what is α?
b. A pharmaceutical company claims that its new sleeping pills are more effective than the commonly
used ones and that these new pills should be the preferred choice, despite causing a few side effects.
You have to test whether the new drug is more effective than the old one. Which α will you use?
c. The same as under b., but now for a drug used to treat AIDS.
Exercise 4.4
Ovarian cancer is, in the first instance, treated by means of surgery. This intervention is insufficient
for a proportion of patients and their treatment will be followed up with chemotherapy. Researchers
at the Department of Pharmacy at the UG are able to determine a protein biomarker (Osteopontin,
Os) to detect ovarian cancer. The diagnostic test measures the Os concentration in blood. The aim of
the test is to identify patients for whom surgical intervention will be sufficient and further treatment
will not be required. The mean blood Os concentration in patients for whom surgical intervention
was successful is 16.12 pg/ml. The Os concentration in patients for whom the intervention was less
successful was raised at a mean concentration of 30.15 pg/ml. The diagnostic test has a standard
deviation of 7.12 pg/ml. In each patient, the measurement was taken three times on different days.
The type I error (α) is 0.05.
a. What are H0 and HA?
b. Calculate the type II error of the diagnostic test and the decision limit. What does the result mean?
c. 15,345 women in the Netherlands had ovarian cancer between 2000 and 2015. The probability of
surgical intervention being sufficient is 23%. What are the predictive values of the diagnostic test?
The test is false positive if, based on the diagnostic test, a patient does not receive chemotherapy,
even though the surgical intervention was unsuccessful. How many patients does this concern? Is this
a good diagnostic test? State your conclusion.
d. Using α = 0.01 and β = 0.01 for the diagnostic test, calculate how many measurements must be
taken. State your conclusion.
DAY 5
Exercise 5.1
Millipedes generally have far fewer than a thousand legs. A researcher wonders whether growth
hormones
not only affect the length of a millipede, but also the number of legs. To find out, he counts the
number of
legs of the individuals in two groups of millipedes, whereby millipedes in one group received a
growth
hormone and millipedes in the other group did not. He obtained the following results:
a. Assume you wish to use a t-test to test whether the growth hormone has affected the number of
legs. Which conditions must the distribution meet to be able to apply this test in this situation?
b. Considering the context, should you use a one-sided or a two-sided hypothesis test in this case?
Explain your answer. What are the test hypotheses in this case?
c. Perform both a one-sided and a two-sided hypothesis test. Considering answer b., which
conclusion seems more justified?
d. Determine the p-value for both tests. How can these p-values be interpreted? Is it generally true
that the p-value of a two-sided hypothesis test is twice the p-value of a one-sided hypothesis test?
Exercise 5.2
In a pharmaceutical company, the accidents that occurred over the past year have been divided into
4 equal categories representing periods of the day.
a. What is the credibility of the statement that accidents probably happen equally often in each
period of the day?
b. Can the null hypothesis (the same number of accidents in each period of the day) be rejected?
Exercise 5.3
Using the data from exercise 2.5, test the hypothesis that the data form a sample of the theoretical
distribution.
Exercise 5.4
As part of a study into the resorption of paracetamol in 10 test subjects, the following observations
were made for 2 preparations.
Do the means of the two series of observations differ (1 - α = 95%)?
a. Perform a test assuming that the means show a normal distribution. Also perform the test with
calculations of the confidence intervals.
b. Furthermore, perform the test when the means do not show a normal distribution.
c. Do the p-values obtained in a. and b. differ? Explain.
Exercise 5.5
The weight gain of uninfected rats is compared to that of rats infected with a certain parasite. The
weight gains (in grams) after six weeks are shown below.
The weight gain of uninfected rats is to be compared to that of rats infected with the parasite using
the two-sample t-test.
a. Do the results give any indication that the assumption of equal population variances is incorrect?
b. Calculate the mean standard deviation. Is the weight gain different (t-test)?
Exercise 5.6
The energy consumption over a 24-hour period (MJ) is measured in two groups of women.
Individuals in one group have a ‘normal’ weight; individuals in the second group are obese. The
following data were obtained:
The means are not normally distributed!
Is the energy consumption significantly different between these two groups?
