Sultanate of Oman

Ministry of Transport and Communications

VOLUME 1 HIGHWAY DESIGN STANDARDS

Table of Content
Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017 VOLUME 1 VOLUME 2

PREFACE & INTRODUCTION PREFACE & INTRODUCTION

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS & TERMS GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS & TERMS

1 HIGHWAY STRATEGY 11 STRUCTURES

PLANNING PROCEDURES,
2 12 DRAINAGE DESIGN
SCHEME APPRAISAL & DESIGN

3 ROAD CROSS SECTIONS & CAPACITIES 13 COASTAL PROTECTION OF HIGHWAYS

4 ROAD LINK GEOMETRY 14 HIGHWAY DESIGN & GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

JUNCTION SELECTION &

5 CAPACITY CONSIDERATIONS 15 LANDSCAPING

6 PRIORITY JUNCTIONS & U- TURN FACILITIES 16 ROADSIDE SAFETY, CURBS, PARKING & BUS PROVISION

PEDESTRIAN SAFETY MEASURES &

7 ROUNDABOUTS 17
LOCAL/DEVELOPMENT ACCESS

8 TRAFFIC SIGNALLED JUNCTIONS 18 ROAD LIGHTING & ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

9 GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS 19 TRAFFIC SIGNS & ROAD MARKINGS

UTILITIES, ROAD REINSTATEMENT &

10 PAVEMENT DESIGN 20
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AT ROAD WORKS

I
II
 1 GENERAL
The Oman Highway Design Standards comprise a set of two documents, Volumes 1 and 2 (with annex
2A containing Standard Structural Drawings), which present technical advice and guidelines across a
comprehensive range of highway design elements and standards. An associated Volume 3 provides standard
specifications for road and bridge construction, covering materials, equipment, methods, measurement and
payment.

The Oman 2010 Highway Design Standards have been prepared under the guidance of a Technical Committee
with representation from:

n Ministry of Transport and Communications - DGRLT

n Royal Oman Police
n Ex-Supreme Committee for Town Planning
n Muscat Municipality
n Dhofar Municipality
n Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources

The 2017 update of the Standards is the result of a comprehensive review in light of the advances and
Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017 developments occurring since the 2010 issue. Also, a series of observations, based on the practical

Preface & Introduction

implementation of the 2010 Standards, have triggered changes and adjustments incorporated in the current
update.

The purpose of the Highway Design Standards Volumes 1 and 2 is to set down the basic principles governing
the design of all road construction projects in the Sultanate of Oman. The Standards cover the initiation and
appraisal of such schemes, their design and measurement, and aspects of best implementation practice for their
construction.

The Oman Highway Design Standards provide broad guidance on the responsibilities of particular authorities and
organizations and on procedures. While every effort has been made to render these accurate, these standards
are not intended to be, nor should they be treated as being, legal advice. It is the responsibility of the designer
to ascertain the correct procedures for the particular circumstances by discussion with the relevant authorities.
A leeway for variations to suit specific project conditions is provided through the “Design Variation Procedure”
described here below.

These Standards are a development of, and supersede, the previous 2010 standards prepared, amended and
used as a basis for design over past years. The updated standards have considered a wider spectrum of design
speeds, while maintaining the bulk of design parameters unchanged. This change reflected on the geometries
of roads and junctions, always under the sole objective of safety.

Drainage revisions consisted of improving the hydrological equations to cover all flow conditions.

Changes were made also on pavement designs and materials pertinent with the lessons learned from the
applications of the 2010 Standards and Specifications.

Other changes have been made to reflect the general updating of standards worldwide that has gone on in the
years since the previous and now superseded standards were produced.

