International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

Management of Disasters in Tanzania’s Secondary

Schools: Policy Formulation and dissemination, the
Unanswered Questions in Overcoming Fire Disasters
Alphonce J. Amuli
(A student of PhD in Education)
Department of Educational Foundations, Management and Lifelong Learning (EFMLL)
School of Education, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Abstract: - This paper specifically investigated how policies to (UNISDR, 2018; ISDR, 2012; UN, 2008; Sinha, Mahendale,
manage fire disaster incidents in secondary schools are Singh & Hedge, 2007; WCDR, 2005). The largest group of
formulated and disseminated to the respective stakeholders for population hurt by disasters is that of children, particularly in
implementation. The study focused on answering the major schools. The ISDR (2012) unveiled that annually almost 175
research question: How are policies formulated and disseminated
million children are affected by naturally occurring disasters,
to stave off and deal with fire disasters in Tanzania’s secondary
schools? This question was divided further into two sub- for example, earthquakes in Haiti which ravaged more than
questions; (1) How are stakeholders involved in the formulation 4,000 schools in 2010, killing 38,000 students and 1,300
of policy directives to manage fire outbreaks? (2) How are teachers. In 2008, the Sichuan earthquake in China consumed
policies disseminated to secondary schools for managing fire the lives of more than 10,000 students during class sessions
outbreaks? The study covered three regions of Iringa, Mbeya and razing to the ground more than 7,000 classrooms. Other
and Kilimanjaro as well as the headquarters of the Ministry of calamitous disasters took place in North Japan tsunami killing
Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) on Tanzania more than 733 students in 2011. Also, the Bangkok floods in
Mainland. The change management theory and qualitative Thailand demolished 2,600 schools in 2012, and the cyclone
research approach informed the study. Data and information
Nargis in Myanmar completely levelled 2,460 schools in
were gathered from a sample of 116 respondents comprising
students, teachers, heads of school, School Board Members, 2008. Furthermore, in 2005 about 17,000 students and 900
District Secondary Education Officers, Regional Education teachers died in Kashmir earthquakes in Northern Pakistan.
Officers and the Commissioner of Education. The study used These calamities also originate from human-induced incidents
focused group discussions, face-to-face interviews and including the death of 93 school children in India in 2004 and
documentary analysis to collect data. Results from the study more than 13 students in the Uganda fire in the dormitory in
show that the stakeholders at the lower levels of the MoEST were 2006. However, these cumulative disasters are few compared
hardly involved during the policy formulation process to manage to the magnitude and multiplicity of events taking place in
fire disasters. In fact, even documents aimed to guide and direct various parts of the world (ISDR, 2012, pp. 9 – 11; Petal,
school on effective management of fire disasters did not reach
2008, pp. 3 - 4).
implementers in secondary schools because of unreliable
channels of communication from the ministry headquarters The natural calamities are rarely controlled, except by
downwards. Thus, the policy formulation process should draw evacuating people when early warning systems are in place.
on inputs from the people affected by fire outbreaks in the The human-induced disaster events, on the other hand, are
relevant context and shun away from solely relying on the top-
down policy formulation approach. More importantly, there
easily controlled through the formulation and enforcement of
should be the reliable channel of communication for policies and planning for disasters. To manage disaster
disseminating in schools the policies issued by the MoEST for incidents taking place in various countries, the international
managing fire outbreaks. organisations took initiatives to create awareness among
countries to incorporate disaster plans and programmes into
Key words: policy formulation, policy dissemination, change
their respective national managements and policies (HFA,
management, fire disasters, communication, top-down approach,
fire outbreaks 2008). The individual nations are then required to translate the
international strategies, such as the Hyogo Framework for
I. INTRODUCTION Action (HFA) into national policies and strategies for dealing
with disasters. The main focus of the HFA is to create
D isasters are destructive agents the world over affecting
settlements, the environment, infrastructures and human
life in terms of demolition, loss of properties, injuries and
awareness among youths, particularly school-children who are
the most vulnerable when disasters hit their institutions (Peek,
2008). Peek further contends that the educated children can
deaths. The disasters are caused by both natural and human
participate in disaster risk preparedness at school, home and in
induced elements, such as windstorms, landslides, floods,
the community to overcome the problem. However,
diseases, wars, droughts and, specifically, fire outbreaks

