Transformations of North America, 1450–1700
Background
Columbus colonized West Indies, failed to find gold, then promptly died
in 1506
A German geographer named the continent “America” after Florentine
explorer Amerigo Vespucci
The Spanish Invasion
Spanish subdued Arawaks and Tainos on Hispianola.
In 1513, Juan Ponce de León went to coast of Florida, giving it its name.
Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien (Modern day
Panama), becoming first European to sea Pacific Ocean.
Successful Conquistadors were given noble titles, estates, and
laborers.
In 1519, Hernán Cortés led 600 men to Yucatán Peninsula, marching to
Tenochtitlán, taking the emperor captive, sieged the city, and toppled
the Aztec Empire. (1485-1547)
Smallpox, measles, and influenza spread throughout Tenochtitlán,
killing thousands.
Francisco Pizarro attempted the same invasion in 1524, but the Incas
had already succumbed to European diseases and Pizarro took Cuzco
in 1532.
Although resistance from Incas continued for a few years, Spain had
conquered and solidified their control in some of the most populated
and rich regions of the west.
Disease and warfare killed at least 300,000 in Hispaniola and more
than 8,000,000 in Peru, total losses estimating to be around
17,000,000 Natives from1500-1650.
Pedro Alvares Cabral & Brazil
Pedro Alvares Cabral and other people of Portugal dubbed a region in
South America “Brazil” after a native tree.
King Dom João III, sent the explorers to create sugar plantations to
establish a foothold in Brazil (1530s)
Enslaved Native Americans for labor but later replaced them with
Africans gradually.
Brazil became leading producer of sugar
Spain’s Tribute Colonies
• Spanish conquest of Aztec and Inca empires allowed Spain to control
tribute and labor systems.
Conquistadors received encomiendas (rights to Indian labor and
tribute).
Discovery of rich gold and silver mines (Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Potosí
in Andes).
Mita system (Inca labor draft) was co-opted to force Indians into
mines.
Potosí mine produced 200 tons of silver/year, half the world’s supply.
Wealth poured into Spain, fueling Catholic churches, monarchy,
and trade with China, but also caused inflation.
Between 1500–1650, ~350,000 Spaniards migrated; also 250–300k
Africans.
Created racial mixing → mestizos (Spanish-Indian), mulattos
(Spanish-African), zambos (Indian-African).
Developed casta system (legal racial categories).
Spaniards built haciendas (large estates), while Indians often remained
in villages under native rulers.
Catholic priests converted natives, blending indigenous beliefs into
new forms of Christianity.
The Columbian Exchange
Diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, yellow fever) devastated
Native Americans (90% decline in many areas).
The only major disease transferred back to Europe was syphilis.
Crops to Old World: maize, potatoes, manioc, sweet potatoes,
tomatoes → led to population booms (China tripled population by
1700s thanks to maize/potatoes).
Animals/Plants to New World: cattle, pigs, horses, oxen, chickens,
honeybees; grains (wheat, barley, rye, rice); weeds (dandelions, etc.).
Old World livestock and crops transformed American landscapes.
The Protestant Challenge to Spain
Spain struggled to maintain control of Caribbean shipping lanes.
Protestant Reformation split Europe; Spain (Catholic) vs. Protestant
rivals.
Dutch Revolt (1566–1581): Calvinist provinces won independence,
forming the Dutch Republic.
England: Henry VIII broke from Catholic Church (1534); Elizabeth I
made Protestant compromises.
- Elizabeth backed “sea dogs” (privateers) like Francis Drake,
who plundered Spanish treasure fleets.
- England defeated the Spanish Armada (1588), beginning
Spain’s decline.
- Spain’s overreliance on gold/silver caused inflation and
weakened its economy.
- England, meanwhile, thrived with mercantilism (state-
supported trade, textile exports, favorable balance of trade).