III
 2 USE OF THE STANDARDS 3 DESIGN VARIATION PROCEDURE
Highway design makes use of many engineering disciplines, the outputs from which must be integrated to If a design organization considers that a design for a particular project would be improved if a particular aspect
produce a satisfactory overall design. It is the nature of a document such as this, that the separate disciplines of these Standards were to be changed or relaxed in some way, a request for a variation in the Standards
are treated as individual entities but it must be emphasized that they cannot be treated entirely separately should be submitted to the appropriate section within the Overseeing Authority: Such a request should be in
during the design process. Successful highway design is to some extent an iterative process and the necessary writing, setting out :
iterations inevitably cross the interdisciplinary boundaries. Good management of highway design recognizes n Variation requested.
this, makes due allowance and uses the cross boundary interfaces to refine and improve the finished product.
n Reasons why the standard set out in this document is inappropriate in the particular case.
This set of Highway Design Standards is intended to provide a series of guidelines and not to take on the role n Full implications of both working to the existing standard and to the variation.
of a design handbook. It has been produced for competent practicing designers, and emphasis is placed on
when and what is required to be considered, rather than fine detail of how the work should be done. Those The Overseeing Authority will accept, reject or suggest an alternative to the variation requested. On acceptance

seeking further information can consult the many publications on the subjects covered or referred to from the of a variation the Overseeing Authority will issue a “Variation Acceptance Notice” which is applicable to the

references given. particular case set out in the formal request for a variation. This Notice then forms a retrospective part of the
design brief issued to the design consultant for the project in question.
These Standards cannot provide guidance for all aspects of all highway design situations. It is assumed that
the various work disciplines will be undertaken by those with relevant specialist knowledge to enable them to
arrive at economic and safe solutions based on theory, experience and engineering judgment. 4 MONITORING & UPDATING OF THE DESIGN STANDARDS
Circumstances may arise in which a designer will judge that some particular detail of these standards is not It is expected that all records of design variation requests will be monitored by the Ministry of Transport and
appropriate for the conditions relating to a certain design situation. Allowance for this circumstance is made Communications, DGRLT. The outcomes from this monitoring process will be the recognition of any recurring
through the provision of the “Design Variation Procedure”. patterns in these requests which might indicate that an updating of the standards in those particular technical
areas of concern would be appropriate, which is the case with this update.

IV
Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017
Preface & Introduction

5 REFERENCES
The major sources of background design information used in the development of these Standards have been :

GCCS Gulf Co-operation Council Standards.

US - TRB United States - Transportation Research Board.


Carries out research into all aspects of transportation. The TRB is a unit of the US National Research Council,
serving both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering.

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Lays down guidelines for the design and construction of highways.

UK – HA United Kingdom - Highways Agency

Responsible for all aspects of UK Trunk Road Design, Construction and Maintenance.

Further references, which are more subject specific, are provided within each section of this document.

6 COPYRIGHT
This document has been prepared, published and serial numbered by the Ministry of Transport and
Communications, DGRLT. This document or parts there of, may not be reproduced in any form without the
written permission of the Ministry of Transport and Communications.

V
 Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

VI
 Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

AADT Beach Nourishment Colluvium

Average Annual Daily Traffic. The direct placement of large amounts of good quality sand on the beach to widen the beach. Hill wash and scree deposits

AASHTO Beach width Color rendering (lighting)