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

implementation of this task demands clear policies and on secondary schools and Teacher Training Colleges
facilitation of school managements to ensure that practices of (WEMU, 2011). The directives from the policy document,
disaster managements exist. Petal and Izadkhah (2008) assert among other things, demand on schools and Teacher Training
that disaster incidents can be mitigated through routine drills, Colleges to install smoke detectors, fire-fighting facilities
inclusion of disaster issues in the school curriculum and such as fire-extinguishers and ensure that these facilities are
training. However, these practices require embedding in the timely serviced. However, the events of fire outbreaks have
national policies the contextual issues in schools for continued unabated despite the issuance of fire disaster
successful implementation. management policies. The question remains on how the
policies for managing fire disasters in secondary schools are
The trend of disaster incidents, however, continues recurring
formulated and disseminated, the preoccupation of the current
despite the existence of global initiatives towards mitigating,
study.
managing and ultimately overcoming them. The most
pernicious disasters afflicting many of the schools of different Argument
countries are fire outbreaks. The United States, for instance,
Fire outbreaks are critical problems in Tanzania’s secondary
reports more than 4,000 incidents of school fires annually,
schools as they affect safety, tranquillity, trust and the
mostly caused by cooking (42%), intentional action (24%) and
teaching and learning environment for curriculum
heating (10%) (FEMA, 2016; Satterly, 2014; Tropical Fire
implementation. These fire incidents disrupt the normal
Report Series, 2014). In Japan, Indonesia, Australia, New
functioning of the schools by gutting down facilities,
Zealand and other Far Eastern countries the fatalities from fire
buildings and materials as well as causing injuries and/ or
disasters in schools are caused by earthquakes and tsunamis
deaths to the victims. The most affected segment of the
(Bird, Chagué-Goff,& Gero, 2011; Mutch, 2014; O'Connor &
population is children in schools, especially when dormitories
Takahashi, 2014; Tanaka, 2012). In the United Kingdom, fire
are burnt. To mitigate the problem, the Ministry of Education,
outbreaks in schools are associated with arson committed by
Science and Technology (MoEST) formerly known as
students (Merseyside Fire & Rescue Service, n.d.; Wade,
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT)
Teeman, Golden, Wilson & Woodley, 2007). The school fire
issued policies for managing fire outbreaks (WEMU, 2011).
incidents are also rampant in India, which witnessed the death
Despite the policy guidelines being issued, the problem has
of 100 students in 2004 and the 1995 fire which led to death
persisted over the years. This reveals a gap between policy
of 441 students (Beware, 2004). Similarly, from 2005 to 2012,
intentions and ground practices. The recurrence of fire
Iran faced more than six huge fire disasters which killed more
outbreaks in Tanzania’s secondary school also raises
than five students and seriously injured more than 67 of them
questions on who participates in policy formulation, the
(Taghizadeh, Mowafi, & Ardalan, 2013).
processes and channels of communication to ensure that these
A survey that was carried out in African countries found that policy guidelines reach secondary schools for implementation.
incidents of fire outbreaks in schools are common in South This explores the policy formulation procedures and channels
Africa (Pasipamire, 2011) and Kenya (Shibutse, of communication to distribute policy documents in secondary
Omuterema,& China, 2014). These fire disasters occasioned schools for implementation, a part of a systematic strategy
deaths and injuries of students in addition to damaging school aimed to effectively manage fire disaster events.
infrastructures, mainly dormitories, offices, classrooms and
Studies on fire disasters have been widely conducted in the
laboratories. Generally, fire disaster incidents and their
United States (FEMA, 2016, Satterly, 2014; Tropical Fire
attendant effects are more common in secondary schools than
Report Series, 2014), the United Kingdom (Wade, Teeman,
other levels of the education system (Gichuru, 2013; Kanyi,
Golden, Wilson, & Woodley, 2007), in Asia (Mutch, 2014;
2014; Kisurulia, Katiambo & Lutomia, 2015; Shibutse,
O'Connor & Takahashi, 2014; Tanaka, 2012), South Africa
Omuterema, & China, 2014). Similarly, fire disasters in
(Pasipamire, 2011) and Kenya (Nasimiyu, Wakhungu, &
Tanzania’s secondary schools are alarming. Between 1994
Omuterema, 2017; Shibutse, Omuterema, & China, 2014).
and 2017, more than twenty secondary schools were gutted
However, rare studies have been done, mainly in Tanzania, to
resulting in deaths and injuries to students, as well as the
explain the correlation between the issuing of policies and
demolition of the school facilities and infrastructures
management of fire disaster events in secondary schools.
(Bushesha & Ndibalema, 2017; ITV, 2016; Kahwa, 2009;
Generally, fire disasters are non-selective in their occurrence
Majira, 2015; Mwananchi, 2016; Nipashe, 2009; RFA
because all nations of different status, developing and
Tanzania, 2017; Uhuru, 1994; Uhuru, 2009; Uhuru, 2016).
developed, are subjected to occurrence of the problem,
The recurrence and side-effects of fire disasters in secondary
particularly in schools. The following sub-parts explain
schools, call for international and national governments to
literatures related to fire outbreaks in various parts of the
initiate policies for managing safety in schools.
world.
In Tanzania, the former Ministry of Education and Vocational
Fire Outbreaks in Developed Countries
Training (MoEVT), currently known as the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) issued policy The Federal Emergence Management and Administration
directives for managing fire outbreaks in schools, with a focus (FEMA) of the United States contend that the consequences of

