Unit 01:

Introduction to Systems
Q. Define and explain Information System with suitable example.
Information System/ System: An Information system/ A system is simply an organized set of
components that are coordinated to perform a designated function. All the components of the system
are interrelated with each other to support the operations of the system.
For example, a car is made up of an engine, wheels, brakes, and other related items. Every part plays a
unique task, but collectively they are responsible for making the car move.
Likewise, every computer, organism, machine, or device has components that work together to
achieve an outcome.
Q. Define System Theory. What is importance or key role of system theory? How can the system
be observed? Why do we need to observe a system?
System Theory: A branch of a science that deals with complicated structures in living organisms,
that relate humans with society and science is known as Systems Theory.
System Theory gives a way of interpreting the existing world with different varied perspectives, how the
different systems and sub-systems operate, how they are integrated, how they grow and how they
change with time.
Systems can be observed at all levels of existence, starting with the levels of nature, and going all the
way up to levels of systems designed by humans. These can be physical objects-such as a car,
processes, such as the university's admission process; or abstract objects such as a mathematical
formula.
Thinking about how systems operate helps us better understand how they need to be developed and
nurtured across different discipline like computing, biology, engineering, and social science.
Q. What is the system? What is the role of components inside a system?
System: A system is described by its objectives components, communication among components
and environment in which it works. The components of a system communicate with each other to
achieve the system's objective in an environment.

Systems can be simple, like a thermostat, or complex, like the human body or a computer network.

Q. Why is it important to understand the aim of a system?

Every system has a purpose or goal that it wishes to fulfil. Analyzing a system's operation requires
understanding its aim. This insight improves the efficiency and efficacy of the present system.
A transport system aims to transfer people and products securely and effectively between locations.
A computer system's principal goal is to process data and provide useful information to users.