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. The horizontal dimension of the beach measured normal from some defined location landward The effect of a light source on the color appearance of objects in conscious or subconscious
of the shoreline. comparison with their color appearance under a reference light source.
ACI
American Concrete Institute. Bearing Combined Method
A structural device that transmits loads while facilitating translation and/or rotation. Part of the reinforcement is pretensioned and part post-tensioned.
ADT
Average Daily Traffic. Bearing Joint Compression Seal
A deck joint provided at bearings and other deck supports to facilitate horizontal translation A preformed elastomeric device that is precompressed in the gap of a joint with expected total range
Advisory Standards (highway design)
and rotation of abutting structural elements. It may or may not provide for differential vertical of movement less than 50 mm.
Important standards but allow some flexibility in application to accommodate design
translation of these elements.
constraints or be compatible with local conditions described by the word “should”. Conflict area (traffic)
BoQ Area on a road system where a strong potential exists for collisions between vehicles or between
AISC
Bill of Quantity. vehicles and pedestrians.
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Bracket (arm) Construction Joint
Alongshore (marine)
An attachment, to a lamp post or pole, from which a luminaire is attached. A temporary joint used to permit sequential construction.
Parallel to and near the shoreline; longshore.
BS / BS EN Cross Shore
ANSI
British Standards / British Standards harmonized with EN Standards. Perpendicular to the shoreline.
American National Standards Institute.
Bulkhead CRSI
Anticline
A structure or partition to retain or prevent sliding of the land. A secondary purpose is to Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute.
Fold structure convex upwards.
protect the upland against damage from wave action.
CT
Area of Influence (traffic)
c/w and cwy Collision Load.
The extent of highway network surrounding a project which may be subject to traffic flow
Carriageway (abbrev).
demand changes directly caused by the subject project when opened. CVD
Cable and Tendon Commercial Vehicle per Day.
Armor Layer
Cable and tendon both refer to a bundle of prestressing steel of the same type and size
Protective layer on the outside or top of a revetment or seawall composed of armor units. Deck Joint
bundled together to be contained within a duct and stressed, individually or collectively, from
A structural discontinuity between two elements, at least one of which is a deck element. It is
ASCE the same anchorage.
designed to permit relative translation and/or rotation of abutting structural elements
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Camber (structures)
Deepwater
ASTM The intentional curvature of the formwork, formed initially to compensate for subsequent
Water so deep that surface waves are little affected by the ocean bottom. Generally, water
American Society for Testing and Materials. deflection under load.
deeper than one-half the surface wavelength is considered deep water.
AWS CAN/CSA
Deflation
American Welding Society. National Standard of Canada.
Erosion by wind.
Backshore Carriageway
Demand Critical Welds
The zone of the shore or beach lying between the foreshore and the coastline comprising The part of the highway corridor used for the passage of vehicles.
Those welds, the failure of which would result in significant degradation of the strength and
the berm or berms and acted upon by waves only during severe storms, especially when
CE stiffness of the Seismic-Load-Resisting System and which are indicated as “Demand Critical”
combined with exceptionally high water.
Corps of Engineers (USA). or “Seismic Critical” on Drawings.
Bajada
Cementitious Materials Departure (highway design)
Zone of coalescing alluvial fans.
Portland cement alone or in combination with one or more of blended hydraulic cement, fly A change in standard which requires careful investigation as to the safety and cost
Ballast ash and other pozzolans, ground granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume. consequences before approval from overseeing authority can be sought.
A device used with an electric-discharge lamp to obtain the necessary circuit conditions
CEN Design Storm
(voltage, current, …) for starting and operating.
European Committee for Standardization. A hypothetical extreme storm whose wave’s coastal protection structures will often be
Bar designed to withstand. The severity of the storm (i.e. return period) is chosen in view of
Cenozoic
A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material built the acceptable level of risk of damage or failure. A design storm consists of a design wave
Division of Geological time (0 to 70 million years ago).
on the sea floor in shallow water by waves and currents. condition, a design water level and a duration.
Chrysotile
Barchan Dune Design Wave
Fibrous form of the Serpentine mineral.
Classical crescent shaped sand dune with horns pointing downwind. In the design of harbors, harbor works, etc., the type or types of waves selected as having the
CIE characteristics against which protection is desired.
Barrier Island
International Commission on illumination.
An unconsolidated, elongated body of sand or gravel lying above the hightide level and DGRLT
separated from the mainland by a lagoon or marsh. It is commonly between two inlets, has CIP Directorate General of Roads and Land Transport (of the Ministry of Transport and
dunes, vegetated areas, and swampy terrains extending from the beach into the lagoon. Cast in place. Communications).
Bathymetry CIS D.I.
The depths of water in oceans, seas, and lakes. Cast in situe. Ductile Iron.
Beach Erosion Client Authority Diapir
The carrying away of beach materials by wave action, tidal currents, littoral currents, or wind. Specific Authority that has commissioned the highway design work via a direct contract. Mobile rock body that has pierced overlying strata.
Beach Fill Closed Joint Disability glare
Sand placed on a beach; beach nourishment. A deck joint designed to prevent the passage of debris through the joint and to safeguard Effect of stray light in the eye whereby visibility and visual performance are reduced.
pedestrian and cycle traffic.