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

fire outbreaks are highly experienced in schools, leading to and candles and eruption of fires. Infrastructures, which
the destruction of infrastructures and facilities (FEMA, 2016). facilitate the production of power such as gas piping and
Schools in poor communities are the more vulnerable than electricity wires are also destroyed to cause leakages, shot
those situated in rich communities because in the latter case, circuits and flames (Sekizawa & Sasaki, 2014). The
early warning systems are active. The school fires mostly seriousness of fire disasters in schools prompted the countries
originate from cooking, arson and heating. However, injuries to review disaster preparedness policies for managing adverse
and deaths from fire disaster incidents are very minimal effects of the problem (World Bank Disaster Risk
(Satterly, 2014; Tropical Fire Report Series, 2014) due to Management Hub, 2017). Kitagawa (2014) and Tanaka (2012)
proactive emergency preparedness among students. The report further contend that the regular occurrence of calamities in
adds further that the major fatalities in schools stem from schools, including fire incidents, impelled Japan to improve
transportation, shootings, suicides and other kind of killings. its educational policies for efficient management of disasters.
In retrospect, the human fatalities from fire outbreaks seem
Fire disasters are also experienced in the United Kingdom
rare in developed countries as compared to developing
(UK) mostly resulting from arson and other indeterminate
countries, although policies are issued to manage the problem.
sources (Merseyside Fire & Rescue Service, n.d.). The
country reportedly faced an average of three incidents of fire Fire Outbreaks in Developing Countries
in schools a day. According to Wade, Teeman, Golden,
Countries such as India and Iran are highly affected by fire
Wilson, and Woodley (2007), the loss from school fires rose
outbreaks originating from human inducements (Taghizadeh,
from an estimated £49 million in 1995 to £67 million in 2005.
Mowafi, & Ardalan, 2013; Tropical Fire Report Series, 2014).
NEU (2017) report that the Grenfell Tower fire was the worst
The fire incidents caused injuries, deaths and destruction of
incident in the country over the past ten years after killing
properties. In 2004, for instance, more than a hundred students
more than 72 persons. To overcome the problem, the UK
died whereas others were seriously injured in the school fire
decided to incorporate fire disasters in the school curriculum
in India (Beware, 2004). Similarly, 441 school children died
to create awareness among the students for sustainable
in 1995 from the stampede and panic when the building used
emergency preparedness (Shape & Kelman, 2011). Currently,
for annual celebrations caught fire. Between 2005 and 2012,
the teaching of emergency preparedness is mandatory among
Iran faced six and more alarming school fires which
the students in all lower level classes, including secondary
consumed the lives of five students and 67 others were injured
schools (ibid.).
seriously (Taghizadeh, Mowafi, & Ardalan, 2013).
In Japan, New Zealand, Indonesia, Australia and other Far
In Africa, the most adversely affected nations are in the South
Eastern countries, major fire incidents affecting schools are
of the Sahara where deaths and injuries from fire outbreaks
caused by natural calamities (Bird, Chagué-Goff & Gero,
are widespread. South Africa, for instance, established the
2011; Mutch, 2014; O'Connor & Takahashi, 2014; Tanaka,
Disaster Management Framework after witnessing regular fire
2012). Earthquakes are commonly associated with overturning
outbreaks in its secondary schools (Pasipam
or falling down of heating facilities such as heaters, cookers
ire, 2011). This framework aimed to guide communities to 2015). These developments were part of concerted efforts
manage fire disasters in schools and communities. Similarly, made aimed to manage disasters in the communities,
the Kenyan government issued emergency preparedness including fires in the schools. To manage disasters in the
guidelines following regular incidents of fire in schools for education sector, the then Ministry of Education and Culture
managing the problem (Nasimiyu, Wakhungu, & Omuterema, (MoEC) and subsequently the Ministry of Education and
2017). The guidelines on fire disaster management are Vocational Training (MoEVT) issued policy statements which
intended to create awareness among school members and the insists on providing education (teaching and learning process)
larger community to mitigate fire outbreaks. The Ministry of in a safe and friendly environment, free from disasters
Education (MoE) of Kenya, in this regard, also insisted on (MoEC, 1995; WEMU, 2014). Furthermore, the MoEVT
education managers to inculcate the culture of safety to issued a policy directive (Education Circular Number 4 of
manage fire outbreaks in schools, particularly in secondary 2011) to manage fire outbreaks in schools and Teacher
schools (Shibutse, Omuterema, & China, 2014). The incidents Training Colleges (WEMU, 2011). The circular was
of fire, however, continued to occur in secondary schools the formulated to curb the persistence of fire outbreaks in
efforts to manage the problem guided by the government secondary schools. However, school fire incidents continued
notwithstanding (Gichuru, 2013; Kanyi, 2014; Kimathi, 2011; to happen over the years. More importantly, hardly any
Kisurulia, Katiambo, & Lutomia, 2015; Mamogale, 2011; evidence exists to explain how policies to manage fire
Shibutse, Omuterema & China, 2014). outbreaks in secondary schools are formulated and distributed
to schools for managing the disasters. Changing procedures of
In Tanzania, fire outbreak-related incidents are widespread
formulating and disseminating policies is therefore inevitable
and prompted the government to issue policies for managing
for inspiring the contextual issues existing in communities,
the problem. In 2011, the government issued the National
secondary schools in particular.
Disaster Management Policy (PMO, 2011) and in 2015 it
enacted the National Disaster Management Act, 2015 (URT,