DAY 6
Exercise 6.1
The half-life of nitrofurantoin was determined in 5 individuals. The test was repeated 3 times for
each individual.
Is there a systematic difference between the individuals as far as the half-life of nitrofurantoin is
concerned (1-α= 95%)?
Exercise 6.2
Specialists in 7 hospitals were asked to test a new drug on 3 patients. The following results were
obtained.
a. Has a significant difference between the mean outcomes in the hospitals been found?
b. If your answer to question a. is yes, which hospitals differ from each other?
Exercise 6.3
For children with severe and frequently occurring migraines, a treatment with a drug and a
treatment with relaxation exercises were compared to a control group who received no treatment.
Measurements included the frequency of the migraines and the severity of the symptoms in the form
of percentage improvement. 100% improvement means that the child no longer has any symptoms;
negative outcomes indicate deterioration of the situation. The mean of this score does not show a
normal distribution.
DAY 7
Exercise 7.1
When testing for microbial purity, some preparations must not contain more than 100 germs per
gram. A total of 3.33 grams was applied to agar plates and 228 germs were counted. Does the
preparation tested meet the requirement? Perform the test and calculate the confidence intervals.
What is your conclusion?
Exercise 7.2
500 patients were studied to find out whether a skin preparation causes a hypersensitivity reaction.
Such a reaction developed in 6 patients. What is the 95% confidence interval for the occurrence of
the hypersensitivity reaction in the population?
Exercise 7.3
A manufacturer supplies a radioactively labelled drug for receptor binding studies that has an activity
of 40 counts per second per ml.
a. A test is performed to check the activity, whereby 0.1 ml is measured for 1 minute. The result is
258 counts. Does this result contradict the manufacturer’s reported activity?
b. Based on the manufacturer’s report, what is the probability that more than 275 counts will be
measured (measured as described under a.)?
c. When this batch is finished, a new batch with an activity of 40 counts per second per ml is
purchased from the manufacturer. To check whether the batch is comparable to the previous batch,
the new batch is tested in the same way. This time, 222 counts are measured. What is the credibility
of the statement that the activity of the two batches is equal (p-value)?
Exercise 7.4
Radiotherapy is effective in 42% of patients with stage IV cervical cancer.
a. X is the number of patients out of the entire group of patients with stage IV cervical cancer for
whom radiotherapy is effective. What is the probability distribution of X called? Explain your answer.
b. In 2014, 163 patients received radiotherapy at the UMCG Department of Gynaecology. What is the
probability that in 2014, radiotherapy is effective in 50 to 72 patients (50 < X < 72)? N.B. Use the
simple calculation method. What is the condition / are the conditions? Perform the calculation.
Produce a drawing illustrating the situation and explain your answer.
c. The Erasmus MC in Rotterdam treated 212 patients for stage IV cervical cancer. Of this group, 73
patients recovered. Determine for this sample whether the patients treated at the Erasmus MC
responded differently compared to the patients treated at the UMCG. Which test will you use? State
the hypotheses and perform the test. State your conclusion and explain your answers.
Exercise 7.5
A study is carried out into the effectiveness of a new antiviral drug. Data from the pharmacist and the
GP show that for an existing drug with which 103 patients were treated, 33 patients were cured after
2 months.
The new drug is given to 75 patients. Of these patients, 32 are declared healthy after 2 months.
a. What is the probability distribution in this case?
b. Formulate the hypotheses associated with the test on effectiveness of the new drug compared to
the existing drug.
c. Perform the test. State your conclusion.
Exercise 7.6
The weights of 7 wild-type C. elegans worms are: 8.361, 10.072, 8.049, 1.152, 8.227, 11.777 and
11.600 grams.
a. How can you show that one of the measurements is an outlier?
b. The mean weight of 11 C. elegans worms that have the Daf-2 (IGF-1) gene is 11.556 grams with a
standard deviation of 2.544. Is there a difference between the two samples of wild-type worms and
Daf-2 worms? Is the outcome affected by the outlier?
Exercise 7.7
Researchers in Leiden University Medical Central (LUMC) want to test the efficacy of drug A and B
and to determine if there is a difference between them. They take bronchial samples from 48
SARSCOV-2 patients, split the sample in two equal parts, and perform the viral concentration
reduction test! The outcome is summarized in the table below.
