Robotics and Applications

Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

REVA University Bengaluru

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October 8, 2025
Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

Contents

1 Definition and Scope of Robotics 5

2 Role of Automation in Robotics 5

3 Difference Between Robotics and Automation 6

4 Historical Development of Robotics 7

5 Asimov’s Laws of Robotics 8

6 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Robotics 8

7 Impact of Robotics on Society 9

8 Market Trends in Robotics 9

9 Future Prospects and Career Opportunities 9

10 Advantages of Robots in Manufacturing 10

11 Limitations and Disadvantages of Using Robots 11

12 Economic Impact of Robots on Employment 12

12.1 Job Displacement and Wage Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
12.2 Job Creation and Productivity Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
12.3 Socioeconomic Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12.4 Key Considerations for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

13 Sensors in Robotics 13
13.1 Types of Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
13.2 Functions of Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

14 Actuators 16
14.1 Types of Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
14.2 Working of Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
14.3 Applications of Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

15 Controllers 18
15.1 Core Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
15.2 Control and Planning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
15.3 Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
15.4 Types of Robot Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

16 Robot Specifications 19
16.1 Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
16.2 Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
16.3 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
16.4 Repeatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
16.5 Why Specifications Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

17 Classification of Robots 21
17.1 By Purpose / Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
17.2 By Physical Configuration (Design) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
17.3 By Mobility / Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
17.4 By Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
17.5 By Autonomy Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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17.6 By Intelligence / Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

17.7 By Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
17.8 By Human–Robot Interaction and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
17.9 By Operating Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
17.10By Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

18 Safety Standards and Protocols in Industrial Robotics 23

19 Important Questions 24

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

1 Definition and Scope of Robotics

Robotics is the branch of engineering and science focused on robots—machines that sense their environment, process
information, and act through actuators to carry out defined tasks with supervised, shared, or full autonomy. It
brings together mechanics, electronics, control, embedded systems, and computer science to design, model, build,
program, and operate these systems. A robot, as framed by international standards such as ISO 8373, is an actuated
mechanism programmable in two or more axes with a degree of autonomy that moves within its environment to
perform intended functions. Robotics covers the full stack from sensors and actuators to perception, planning,
safety, and human–robot interaction, enabling reliable operation in both structured and unstructured settings.

Figure 1: Core robotics elements—sensing, control, and actuation—organized from perception to action

Figure 1 outlines core robotics elements—sensing, control, and actuation—organized from perception to action
The discipline covers multiple layers of development, from hardware design and sensor integration to artificial in-
telligence and machine learning for intelligent behavior. Robotics research focuses on improving precision, speed,
adaptability, and energy efficiency, while addressing challenges such as human-robot interaction, safety, and eth-
ical considerations. Modern robotics also incorporates advanced technologies such as computer vision, swarm
intelligence, and cloud connectivity, enabling robots to operate collaboratively, learn from data, and adapt to un-
predictable conditions in real-world environments.

1. Robotics 5. Autonomy 9. Safety

2. Robots 6. Control 10. Learning
3. Sensing 7. Perception 11. Vision
4. Actuation 8. Planning 12. Adaptability

2 Role of Automation in Robotics

Automation plays a central role in robotics by enabling machines to perform repetitive or complex tasks with
minimal human intervention. It involves integrating control systems, sensors, actuators, and software algorithms
to create a seamless operational process. In robotics, automation ensures consistent quality, reduces operational
errors, and increases productivity across various industries. From assembly lines in manufacturing to autonomous
navigation in service robots, automation provides the foundation that allows robots to function efficiently in dynamic

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environments. Figure 2 show that automation’s primary role in robotics is to enable physical robots to perform

Figure 2: Physical robots to perform tasks with minimal or no human intervention.

tasks with minimal or no human intervention, thereby increasing efficiency, quality, and safety across various
industries
The integration of automation into robotics also facilitates scalability and adaptability. Advanced control
strategies, combined with real-time data processing, allow robots to adjust their operations according to changing
conditions. This capability is crucial in fields such as logistics, healthcare, and hazardous environment exploration,
where precision and responsiveness are essential. By leveraging automation, robotics can expand into applications
requiring speed, safety, and accuracy beyond human capability.

3 Difference Between Robotics and Automation

Robotics and automation are closely related but differ in scope, purpose, and implementation.Automation refers
to the use of technology to execute tasks without manual input, often through predefined rules
or control logic. It can exist without robotics, as in the case of automated software systems or
process control in industries. Robotics, by contrast, involves physical machines capable of interacting with
the environment through sensing, computation, and actuation. While automation focuses on process optimization,
robotics combines mechanical and computational elements to perform a broader range of functions. Table 1
contrasts robotics and automation across core idea, embodiment, sensing, decision-making, flexibility, and use
cases. The table guides selection: robotics suits variable, perception-heavy tasks; automation suits stable, high-
throughput processes.
Automation typically operates within fixed parameters, while robotics often requires adaptability to varying
conditions. An automated conveyor belt, for example, follows a set routine, whereas a robotic arm may need to
adjust its motion based on sensor feedback or changing workpiece positions. Robotics encompasses automation as
part of its design but extends beyond it by enabling mobility, perception, and decision-making in physical spaces.
This distinction is critical in understanding how the two concepts complement each other in modern engineering
solutions [1–14] .

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Table 1: Difference Between Robotics and Automation

Aspect Robotics Automation
Core idea Engineering of robots that sense, Technology that runs a pro-
compute, and act in the physical cess with minimal human input,
world hardware or software
Physical embodiment Robot body with actuators, sen- May be pure software (RPA) or
sors, controllers, and mechanics control hardware (PLC, convey-
ors); no robot required
Perception and sensing Rich perception using cameras, Fixed instrumentation and pre-
lidar, force/torque, IMUs defined signals tied to a known
process
Decision-making and autonomy Adaptive planning and control; Deterministic logic and scripts;
handles variable, unstructured best in stable, structured set-
settings tings
Flexibility/changeover Reprogrammable and versatile High throughput and repeatabil-
across tasks; moderate setup ef- ity; changeover is costlier and
fort less flexible
Typical use cases Vision-guided pick-and-place; Assembly line PLC control;
mobile robots in logistics; surgi- batch/process control; SCADA;
cal/service robots software bots in back offices

4 Historical Development of Robotics

The origins of robotics can be traced back to early mechanical devices created for automation and entertainment.
Ancient civilizations designed water clocks, automata, and mechanical figures capable of simple movements, such
as the inventions of Hero of Alexandria and Al-Jazari’s programmable water-powered mechanisms. The industrial
revolution marked a significant turning point, introducing automated textile looms and mechanical arms that laid
the foundation for modern robotic systems. In the mid-20th century, advances in electronics and control theory
accelerated development, leading to the creation of the first industrial robots, such as Unimate in 1961, which
transformed manufacturing processes.
Progress in robotics during the late 20th and early 21st centuries has been shaped by breakthroughs in com-
puting, artificial intelligence, and sensor technology. Robots evolved from performing repetitive, pre-programmed
motions to executing adaptive and intelligent tasks in complex environments. This period also saw the diver-
sification of applications, including medical surgery, planetary exploration, autonomous vehicles, and household
assistance. Continuous advancements in materials science, machine learning, and connectivity have positioned
robotics as a driving force in innovation across multiple sectors.
Key Milestones in Robotics History:

• 3rd Century BC: Early automata in ancient Greece, including Hero of Alexandria’s mechanical devices.

• 12th Century: Al-Jazari designs programmable water-powered automata and mechanical clocks in the
Islamic Golden Age.

• 15th Century: Leonardo da Vinci sketches a mechanical knight capable of limited movement.

• 18th Century: European craftsmen build intricate clockwork automata for entertainment and demonstration
of engineering skill.

• 19th Century: Industrial revolution introduces automated textile looms and mechanical production systems.

• 1950s: George Devol develops the concept of the programmable manipulator.

• 1961: First industrial robot, Unimate, is deployed in a General Motors factory.

• 1970s–1980s: Widespread adoption of industrial robots in automotive and electronics industries.

• 1990s: Growth in service robotics and introduction of mobile robots for research and exploration.

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• 2000s: Advances in AI, computer vision, and sensor technology lead to autonomous systems and collaborative
robots.
• 2010s: Expansion into healthcare robotics, autonomous vehicles, and household service robots.
• 2020s: Integration of robotics with IoT, cloud computing, and machine learning for adaptive, connected,
and collaborative operations.