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

The literature reviewed underscore the significance of the schools. Although the government issued policy directives for
change management theory in inculcating policy formulation guiding management of fire outbreaks in secondary schools
processes and dissemination in the education sector for (WEMU, 2011), the problem has persisted over the years
managing fire outbreaks in secondary schools. This theory is without any sign of abating. Kreitner (2009) found that people
crucial in implementing change in the community, including tend to respond positively in actions they are aware of and can
educational institutions by facilitating the formulation of bring about positive results. Change for instance, is warmly
pertinent policies for distribution in secondary schools to welcomed when people are involved in the process. However,
manage fire disasters effectively and efficiently. The theory Kreitner (2009) contend that not all the changes taking place
explains how the top authorities, for example the MoEST in in the organisation or system are necessarily beneficial to
this case, should formulate suitable policies for managing fire individuals and the organisation. Critically, changes are highly
outbreaks in secondary schools. This study, therefore, focuses resisted because of their unknown consequences and
on the relevant approaches to policies for managing fire unpredictability. To make the change familiar and workable,
outbreaks in secondary schools, how they are formulated and the community should undergo the stages of change gradually.
the channels of communication deployed to reach Kurt Lewin in Hussain, Lei, Akram, Haider, Hussain and Ali
implementers at the lower levels of schools. Policy (2018) suggest that people may accommodate change once
formulation entails making and issuing of policy statements engaged in a three-tier change process model involving
for managing a particular problem in the society. The unfreezing, changing and refreezing. The stages of change
channels of communication, on the other hand, are means for management are further extended and improved by Lippitt,
ensuring that policy documents reach target persons for Kotter and Jick into seven, eight and ten steps, respectively
effective implementation of policies pertaining to fire (Kotter, 2012; Kritsonis, 2005; Pryor et al., 2008). These steps
outbreaks in secondary schools in a bid to solve them. guide the education sector or educational institutions in
managing change to formulate rational policies for managing
Previously reviewed literatures on fire disasters in schools
fire outbreaks in secondary schools.
primarily focused on the causes of fire outbreaks (Nyagawa,
2017) and the schools’ preparedness in managing such deadly O’Connor and Netting (2011) proffer that demands for change
incidents (Kahwa, 2009). The studies also discussed the side- should come from the people facing the problem instead of
effects of fire disasters in schools including deaths, injuries being initiated by top authorities, for example, at the
and destruction of facilities and infrastructures. More ministerial level. Critically, Alphonce (2000) insists on the
importantly, some fire incidents in schools occurred because leaders and the led to share ideas to build a common
the directives and guidelines issued by the government to understanding or rational policy instead of one side being
manage the outbreaks were not properly effected. In this dominated unduly by another. In this regard, Mosha (2006)
regard, the extant literatures and empirical evidence suggest concedes that policies which do not originate from the
that many of the studies have been conducted outside majority are not justifiable for effective implementation. The
Tanzania, from different contexts. In retrospect, the events of change management theory is relevant in this study because it
fire outbreaks in secondary schools continued to happen acknowledges inputs from lower levels as necessary
despite the policies issued by the governments to solve the ingredients in making appropriate policies for implementation
problem. It is against this backdrop that the current study was in secondary schools to manage fire outbreaks. In fact,
carried out to explore the approaches to formulating policies participation of policy implementers during the policy
aimed to manage fire outbreaks in secondary schools and how formulation process makes it relevant, familiar and workable.
the directives reach the implementers at the school level, in When the opposite is true, policy option makes it difficult to
Tanzania. manage the problem facing the society (fire outbreaks in
secondary schools). However, Mosha (2006) cautions that
Theoretical Underpinning
public policies are, sometimes, undermined by individual or
The study was guided by the change management theory group interests and consequently become irrelevant even
(Mullins & Christy, 2013) which works on the assumption when the inputs are drawn from the people. In fact, weighing
that change is inevitable in organisations for moving forward strengths and weaknesses, change management theory
or for solving a particular problem. The theory is built on the adopted in this study is relevant in formulating rational
assumption that the existing cultural practices used in policies to manage fire outbreaks in secondary schools
formulating policies in education cannot satisfy the needs of because it insists on the participation of policy implementers
secondary schools to manage fire outbreaks, thus, should be throughout the policy formulation process.
repealed to meet the contextual requirements (Kreitner, 2009).
Conceptual Framework
In this case, the top-down policy-making approach (Birkland,
2001; O’Connor & Netting, 2011; Matland, 1995) adopted by The conceptual framework applied in this study has been
the MoEST to formulate fire disaster management policies developed from related literatures and empirical studies
appears inept in mitigating fire outbreaks in secondary reviewed:

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Higher level inputs Policy Lower level inputs

(Ministry) Formulation (Schools)

Policy
Dissemination
(Distribution)

Policy
Policy Practices Accessibility
(Implementation)