Which test would you use to determine if the two drugs have the same efficiency in patients?
Perform the test and provide p-value or confidence interval. Give the hypotheses of the test and
state if the test is one or two sided. Explain each step and give your conclusion!
DAY 9
Exercise 9.1
The table below shows the classification of 200 men according to social status and headache over the
past year.
Based on these data, is it possible to deduce that there is an association between social status and
headache symptoms?
Exercise 9.2
Two types of primula were crossed to study heredity. This cross resulted in four types of plants: flat
leaves with normal flowers, flat leaves with rose of India flowers, curly leaves with normal flowers
and curly leaves with rose of India flowers. The observed frequencies are shown in the table below.
a. A theory postulates that the frequency ratio for these types is 9:3:3:1. Draw up a hypothesis to
investigate this theory and test it.
b. A different theory postulates that plants with flat leaves are more viable than plants with curly
leaves, but does not postulate how much more viable. This hypothesis postulates a 3:1 ratio for the
appearance of the leaves. Draw up a hypothesis to investigate this theory and test it.
c. A theory postulates that there is no association between the type of leaf and the type of flower.
Draw up a hypothesis to investigate this theory and test it.
Exercise 9.3
A medicinal drug was tested in 24 test animals to study the incidence of carcinomas. The control
group was given a placebo.
DAY 10
Exercise 10.1
The following regression lines were determined from 18 observation pairs (X,Y).
𝑌̂ = 1.6 + 0.4𝑋
𝑋̂ = −0.8 + 0.9𝑌
What is the correlation coefficient?
Exercise 10.2
Two glucose tests are tested on 16 different samples, resulting in the following observation pairs.
a. Test whether there is a correlation between the two methods, by calculating r and by stating the
confidence interval ρ (1-α = 95%).
b. Calculate the line Y on X and the line X on Y. Draw the point cloud and the two lines.
Exercise 10.3
The table below shows, for 12 individuals, the measured uptake of a mercury compound through
eating contaminated fish and the blood mercury concentration.
Use SPSS to complete this exercise.
a. Plot the data in a scatter plot.
b. Determine the linear regression equation of the blood concentration on the Hg uptake.
c. Calculate the correlation coefficient.
d. Test the hypotheses ρ = 0.
e. A blood Hg concentration of 300 ng/g is measured in one individual. Based on the data above,
what is this individual’s expected Hg uptake/day?
DAY 11
Exercise 11.1
To determine the number of electrons involved in a reversible polarographic reduction, the
theoretical association between the potential applied (E) and log (i/(id-i)) can be used. In this
association, i represents the current measured at potential E and id is the diffusion current.
a. In the regression model, what is the dependent variable and what is the independent variable?
b. Convert the formula into the linear regression model.
c. Calculate the regression coefficients a and b.
d. Determine the value of n for the polarographic reduction (n is the number of electrons involved in
the reaction; see the equation stated above).
Exercise 11.2
The response (Y) is measured for increasing dosages of a medicinal drug (X, mg).
a. Calculate the regression coefficients a and b. What is the value of SStot? Calculate SSregr, SSres, s2
and sres.
b. Calculate the determination coefficient. What is your conclusion?
c. A new patient is given 2.5 mg. Predict the response including the prediction interval.
d. The measured response in a patient is 4. What dosage do you expect the patient to have received?
Also state the interval here.
e. Perform a test on the deviation from linearity. Create a residual plot. What is your conclusion?
f. Are the linear regression analysis assumptions met?
Exercise 11.3
A calibration line is created for benzalkonium chloride. To do so, a mg benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is
extracted as an ion pair and subsequently, the extinction at 555 nm is determined
spectrophotometrically. The observations are shown in the table below.
a. Use SPSS to calculate the regression coefficients (a and b) and s2.
b. Use SPSS to calculate the confidence intervals for α and . Round correctly. Does the line go
through the origin?
c. Do the data show regression? Which portion of the total variation in Y is explained by the
regression model?
d. Use SPSS to create a residual plot and a histogram of standardized residuals. What is your
conclusion?