VII
 Disc Bearing Faults GRE
A bearing that accommodates rotation by deformation of a single elastomeric disc molded Dislocation of a rock mass. Glassfiber Reinforced Epoxy
from a urethane compound. It may be movable, guided, unguided, or fixed. Movement is f’c 28-day concrete cylinder compressive strength in MPa Gypsum
accommodated by sliding of polished stainless steel on PTFE.
FCAW Calcium Sulphate.
DMRB Flux Cored Arc Welding. HA
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (Highways Agency) UK.
FFS Highways Agency (UK)
DS Free flow speed (abbrev). Hard Strip
Design Standard.
Fixed Bearing One metre width of paving at edge of travel lane – to protect from deterioration, allow
DSD A bearing that prevents differential longitudinal translation of abutting structural elements. It minimum wander and allow provision of painted edge lines.
Decision Sight Distance. may or may not provide for differential lateral translation or rotation. Harzburgite
DSTF Flood A variety of peridotite made up of olivine and low Ca pyroxene
Design Service Traffic Flow. 1) Period when tide level is rising; often taken to mean the flood current which occurs during Headland
Duct marker this period. A promontory extending out into a body of water.
Marker used to identify locations of underground utilities. 2) A flow beyond the carrying capacity of a channel.
Heavy Sections
Dunes Floodway “Rolled and built-up sections as follows:
Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand. Strengthened and protected road construction across the bed of a dry wadi to allow wadi flow i. S
 hapes included in ASTM A 6/A 6M with flanges thicker than 38 mm.
over it in times of flood.
Efficacy (lm/w) ii. Welded built-up members with plates thicker than 50 mm.
Amount of light emitted measured in lumen (lm) by a lamp for each watt (w) of power consumed. Foot bridge
iii. Column base plates thicker than 50 mm.”
Bridge over an obstacle to pedestrians, provided for the passage of pedestrians only.
EIA hgv
Foreshore
Environmental Impact Assessment. Heavy Goods Vehicle.
The part of the shore, lying between the crest of the seaward berm (or upper limit of wave
EIRR wash at high tide) and the ordinary low-water mark, that is ordinarily traversed by the uprush High mast lighting
Economic Internal Rate of Return. and backrush of the waves as the tides rise and fall. System of lighting for large areas using masts carrying clusters of luminaires.

ELV (electrical) Forms and Formwork HPI

Extra Low Voltage. The section of the temporary works used to give the required shape and support to poured Metal halide.
concrete. It consists primarily of sheeting material, such as wood, plywood, metal sheet or HPMV
Emergency lane
plastic sheet, in direct contact with the concrete and joists or stringers that directly support High Pressure Mercury vapor.
Lane parallel to the traffic lane(s) not destined for normal traffic, but for emergency (police)
the sheeting.
vehicles and/or for broken-down vehicles. Also known as shoulder. HPS
Freeboard High pressure sodium.
EN (standards/specifications)
1) the vertical distance between the water level and the top of a coastal levee or dike.
European Norm. I
2) the distance from the waterline to the lowchord of the bottom of a suspended deck such
Energy saving as a bridge deck or offshore platform. or Intensity.
Practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. 3) the distance from the crest of the design wave to the low-chord of the bottom of a ICD
suspended deck such as a bridge deck or offshore platform. Inscribed Circle Diameter.
Erosion
The wearing away of land by the action of natural forces. On a beach, the carrying away of Frontage IDF curves (hydrology)
beach material by wave action, tidal currents, littoral currents, or by deflation. Land adjacent to the highway (ie which “fronts” onto it). Intensity - Duration - Frequency curves.
ESA/ESALs FYRR IEC
Equivalent Standard Axle/Equivalent Standard Axle Loads – ESA is a standardized axle load to First year rate of return. International Electrotechnical Commission.
which all vehicle axle loads are reduced for pavement design purposes.
GB Illuminance E(lux)
Estuary Ground Beam The areal density of the luminous flux incident at a point on a surface. It is the quotient of the
1) The region near a river mouth in which the fresh water of the river mixes with the salt water luminous flux by the area of the surface when the latter is uniformly illuminated.
Geotextile
of the sea and which received both fluvial and littoral sediment influx.
A synthetic fabric which may be woven or non-woven used as a filter. IP
2) The part of a river that is affected by tides.
GGBFS Protection number for the resistance to the ingress of dirt and water.
Eustatic Ground granulated blast furnace slag. ITS
Changes in sea level brought about by climate changes.
Glare Intelligent Transport Systems
Expressway The sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that is sufficiently greater than Joint
A dual carriageway high speed National or Arterial Route having grade separated junctions the luminance to which the eyes are adapted to cause annoyance, discomfort, or less in visual A structural discontinuity between two elements. The structural members used to frame or
and full access control. performance and visibility. form the discontinuity.
Fr Gore Area Joint Seal
Froude number. Area between merge/diverge ramps and mainline close to the mainline carriageway which A poured or preformed elastomeric device designed to prevent moisture and debris from
Facies contains the Painted Nose (the point where ramp and mainline carriageway edges diverge/ penetrating joints.
The sum total of the characteristics of a rock including when, where and how it formed and merge), Physical Nose, and Gore Nose. The Gore Nose is formed where the triangular shaped
Kaolinite
what it looks like. highway surfacing is stopped between the mainline and ramp shoulder edges.
Potassium Aluminum Silicate clay material.
Falsework GRP
Karstification
Any temporary structure used to support a permanent structure while it is not self-supporting. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics
Holes and cavities in limestone brought about by solution.