Managed Fire
Outbreaks

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study

The conceptual framework presents procedures for approach was appropriate for gathering detailed information
formulating a coherent public policy to manage fire outbreaks from the policy-makers, education stakeholders, policy
in the country’s secondary schools. Towards this end, the implementers and, specifically, the people affected by fire
higher level represents the MoEST, which stands at the apex outbreaks in secondary schools (Cohen, Manion and
of the country’s educational system and is responsible for Morrison, 2007). The study specifically relied on gathering
issuing policies implemented in secondary schools. Currently, verbal information from the participants at the study sites as
the MoEST formulates policies without necessarily involving well as the analysis of policy documents (Wellington, 2000;
the implementers at the grassroots, including secondary Schratz & Walker, 1995). The researcher relied on a multiple
school stakeholders. This worrisome trend culminates in embedded case study design (Yin, 2011). The design
missing essential inputs from the contexts mostly affected by facilitated the gathering of information from different
fire outbreaks. The framework, therefore, suggests that, a secondary schools, councils, regions, zonal school quality
coherent public policy for managing fire outbreaks should assurance offices and the headquarters of the MoEST (Sharpe
draw inputs from both sides, the higher level authorities (the & Kelman, 2011; Ball, 1981; Lacey, 1970).The data and
Education Ministry in this case) and the lower level information obtained from various offices and secondary
stakeholders (including secondary schools). Moreover, the schools studied were amalgamated as multiple embedded
dissemination, implementation and general management of cases in studying the problem of fire outbreaks in secondary
fire outbreaks in secondary schools are determined by the schools (Komba & Mpeta, 2014; Kahangwa, 2014; Peter,
accessibility of the public policies that secondary schools are 2014; Wright, 1992). Indeed, the multiple case study design
supposed to follow. The public policy so formulated and engendered the gathering of rich information on the
disseminated to the implementing agents shall be popular and formulation and distribution of policies to manage fire disaster
relevant to overcome the problem. This is a significant step events in secondary schools.
towards having a rational public policy option capable of
The study adopted purposive sampling to pick 4 secondary
fostering the effective management fire outbreaks in
schools, 4 councils, 3 regions, 3 zonal school quality
secondary schools, as the contrary has prolonged the
assurance offices and 1 ministerial headquarters (the MoEST).
recurrence of fire disasters.
The selection was based on the persistence and existence of
II. METHODOLOGY secondary schools critically affected by the problem of fire
outbreaks. In this regard, only areas and secondary schools,
The qualitative research methodology was adopted to guide
which had experienced incidents of fire outbreaks more than
the study, particularly in the selection of the research design,
once were drafted into the study. The areas selected proved to
data collection instruments, data analysis techniques, the study
have rich and sufficient information on the occurrence of fire
sites and population of the study. Qualitative research

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disaster events and how stakeholders were involved during the provided by the participants through observing the remnants
policy formulation process for managing fire disasters. The of fire disaster events. The data and information obtained
secondary schools were selected as major victims of fire from the study sites was analysed with assistance of NVivo 11
outbreaks, and thus were able to provide in-depth information to avoid being overwhelmed by the resultant voluminous data.
on stakeholders’ participation in policy formulation and Units of analysis were based on the groups of participants
reception of the policy documents issued by the MoEST for studied, namely students, teachers, Heads of School, School
implementation purposes. The zonal school quality assurance Board members, Education Officers, School Quality Assurers
offices, councils and regions, were also purposively selected and the Commissioner of Education. The researcher identified
because of their strategic placement as monitors of secondary themes and sub-themes from the data analysed, used as
schools by ensuring that policies issued by the MoEST headings and sub-headings during the presentation and
reached the schools and were properly enforced. The discussion of the study findings. Furthermore, the qualitative
education zones selected were the Southern Highlands, data was then subjected to Huberman and Miles’ (1994)
Highlands and North-Eastern, which encompass Iringa, techniques of qualitative data analysis comprising data
Mbeya and Kilimanjaro regions. The councils purposely reduction, data display, conclusion and data verification.
selected for study were Iringa Rural, Mbeya City, Hai and
III. STUDY FINDINGS
Rombo districts. The headquarters of the MoEST was
exclusively chosen for its dual role as the creator and source The first part of the study sought to answer the research sub-
of education policies disseminated to schools for execution. question: How were the stakeholders involved during the
policy formulation process? The study findings show that only
In all, the study generated data from 116 participants
the Heads of Department and the Commissioner of Education
comprising 61 students, 35 teachers, 3 Heads of School
at the ministerial level (MoEST) participated in formulating
(HoSs), 4 District Secondary Education Officers (DSEOs), 3
policies to manage fire disasters in the country’s educational
Regional Education Officers (REOs), 7 Zonal School Quality
institutions, including secondary schools. Results from study
Assurers (ZSQAs) and the Commissioner of Education (CoE).
also indicate a variation of information provided by the
Data were collected using face-to-face interviews, focused
participants on their participation in formulating policies for
group discussions, physical observation and documentary
managing fire outbreaks in secondary schools. Some of the
review. The triangulation of research instruments enabled the
participants of the same group said they did not participate but
researcher to obtain rich information which could not be
others said they were involved through some activities done.
gathered through one technique (Wellington, 2000).
The summary of information provided by the participants
Moreover, the researcher visited the population under the
(students, teachers, Heads of School, School Board Members,
study in the natural setting for gathering information on fire
Education Officers, Zonal School Quality Assurers and the
disaster incidents which took place in their localities. The
Commissioner of Education) is presented in Table 1:
visits enabled the researcher to verify some information
Table 1: Information on the involvement of stakeholders in formulating fire disaster management policies issued by the MoEST
Category of Number of Percentage (%) within a
Involvement in formulating policies Total %
participants participants group
 Preparation of policy proposal
1 N/A
CoE  Through discussions in the Ministerial 1 N/A
Committees
 Not involved in policy formulation
1 33.3
REOs 3 100
 Through responding against questionnaires
2 66.7
 Not involved in policy formulation
5 71.4
ZSQAs 7 100
 Through preparation of the school inspection
2 28.6
reports
DSEOs  Not involved in policy formulation 4 100
4 100
SBMs  Not involved in policy formulation 2 100
2 100
 Through participating in seminars
2 66.7
HoSs 3 100
 Not involved in policy formulation
1 33.3
 Through curriculum implementation
2 5.7
(teaching & learning process)
Teachers 35 100
 Not involved in policy formulation
33 94.3
Students  Not involved in formulating the policy 61 100 61 100