Q. Discuss different types of systems.

Systems can have different objectives depending on their nature and purpose Common objectives
include:
1. Information processing: Collecting, storing, processing, and distributing information, for
example:
• A computer system processes user data to produce meaningful outputs.
 • The human brain processes information received by the human senses to perceive the
environment.
2. Supporting other systems: Providing a platform or infrastructure for other systems to work, for
example:
• A cell phone provides a platform to run different applications.
• The sun provides energy to all species on Earth to live.
3. Achieving specific goals: Completing tasks or processes, for example:
• A thermostat system maintains a set temperature in an environment.
• A car engine system aims to convert fuel into mechanical energy efficiently.
Q. How does the human brain act as different types of systems?
• Human Brain as a communication system
Neurons send signals to each other, allowing you to think, move, and experience emotions. This
complex communication makes our brains so powerful.
• Human Brain as an electrical system
The brain produces around 20 watts of electrical energy, sufficient to operate a low-wattage LED light
bulb. Presented here is the brain's remarkable value as an electrical system.
• Human Brain as an Information Processing system
The information traveling through your brain moves at about 268 miles per hour, which is faster than a
Formula 1 race car.
• Brain as a biological system
Brain has around 86 billion neurons. If each neuron was a person, it is like the population of about ten
Earth all interacting simultaneously.
• Brain as a computation system
The human brain can perform about 1016 (10 quadrillion) operations per second, making it one of the
most powerful and efficient computation systems.
Q. Define Component and their importance.
Components are the building blocks of any system. Each component plays a specific role and
contributes to the overall functionality of the system.
Understanding the role of each component of the system is essential to understand how the entire
system works. This helps in identifying problems, improving performance, and refining system design.
Smooth and proper working of these components together ensures the system meets its objectives.
Q. Explain human body and its DNA System.
Your body is a remarkable system comprising subsystems such as the circulatory system, neurological
system, and digestive system. The cardiovascular system circulates blood. The respiratory system
supplies oxygen, and the cerebral system processes information. Individually, each has a distinct
function yet collaborates to ensure our survival and well-being.
DNA is like a blueprint for life. It's a system that contains all the instructions for an organism to grow,
develop, and reproduce, passed down from generation to generation. Each cell in our body reads this
blueprint to know what to do.
When all the DNA in a single human cell is extended, it measures about two meters in length. The total
long of the DNA in your body extends to the Sun and back more than six hundred times.
Q. Define environment. Why is it important to understand the environment?
The environment of a system includes everything external to the system that interacts with it. It
consists of all external factors that affect the system's operation.
Understanding the environment of a system is important as it influences the system's performance and
behavior by providing inputs and receiving Outputs. Intelligent systems adjust to changes in their
environment to continue their functionality.
Q. Describe the properties of system that affects the system design and its functionality.
There are several properties of a system's environment that affect system design and its functionality.
Two of these properties are described as follows:
Static vs. Dynamic:
• Static: The environment remains unchanged unless the system provides an output. There are
no changes occurring in the environment while the system is working internally.
• Dynamic: The environment can change independently of the system's output The system
must account for changes that occur over time in the environment.
Deterministic vs. Non-deterministic:
• Deterministic: A deterministic system is characterized by its fully known and certain impact
of its output on the environment.
• Non-deterministic: The impact of the system's output on the environment is characterized by
inherent uncertainty, randomness, or probability.
Examples to read
• Static Example: Solving a puzzle or math problem on paper.
The environment (paper, numbers, puzzle pieces) stays the same until you write an
answer. Nothing changes outside while your brain is working.
• Dynamic Example: Playing cricket on the street.
The environment (ball speed, direction, other players’ moves) changes continuously,
independent of what you do, and your brain must adjust quickly.
• Deterministic Example: Switching on a fan.
Your brain knows with certainty that pressing the switch will turn the fan on—always the
same predictable outcome.
• Non-deterministic Example: Asking a friend for help.
Your brain cannot be 100% sure how the friend will respond—sometimes yes,
sometimes no—there’s uncertainty and probability in the outcome.
Q. What is the role of communication in a system?
Communication and interaction among system components is key to the functioning of a system. It
ensures that components work together in an organized and smooth manner to achieve the system's
objectives.
For example,
1. In a computing system the CPU communicates with memory to fetch and store data.
2. In a biological system brain sends signals to muscles to initiate movement.
Q. How does system interact with environment?
Systems constantly interact with their environment through input and output.
For example,
1. A weather monitoring system receives data from environmental sensors and provides the
status of the weather and future forecasts to users.
2. In a computing system, computers interact and communicate with peripheral devices like
printers and scanners, and
3. In a biological system animals interact with plants and other animals, forming a food chain.
Q. Define the system. Explain the main characteristics of a system (objective, components,
environment, and communication) with the help of a real-life example.
Answer: learn only objectives, components, environment, and communication portion only without
their types.
Q. Types of system
Systems can be broadly categorized into two types, namely natural and artificial systems.
1. Natural systems are naturally built and occur in nature without human intervention.
2. Artificial systems are created by humans to fulfill specific needs or purposes.
Natural systems
Natural systems are those that exist in nature and operate independently of human involvement. They
are governed by natural laws and processes.
Natural systems are of various forms and sizes, from very tiny objects like atoms and cells in our body
to very huge like forests, oceans and the cosmos.
Following are examples of some natural systems that exist in nature.
1. Physical Systems
Physical systems are composed of physical components and governed by the laws of physics. They
include things ranging from subatomic particles, atoms, to planets, stars, galaxies, and cosmos.
Physical systems, like any kind of matter, emerge from the interactions of electrons, protons, neutrons
and sub-atomic particles which are governed by electric and atomic forces.
For example, hydrogen gas (H) is formed when an electron, proton, and neutron combine, following
the rules of physics and natural forces.
2. Chemical Systems
Chemical systems involve substances and their interactions, transformations and reactions. They are
governed by the laws of chemistry.