5 Asimov’s Laws of Robotics

Isaac Asimov, a science-fiction writer and biochemist, introduced a three-law framework in the 1942 short story
“Runaround” to guide intelligent robots and address ethical and operational concerns in human–machine interac-
tion. The first law requires that a robot shall not harm a human being or allow harm through inaction. The second
law mandates obedience to human orders except when such orders violate the first law. The third law mandates
preservation of the robot’s existence so long as that goal never conflicts with the first or second law. The hierarchy
establishes a strict priority order in which human safety outranks command compliance, and command compliance
outranks self-preservation, creating a clear basis for conflict resolution in control logic.
Asimov later added a “Zeroth Law” that assigns responsibility to protect humanity as a whole, even when
that duty overrides the original three laws. The framework remains a fictional construct yet continues to inform
discussion in robotics ethics, safety engineering, and AI governance by framing trade-offs among safety, authority,
and survivability. Practical deployments do not rely on these literary rules; real systems follow risk-based standards
and verification methods, while the three-plus-one structure serves as a compact mental model for prioritizing human
safety, honoring authorized commands, and maintaining the robot’s operable state during autonomous operation.

1. First Law (Human Safety): A robot shall not harm a human being or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
2. Second Law (Order Compliance): A robot shall obey orders given by human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
3. Third Law (Self-Preservation): A robot shall protect its own existence as long as such protection does
not conflict with the First or Second Law.
4. Zeroth Law (later addition, Humanity’s Welfare): A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction,
allow humanity to come to harm.

6 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Robotics

The rapid advancement of robotics has introduced complex ethical challenges that require careful consideration. Key
issues include ensuring safety in human–robot interaction, preventing misuse in military or surveillance applications,
and addressing the impact on employment. Ethical frameworks aim to guide the development and deployment of
robots in ways that protect human dignity, rights, and well-being. Transparency in decision-making processes,
especially for autonomous systems, is essential to build trust between humans and machines.
Legal aspects involve establishing clear regulations for design standards, liability in case of accidents, data
privacy, and compliance with safety protocols. International and national laws are evolving to address these
requirements, often influenced by emerging technologies such as AI-driven robotics. Intellectual property rights,
certification procedures, and industry-specific guidelines also form part of the legal framework. Together, ethical
principles and legal regulations create a foundation for responsible innovation in robotics.

• Human safety and risk assessment across design, operation, and decommissioning.
• Transparent, explainable decision-making with audit logs for autonomous actions.
• Clear allocation of liability and appropriate insurance for accidents and damages.
• Data privacy, security, and responsible handling of sensor-derived personal data.
• Compliance with standards, certification, and continuous monitoring over the system lifecycle.

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7 Impact of Robotics on Society

Robotics has reshaped industries, workplaces, and everyday life through increased efficiency, precision, and produc-
tivity. Industrial robots have reduced manufacturing costs and improved product consistency, while service robots
assist in healthcare, logistics, and domestic tasks. These advancements enable faster production cycles, enhanced
quality control, and the execution of tasks in hazardous environments that pose risks to human workers.
At the same time, the integration of robotics into society raises questions about workforce transformation and
the skills required for future employment. While automation can displace certain jobs, it also creates opportunities
in robot design, programming, and maintenance. In healthcare, robotics supports life-saving surgeries and reha-
bilitation therapies, while in disaster response, it enhances safety and operational reach. The societal impact of
robotics continues to expand as technology becomes more affordable and accessible, influencing the way humans
live, work, and interact with their environment.

• Workforce shift toward high-skill roles in design, integration, and maintenance.

• Improved safety by removing workers from dangerous or repetitive tasks.

• Higher product quality and tighter process control across manufacturing lines.

• Expanded access to services in healthcare, elder care, and rehabilitation.

• New policy needs around reskilling, data privacy, and system accountability.

8 Market Trends in Robotics

Robotics adoption is accelerating across industrial and consumer markets, powered by automation, AI, and im-
proved sensing. The global market stood near USD 71 billion in 2023 and is projected to exceed USD 286 billion by
2032 (≈18.4% CAGR). Collaborative robots represent the fastest-growing segment (≈35% CAGR to ≈USD 12 bil-
lion by 2030) due to safety features and ease of deployment suited to small and medium manufacturers. The
AI-in-robotics segment is expected to expand from ≈USD 12.3 billion in 2023 to ≈USD 146.8 billion by 2033
(≈28.1% CAGR), enabling improved perception, adaptive control, predictive maintenance, and digital-twin work-
flows. Logistics adoption through AGVs/AMRs and mobile manipulation is rising to address labor shortages and
uptime goals. Ordering patterns in North America in late 2024 showed unit growth outpacing revenue, indicating a
shift toward cost-effective platforms. Asia–Pacific leads industrial and service-robot volumes, with North America
maintaining strong share through technology infrastructure and investment. Industrial deployments concentrate on
welding, assembly, and packaging; service-robot demand grows in healthcare, agriculture, and professional services.
Core growth drivers include AI and machine learning integration, demand for automation, advances in mobile
robotics, and rigorous safety for human–robot collaboration aligned with standards-based integration.

9 Future Prospects and Career Opportunities

The future of robotics is shaped by advancements in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and human–robot col-
laboration. Research is moving toward developing systems that can adapt to unstructured environments, learn from
minimal data, and operate safely alongside humans. Emerging applications include autonomous transportation,
precision agriculture, disaster response, and space exploration. As robotics becomes more accessible, start-ups and
established companies are expanding into specialized niches, creating a diverse range of career paths for engineers,
programmers, and researchers.
Opportunities extend beyond technical roles to include positions in project management, regulatory compliance,
training, and maintenance. Educational institutions are integrating robotics into their curricula to prepare students
for evolving industry demands. Professionals with multidisciplinary skills in hardware design, control systems, AI
algorithms, and data analytics will be highly sought after. The growing interconnection between robotics and fields
such as healthcare, renewable energy, and smart infrastructure is expected to expand career opportunities across
global markets.

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Table 2: Global Robotics Market: Trends and Forecasts (2023–2033)

Theme Detail Metrics / Notes
Key statistics & forecasts
Market value Expansion across industrial USD 71B (2023) → >USD 286B (2032),
and consumer segments ≈18.4% CAGR
Collaborative robots Fastest-growing hardware ≈35% CAGR to ≈USD 12B by 2030
segment
AI in robotics Rapid growth in soft- USD 12.3B (2023) → USD 146.8B (2033),
ware/analytics layer ≈28.1% CAGR
Ordering mix Shift toward cost-effective Late 2024: unit growth in North America
platforms > revenue growth
Dominant sectors & applications
Industrial robots Core use in production lines Welding, assembly, packaging
Service robots Rising share in professional Healthcare, agriculture, logistics
services
Healthcare Broadening clinical and oper- Surgery, rehabilitation, hospital logistics
ational roles
Automotive Early and deep adoption of Precision welding/painting, quality control
AI-driven cells
Growth drivers
AI & machine learning Better perception, adaptive Drives accuracy, uptime, and flexibility
control, predictive mainte-
nance
Demand for automation Productivity and labor-gap Investments across SMEs and large enter-
response prises
Mobile robotics AGVs/AMRs and mobile ma- Material handling, intralogistics, fulfill-
nipulation ment
Safety & collaboration Human–robot co-working Cobots with speed/force limits and easy
deployment
Geography
Asia–Pacific Largest share in industrial Manufacturing scale and export standards
and service units
North America Strong presence and invest- Tech infrastructure and policy support
ment

10 Advantages of Robots in Manufacturing

Robots in manufacturing deliver consistent performance, high precision, and the ability to operate continuously
without fatigue. They are capable of performing repetitive tasks with minimal variation, improving product quality
and reducing waste. Automation reduces the impact of labor shortages and supports faster production cycles,
enabling companies to meet tight delivery schedules. In high-risk environments, robots enhance worker safety by
taking on tasks that involve heavy lifting, extreme temperatures, or exposure to hazardous materials.
The use of robotics also allows for greater flexibility in manufacturing processes. Modern robotic systems can be
reprogrammed or retooled for different products, allowing manufacturers to respond quickly to changes in market
demand. Integration with sensors and real-time monitoring systems helps maintain optimal production conditions
and detect potential issues before they escalate. These capabilities make robotics a valuable asset for maintaining
competitiveness in both high-volume and specialized production environments.