VIII
 Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

Klippe Maintenance factor (lighting) Mounting height

Isolated erosional remnant of a nappe in thrusted terrains. A factor used to denote the ratio of the illuminance on a given area after a period of time to Nominal vertical distance between the geometric centre of a road lighting luminaire and the
the initial illuminance on the same area surface of the road.
Lagoon
A shallow body of water, like a pond or sound, partly or completely separated from the sea by Major Road Movable Bearing
a barrier island or reef. Sometimes connected to the sea via an inlet. The road which is assigned a permanent priority of traffic movement over that of the other A bearing that facilitates differential horizontal translation of abutting structural elements in a
road or roads longitudinal and/or lateral direction. It may or may not provide for rotation.
Lamp life
The average life of a lamp defined as the total operating hours at which 80 percent of any Mandatory Standards msa (pavement design)
group of lamps is still operating. Essential for achievement of overall design objectives - indicated by the use of the word million (equivalent) standard axles
“must” or “shall”
Lamp restrike time Multirotational Bearing
The amount of time it takes for a hot lamp to reestablish the arc discharge. Mature Highway A bearing consisting of a rotational element of the pot type, disc type, or spherical type when
A highway that has been established for some time and unlikey to change significantly in used as a fixed bearing and that may, in addition, have sliding surfaces to accommodate
LEED (environmental)
functional and operational characteristics. translation when used as an expansion bearing. Translation may be constrained to a specified
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.
direction by guide bars.
MCP
Lithologies
Manual of Concrete Practice (by ACI) MUTCD
Type of sedimentary rock, e.g. Sandstone, clay, limestone, etc.
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
Mean High Water (MHW)
Littoral
The average height of the high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of MWL
Coastal area between high and low tide.
observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the results Mean Water Level.
Loess to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All high water heights are included in the average
n/a
Deposit of windblown silt. where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Only the higher high water heights are
Not applicable/not appropriate.
Longitudinal included in the average where the type of tide is diurnal. So determined, mean high water in
the latter case is the same as mean higher high water. Nappe
Parallel with the main span direction of a structure
Large fold with basalt thrust plane.
Longitudinal Joint Mean Higher High Water(MHHW)
The average height of the higher high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of Nearshore
A joint parallel to the span direction of a structure provided to separate a deck or superstructure
observation, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the result to 1) In beach terminology an indefinite zone extending seaward from the shoreline well beyond
into two independent structural systems
the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. the breaker zone.
Longshore 2) The zone which extends from the swash zone to the position marking the start of the
Parallel to and near the shoreline; alongshore. Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW)
offshore zone, typically at water depths of the order of 20 m.
The average height of the lower low waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of
LoS observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the results to Nearside
Level of Service (abbrev) A measure of the conditions experienced by a driver resulting from the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. Frequently abbreviated to lower low water. The road edge to the right of the driver.
a combination of the characteristics of the road and the traffic level.
Mean Lower Water (MLW) NMU
LPS The average height of the low waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of observations, Non-motorised user.
Low pressure sodium corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the results to the equivalent
NPV
LRFD of a mean 19-year value. All low water heights are included in the average where the type of
Net Present Value.
Load-and-resistance factor design. tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Only lower low water heights are included in the average
where the type of tide is diurnal. So determined, mean low water in the latter case is the same ODOT
Lumen lm as mean lower low water. Oregon Department of Transportation.
The luminous flux emitted within a unit solid angle (one steradian) by a point source having a
uniform luminous intensity of one candela. Mean Sea Level Oedometer
The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period, Apparatus for measuring compressibility or consolidation characteristics of clay samples.
Luminaire usually determined from hourly height readings. Not necessarily equal to mean tide level.
A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the parts designed to Offset
distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps and to connect the lamps to the power Median (1) General term relating to curbs - distance from edge of lane to curb face - variable for shy-
supply. The continuous island at the centre of a dual carriageway. distance, parking, or safety clearance at islands etc.