Chemical systems emerge from physical systems when atoms and molecules interact and bond
according to chemical principles, forming new substances.
For example, a chemical system like water (H 2O) is formed when hydrogen atoms bond with oxygen
atoms, following chemical rules and reactions.
3. Biological Systems
Biological systems consist of living organisms and their interactions. They are governed by biological
processes such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
Biological systems emerge from chemical systems when molecules. interact in complex ways to form
living cells, which then organize into tissues, organs, and organisms.
4. Psychological Systems
Psychological systems involve the mind and behavior. They include thoughts, emotions, and mental
processes, governed by the principles of Psychology.
Psychological systems emerge from biological systems when the brain's physical and chemical
processes give rise to thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, which are influenced ban individual's
experiences and environment.
Q. Define and explain artificial systems, and their role in real life.
Artificial systems are created and developed by people so that they may fulfill certain functions or
address certain issues. These systems can be as small as a wheel or as large as the United Nations.
Each system is designed very deliberately to perform the task, improve the efficiency of the processes,
and provide solutions to various issues in different sectors.
Artificial systems are a vital part of contemporary society because they reinforce productivity, solve
complex problems, and improve people's well-being. These are systems such as knowledge
management systems, engineering achievement systems and indeed social systems which are the
framework of success of human civilization.
There are different types of artificial systems, some of which are described below:
• Knowledge Systems
A knowledge system is unique because it is developed to capture, process facilitate, store, retrieve and
manage information. Such systems facilitate in managing and utilizing the resources of knowledge
effectively for the purpose of decision-making, learning and problem-solving.
1. Mathematics: Mathematics is a field of knowledge, which is studied to focus problems
connected to numbers, their amounts, forms, structures, and patterns.
2. Logic: Logic is a theoretical model consisting of concepts and strategies on identifying and
assessing rationale. That is why it is a basis of all logical thinking processes and practice of
critical analysis.
3. Databases: A database system can best be described as software for managing data,
particularly to enable easy retrieval, management, and updating of data. Some of the examples
are relational database management system like MySQL while others are NoSQL database
management system like MongoDB.
4. Information Management Systems: These are specific applications developed with the
purpose of capturing, archiving, organizing, and disseminating data.
• Engineering Systems
Products developed by engineers are complex frameworks or devices that apply engineering concepts
to perform certain tasks or solve technical challenges.
These are some examples of how engineers of various types develop systems according to their own
special knowledge and perspective, given to them through their original visions and approaches.
1. Civil Engineering Systems: Concentration on developments such as constructing houses, roads,
bridges and even maintaining these structures. For instance, a structure used to provide a passage over
water, valleys or roads is termed a bridge.
2. Mechanical Engineering Systems: Engage in planning and creating devices that make utilization of
forces from outside to accomplish work. Instance a robotic arm applied in assembly line for packaging
of products in factories.
3. Chemical Engineering Systems: Focuses on converting raw materials into useful products through
chemical processes, considering internal molecular interactions. For example, a water treatment plant
that purifies water using chemical processes like coagulation and filtration.
4. Electrical Engineering Systems: Involves the study and application of electricity, electronics, and
electromagnetism to develop electrical systems. Forexample a home automation system that controls
lighting, heating, and security using a smartphone app. This system uses electric signals and power to
operate various home appliances and systems remotely.
5. Software Engineering Systems: Is the process of designing, developing, and maintaining software
to perform certain tasks eradicating errors. For instance, an online tool assisting a library in tracking
books, users as well as stocks in their possession.
Famous Artificial Engineering Systems
• The Metro Train System in Lahore is an artificial system created for efficient transportation. The
railway system consists of tracks, trains, stations, and control systems that transport people
between locations.
• The first electric traffic lights were built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1914. Modern traffic systems use
smart sensors and Al to enhance safety and flow.
• Al systems, such as Siri and Alexa, can recognize and respond to human speech. These
examples demonstrate how computer systems may interact with humans naturally through
complicated algorithms and data processing.
• Virtual Reality (VR): Immersive digital worlds enable exploration and interaction as if you were
physically present. This technology has several applications, including gaming, teaching, and
astronaut training.
• Social Systems
Social systems refer to structured frameworks established by individuals to effectively handle social
interactions, organizational governance, and communal endeavors. The basic goal of these systems is
to maintain order, provide services, and facilitate social connections.
1. Academic institutions: are entities that provide educational services to students. Schools, colleges,
and universities are examples of educational institutions that provide instruction via the use of
administrative, teaching, and support staff.
2. Governments: Organizational institutions that wield authority and control over a community or
country. Examples include democratic systems, where representatives are elected and authoritarian
regimes, where power is centralized.
3. Organizations: are entities formed to achieve specific goals and are often structured hierarchically
with well-defined roles and responsibilities. Examples include corporations like Apple and non-profit
organizations such as the Edhi Foundation.
System & Science
Knowledge is our understanding of various systems in the universe around and within us.
Science is a systematic way to validate this understanding.
Science can be divided into two main types: natural science and design science.
Q. Natural science and design science both study systems but why do these sciences follow
different scientific methods.
Both natural and design sciences study systems, but they approach them differently.
In natural science, scientists study existing natural systems to understand their workings.
In design science, scientists create new systems (artifacts) to solve problems or achieve specific
goals.
Each type of science addresses different systems and questions, and therefore follows different
scientific methods.
Q. Define and explain natural science.
Natural science is meant to uncover the objectivity and functionality of natural systems in the natural
world. Its nature is descriptive, meaning that the scientists seeks to understand and describe natural
phenomena. To achieve this, natural scientists follow the empirical cycle of natural science.
Steps: Observation → Question → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analysis → Conclusion

