Preface :

Soaps and detergents remove dirt and grease from skin and clothes.
But all soaps are not equally effective in their cleaning action.
Soaps are the Na and K salts of higher fatty acids such as Palmitic acid, Stearic acid and
Oleic acid.
The cleansing action of soaps depends on the solubility of the long alkyl chain in grease and
that of the -COONa or the -COOK part in water.
Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet cloth, the non polar alkyl group dissolves in grease
while the polar -COONa part dissolves in water.
In this manner, an emulsion is formed between grease and water which appears as foam.
The washing ability of soap depends on foaming capacity, as well as the water used in
cleaning.
The salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+ disrupt the formation of micelle formation.
The presence of such salts makes the water hard and the water is called hard water.
These salts thus make the soap inefficient in its cleaning action.
Sodium Carbonate when added to hard water reacts with Ca and Mg and precipitates them
out. Therefore sodium carbonate is use
Introduction
Soap:
Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning, which
historically comes either in solid bars or in the form of a viscous liquid.
Soap consists of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained by reacting common
oils or fats with a strong alkaline in a process known as saponification.
The fats are hydrolyzed by the base, yielding alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap) and
glycerol.
The general formula of soap is Fatty end water soluble end CH3-(CH2) n -COONa Soaps are
useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in
water, as well as a hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non polar grease molecules.
Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water effectively holds particles in colloidal suspension so
it can be rinsed off with clean water.
The hydrophobic portion (made up of a long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils, while
the ionic end dissolves in water.
The resultant forms a round structure called micelle. Therefore, it allows water to remove
normally-insoluble matter by emulsification.

Commercial production of soap:

The most popular soap making process today is the cold process method, where fats such as
olive oil react with strong alkaline solution, while some soapers use the historical hot process.
Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes
used to consume the alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a
naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added 'at trace' (the point at which the
saponification process is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken), after most
of the oils have saponified, so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap.
Fat in soap :
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium Tallowate, a common ingredient
in much soap, is derived from rendered beef fat.
Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and the product is typically softer.
An array of saponifiable oils and fats are used in the process such as olive, coconut, palm,
cocoa butter to provide different qualities.
For example, olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of lather; while
coconut and palm oils provide hardness.
Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient. Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils
and fats that do not yield soap are sometimes added for further benefits.

Preparation of soap:

In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be required for saponification.
Cold-process soap making takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification
of the fat being used.
Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away because the alkali
and fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soap making.
Hot-process soap making was used when the purity of alkali was unreliable.
Cold-process soap making requires exact measurements of alkali and fat amounts and
computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the finished product is mild
and skin-friendly.
Objectives:
To measure and compare the foaming capacity of different soap samples.

To study the effect of adding sodium carbonate to the soap solution and analyse it

To investigate how concentration of soap affects foaming capacity.

To examine how water hardness influences foam formation

To analyze which soap yields maximum foam under standard conditions.

At one end is the long hydrocarbon chain that is non-polar and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in
water but oil soluble. At the other end is the short polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic
i.e., water soluble but insoluble in oil and grease .

Soap samples of various brands are taken and their foaming capacity is noticed.

The time taken for the foam to disappear in each sample is determined. The longer the time
taken for the disappearance of the foam for the given sample of soap, greater is its foaming
capacity or cleansing action
Introduction towards experiment:

Experiment 1:
Various soap samples are taken separately and their foaming capacity is observed. The soap
with the maximum foaming capacity is thus, said to be having the best cleaning capacity.

The test requires to be done with distilled water as well as with tap water. The test of soap on
distilled water gives the actual strength of the soaps cleaning capacity. The second test with
tap water tests the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their foaming capacities.

Experiment 2:

The effect of additives such as sodium carbonate to the soap solution and the
forming capacities.
Experiment 1

Aim:
To compare and study the foaming capacity of various soap in soft and hard water.

Materials required:
Apparatus required:
 Five 100ml conical flasks
 10 test tubes
 test tube stand
 glass rod
 stop watch.

Chemical Required:
 Five different soap samples
 distilled( soft water ) water
 tap water(hard water)
Procedure:
Step:1
Five conical flasks (100 ml each) are taken and numbered 1 to 5.

Step:2
In each of these flasks equal amounts (say 5 gm) of the given samples of soap shavings or
granules are taken and 50 ml of distilled water is added.

Step:3
Each conical flask is heated few minutes to dissolve all the soap completely.

Step:4
In a test-tube stand, five big clean and dry test tubes are taken and numbered 1 to 5.

Step:5
One ml of the five soap solution is then poured in the test tubes of corresponding number.

Step:6
10 ml. of distilled water is then added to each test tube.

Step:7
Test tube no 1 is then shaken vigorously 5 times.

Step:8
The foam would be formed in the empty space above the container.

Step:9
start the stop watch immediately and the time taken for the disappearance of foam is noted.

Step:10
Similarly the other test tubes are shaken vigorously for equal number of times (i.e., 5 times)
with approximately with the same force and the time taken for the disappearance of foam in
each case is recorded (i.e for 5 times)
EXPERIMENT 2

AIM:
To study the effect of addition of sodium carbonate on the foaming capacity of a soap sample.

Materials required:

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 One 100 mL conical flask

CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
  Soap sample
 distilled water
 tap water, and 0.2 M sodium carbonate solution.

PROCEDURE:

1. Weigh 5.0 g of the given soap shavings or granules and place them in a 100 mL conical
flask.

2. Add 50 mL of distilled water to the flask and shake to dissolve the soap completely.
This gives the soap solution. Label it as “Soap Solution”.

3. Take three 20 mL test tubes and add 10 mL of the following solutions to each:

Test tube 1: Distilled water

Test tube 2: Tap water

Test tube 3: Tap water + 5 mL of 0.2 M Na₂CO₃ solution

4. Add 1 mL of the soap solution to each test tube.

5. Shake the contents of the test tubes vigorously for a fixed time.

6. Start the stop watch immediately and note the time taken for the disappearance of foam

7. Note the height of the foam produced

Use the same quantity of soap solution in each test tube to maintain uniformity.

Shake each test tube with the same force and for the same duration to get comparable results.

Use clean and dry test tubes to avoid contamination.

Use freshly prepared soap solution for best results.

Ensure that tap water and sodium carbonate solution are free from any impurities.

Perform the experiment at room temperature to prevent variation due to temperature

SOURCES OF ERROR

Unequal shaking of test tubes may cause variation in the amount of foam formed.

Impurities in water (like dissolved salts or suspended matter) may influence the foaming
capacity.

Incomplete dissolution of soap in water can give inconsistent readings.

Human error in observing or timing the disappearance of foam.