Luminaire efficiency Median (2) Offshore

The ratio of luminous flux emitted by a luminaire to that emitted by the lamp (s) used therein. In roundabout design, the description of the central line formed equidistantly between two 1) In beach terminology, the comparatively flat zone of variable width, extending from the
boundaries. shoreface to the edge of the continental shelf. It is continually submerged.
Luminance L (cd/m2) 2) The direction seaward from the shore.
The quotient of the luminous flux at an element of the surface surrounding the point, and Mesozoic
3) The zone beyond the nearshore zone where sediment motion induced by waves alone
propagated in directions defined by an elementary cone containing the given direction, by the Division of geological time (70 to 225 million years ago).
effectively ceases and where the influence of the sea bed on wave action is small in
product of the solid angle of the cone and area of the orthogonal projection of the element Metal Rocker or Roller Bearing comparison with the effect of wind.
of the surface on a plane perpendicular to the given direction. The luminous flux may be A bearing that carries vertical load by direct contact between two metal surfaces and that 4) The breaker zone directly seaward of the low tide line.
leaving, passing through, and/or arriving at the surface. Note: In common usage, the term accommodates movement by rocking or rolling of one surface with respect to the other.
“brightness” usually refers to the strength of sensation which results from viewing surfaces Offside
or spaces from which light comes to the eye. This sensation is determined in part by the Metamorphics The road edge to the left of the driver.
definitely measurable luminance defined above and in part by conditions of observation such Rocks, either sedimentary or Igneous, that have been altered by heat and/or temperature.
Onshore
as the state of adaptation of the eye. Metastable A direction landward from the sea.
Maintained (lighting) Out of equilibrium with the environment. Potentially unstable.
Overburden
In-service, diminished luminance or illuminance by the maintenance factor. Minor Road Cohesionless deposits that overlie sound rock.
Maintenance Factor The road or roads that have to give priority over major roads.
Overhang
A factor used to denote the ratio of the illuminance on a given area after a period of time to the initial Monochromatic The horizontal distance between a vertical line passing through the luminaire center and the
illuminance on the same area Light with a single frequency. nearest curb of the road.

