HEAT

Heat is a form of energy

1. Heat is a form of energy which causes a rise in temperature or change
in state of a substance.
2. It flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature.
3. Heat energy can be produced by:
o Burning fuels
o Friction
o Chemical reactions
o Electricity
4. SI Unit of Heat: Joule (J)
5. CGS Unit: Calorie (cal)
o 1 cal = 4.18 J
Units of Heat

System Unit Relation

SI Joule (J) 1 J = 0.24 cal

CGS Calorie (cal) 1 cal = 4.18 J

Temperature
1. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
2. It determines the direction of heat flow.
3. It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a
substance.
4. The faster the molecules move, the higher the temperature.
Units of Temperature
Scale Unit Symbol

Celsius degree Celsius °C

Fahrenheit degree Fahrenheit °F

Kelvin Kelvin K

Measurement of Temperature
1. Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
2. A clinical thermometer measures the temperature of the human body.
3. A laboratory thermometer measures temperature of other objects or
substances.
4. A thermometer uses mercury or alcohol as the thermometric liquid.
Measuring the Temperature of a Body Using a Thermometer
1. Wash the bulb of thermometer with water to make it clean.
2. Place the bulb of the thermometer in contact with the body or
substance.
3. Wait for the mercury level to become steady.
4. Read the temperature by keeping your eyes in line with the mercury
level.
5. Remove the thermometer and note the reading.
Scales of Temperature
There are three main scales:

Scale Freezing Point of Water Boiling Point of Water Interval

Celsius 0°C 100°C 100 equal parts

Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F 180 equal parts

Kelvin 273 K 373 K 100 equal parts

Relationship Between the Three Scales of Temperature
C/5 = (F-32)/9 = (K-273)/5
Examples:
• Convert °C to °F → F = 9/5(C+32)
• Convert °F to °C → C = 5/9(F-32)
• Convert °C to K → K = C + 273
Effects of Heat
Heat can cause:
1. Change in Temperature
2. Change in State (solid → liquid → gas)
3. Thermal Expansion (increase in size)
Sublimation
1. Process in which a solid directly changes into vapour without becoming
liquid.
2. Examples: Camphor, Naphthalene, Iodine, Ammonium chloride.
Deposition
1. Reverse of sublimation.
2. Vapour directly changes into solid.
3. Example: Formation of frost on cold surfaces.
Evaporation
1. The process by which a liquid changes into vapour at any temperature
below its boiling point.
2. It occurs at the surface of the liquid.
3. Factors affecting evaporation:
o Temperature (higher → faster evaporation)
o Surface area (larger → faster)
 o Wind speed (higher → faster)
o Humidity (lower → faster)
4. Applications:
o Cooling of water in earthen pot
o Drying of wet clothes
o Sweating helps to cool the body
Thermal Expansion
When heat is supplied to a substance, it expands (size increases).
Occurs in solids, liquids, and gases.
(a) In Solids
1. Gaps in Railway Tracks:
o Rails expand during hot weather.
o Small gaps are left between successive rails so they can expand
freely without bending or breaking.
2. Telephone or Electric Wires:
o Wires expand in summer and contract in winter.
o So, they are left slightly loose while fixing on poles to prevent
snapping in winter.
3. Metal Lids on Jars:
o When a metal lid is tight, it is dipped in hot water.
o The lid expands, loosens, and can be easily opened.
4. Bimetallic Strip in Electric Iron or Thermostat:
o Made of two different metals joined together.
o On heating, one metal expands more than the other, causing
bending — used to automatically control temperature.
(b) In Liquids
• Expansion is more than solids.
1. Liquid Thermometers:
o The working of thermometers depends on the expansion of
mercury or alcohol in the capillary tube as temperature increases.
(c) In Gases
• Expansion is maximum.
1. Hot Air Balloons:
• Air inside the balloon is heated; it expands, becomes lighter (less
dense), and rises.
• This principle helps hot-air balloons lift off the ground.
Modes of Transfer of Heat
There are three modes:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
(a) Conduction
• Transfer of heat through solids without movement of particles.
• Heat travels from the hot end to the cold end.
• Good conductors: Metals like copper, aluminium, iron.
• Poor conductors (insulators): Wood, plastic, glass.
Applications:
Heat is transferred through solids by conduction. Some substances conduct
heat easily (metals), others do not (wood, plastic).
1. Cooking Utensils:
 o Pots and pans are made of metals like aluminium or copper
(good conductors) to allow easy heating.
o Their handles are made of wood or plastic (bad conductors) to
protect hands from burns.
2. Soldering:
o Metals are joined together by heating with a good conductor to
melt solder.
3. Electric Irons and Kettles:
o The metal plate or base conducts heat efficiently, ensuring
uniform heating.
(b) Convection
• Transfer of heat in liquids and gases by actual movement of particles.
• Example: Heating water — hot water rises and cold water sinks,
forming convection currents.
Applications:
1. Heating Water:
o When water is heated from below, hot water rises and cold water
sinks — forming convection currents which heat the whole
liquid.
2. Sea Breeze and Land Breeze:
o Daytime (Sea Breeze): Land heats faster; air above land rises,
cool sea air moves toward land.
o Nighttime (Land Breeze): Land cools faster; air above sea is
warmer, so cool air from land moves toward sea.
3. Ventilation in Rooms:
o Vents are placed high so that warm air can rise and escape while
cool air enters from below — keeping the room fresh.
4. Heating Rooms in Winter:
 o Room heaters are kept near the floor so that warm air rises and
circulates throughout the room.
5. Cooling of Motor Car Radiators:
o Coolant circulates through the radiator by convection to carry
heat away from the engine.
(c) Radiation
• Transfer of heat without any medium (by electromagnetic waves).
• Heat from the Sun reaches Earth by radiation.
Applications:
1. Heat from the Sun:
o Earth receives heat energy from the Sun through radiation,
since space has no medium.
2. Solar Cookers and Solar Water Heaters:
o These use radiant heat from the Sun.
o Inner surfaces are painted black to absorb maximum heat.
3. Clothing Choices:
o We wear light-coloured clothes in summer as they reflect heat.
o We wear dark-coloured clothes in winter as they absorb more
heat.
4. Polished Surfaces in Thermos Flasks:
o Shiny surfaces reflect heat radiation and prevent heat loss or
gain.
5. Firefighters’ Suits:
o Made of shiny aluminium-coated material that reflects radiant
heat.
Conductors and Insulators