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Table 3: Advantages of Robots in Manufacturing

Advantage What it delivers Typical impact / metric
Quality consistency Repeatable motion and stable pro- Defect rate (ppm) decreases; rework
cess control and scrap decrease
Higher throughput Continuous operation at rated cycle Takt time decreases; units per hour
time increase
High availability 24/7 operation with planned main- OEE increases; unplanned down-
tenance time decreases
Safety Removes exposure to hazards (heat, Recordable incidents decrease; safer
fumes, sharp tools) workcells
Precision and accuracy Tight tolerances and micro- Dimensional variation decreases;
positioning first-pass yield increases
Flexibility Fast changeover via reprogramming New product introduction time de-
and EOAT swaps creases
Data and traceability Integrated sensing, logging, and SPC dashboards; full genealogy
connectivity
Cost efficiency Stable per-unit cost after capex Cost per unit decreases at volume;
amortization ROI achieved within months
Space efficiency Compact cells versus large manual Floor space per unit decreases
fixtures
Ergonomics Offloads heavy, repetitive, awkward Fatigue and injury risk decrease; re-
tasks tention increases

11 Limitations and Disadvantages of Using Robots

Despite their benefits, robots come with limitations that must be addressed during planning and implementation.
High initial costs for purchase, installation, and programming can be a barrier for small and medium-sized enter-
prises. Maintenance requirements and the need for specialized technical expertise can increase operational expenses.
Robots also lack human adaptability in handling unexpected situations or performing tasks that require nuanced
judgment. Another concern is the potential for technological obsolescence, as rapid advancements may render
existing systems outdated. Dependence on automation can create vulnerabilities if there is a system failure or
cyberattack. In certain industries, the replacement of human labor with robots can lead to workforce displacement,
requiring strategies for retraining and job transition. These challenges highlight the need for balanced integration
that accounts for both productivity gains and potential drawbacks.
• High upfront cost: Capital expenditure for robots, tooling, integration, and commissioning.
• Integration complexity: Cell design, guarding, PLC/SCADA links, and process validation add time and
risk.
• Limited flexibility in unstructured tasks: Variability, deformable parts, and small-batch changeovers
reduce effectiveness.
• Downtime and maintenance: Preventive service, calibration, and spare-part lead times can interrupt
production.
• Safety and liability: Collision hazards and pinch points require rigorous risk assessment and compliance
with safety standards.
• Cybersecurity exposure: Networked controllers and IIoT links introduce attack surfaces and data-leak
risks.
• Skill gap: Need for programmers, electricians, and maintenance technicians increases training demands.
• Sensing and data limits: Poor lighting, occlusions, or noisy signals degrade vision and force-control
performance.

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• Space and utilities: Floor space, power quality, compressed air, and EMI/EMC constraints affect deploy-
ment.
• ROI uncertainty: Demand volatility, product redesigns, and vendor lock-in can delay payback.
• Interoperability issues: Proprietary software stacks and closed APIs complicate multi-vendor systems.
• Environmental limits: Dust, moisture, temperature, and vibration require higher IP ratings and protective
enclosures.
• Dexterity constraints: Fine manipulation, delicate assembly, and force-sensitive tasks remain challenging.
• Regulatory overhead: Documentation, certification, and periodic audits add cost and time.

12 Economic Impact of Robots on Employment

The adoption of robotics in various sectors has altered the structure of the workforce by shifting demand toward
higher-skilled positions. Routine and physically demanding jobs are increasingly performed by machines, reducing
the need for manual labor in certain areas. At the same time, robotics has generated new employment opportunities
in design, programming, system integration, and technical support. The net effect on employment depends on how
industries manage the balance between automation and human labor.

In some regions, robotics adoption has contributed to reshoring manufacturing jobs by making local produc-
tion more cost-effective. However, these jobs often require advanced technical skills, which can create barriers
for displaced workers without adequate training. Policymakers and educational institutions play a critical role in
addressing these shifts by supporting workforce development programs. The long-term economic impact will be
shaped by how effectively societies adapt to changes in job roles and skills demand.

Robots exert a dual impact on labor markets: displacement of routine tasks and creation of higher-skill op-
portunities. Productivity gains reduce unit costs and expand output, which can lift aggregate labor demand in
complementary roles such as integration, maintenance, data engineering, and AI. Short-term adjustment costs can
include wage pressure and longer unemployment spells for low-skilled workers. Long-term outcomes depend on
reskilling capacity, technology diffusion, and policy support that directs benefits toward broad-based participation.

12.1 Job Displacement and Wage Impacts

Automation of repetitive and manual tasks raises displacement risk in manufacturing and similar sectors, which
can compress wages for young, less-educated, and low-skilled workers exposed to robot adoption. Evidence from
affected regions shows longer unemployment spells for routine occupations, reflecting skill mismatch and search
frictions. Short-run outcomes often include reduced bargaining power, greater volatility in hours, and elevated
retraining needs, especially where local industry concentration limits alternative employment paths.
• Routine task automation: Repetitive and manual work in manufacturing and similar sectors faces higher
replacement risk.
• Wage pressure: Local exposure to robots can lower wages for young, less-educated, and low-skilled workers.
• Longer unemployment spells: Displaced routine workers may experience extended job searches and struc-
tural unemployment.

12.2 Job Creation and Productivity Gains

Higher total factor productivity from robotics expands output, lowers unit cost, and opens complementary roles
across design, integration, quality engineering, maintenance, data operations, AI, and cybersecurity. New products
and process innovations create additional markets, while upstream and downstream linkages stimulate supplier
activity, logistics, and service layers. Task reallocation shifts human effort toward supervision, exception handling,
and continuous improvement, supporting movement into higher-skill, higher-wage occupations.
• Demand expansion: Higher productivity supports output growth and stimulates hiring in complementary
occupations.

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• New roles and skills: Adoption creates needs in robot design, operation, maintenance, AI, big data, and
cybersecurity.
• Innovation pipeline: Process improvements and new products open additional industries and career paths.

12.3 Socioeconomic Implications

Uneven diffusion of robotics can widen income dispersion across education levels, regions, and firm sizes, partic-
ularly where access to training and modern equipment remains limited. Labor mobility improves outcomes when
credentialing, apprenticeships, and recognition of prior learning align with emerging roles. Equity goals benefit from
targeted support for vulnerable groups, transparent hiring signals, and portable benefits that reduce transition risk
during occupational change.
• Inequality risk: Gains can concentrate among higher-skilled workers without targeted inclusion measures.
• Skill transformation: Continuous upskilling and reskilling are central to mobility into higher-value roles.

12.4 Key Considerations for the Future

Effective policy mixes combine reskilling grants, modular curricula, apprenticeships, and rapid training aligned
with robotics and AI demand. Public–private partnerships accelerate credential standards, equipment access,
and employer commitments to placement. Strong safety nets, wage insurance pilots, and relocation assistance
reduce adjustment costs. Technical foundations—open interfaces, data governance, and safety compliance—support
scalable adoption while labor statistics and skills taxonomies track progress and guide investment.
• Policy and investment: Fund reskilling, apprenticeships, and rapid training aligned to robotics and AI
demand.
• Collaboration: Coordinate industry, government, and academia to scale credentials, certifications, and
transition support.

13 Sensors in Robotics
Robotic sensors supply the data needed for state estimation, perception, and control. Proprioceptive devices mea-
sure joints, motion, and internal forces—encoders for position and velocity, IMUs for orientation and acceleration,
current and temperature monitors for health. Exteroceptive devices observe the scene—monocular and stereo cam-
eras and RGB-D modules for vision and depth, LiDAR and time-of-flight for ranging, ultrasonic and infrared for
proximity, and force/torque or tactile arrays for contact. Reliable operation depends on calibration, sampling rate,
latency, noise, field of view, and placement. Robust systems align timestamps, filter signals, and fuse sources using
methods such as extended Kalman filtering, particle filtering, or complementary fusion. Typical outcomes include
accurate localization and SLAM, obstacle detection, grasp planning, process quality control, and safety functions
such as speed-and-separation monitoring. Designs often add redundancy, self-diagnostics, and fault handling to
maintain safe behavior when a sensor degrades or fails.

13.1 Types of Sensors

Sensors in robotics are categorized based on the type of information they collect. Common categories include
position sensors such as encoders and potentiometers, which determine joint angles and displacement. Proximity
sensors detect nearby objects using technologies like infrared, ultrasonic, or capacitive sensing. Vision sensors,
including cameras and LiDAR, provide detailed spatial information for navigation and object recognition. Force
and torque sensors measure the mechanical interaction between the robot and its environment, while environmental
sensors detect parameters such as temperature, humidity, or gas concentration.
Figure 3 shows widely used sensor modules for robotics across key functions: perception and ranging (ultrasonic,
infrared, proximity), environment monitoring (temperature, humidity, air pressure, gas, rain, soil moisture), motion
and state (gyro–accelerometer, hall effect, tilt, opto speed), vision and light (color sensor, light-dependent resistors),
human and load interfaces (pulse oximeter, heartbeat, load cell), and system utilities (PIR motion, IR receiver,
flow, sound, touch). These devices provide the measurements needed for localization, obstacle detection, process
control, safety interlocks, and closed-loop actuation in mobile and industrial platforms. Common types of sensors
in robotics include:

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Figure 3: Common sensors used in robotics.