DAY 12
Exercise 12.1
Each individual in a randomly chosen group of 5 test individuals has taken 100 mg nitrofurantoin in
three different dosage forms. Excretion in the urine 4 hours after intake was determined
cumulatively.
Test whether the dosage forms affect excretion following intake.
Test for α = 0.05 and α = 0.01. Formulate your conclusions carefully.
Exercise 12.2
A pot of Unguentum leniens (soothing ointment) was received from four manufacturers. The water
contents (in % g/g) was determined at the top, in the middle and at the bottom of the pot. The
measurements were repeated once. The following results were obtained:
a. Do the products from the four manufacturers differ? (1- α = 95%).
b. Is the quality different for the samples taken at different heights?
c. Is there any interaction? (1- α = 95%).
d. What is the analysis error?
Exercise 12.3
Charles Darwin studied the effect of cross-fertilization and self-fertilization of a certain plant (Zea
mays). To study the effect, four pots of plants were used, each containing 3 self-fertilized and 3 cross-
fertilized plants. The plants’ heights were measured in inches. The data are shown in the table below.
a. Enter the data into SPSS and perform two-way ANOVA.
b. Is there any interaction?
c. Do the mean heights of the 2 groups of plants show a significant difference?
d. State what the mean difference between the 2 variants must be to be significant.
Exercise 12.4
Ovarian cancer quickly leads to the formation of metastases that respond differently to
chemotherapy. The protein angiopoietin-like 4 (A4) is a new biomarker in tissue that can predict the
patient’s response to chemotherapy. Researchers at the UG Department of Pharmacy wonder
whether the A4 concentrations in a primary tumour, peritoneal metastasis and omental metastasis
differ if the patient received no pretreatment, pretreatment with irradiation or pretreatment with
trastuzumab. The outcomes are shown in the table below (the A4 concentration is given in pg/g
tissue). The number in brackets in each outcome cell is the mean for that cell.
The data show a normal distribution and e ~ N(0,σ2).
Use the numbers in and below the table for your calculations.
a. Which test will you use to demonstrate that there is a difference between the mean A4
concentrations in the different types of tumour and for the different pretreatments? Explain your
answer. State all null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses.
b. Perform the test. Is there any significant interaction between the pretreatments and the types of
tumour? Is there a significant difference between the means of the pretreatments and the means of
the types of tumour? State the residual standard deviation.
c. Perform the definitive test using the outcomes obtained in b., state all possible hypotheses and the
result. Compare the outcome to that obtained in b. and explain your answer. State the new residual
standard deviation and conclusion.
d. Use the outcome obtained in c. to calculate which means of the tumour types show significant
differences.
DAY 13
Exercise 13.1
To find the optimum setting for the flow rate of the carrier gas through the column of a gas
chromatograph, the HETP (Height Equivalent of one Theoretical Plate, cm) is determined at various
linear gas flow rates (v, cm/s), and gives the following results:
a. What does the association between the Van Deemter equation and the MLR model mean? In other
words, what do the regression parameters (bj) and the factors (Xj) represent?
b. Set 95% confidence intervals for b0, b1 and b2. What are your conclusions?
c. Calculate the adjusted R2. Explain.
Exercise 13.2
For lung transplants, it is desirable that the size of the donor lung and the recipient lung are
approximately the same. The total lung capacity is difficult to measure and therefore the lung
capacity (TLC, L) will be predicted using different information. The table below shows data from 32
individuals. Enter these into SPSS.
a. How well can an individual lung capacity be predicted using a multiple linear regression model with
the factors age, sex and height?
b. How does the outcome from a. compare to a simple linear regression model with height?
c. Calculate the 95% prediction interval of the model under b. for someone of average height.
d. How can we test whether the association between lung capacity and height is the same for men
and women?
Exercise 13.3
Create a linear model for BMI and the variables exercise behaviour and age, using the data from the
file bloodpressure.sav and SPSS. Which variable contributes significantly to BMI? Perform the test.
Explain your answer.
Exercise 13.4
Digoxin is a medicinal drug that is excreted in the urine in a largely unaltered form. It is claimed that
the excretion of digoxin in urine is a) correlated to the excretion of creatinine in urine and b)
independent of urine flow. The following table shows data from 35 heart patients who are being
treated with digoxin. Enter the data into SPSS