Type Definition Examples

Substances which allow heat to pass Copper, Aluminium,

Conductors
through them easily Iron

Substances which do not allow heat to Plastic, Wood,

Insulators
pass easily Rubber, Glass

Applications:

Type Daily Use Explanation

Metals like copper and

Cooking vessels, electric
Good Conductors aluminium conduct heat
iron, kettle
easily.

Handles of utensils, Prevent heat transfer to

Insulators (Poor
thermos flask walls, protect from burns or retain
Conductors)
woollen clothes warmth.

Applications of Black and White Surfaces

Surface Property Application

Absorbs and radiates more

Black Solar cookers, solar heaters
heat

White / White roofs in hot regions, thermos

Reflects heat
Shiny flasks

Differences Between Conduction, Convection and Radiation

Feature Conduction Convection Radiation

No medium
Medium Solid Liquid or Gas
required
Feature Conduction Convection Radiation

Particle Actual
No movement No movement
movement movement

Metal rod heated at

Example Boiling water Heat from Sun
one end

Thermos Flask
Purpose: To keep liquids hot or cold for a long time by preventing heat loss or
gain.
Structure and Features:
1. Double-walled glass vessel with vacuum in between → prevents
conduction and convection.
2. Silvered inner surfaces → prevent radiation.
3. Insulated stopper and outer case → prevent conduction.
4. Air-tight lid → prevents air entry.
Purpose:
To keep liquids hot or cold for a long time by minimizing heat transfer.
Applications:
1. Used to keep tea, coffee, milk, or water hot for long hours.
2. Used to keep cold drinks or ice from warming quickly.
3. Used in laboratories and hospitals to store temperature-sensitive
liquids.
Working Principle:
• Double glass walls with vacuum → prevents conduction & convection.
• Silvered surfaces → prevent radiation.
• Plastic stopper and outer cover → insulate against heat exchange.
Summary Table

Concept Key Point

Heat Form of energy that flows from hot to cold

Unit of Heat Joule (J), Calorie (cal)

Temperature Degree of hotness/coldness

Unit of Temperature °C, °F, K

Thermal Expansion Increase in size due to heat

Modes of Heat Transfer Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Best Absorber Black surface

Best Reflector White/shiny surface

Device for constant temperature Thermos flask