• Position sensors – Encoders, potentiometers for tracking joint angles and displacement.
• Proximity sensors – Infrared, ultrasonic, capacitive sensors for object detection.
• Vision sensors – Cameras, LiDAR for navigation and object recognition.
• Force/Torque sensors – Measurement of mechanical interaction with the environment.
• Environmental sensors – Temperature, humidity, gas concentration monitoring.
Each type is chosen based on the operational environment and task requirements. Autonomous vehicles rely
heavily on vision and LiDAR, while industrial arms prioritize encoders and force sensors for assembly precision.
Technological advances are improving sensor durability, range, and resolution.
Each type of sensor is selected based on the requirements of the task and operating environment. For example,
autonomous vehicles may rely heavily on LiDAR and cameras for navigation, while an industrial manipulator may
depend more on encoders and force sensors for precision assembly. The choice of sensor impacts system accuracy,
reliability, and operational safety. Technological advancements continue to improve sensor resolution, range, and
durability, expanding the range of applications in robotics.

13.2 Functions of Sensors

The primary function of sensors in robotics is to enable perception by collecting data about the robot’s internal
state and external surroundings. This information is processed by the control system to make informed decisions
during operation. Sensors allow robots to adapt to changes, avoid obstacles, and execute tasks with precision.
For example, vision systems can guide robotic arms in aligning components, while force sensors can control grip
strength to prevent damage to delicate objects.
Sensors also play a critical role in safety and maintenance. Collision detection sensors can halt operations when
unexpected contact occurs, protecting both equipment and humans. Monitoring operational parameters such as
motor temperature or battery charge helps prevent failures and extends service life. By integrating multiple sensors,
robots can achieve higher levels of autonomy, efficiency, and adaptability. Key functions of sensors in robotics:

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Table 4: Sensors and Applications in Robotics

Sl. Sensor Applications in Robotics
No.
1 Color sensor Color-based sorting; line following on colored tracks; object
classification; quality inspection of prints/labels.
2 Touch sensor Bump/contact detection; end-stop confirmation; safety edges
and human–robot interaction cues.
3 Ultrasonic sensor Obstacle ranging; simple SLAM aids; docking/parking and
bin-level sensing.
4 Alcohol sensor Safety/compliance checks in access robots; hazardous-
environment monitoring; breath analysis in assistive systems.
5 Humidity sensor Climate control for greenhouses/labs; corrosion and condensa-
tion risk management; enclosure health monitoring.
6 Air pressure (barometric) Altitude hold for UAVs; vacuum/gripper pressure feedback;
pneumatic control loops and leak detection.
7 Gyro + accelerometer (IMU) Attitude and balance control; dead-reckoning/INS; slip and
impact detection.
8 Hall effect sensor BLDC motor commutation; wheel/shaft encoders; magnetic
limit switches and current sensing.
9 Soil sensor Soil-moisture mapping for agri-robots; variable-rate irrigation;
terrain classification.
10 Proximity sensor Non-contact part/pallet detection; edge detection; safety zones
and interlocks in cells.
11 Heartbeat sensor Vital-sign monitoring in assistive/rehab robots; biofeedback
for HRI; patient safety gating.
12 Infrared sensor Short-range reflectance/proximity; line tracking; IR beacon
homing.
13 IR receiver Remote-control interface for setup/teleoperation; teach/learn
functions; user input in low-cost systems.
14 Temperature sensor Motor/drive and battery thermal protection; process temper-
ature control; environmental monitoring.
15 Light sensor (LDR/ALS) Ambient-light adaptation for cameras/UX; day–night behav-
iors; solar tracking and energy management.
16 Load sensor (load cell) Gripper force control; weight verification; collision detection
and force-limited manipulation.
17 Pulse oximeter SpO2 and heart-rate monitoring in medical/assistive robots;
triage and patient tracking.
18 Gas sensor Leak and air-quality mapping; hazardous-gas alarms; confined-
space inspection.
19 Flow sensor Coolant and lubricant flow assurance; pneumatic flow feed-
back; pump/valve diagnostics.
20 Opto speed sensor Shaft/conveyor speed measurement; wheel odometry; motor
tuning and diagnostics.
21 PIR motion sensor Human presence detection; wake/sleep policies; occupancy-
aware energy and safety modes.
22 Rain sensor Weather awareness for outdoor robots; auto-sheltering; wiper
or lens-heater activation.
23 Tilt sensor Tip-over protection; platform leveling; interlocks for lifts and
manipulators.
24 Sound sensor (microphone) Voice/event triggers; acoustic anomaly detection on machin-
ery; environment awareness.

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• Perception – Gathering information about surroundings and internal states.

• Decision support – Providing data to the control system for task execution.
• Safety – Collision detection, proximity alerts.
• Operational monitoring – Checking motor temperature, battery level, and system health.
• Precision control – Guiding movements for accuracy in positioning.
By combining multiple sensor types, robots can navigate complex environments, adapt to dynamic changes, and
complete tasks with high reliability. This integration enables greater autonomy and efficiency.

14 Actuators
An actuator in a robot is a device that converts electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic power into
mechanical motion or force to drive a mechanism or control a process. Motion can be linear or rotary.
Operation follows a clear chain: an input signal commands energy flow, internal conversion produces force or
torque, and the output moves the mechanism with a defined displacement and speed. Major families include
hydraulic actuators for high force and compact packaging, pneumatic cylinders and grippers for fast and clean
motion, and electric actuators (DC, BLDC, stepper, and servo) for precise, programmable positioning. Selection
depends on required force or torque, speed, stroke, accuracy, bandwidth, efficiency, duty cycle, and environmental
limits. Typical applications include robotic arms and grippers, automated assembly and material handling, vehicle
subsystems, and household devices where reliable, repeatable motion is required.

14.1 Types of Actuators

Actuators convert supplied energy into force, torque, or displacement to produce linear or rotary motion. Electric
options (DC, BLDC, stepper, servo, solenoids) offer precise control and clean integration with electronics. Hydraulic
cylinders deliver very high force with compact size and stiff response. Pneumatic cylinders and rotary actuators
provide fast motion for light to medium loads with simple mechanics. Specialized devices such as piezoelectric
stacks and shape-memory alloys serve micro-positioning or compact mechanisms. Selection depends on required
force/torque, speed, stroke, resolution, bandwidth, efficiency, duty cycle, environment, and cost; many robots
combine multiple actuator types across joints, grippers, and tooling.
Classification can follow energy source, motion type, or integration style. Energy-source groups include electric,
hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, magnetic, and mechanical drives. Motion types are linear and rotary. Integration
styles include electro-hydraulic packages, manual drives, and valve-focused actuators. Table 5 summarizes common
classes with mechanisms and typical uses.

14.2 Working of Actuators

An actuator converts supplied energy into mechanical output through a control chain: a command signal u(t) drives
a power stage, the transducer generates force or torque, a transmission sets speed and ratio, and the load moves to
the demanded position. Electrical drives use H-bridges or inverters with PWM or field-oriented control to regulate
current
τ = Kt i (1)
producing rotary or linear motion through gearboxes, belts, or screws with encoder or resolver feedback. Hydraulic
systems convert pump pressure and servo-valve flow into cylinder force

F = Ap ∆p (2)

with LVDT or pressure feedback for precise linear strokes and high load capacity. Pneumatic systems meter
compressed air via solenoid valves and regulators to achieve fast motion; position sensing and flow control improve
repeatability. Closed-loop control stacks inner current/pressure loops, a velocity loop, and an outer position loop to
meet accuracy, bandwidth, and stability targets under variable loads. Reliability depends on lubrication, filtration,
thermal management, calibration, and condition monitoring for early fault detection.

• Electrical — Regulates motor current to deliver commanded torque; adds gearing or screws for linear motion;
uses encoders/resolvers for precise positioning.