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Involvement through preparation of the policy proposal providing advice against it ... if the circular is
adhered and approved by the Minister, the
The interview conversation with the Commissioner of
Commissioner shall publish and issue the document
Education (CoE) revealed that she was involved in
for implementation... School Quality Assurers at the
formulating the fire disaster management policy by preparing
zonal and district levels, Regional and District
the policy proposal, which was shared with other heads of
Education offices, and secondary schools, are not
department at the headquarters of the ministry of education.
involved in the preparation of the circulars.
This means only education officials at the headquarters of the
MoEST participated in formulating the policy for managing Involvement through participation in seminars
fire outbreaks in secondary schools. On the other hand, the
Information from two Heads of School (HoSs) out of three
majority of the stakeholders at the lower levels of the ministry
interviewed confirmed that they were involved in participating
were denied an opportunity to contribute their views. This
in seminars. Indeed, the short-term training was attended by
scenario is reflective of the top-down policy making theory
the HoSs for awareness creation against fire outbreaks in
(Birkland, 2001), which ignores inputs from the people mostly
secondary schools. The information obtained from the HoSs
affected by fire outbreaks (that is, teachers and students in
contradicts with that provided by the CoE to the effect that
secondary schools). The situation might be the root-cause of
those stakeholders at the lower levels of the ministry were not
prolonged occurrence of fire disasters in secondary schools,
involved in the policy formulation process. And yet, the
despite the ministry’s issuance of policy to manage the
involvement of the HoSs is crucial for the incorporation of the
problem. During face-to-face interview, the CoE admitted:
contextual issues in the final policy document. Principally,
I am responsible for preparing the proposed circular seminars were conducted to inform HoSs on how to
[policy proposal] together with other heads of implement fire disaster management policies, and not
ministerial departments, before subsequent necessarily to develop the policy. In other words, the HoSs
discussions and approval ... then the circular is issued were not involved during the policy formulation process, and
to different stakeholders to put into practice instead they were responsible for executing ready prepared
[implementation]. policy directives. Failure to involve the HoSs created a
knowledge gap between the policy demands and the actual
Participation in discussions in ministerial committees
situation existing in secondary schools. In this regard, one
Information obtained from the CoE during the interview Head of School interviewed clarified:“The Heads of School
session shows that only education officials (heads of are the only ones involved in seminars but had never been
department) and the CoE participated in discussing the policy involved in preparing circulars and directives used for
proposal, later approved by the Minister responsible for managing fire disasters in our schools.”
Education. Implicitly, stakeholders at the lower levels (zonal,
Responding to questionnaires
regional, district to school) hardly got involved in discussing
the relevance of the policy proposal to manage fire outbreaks Findings from information provided by the Regional
in secondary schools. Failure to seek inputs from relevant Education Officers (REOs) shows that they were involved in
contexts, where fire disasters occur, reveals rigidity to responding to questionnaires administered by the ministerial
changing the system of formulating policies. In this regard, officers from the President’s Office, Regional Administration
formulation of a coherent policy should involve the policy and Local Government (PO-RALG). However, in the
agents facing a problem of fire than imposed by the top-down Tanzanian context, policies guiding the education system in
approach whereby the top authorities reigned (Alphonce, the country are formulated by the MoEST. In other words,
2000). This reveals further that the continued occurrence of data collected by PO-RALG were used for other purposes
fire in secondary schools was driven by the issuing of rather than the preparation of policies for managing fire
unpopular and irrelevant policy to the people responsible for disasters in secondary schools. The misunderstanding posed
implementing them. Suggestively, the top-down policy- by the REOs was levelled at the CoE who espoused that only
making approach should be changed for the better (Kreitner, heads of department from the MoEST headquarters participate
2009) by involving all the stakeholders responsible for in formulating policies to guide the management of fire
implementing the policy throughout the process. The outbreaks in secondary schools. However, this connotation
procedure of discussing the policy proposal at the ministerial calls for the involvement of education officials from the
level was verified by the CoE who explained: regional level, including REOs in providing inputs for making
rational policy option to manage fire disasters in secondary
The proposed circular [policy] is discussed by the
schools. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
management, which is made up of the three
(MoEST) should change the current policy making
Ministerial Departments of different levels, primary,
approaches by involving lower level school supervisors
secondary and Teacher education together with the
throughout the process, as suggested by Mosha (2006) and
School Quality Assurance and the Commissioner's
Mullins and Christy (2013). Reinforcing the ideas, one REO
office ... later, the Commissioner presents the
further explained:
proposed circular to the Minister for previewing and