Q. Design Science
Design Science is focused on designing and creating artifacts (tools, systems methods) to achieve
specific goals.
The nature of design science is prescriptive, meaning that it aims to prescribe and create artificial
systems. To achieve this design science researchers, follow the regulative cycle.
Steps: Problem Investigation/ Identification → Solution Design → solution implementation →
solution evaluation

Q. Give examples of natural and design science.

Natural Science: Studying the ecosystem of a forest to understand how different species interact
(descriptive).
Design Science: Developing a new software system to manage forest data and improve conservation
efforts (prescriptive).
Q. What is aim of descriptive and prescriptive study. (see above)
Q. Define Computer Science. Explain Natural & Design Sciences of computer science?
Computer
Computer science is the study of how computers work, including at what they can do and their
limitations. To understand computer science, we use methods of both design science and natural
science.
1. Natural Science
Natural science of computer science focuses on finding the basic rules that control how computer
systems work. This involve the study of various algorithms and their characteristics.
• Study of Algorithms: Researchers analyze existing algorithm to understand their efficiency
and limitations.
For example, studying different sorting algorithms and their characteristics which arrange given
data in an order, like QuickSort or MergeSort. To understand their speed and how they perform
with different kinds of data.
2. Design Science of Computer Science
 Design science of computers focuses on creating and improving computer tools and systems to make
them work better.
• Development of New Software Tools: Researchers create new tools or applications to solve
specific problems.
For example: Designing a new programming language that makes it easier for developers to write
secure computer programs.
• Improvement of computer systems: Researchers work on enhancing existing systems to
perform better.
For example, creating a more efficient database management system that can handle larger
amounts of data faster and with fewer errors.
Computer as a System
A computer is a complex system designed to process data and perform tasks according to a set of
instructions.
1. Objective
The main objective of a computer is to perform computations, process data, and execute different tasks
efficiently.
For example, a personal computer's objective is to run software applications such as word processors,
web browsers, and games through various computational processes.
2. Components
A computer composed of many essential components that operate in conjunction. These components
include:
• Interface Components:
Interface components refer to the fundamental parts of a computer system, including
input devices such as the keyboard and mouse, which allow users interact with the computer.
output devices such as monitors and printers, are used to present or generate results from the
computer operations.
• Processing Components:
The processing components of a computer consist of the CPU, which acts as the Central Processing
Unit responsible for computations and executing command.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a transient storage that stores data and instructions for the CPU,
whereas Storage (Hard Drive or SSD) is a permanent storage for data and software needed for
future processing.
The operating system is responsible for receiving information from interface components and
determining the appropriate actions to take.
Application software refers to programs that are executed by the operating system when required
to perform one or more specified tasks.
• Communication Components:
Communication components in a computer refer to the physical elements that provide
communication between different components of the computer.
In a computer, the motherboard serves as the primary circuit board that interconnects all
components by using cables and circuits.
A system bus is a collection of electrically conductive cables that transmit data between the CPU
and all other interconnected components. There are three distinct types of buses: data bus,
address bus, and control bus. These buses provide the flow of data, the address of data or
instructions, and control signals from the CPU to other components concurrently.
3. Interactions among Components
The components of a computer interact with each other to perform tasks. For example, when you open
a file using your mouse or keyboard, several components of your computer interact seamlessly to make
this action happen. Here's a step-by-step explanation of the process:
1. User Action or Input. You double-click on a file icon using your mouse or press a key
combination to open a file. For example you double-click on a document named "report.docx" on
your desktop.
2. Input Device. The mouse or keyboard sends a signal to the computer indicating that you want
to open the file. For example, the mouse sends sensory input to the computer's operating system
through the USB connection.
4. Enviroment
The computer system environment includes any external devices that interact with the computer.
For example:
Power Supply: Provides electrical power to allow the computer to work.
Network: Connects the computer to other systems and the Internet.
Peripherals: Include printers, scanners, and external discs that expand the computer's
capabilities.
5. Interaction with the Environment
A computer interacts with its environment to perform its functions.
For examples:
User Input: A user types on the keyboard, and the computer processes the input to display text on
the screen.
Network Communication: The computer sends and receives data over the internet to browse
websites or download files.
Power Supply: The computer relies on a stable power supply to function correctly.
The Architecture of von Neumann Computers
“According to the Von Neumann architecture, both program instructions and data are stored in the
same memory. The CPU fetches instructions and data from this shared memory through a single bus,
then decodes and executes them step by step (Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle).”