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Table 5: Actuator Classifications and Typical Uses

Classification Class / Mechanism Typical uses in robotics
Energy source
1. Electric Joint drives, wheel drives, precision positioning, grip-
(DC/BLDC/servo/stepper, pers, end-effectors, mobile bases.
solenoid)
2. Hydraulic (cylinders, motors) High-force arms and legs, heavy manipulation, exca-
vation or hydraulic hybrid robots.
3. Pneumatic (cylinders, rotary Fast pick-and-place, soft grippers, tooling actuation,
vanes) low-cost automation.
4. Thermal (shape-memory al- Compact actuators, compliant mechanisms, low-
loys) power micro-motion.
5. Magnetic (voice-coil, mag- High-bandwidth micro-positioning, haptics, quick
netic latches) latching and release.
6. Mechanical (cams, lead- Motion conversion within transmissions; linear
screws, gears) stages from motor rotation.
Motion type
1. Linear Slides, presses, z-axis positioning, valve travel,
door/lid actuation.
2. Rotary Joint rotation, wheels, turrets, tool changers, pan–
tilt units.
Integration style
1. Electro-hydraulic Electrically driven pump with hydraulic cylinder for
compact high-force joints.
2. Manual Handwheels, levers for setup, calibration, and emer-
gency operation.
3. Valve actuators (elec- Process valves on mobile platforms or cells; flow,
tric/pneumatic/hydraulic) pressure, and vacuum control.
4. Piezoelectric stacks Nanometer to micrometer steps, optics alignment,
micro-manipulation, AFM stages.

• Hydraulic — Uses pump, accumulator, and servo/proportional valves to control pressure and flow; delivers
high force with stiff response; measures position and pressure for feedback.

• Pneumatic — Uses compressed air and fast valves for rapid strokes on light to medium loads; adds position
sensors and flow control to improve consistency.

14.3 Applications of Actuators

Actuators drive core robot functions across joints, grippers, mobility, and tooling as outlined in Table 5. Electric
drives (DC, BLDC, stepper, servo, solenoid) enable joint rotation, wheel propulsion, precise axis positioning, and
end-effector control on mobile and industrial platforms. Hydraulic cylinders and motors provide compact, high-
force motion for heavy manipulation, legged systems, and excavation tasks. Pneumatic cylinders and rotary vanes
deliver rapid strokes for pick-and-place, soft gripping, and low-cost tooling actuation. Thermal devices based on
shape-memory alloys power compact, compliant mechanisms for small strokes; magnetic voice-coil and latch systems
support high-bandwidth micro-positioning, haptics, and quick release. Mechanical elements—cams, lead screws,
and gear trains—convert motor rotation into linear travel for stages and presses. Linear actuators serve slides,
z-axis lifts, valve travel, and door or lid motion; rotary actuators serve joints, wheels, turrets, tool changers, and
pan–tilt units. Electro-hydraulic packages combine electric pumps with cylinders for dense, high-force joints; manual
actuators support setup, calibration, and emergency moves; dedicated valve actuators regulate flow, pressure, and
vacuum in process cells; piezo stacks provide nanometer-to-micrometer positioning for optics alignment, micro-
manipulation, and AFM stages. Selecting the right actuator is critical for ensuring the robot meets performance,
safety, and durability requirements. Examples of actuator applications:

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• Industrial manufacturing – Assembly presses, spot and arc welding, pick-and-place, dispensing, palletizing.
• Service robotics – Grippers and end-effectors, mobile base drive, lift-assist mechanisms, cleaning and scrub-
bing force control.
• Medical robotics – Surgical wrist actuation, tremor filtering, haptic force control, rehab exoskeleton joints.
• Autonomous vehicles – Steer-by-wire, brake-by-wire, throttle, active suspension, sensor gimbal stabiliza-
tion.
• Warehouse and logistics – AGV/AMR wheel drives, lift masts, conveyor diverters, sorters, depalletizers.
• Agriculture – Cutter and gripper tools, seed planting stages, sprayer valves, boom height and tilt control.
• Aerospace/UAV – Control surfaces (aileron, rudder, elevator), landing gear, camera gimbals, thrust vec-
toring.
• Energy and utilities – Pipeline and process valve actuators, damper control, wind-turbine blade pitch.
• Construction and mining – Excavator arms, drill feed and rotation, compactors, manipulators for heavy
payloads.
• Consumer and assistive – Prosthetic hands, powered orthoses, smart locks and blinds, appliance actuators.

15 Controllers
A robot controller is the computing and control unit that interprets tasks, generates motion, fuses
sensor data, enforces safety, and coordinates communication with external systems. It converts high-
level commands into actuator setpoints while maintaining stability, accuracy, and timing across all
axes.

15.1 Core Functions

Task interpretation and sequencing; trajectory generation with limits on speed, acceleration, jerk, and workspace
constraints; servo control of current/pressure, velocity, and position loops; state estimation from encoders, IMUs,
vision, and force/torque sensors; safety handling for emergency stop, limit enforcement, and collision avoidance;
networking with PLCs, HMIs, and IT systems over fieldbuses and Ethernet protocols.

15.2 Control and Planning Methods

Common methods include PID control, feedforward with friction and gravity terms, state feedback, impedance
or admittance for interaction, hybrid position/force control for surface following, and model predictive control for
constrained motion. Typical servo structure nests fast inner loops (current or pressure), a velocity loop, and an
outer position loop to achieve bandwidth and precision under changing loads.

15.3 Architectures
Centralized controllers run multi-axis coordination on a single real-time platform. Distributed architectures place
embedded controllers near motors and sensors to reduce latency and wiring. Cobot controllers pair safe torque
control with high-level programming for quick deployment. Edge controllers handle real-time motion locally while
offloading mapping, analytics, or fleet coordination to a PC or cloud supervisor.

15.4 Types of Robot Controllers

1. Microcontroller: Microcontroller-based boards provide low-power real-time control for small robots and
subsystems. Motion controllers coordinate multi-axis servo drives in CNC and robotic arms. PLCs manage
I/O-rich industrial cells and line control. Industrial robot cabinets from major vendors integrate drives, safety,
vision, and programming environments for articulated arms. Embedded PCs and single-board computers
support mobile robots with SLAM and perception. Software frameworks such as ROS supply messaging,
drivers, and toolchains that sit on top of these hardware platforms.

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Table 6: Controller Categories, Strengths, Uses, and Constraints

Controller type Core strengths Typical uses / exam- Key constraints
ples
Microcontrollers (Ar- Deterministic real-time, Motor and valve control Limited
duino, PIC, STM32) low power, rich peripher- loops, encoder/IMU read- RAM/CPU; not
als (PWM, ADC, timers) out, safety I/O, small mo- suited to vision/AI
bile bases
PLCs Industrial reliability, Cell orchestration, con- Limited for per-
IEC 61131-3 program- veyors, interlocks, recipes, ception/AI; vendor
ming, robust I/O and robot cell safety ecosystems
safety
Embedded PC / SBC High compute, OS SLAM, vision, planning, Thermal/power
(Raspberry Pi, Jetson) support, networking, fleet management, HMI, budgets; careful
GPU/AI acceleration cloud integration real-time tuning
needed
Motion controllers / Synchronized interpola- CNC, gantries, pick-and- Narrow focus; of-
multi-axis drives tion, fast servo loops, cam place, precision stages fload perception
profiles and high-level logic
Industrial robot con- Integrated drives+safety, Articulated arms for weld- Vendor lock-in; lim-
trollers (ABB IRC5, vendor languages, ing, painting, assembly, ited openness
KUKA KRC4, Yaskawa tool/vision support packaging
DX200)
Cobot controllers Safe torque control, easy Human–robot collabora- Lower pay-
programming, hand- tion, small-batch assem- load/speed vs.
guiding bly, test/inspection traditional arms
ROS-based stacks (soft- Middleware, drivers, plan- Integration layer on Not a hardware
ware) ning, visualization, log- PCs/MCUs across arms controller; needs
ging and mobile robots RT configuration

2. PLCs : Programmable Logic Controllers deliver robust operation in industrial environments with high EMC
immunity, hot-swappable I/O, and long service life. IEC 61131-3 languages (ladder, function block, structured
text) support clear sequencing, interlocks, and recipe management. Typical uses include line coordination,
conveyor logic, robot cell safety, light curtains, and process monitoring. PLCs run deterministic scan cycles
and integrate easily with fieldbuses and safety networks. Vision, SLAM, and AI workloads remain outside
the PLC scope and are handed off to dedicated motion controllers or embedded PCs.
3. Embedded Boards: Embedded PCs and single-board computers such as Raspberry Pi and NVIDIA Jetson
provide high compute for perception, planning, and fleet coordination. Linux with real-time extensions and
middleware such as ROS enables mapping, path planning, multi-sensor fusion, and deep-learning inference.
These boards interface with microcontrollers, drives, and PLCs over Ethernet, CAN, or serial links and expose
Wi-Fi/Bluetooth for telemetry and cloud services. Strengths include rich OS, GPU/accelerator support, and
broad connectivity. Constraints include tighter thermal/power budgets and less deterministic timing without
careful real-time configuration.