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

I remember the time when working at the Council participate in the policy formulation process rather
level, people from the President’s Office-RALG implementation of it. Failure to involve teachers in the policy
came with questionnaires to see what should be done formulation process is at odds with the suggestion by
particularly in Boarding Secondary schools to reduce Alphonce (2000) and Mosha (2006) to the effect that leaders
incidents of fire … Therefore they got inputs from and the led should share ideas to formulate rational policies
the council, but at the regional level, personally I had for resolving a particular problem in the society. The MoEST,
never been involved by any means, to comment or therefore, should adopt the change management theory
give opinions about the policies concerned with fire (Hussain, Lei, Akram, Haider, Hussain, & Ali, 2018; Kotter,
made by the Ministry of Education. 2012; Kritsonis, 2005; Pryor et al., 2008) to incorporate ideas
from the people at the lower levels of the ministry during the
Involvement through the preparation of school inspection
policy formulation process. During the FGDs a teacher further
reports
commented:
This information was provided by 2 (28.6%) out of 7 Zonal
Teachers are involved, to a great extent, in the
School Quality Assurers (ZSQAs) during the face-to-face
curriculum, that means in Form One there are such
interviews. Findings from this segment revealed that the
topics which deals with fire accident and fire
ZSQAs were involved in the policy formulation process
fighting, only that one, but not through seminars or
during the preparation of school inspection reports. However,
conferences or conducting interview to teachers …
there was no clear evidence if the comments from school
only in the curriculum that teachers are involved
inspection reports were accommodated during the preparation
through educating students in those issues.
of policies for managing fire outbreaks in secondary schools
because none was involved from the zonal level. Failure to Another teacher said:
involve lower level personnel working with secondary schools
Also in the syllabus we have components that we
denies the ministry necessary inputs which would be
teach how to fight against fire, for example in the
incorporated in the policy formulated to match with
Chemistry subject. We are also required to teach the
contextual demands. The researcher suggests that, the
uses of fire-extinguishers … this is found in the
Ministry (MoEST) should change the mind-set by involving
curriculum … Therefore we teachers are involved
the ZSQAs to provide in situ inputs in the policy to manage
that way.
fire disaster events in secondary schools. Arguably, the
persistence of fire outbreaks in secondary schools is attributed Non-involvement in policy formulation
by lack of contextual inputs from the policy implementers at
the lower levels of education managements. One ZSQA Findings from information articulated by the majority of
participants, that is 1(33.3%) REO, 5(71.4%) ZSQAs,
interviewed admitted that:
4(100%) DSEOs, 2(100%) SBMs, 1(33.3%) HoS, 34(97.1%)
It is true that we are not directly involved … what I teachers and 61(100%) students indicates that they did not
can say, may be indirectly from our school inspection participate in formulating policies to manage fire outbreaks in
reports … after inspection of a school affected by fire secondary schools. Primarily, the stakeholders at the lower
outbreak, we should provide suggestions and levels of managements (below the ministry level) are the ones
recommendations including what should be done to mostly affected by fire disaster events, particularly students
manage fire disasters ... however, we had never been and teachers in secondary schools. Moreover, these are
involved directly to prepare a policy or a circular for responsible for implementing policies and directives issued by
managing fire disasters in schools, just a belief that the ministry to overcome or stave off fire disasters. In this
our suggestions and recommendations in the school regard, their inputs could help make coherent policies for
inspection reports are incorporated in the policy managing fire disasters in secondary schools. However, their
formulated. contribution was not considered, instead the top-down policy
making approach (Birkland, 2001) was adopted. The approach
Participation through curriculum implementation
contravenes findings of the World Bank Disaster Risk
Data from teachers obtained through the Focused Group Management Hub (2017); Kitagawa (2014); Tanaka (2012)
Discussions (FGDs) show that 2(5.7%) out of 35 said were and Pasipamire (2011) that the governments modified their
involved in curriculum implementation in the classrooms. policies to overcome the regular occurrence of fire outbreaks
Findings from information revealed that teachers were in schools. The Tanzania government, therefore, should adopt
involved through teaching and learning process, particularly the change management theory to ensure that policies made
in science subjects. The findings revealed further that science for managing fire disasters in schools incorporated ideas
subjects, such as Chemistry, had topics dealing with fire (inputs) from implementers at the lower levels, particularly
rescue and First Aid. However, the teaching and learning students and teachers (major disaster victims). Failure to
process is an integral part of the implementation of policies of involve key stakeholders in the policy formulation process
managing fire outbreaks in schools rather contribution of denies a sense of awareness and responsiveness to mitigate
inputs to formulate them. Simply put, the teachers did not fire disasters, hence leading to prolonged recurrence of the