The Von Neumann architecture is a computer model that describes a system in which the hardware of
the computer has four primary components: the memory, the Central Processing Unit (CPU), input
mechanisms, and output mechanisms.
This model is called the John von Neumann model, the Neumann model named in honor of the
mathematician and physicist who contributed to its development during the 1940s.
1. Components Now we will look at brief overview of the key parts that constitute the architecture of
the von Neumann computer.
a. Memory: Contains both input data and the instructions (program) required for CPU processing.
For instance, consider the RAM of your computer: when a program starts it is loaded into RAM to
enable faster execution compared to when it runs from the hard disk
b. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Performs addition and subtraction, and executes commands
provided by the memory. The system has two main components: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
and the Control Unit (CU).
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs mathematical computations and logical operations.
A Control Unit (CU) is a peripheral that governs the activities of the CPU by instructing the ALU
and memory to execute tasks according to the program instructions. It ensures the proper and
timely execution of duties by all the other components.
When doing the calculation 2 + 2 on a calculator application, the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) handles
the numerical values while the control Unit (CU) supervises the whole procedure.
c. Input Devices: Enable users to input data and instructions into the computer system.
Illustrative examples include keyboard, mouse, and microphone. Entering text on the keyboard
transmits data to the CPU for subsequent processing.
d. Output Devices: Present or communicate the outcomes of the tasks executed by the
computer.
Consider, for instance, a monitor and printer. Upon completion of data processing, the CPU transmits
the outcome to the monitor for visual display.
A system bus is a communication mechanism that facilitates the movement of data between
components inside a computational system.
It comprises:
• Data Bus: Transports data.
• Address Bus: Maintains data destination information.
• Control Bus: Transports control electrical signals.

2. Working
The Von Neumann architecture encompasses three essential stages for a CPU to carry out
instructions, fetching, decoding, execution, and storage.
a. Fetching:
Description: The central processing unit retrieves an instruction from the computer's memory
e.g. RAM. This instruction specifies the operation to be executed by the CPU.
 Hardware Components: Memory, CPU (Program Counter (PC), Instruction Register (IR)).
Specification: The Program Counter (PC) stores the memory address of the subsequent
instruction. Once the address is stored in memory, the instruction located at that location is
retrieved and placed into the Instruction Register (IR).
b. Decoding:
In order to determine the necessary action, the Control Unit (CU) decodes the instruction.
Comprising Components: Control Unit (CU).
Detail: The control unit (CU) decodes the opcode (operation code(ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV)) of the
instruction and determines the required procedures and data.

c. Execution:
Description: The CPU processes the instruction.
When the instruction involves a computation, it is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
Any task that requires transferring data between several locations is managed by the CU.
Involved Components: ALU, CU.
Detail: The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) carries out mathematical and logical calculations,
while the Control Unit (CU) handles data transmission activities.
d. Storing:
Description: The outcome of the computation is either returned to memory or sent to an output
device.
Involved Components: Memory and Output Device.
Specification: The outcome is either stored in a designated memory location or sent to an
output device, such as a display.
Q. Describe Key characteristics of Von Neumann Architecture.
Following are the key characteristics of the Von Neumann computer architecture:
1.Single Memory Store: Both program instructions and data are stored in the same memory
space. For example in a computer game, both the game's code and the data (like scores and
player positions) are stored in the same RAM.
2.Sequential Execution: Instructions are processed one after another in a sequence. For
example, when your computer runs a program, it follows the steps one by one in the order they
are written.
3. Stored Program Concept: Programs are stored in memory and can be changed by the
computer. For example, when you update a software program, the new instructions replace the
old ones in memory.
Q. Advantages and Disadvantages of Von Neumann Architecture.
The advantages and disadvantages of Von Neumann computer architecture are described below:
Advantages:
Simplified Design: By combining instructions and data into a single memory area, architecture
is simplified.
Flexibility: Programs can be easily changed by changing memory contents.
Disadvantages:
 The Von Neumann bottleneck occurs when a single memory area limits the CPU's ability to
retrieve instructions and data quickly.
Security Risks: Having data and instructions stored in the same area poses a problem where
one program can alter another's instructions in a manner that is security risk.