16 Robot Specifications
Robot specifications define capability, integration needs, and safe operating limits for a platform. Core items include
axes (degrees of freedom), payload, reach, speed, repeatability, work envelope, mass, power, control interface, end-
effector standard, and environmental rating. Clear specifications support correct selection, performance tuning,
budgeting, and risk reduction in deployment. Key Specification Terms are as follows:
• Axes (DoF): Number of independently driven joints that set workspace coverage and dexterity.
• Payload: Maximum allowable mass at the tool flange, including end effector and part, under rated speed
and acceleration.

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• Reach: Maximum TCP distance from the base, reported for horizontal and vertical directions.
• Speed: Joint speed in deg/s and TCP speed in m/s; often accompanied by acceleration and jerk limits.
• Repeatability: Ability to return to a taught position within a band (e.g., ±0.02 mm).
• Work envelope: 3D region reachable by the TCP after joint limits, singularities, and interference zones.
• Robot mass and inertia: Base mass and moving inertia that influence anchoring and dynamic response.
• Power and utilities: Voltage, current, peak/average power, and any pneumatic or hydraulic requirements.
• Control and I/O: Controller model, supported languages, discrete/analog I/O, fieldbuses, and time sync.
• End effector interface: Flange standard (e.g., ISO 9409-1), available signals, and media pass-through.
• Environment: Temperature and humidity range, IP rating, cleanroom class, EMC, and food/ESD options.
• Safety: Standards compliance and certified safety functions (e.g., STO, SS1, SLS, SSM, PFL).

16.1 Load Capacity

Load capacity states the maximum mass the manipulator or platform can handle without loss of performance or
safety margin. The rating must include the end effector, workpiece, fixtures, and dynamic effects from acceleration
and deceleration. Key drivers include actuator torque, gear ratio, structural stiffness, and base stability. For mobile
systems, load also affects traction, stopping distance, and battery life.
• Actuator torque and continuous current limits.
• Structural rigidity and deflection under load.
• Stability during acceleration, deceleration, and reach extremes.

16.2 Speed
Speed defines the rate of motion for joints and for the tool center point. High speed reduces cycle time when
accuracy, settling time, and safety constraints are preserved. Reported values should include acceleration and jerk
to reflect real trajectories. Speed settings often vary by task, payload, and proximity to humans.
• Linear speed for mobile platforms and TCP travel.
• Angular speed for rotary joints.
• Controller tuning and actuator selection to sustain speed without overshoot.

16.3 Accuracy
Accuracy measures closeness to a commanded target in absolute terms. Influences include mechanical tolerances,
calibration quality, sensor resolution, thermal drift, and controller precision. High-accuracy work benefits from
kinematic calibration, error mapping, and temperature compensation. Real-time feedback improves placement and
path following on fine features.
• Mechanical tolerances and compliance along the kinematic chain.
• Sensor resolution and noise in encoders and metrology.
• Controller algorithms and calibration procedures.

16.4 Repeatability
Repeatability measures the spread when returning to the same taught position under unchanged conditions. Strong
repeatability ensures uniform results in welding, painting, dispensing, and pick-and-place.
• Joint backlash, transmission wear, and thermal expansion.
• Servo loop stability and consistent approach direction.
• Preventive maintenance to preserve long-term consistency.

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16.5 Why Specifications Matter

Correct specifications align the robot with task demands, reduce commissioning time, and improve quality. Proper
sizing protects hardware, upholds safety margins, and supports a clear return on investment through reliable cycle
time and low scrap.

17 Classification of Robots
Robots can be organized along several independent axes. Grouping by purpose, structure, mobility, control,
autonomy, scale, safety interaction, operating environment, and actuation gives a complete map for selection and
design. Table 7 summarizes the main classes.

17.1 By Purpose / Application

Industrial robots: Deployed in manufacturing for welding, assembly, painting, packaging, and machine tending.
Emphasize cycle time, repeatability, and integration with PLCs and safety systems. Service robots: Used outside
traditional factories in logistics, healthcare, agriculture, inspection, cleaning, hospitality, and defense. Emphasize
perception, navigation, and human interaction.

17.2 By Physical Configuration (Design)

Physical configuration sets kinematics, workspace shape, and performance trade-offs. Articulated robots use serial
rotary joints for wide reach and high dexterity on complex paths. SCARA provides a rigid Z axis with compliant
XY for fast assembly and peg-in-hole tasks. Cartesian (gantry) moves on orthogonal X–Y–Z rails, delivering
high precision, stiffness, and payload over large areas. Cylindrical combines a rotary base with linear slides to
achieve a compact footprint and efficient access around a vertical axis. Spherical/polar couples rotary axes with
a radial slide to sweep a spherical workspace suited to reaching over or around obstacles. Parallel/delta employs
lightweight parallel linkages for very high speed and repeatability at modest payloads. Humanoid systems and
mobile manipulators pair an arm with a humanlike body or a mobile base to execute mixed manipulation and
navigation in human environments.
1. Articulated: Multi–revolute joints (e.g., 6-DoF arms) with wide reach and dexterity.
2. SCARA: Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm with rigid Z and compliant XY for fast assembly.
3. Cartesian (gantry): Orthogonal X–Y–Z axes for high precision and load capacity.
4. Cylindrical: Rotary base with linear slides; compact footprint.
5. Spherical/Polar: Rotary joints plus radial slide; spherical workspace.
6. Parallel/Delta: Lightweight parallel kinematics for high-speed pick-and-place.
7. Humanoid and mobile manipulators: Anthropomorphic or mobile base plus arm for mixed tasks.

17.3 By Mobility / Locomotion

Mobility defines how a robot traverses or operates within its workspace. Fixed-base platforms (manipulators
and gantries) anchor to a frame for maximum stiffness, precision, and payload at the tool center point. Mobile
platforms trade some stiffness for reach and coverage: wheeled bases (differential, skid, or omni) offer high efficiency
and simple kinematics on smooth floors; tracked systems increase traction and ground contact for soft or uneven
terrain; legged robots (biped, quadruped, hexapod) negotiate stairs, rubble, and gaps at the cost of complex control
and higher energy per distance; aerial systems (multirotor, fixed-wing) extend access vertically and over large areas
with strict mass and endurance limits; underwater ROVs/AUVs operate in high-pressure, low-visibility settings
using thrusters and buoyancy control. Selection hinges on terrainability, speed, energy budget, payload, and safety
constraints.
1. Fixed-base: Anchored manipulators and gantries.
2. Mobile: Wheeled (differential, skid, omni), tracked, legged (biped, quadruped, hexapod), aerial (multi-rotor,
fixed-wing), underwater (ROV/AUV).

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17.4 By Control System

Control categorizes robots into open-loop and closed-loop operation. Open-loop systems execute preprogrammed
motions without feedback, suiting deterministic, repeatable processes where disturbances are negligible and cost
must remain low. Closed-loop (servo) systems measure state via sensors and correct commands in real time to
maintain position, speed, or force targets. Typical servo stacks nest current or pressure loops inside velocity and
position loops to achieve bandwidth, accuracy, and disturbance rejection. Choice depends on required precision,
variability of the environment, and acceptable commissioning effort.

1. Open-loop (non-servo): Pre-set motion without feedback; simple and low cost.

2. Closed-loop (servo): Sensor feedback for position, velocity, or force; higher accuracy and robustness.

17.5 By Autonomy Level

Autonomy spans from direct human control to fully independent operation. Teleoperated robots mirror human
inputs at high rate for tasks that demand judgment or when communication is reliable but the environment is
hostile. Supervised or shared control blends autonomy with human oversight, allowing the system to handle
routine navigation and manipulation while escalating edge cases. Fully autonomous robots sense, plan, and act to
meet goals under constraints on time, safety, and resources, relying on robust perception, localization, and decision
making.

1. Teleoperated: Human commands at high rate.

2. Supervised / shared control: Autonomy with human oversight.

3. Autonomous: Goal-driven operation with on-board planning and perception.

17.6 By Intelligence / Generation

Intelligence progression reflects sensing, learning, and reasoning capability. Early generations execute fixed se-
quences with minimal sensing, followed by systems that adapt simple behaviors from environmental data. Re-
programmable robots add richer sensors and high-level languages for flexible tasks. Intelligent mobile platforms
interpret scenes in real time and coordinate navigation with manipulation. Advanced AI robots incorporate model-
based planning, learning from demonstration, and data-driven policies that generalize across tasks while respecting
safety and performance limits.