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

problem in secondary schools (Gichuru, 2013; Kanyi, 2014; Instead, there exists minutes of the School Board meetings
Kisurulia, Katiambo & Lutomia, 2015; Shibutse, Omuterema conducted after occurrence of fire disaster events. Moreover,
& China, 2014). A teacher in one school said: “There is no there were directives issued by local councils (regional and
participation of teachers in formulating policies for fighting district authorities) which did not match with the MoEST
against fire disasters in secondary schools.” In addition, a policies. This mismatch did not help secondary schools
student in another school explained: manage fire disasters effectively; instead the problem
continued unabated over the years. The contention indicates
From my side, during the preparation of all those
that the MoEST policies for managing fire disasters did not
policies, I had never see participation of the whole
reach secondary schools as they should, which resulted in lack
school to contribute our views, may be teachers were
of awareness among policy enforcers at the school level.
invited to represent us, but students did not
Subsequently, the problem of fire outbreaks continued to exist
participate at all.
over the years.
The second part of the study sought to answer the second
IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
research sub-question: How are policies for managing fire
disasters disseminated in Tanzania’s secondary schools? The study investigated the approaches adopted by the
Findings from the information provided by the HoSs, DSEOs, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) in
ZSQAs, SBMs, REOs, CoE, teachers and the students formulating and disseminating policies for managing fire
generated using face-to-face interviews and FGDs show that outbreaks in secondary schools. The general findings from the
policy documents did not reach all the secondary schools on study indicate that only the ministerial level officials (top-
timely basis and in the manner they should. Moreover, the level managements) participate in formulating policies. This
study findings revealed that there were no proper channels for top-down approach adopted by the ministry denied the most
communication monitoring by the MoEST to ensure that needed inputs from the lower levels (contextual issues) in the
policies reached in schools ready for implementation. The formulation of rational policies for managing the problem.
ministry’s failure to issue policy documents in secondary Despite claims from some participants that they were involved
schools on time denied the schools accessibility to the in curriculum implementation, preparation of school
directives and lack of awareness among the key implementers inspection reports, respondents in the questionnaires and
(students, teachers and the school community in general). In participation in seminars, general findings from the study
other words, the school managements did not have a guideline indicated that the education stakeholders below the ministerial
to lead them on how to manage fire disasters in their level did not participate in the policy formulation process.
localities. The main consequence of this anomaly was the These findings conflict with the spirit of the change
continuation of fire disasters including repeated fire outbreaks management theory (Hussain, Lei, Akram, Haider, Hussain, &
in the same schools and others. During the interview Ali, 2018; Kreitner, 2009; Kotter, 2012; Kritsonis, 2005;
conversations with CoE, it emerged: Pryor et al., 2008) which insists in the top level managers to
share ideas with their subordinates in a bid to prepare a
The approved policy documents are channelled to the
coherent policy for the effective management of fire disasters
Heads of Department at the Ministry’s Headquarters
in Tanzania’s secondary schools.
who should issue further instructions down to
secondary schools for implementation. But I am not The findings further indicate that policies issued by the
sure if those documents reach secondary schools or MoEST for managing fire disasters did not reach secondary
not ... it is real a challenge to us and nobody makes schools. Implicitly, the channels of communication from the
follow-ups to ensure that policies are received in ministerial level downwards to secondary schools did not
schools. work. Indeed, without having policies in place, people lack
the guidelines of what should be done to manage the problem
One of the ZSQAs interviewed further claimed:
affecting them. Suggestively, the ministry officials should
Generally, on my side, I am not sure if those policies change the current approach to policy formulation by
or circulars from the Ministry, used to manage fire incorporating ideas raised by lower level managements for
disasters in schools, had been here …what I know is issuing rational and workable policies to overcome fire
that in the past four years the government ordered all outbreaks. In addition, there should be known and working
the schools to install smoke detectors … that is all, channels of communication from which policies should reach
but the circular or policy is not yet brought here … implementers at lower level managements, including
just our top leaders announced without any secondary schools. The MoEST should, therefore, build the
document. capacity of school monitoring teams, such as the School
Quality Assurers to visit schools regularly for monitoring the
The study further sought to establish the policy documents in availability of policies issued by the MoEST and how they
secondary schools for managing fire outbreaks. Findings from were being implemented on the ground. The monitoring team
documentary analysis show that the policy documents issued
may also draw on opinions from lower levels to the attention
by the MoEST for managing fire outbreaks did not exist.
of top level managements and vice-versa to ensure that

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume III, Issue X, October 2019|ISSN 2454-6186

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