The Von Neumann architecture is a key important aspect of the design and structure of many
computers, serving as a central model on how they operate. It is like a recipe fed into the computer,
which follows it exactly ensuring that both data and instructions are properly processed. However, this
model has been essential in the evalution of computing technology, despite its limitation.

Computing Systems
Definition: A computer system is a structured set of hardware and software component specifically
designed for data processing and the performance of various operations.
These systems can range from simple technological tools, such a calculators used for performing
mathematical calculations to complex network of linked computers.
Purpose: The basic task of a computer system is to execute program and manage data to achieve
objectives such as problem solving, process content and communication aid.
Components: Hardware, software, and electric power are the three basic requisites that are needed
to run a computing system and can be described in the following simple terms.
Hardware of a computer system refers to the tangible components of the system. These include the
Central Processing Unit (CPU), Random Access Memory (RAM), storage devices, and input and output
devices.
Software refers to a collection of instructions that dictate the requirements and actions that hardware
must do.
There exist two primary categories. System software and application software.
System Software encompasses the Operating System (OS) and utility applications responsible for
managing the computer's resources, such as Windows, mac OS, and Linux distributions.
Application software refers to software applications that are specifically developed to carry out
certain functions for the user, such as word processors, web browsers, and games.
Electricity: Electricity is the power source that enables the hardware components to function.
Without electricity, the hardware components cannot function, and the computing system will not
operate.
Types of Computing Systems
Computing systems come in various types, some of these include the followings:
1. Computer, 2. Software Systems, 3. Computer Networks, and 4. Internet.
Computer Network as Systems
A computer network connects multiple computers and devices, enabling the efficient exchange of
resources and information.
1. Objectives
• Resource Sharing: Allow multiple users to share like files, printers, and internet access within
an office or other settings
• Communication: Enable efficient communication between devices and users.
• Data Management: Facilitate easy data management and collaboration.
2. Components
• Networking Hardware:
 1. Routers: Routers are devices that transmit data packets between their networks.
2. Switches: Switches connect devices in a network and facilitate communication.
3. Network Cables: A physical medium for data transfer.
• Network Software:
1. Protocols: Rules and conventions for data exchange such as TCP/IP.
2. Network Operating Systems: Software that manages network resources, such as
Windows Server.
3. Environment
A computer network operates in various environments, such as office buildings, data centers, or across
the globe via the Internet. The environment influences network design security and performance.
4. Types of Computer Networks
Local Area Network (LAN): Connects computers in a specific area, such as a single building or
school. For example, an office network that connect everyone. Employee PCs and printers.
Wide Area Network (WAN): connects computers across larger geographic regions, such as cities,
nations, and even continents.
For example, consider the Internet which links computers worldwide.

In summary, a computer network is an important system that enables resource sharing and
communication among connected devices, using hardware and software components that work
together seamlessly to perform various tasks.

Internet as a System
The Internet is a vast and complex system designed to connect multiple networks worldwide, including
private, public, academic, business, and government networks. Its primary objective is to facilitate
communication and data exchange between computers and users globally.
1. Internet Protocols
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/lnternet Protocol):
The core protocols that govern data transmission over the Internet User
Datagram Protocol (UDP): Faster but less reliable.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for Transforming files between computers.
Post office Protocol (POP): Used for retrieving emails from server/network.
2. Interaction among Components
The components of the Intemet interact with each other to form different tasks. For example when
a user requests a web page through a web browser, several components of the Internet work
together to display Its contents on the user's screen.
3. Environment
The Internet operates in a diverse and dynamic environment, connecting various types of networks
across different locations, including homes, offices, data centers, and mobile networks. This
environment influences the design, security, and performance of the Internet