1. First: Fixed-sequence manipulators.

2. Second: Learning elements based on environmental data.

3. Third: Reprogrammable with sensors and high-level languages.

4. Fourth: Intelligent mobile systems with real-time scene interpretation.

5. Fifth: Advanced AI integration for reasoning and adaptation.

17.7 By Scale
Scale influences actuation, fabrication, sensing, and energy storage. Macro robots dominate industrial and field use
with kilogram to ton-scale payloads and standard components. Micro robots operate at millimeter to centimeter
sizes for inspection, medical tools, and swarm behaviors where lightweight actuators and compact sensors are essen-
tial. Nano-scale devices pursue targeted manipulation or diagnostics within lab-on-chip environments, emphasizing
physical effects that differ from macro mechanics and requiring specialized manufacturing and metrology.

1. Macro: Industrial and field systems.

2. Micro: Millimeter-scale devices for inspection and medical tools.

3. Nano: Lab-on-chip and targeted manipulation at micro/nano scale.

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17.8 By Human–Robot Interaction and Safety

Interaction class sets protective measures and collaborative behavior. Traditional industrial systems run at high
speed and payload inside guarded cells with interlocks and safe stops. Collaborative robots add power-and-force
limiting, speed-and-separation monitoring, and hand-guiding to share space with people. Design balances through-
put, reachable workspace, and safety functions such as safe torque control, verified limits, and certified stops to
achieve productive yet compliant operation near humans.
Traditional industrial: Fenced cells with interlocks and guarding.Collaborative (cobots): Power-and-
force limiting or speed-and-separation monitoring for close human work.

17.9 By Operating Environment

Environment drives materials, sealing, and certification. Cleanroom and sterile applications require low particle
emission, smooth surfaces, and compatible lubricants. Hazardous or explosion-risk zones demand certified enclo-
sures and intrinsic safety. Food-grade settings prioritize hygienic geometry and washdown resistance. Outdoor
and field deployments need ingress protection, corrosion resistance, and thermal tolerance. Underwater and space
missions address pressure or vacuum extremes, radiation, and limited maintenance access.
1. Cleanroom and sterile: Low outgassing, clean lubricants, sealed surfaces.
2. Hazardous/explosion-proof : Rated enclosures and intrinsic safety.
3. Food-grade: Hygienic design and washdown capability.
4. Outdoor/field: Weatherproofing for dust, rain, and temperature extremes.
5. Underwater/space: Pressure or vacuum tolerance and specialized materials.

17.10 By Actuation
Actuation determines force density, controllability, and maintenance profile. Electric drives (DC/BLDC, stepper,
servo) provide precise, efficient control with mature electronics and feedback. Hydraulic systems deliver very high
force and stiffness for heavy tools and dynamic loads with attention to leaks and thermal management. Pneu-
matic systems enable fast, simple motion for light to medium loads with compliant behavior and straightforward
tooling. Hybrid and soft actuators combine methods or introduce compliant elements for safe interaction, variable
impedance, and bio-inspired motion.
1. Electric: DC/BLDC, stepper, servo for precision and ease of control.
2. Hydraulic: High force and stiffness for heavy payloads.
3. Pneumatic: Fast strokes for light to medium loads.
4. Hybrid and soft: Mixed drives, compliant elements, and soft actuators for safe interaction.

18 Safety Standards and Protocols in Industrial Robotics

Safety in industrial robotics ensures the protection of human operators and the prevention of equipment damage.
International standards such as ISO 10218 specify safety requirements for robot manufacturers and integrators.
Safety considerations include physical barriers, emergency stop systems, and restricted operating zones. Common
safety measures:
• Light curtains and laser scanners for intrusion detection.
• Safety-rated monitored stop functions.
• Pressure-sensitive mats to halt operations upon contact.
Risk assessment is performed to identify potential hazards and determine appropriate safety measures. The inte-
gration of collaborative robots has introduced new safety protocols, as these robots operate in close proximity to
humans. Standards like ISO/TS 15066 define guidelines for force and speed limits in human-robot collaboration.
Compliance with these standards requires regular safety audits, operator training, and continuous monitoring of
robotic systems to maintain safe operations.

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

Table 7: Summary of Robot Classifications

Axis Categories / Types Typical traits and uses
Purpose / Application Industrial; Service Industrial: high repeatability, cycle time, PLC
integration. Service: perception, navigation,
HRI, varied settings.
Physical configuration Articulated; SCARA; Cartesian; Balance of reach, stiffness, speed, and payload;
Cylindrical; Spherical; Paral- choose structure for workspace and task.
lel/Delta; Humanoid; Mobile ma-
nipulator
Mobility / locomotion Fixed-base; Wheeled; Tracked; Factory cells vs field robots; trade-offs among
Legged; Aerial; Underwater terrain ability, speed, efficiency.
Control system Open-loop; Closed-loop Open-loop for simple motions; closed-loop for
accuracy, disturbance rejection, force control.
Autonomy level Teleoperated; Supervised/shared; Human command bandwidth vs on-board
Autonomous planning and sensing.
Intelligence / genera- First to fifth From fixed sequences to AI-enabled reasoning
tion and adaptation.
Scale Macro; Micro; Nano Workspace, payload, and instrumentation
scale with size.
HRI and safety Traditional fenced; Collaborative Guarded high-speed cells or cobots with
power/force limits and SSM.
Operating environment Cleanroom; Sterile; Hazardous; Materials, sealing, and certification match en-
Food-grade; Outdoor; Underwa- vironmental risks.
ter/Space
Actuation Electric; Hydraulic; Pneumatic; Precision and simplicity (electric), force den-
Hybrid/Soft sity (hydraulic), fast strokes (pneumatic),
compliance (soft).

19 Important Questions
Definition and Scope of Robotics
1. Define robotics and robot as presented in the unit, including the ISO 8373 framing. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how sensing, control, and actuation flow from perception to action using Figure 1. [L2 Understand]

3. Identify two components from the robotics “full stack” and map each to a concrete role in reliable operation
in unstructured settings. [L3 Apply]

4. Compare the needs of structured vs. unstructured environments and analyze which stack layers become more
critical and why. [L4 Analyze]

Role of Automation in Robotics

1. State two ways automation improves quality or productivity in robotic systems. [L1 Remember]

2. Using Figure 2, describe how automation reduces human intervention in dynamic environments. [L2 Under-
stand]

3. Propose one logistics or healthcare task and justify why automation improves safety or responsiveness for
that task. [L5 Evaluate]

Difference Between Robotics and Automation

1. Using Table 1, list two differences in sensing and decision-making between robotics and automation. [L1
Remember]

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

2. From Table 1, select one use case that fits robotics and one that fits automation and justify each selection.
[L3 Apply]

3. Analyze changeover and flexibility trade-offs using Table 1. [L4 Analyze]

Historical Development of Robotics

1. Arrange three milestones in chronological order from the unit’s timeline. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how Unimate’s deployment influenced manufacturing practice. [L2 Understand]

3. Analyze how advances in AI and sensing expanded applications beyond repetitive motion. [L4 Analyze]

Asimov’s Laws of Robotics

1. List the First, Second, and Third Laws and state the priority order. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain the effect of adding the Zeroth Law to the original hierarchy. [L2 Understand]

3. Evaluate why practical deployments rely on risk-based standards rather than these literary rules. [L5 Evaluate]

Ethical and Legal Aspects of Robotics

1. State two ethical issues and two legal issues noted in the unit. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain why transparency in autonomous decision-making supports trust. [L2 Understand]

3. Propose one compliance action that aligns with evolving standards and certification. [L3 Apply]

Impact of Robotics on Society

1. List two benefits to safety or product quality enabled by robotics. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how workforce skills shift with greater robotic adoption. [L2 Understand]

3. Analyze the role of robotics in disaster response or healthcare with respect to reach and precision. [L4
Analyze]

Market Trends in Robotics

1. From the section text, report the projected market size in 2032 and the approximate CAGR. [L1 Remember]

2. Using Table 2, identify one growth driver and link it to a sector impact. [L2 Understand]

3. Analyze the late-2024 North America ordering signal and infer what it implies about platform cost structure.
[L4 Analyze]

Future Prospects and Career Opportunities

1. List two emerging application areas named in the unit. [L1 Remember]

2. Propose a skill set that matches roles spanning control systems, AI algorithms, and data analytics. [L3 Apply]

3. Evaluate how multidisciplinary training supports mobility across roles as technology diffuses. [L5 Evaluate]

Advantages of Robots in Manufacturing

1. Using Table 3, name two advantages and their typical impact metrics in words. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how repeatability and micro-positioning improve first-pass yield. [L2 Understand]

3. Analyze the relationship between availability (OEE) and planned maintenance. [L4 Analyze]

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

Limitations and Disadvantages of Using Robots

1. List three limitations that affect deployment or ROI. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how interoperability and proprietary stacks complicate multi-vendor systems. [L2 Understand]

3. Propose one mitigation for cybersecurity exposure in networked cells. [L3 Apply]

Economic Impact of Robots on Employment

1. Summarize the dual impact on displacement and higher-skill job creation described in the unit. [L2 Under-
stand]

2. Analyze how productivity gains can expand aggregate labor demand in complementary roles. [L4 Analyze]

Job Displacement and Wage Impacts

1. Identify two groups most exposed to wage pressure in regions with higher robot adoption. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain why routine workers may face longer unemployment spells. [L2 Understand]

Job Creation and Productivity Gains

1. List two new roles that emerge with robotics and AI adoption. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how process innovations create downstream supplier and service activity. [L2 Understand]

Socioeconomic Implications

1. State one driver of inequality risk under uneven diffusion. [L1 Remember]

2. Propose one training or credentialing step that improves mobility. [L3 Apply]

Key Considerations for the Future

1. List two policy instruments that reduce adjustment costs. [L1 Remember]

2. Evaluate how open interfaces and data governance support scalable adoption. [L5 Evaluate]

Sensors in Robotics

1. Define proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensing with one example each from the text. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain why time alignment and filtering are essential for sensor fusion. [L2 Understand]

Types of Sensors

1. From Figure 3 or the list, name two sensors used for ranging and two used for contact. [L1 Remember]

2. Using Table 4, map any two sensors to suitable robotic applications. [L3 Apply]

Functions of Sensors

1. List three key functions sensors support in operation or safety. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how force sensing prevents damage to delicate objects during grasping. [L2 Understand]

Actuators

1. State two selection parameters that guide actuator choice for a joint. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how transmission choice affects stiffness and backlash. [L2 Understand]

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

Types of Actuators
1. Classify an actuator into electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, magnetic, or mechanical and justify the
classification. [L2 Understand]

2. Using Table 5, select one energy-source class and propose a fitting robot task. [L3 Apply]

Working of Actuators

1. Interpret τ = Kt i and F = Ap ∆p in words for electrical and hydraulic drives. [L2 Understand]

2. Outline the nested loops (current/pressure, velocity, position) and state why nesting improves performance.
[L3 Apply]

Applications of Actuators

1. From the list of examples, choose one domain and match two actuator types to tasks in that domain. [L3
Apply]

2. Analyze when electro-hydraulic packages are preferred over pure electric drives. [L4 Analyze]

Controllers

1. List three core functions of a robot controller. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how a controller converts high-level commands into actuator setpoints while enforcing safety. [L2
Understand]

Core Functions (Controllers)

1. Describe trajectory constraints that a controller must honor. [L2 Understand]

2. Propose a sensor suite (from this unit) that supports state estimation in an arm or mobile robot. [L3 Apply]

Control and Planning Methods

1. Differentiate PID control from impedance/admittance control in interaction tasks. [L2 Understand]

2. Analyze why hybrid position/force control fits surface following. [L4 Analyze]

Architectures (Controllers)

1. Contrast centralized and distributed architectures in terms of latency and wiring. [L2 Understand]

2. Recommend when to use an edge controller with offloaded mapping. [L5 Evaluate]

Types of Robot Controllers

1. Match microcontrollers, PLCs, and embedded PCs to suitable roles given in the unit. [L3 Apply]

2. Using Table 6, identify one constraint for any two controller types. [L1 Remember]

Robot Specifications

1. Define payload, reach, repeatability, and work envelope as used in this unit. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain why both absolute accuracy and repeatability matter in production. [L2 Understand]

Load Capacity

1. List two factors that set the load rating of a manipulator. [L1 Remember]

2. Analyze how load affects stability at reach extremes on a mobile base. [L4 Analyze]

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

Speed
1. Distinguish between joint angular speed and TCP linear speed. [L1 Remember]
2. Explain why acceleration and jerk limits are reported with speed. [L2 Understand]

Accuracy
1. List two influences on absolute accuracy noted in the unit. [L1 Remember]
2. Propose one calibration or compensation method to improve accuracy. [L3 Apply]

Repeatability
1. Define repeatability and give one process that depends on it. [L1 Remember]
2. Explain how approach direction and backlash affect repeatability. [L2 Understand]

Why Specifications Matter

1. State two reasons proper specifications reduce commissioning time and risk. [L1 Remember]
2. Evaluate how sizing decisions protect hardware and improve ROI. [L5 Evaluate]

Classification of Robots (Overview)

1. List five axes of classification covered in this unit. [L1 Remember]
2. Explain how combining axes (e.g., purpose + mobility + actuation) guides selection for a task. [L2 Under-
stand]

By Purpose / Application
1. Differentiate industrial and service robots using traits given in the text. [L2 Understand]
2. Map one service domain (e.g., healthcare or logistics) to two enabling capabilities. [L3 Apply]

By Physical Configuration (Design)

1. Compare SCARA and Cartesian designs in terms of stiffness and task fit. [L2 Understand]
2. Select a configuration for high-speed pick-and-place and justify the choice. [L3 Apply]

By Mobility / Locomotion
1. List four mobility options covered in the unit. [L1 Remember]
2. Analyze terrainability vs. efficiency for wheeled, tracked, and legged systems. [L4 Analyze]

By Control System
1. Define open-loop and closed-loop control as used in this unit. [L1 Remember]
2. Choose one task that can run open-loop and one that requires closed-loop, and justify. [L3 Apply]

By Autonomy Level
1. Describe when teleoperation is preferred over autonomy. [L2 Understand]
2. Propose a supervised-control scenario and the operator’s role. [L3 Apply]

By Intelligence / Generation
1. List the five generations in order. [L1 Remember]
2. Explain how the fourth and fifth generations differ in environment interpretation and AI use. [L2 Understand]

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

By Scale
1. Define macro, micro, and nano robots as per the unit. [L1 Remember]

2. Map one micro-scale application to constraints in actuation and sensing. [L3 Apply]

By Human–Robot Interaction and Safety

1. State two features that enable collaborative operation. [L1 Remember]

2. Analyze throughput vs. safety trade-offs between fenced cells and cobots. [L4 Analyze]

By Operating Environment
1. Identify two environmental ratings or design features for cleanroom or hazardous areas. [L1 Remember]

2. Propose one outdoor protection measure and link it to a specific risk. [L3 Apply]

By Actuation
1. List three actuation families and one trait of each. [L1 Remember]

2. Select an actuation method for heavy payloads and justify the choice. [L3 Apply]

Safety Standards and Protocols in Industrial Robotics

1. Name the core standards cited for industrial and collaborative safety. [L1 Remember]

2. Explain how light curtains, monitored stops, and pressure mats reduce risk. [L2 Understand]

3. Propose one audit or training action to maintain compliance over the lifecycle. [L3 Apply]

References
[1] Laxman Mhatre Anand. Robotics and automation in healthcare. International Journal of Innovative Research
in Engineering Multidisciplinary Physical Sciences, 11(2):1–4, 2023.

[2] Hajime Asama, T. Fukuda, T. Arai, and I. Endo, editors. Distributed Autonomous Robotic Systems. Springer-
Verlag, 1994.

[3] John J. Craig. Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control. Pearson Education, 3rd edition, 2009.

[4] S. R. Deb and Sankha Deb. Robotics Technology and Flexible Automation. Tata McGraw-Hill Education,
2009.

[5] Ilaria Gaudiello and Elisabetta Zibetti. Learning Robotics, with Robotics, by Robotics. John Wiley Sons, 2016.

[6] Mikell P. Groover, Roger N. Nagel, Mitchell Weiss, and Nicholas G. Odrey. Industrial Robotics: Technology,
Programming and Applications. McGraw-Hill, 1986.

[7] Ganesh S. Hegde. A Textbook of Industrial Robotics. Laxmi Publications / University Science Press, 2006.

[8] Kaushik Kumar and B. Sridhar Babu. Industrial Automation and Robotics. CRC Press, 2022.

[9] Thomas R. Kurfess, editor. Robotics and Automation Handbook. CRC Press, 2005.

[10] Steve Macenski, Tully Foote, Brian Gerkey, Chris Lalancette, and William Woodall. Robot operating system
2: Design, architecture, and uses in the wild. arXiv preprint, 2022.

[11] Ichiro Nakatani. Ai, robotics and automation in space. Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics, 12(4):443–445,
2000.

[12] Qi Song and Qinglei Zhao. Recent advances in robotics and intelligent robots applications. Applied Sciences,
14(10):4279, 2024.

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Unit 1 : Introduction to Robotics 5th Semester

[13] Chi N. Thai. Exploring Robotics with ROBOTIS Systems. Springer International Publishing, 2015.
[14] T. Ueyama, editor. Cellular Robotics and Micro Robotic Systems. World Scientific, 1994.

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