IX
 Overseeing Authority Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Revetment
General term for an Authority that has jurisdiction or power of approval over a particular Also known as Teflon. A layer or layers of stone, concrete, etc., to protect an embankment, or shore structure, against
aspect of all or part of the highway design work. This can be the Client who has commissioned erosion by wave action or currents.
Post-Tensioning
the design or other bodies such as the RoP, Enviromental Agencies etc.
The process when the prestressing steel is tensioned after the concrete has hardened. The RipRap
Overtopping tendons are installed in voids or ducts within the concrete and are stressed and anchored A protective layer or facing of quarrystone, usually well graded within a wide size limit,
Passing of water over the top of a structure as a result of wave runup or surge action. against the concrete after the development of the required concrete strength. As a final randomly placed to prevent erosion, scour, or sloughing of an embankment or bluff; also the
operation under this method, the voids or ducts are pressure-grouted stone so used.
Pay Zone
Formation which yields oil economically. Pot Bearing Road Design Group
A bearing that carries vertical load by compression of an elastomeric disc confined in a steel Design Catergory of a road based on the operational characterstic of a highway in a particular
pc
cylinder and that accommodates rotation by deformation of the disc. functional classification.
Passenger car.
Poured Seal Road User Safety Audit (RUSA)
PC
A seal made from a material that remains flexible (asphaltic, polymeric, or other), which is An independent check at key design stages in the design process on the safety of a highway/
Portland cement.
poured into the gap of a joint and is expected to adhere to the sides of the gap. Typically used junction design from the road users perspective.
PCC only when expected total range of movement is less than 40 mm.
Road/Roadway
Portland Cement Concrete.
Practical Capacity (traffic) Term which is interchangable with the word “highway.”
PCC A level of capacity below the theoretical saturation capacity, which makes due allowance for
Routes
Police Control Center. actual site realities.
A length of road which may be made up of several connected linear sections of road, but with
pcu Prepared Sub-grade a common functional classification.
Passenger car unit - the equivalent traffic effect of a single passenger car. Top layer of sub-grade, directly below the pavement structure, using selected material,
ROW/RoW
Peak Period compacted to a design strength for pavement support.
Highway Right of Way.
The wave period determined by the inverse of the frequency at which the wave energy Prestressing Steel
RQD
spectrum reaches it’s maximum. Steel wire, strand or bars used for prestressing of concrete.
Rock Quality Designation (an indicator of rock fracturing).
Pedestrian Refuge Prestressing System
R-table
A raised island, protected by non-mountable curb, of sufficient size, purpose built or part of a A proprietary system of applying prestress and includes anchorages, couplers and jacks but
A table for a particular pavement type which provides reduced luminance coefficients in terms
channelization scheme, providing a safe standing area for pedestrians. does not necessarily include prestressing steel and cable ducts.
of the variable angles, beta and tan gamma.
Penninsula Pretensioning
Run-up
An elongated body of land nearly surrounded by water and connected to a larger body of land The process when the prestressing steel is tensioned against independent anchorages before
The upper level reached by a wave on a beach or coastal structure, relative to Stillwater level.
by a neck or isthmus. the concrete is placed round it. The prestressing strand or tendons are stressed prior to being
embedded in the concrete placed for the member. After the concrete has attained the required SI
Peridotite
Magnesium silicate mineral. Major constituent of the earth’s upper mantle. strength, the prestressing force is released from the external anchorages and transferred, by Long-term period spectral acceleration coefficient
bond, into the concrete.
Permian Sabkhahs
Division of Geological time (about 250 million years before present). Protected Zone Low lying salt flat.
Structural members or portions of structural members indicated as “Protected Zone” on
Permissive Standards Sand Bar
Drawings. Connections of structural and nonstructural elements to protected zones are
All standards other than mandatory or advisory are indicated by the word “may” These are A submerged or emerged embankment of sand built on the sea floor in shallow water by
limited.
permissive and no requirement for application is intended. waves and currents.
Proterozoic
PFA Sand Pit
A period of Earth’s history that began 2.5 billion years ago and ended 543 million years ago.
Pulverised Fuel Ash A narrow sand embankment, created by an excess of deposition at its seaward terminus, with
PTFE its distal end (the end away from the point of origin) terminating in open water.
PGA Polytetrafluorethylene also known as Teflon.
Peak ground acceleration for earthquake design of structures. Saturation Capacity
PTFE Sliding Bearing Theoretical maximum traffic flow capacity.
Piedmont A bearing that carries vertical load through contact stresses between a PTFE sheet and its
Literally “mountain foot” - area of land at foot of mountain. SBP
mating surface, and that permits movements by sliding of the PTFE over the mating surface.
Shoulder Break Point - point at which embankment side slope surface and highway verge
Plain Elastomeric Pad (PEP) RCBC surface intersect.
A pad made exclusively of elastomer, which provides limited translation and rotation. Reinforced Concrete Box Culvert.
SBSNB
Plastic Concrete RCSC Said Bin Sultan Naval Base
Term to describe stiff or semi hardened concrete. Research Council on Structural Connections.
Scaffold
Platoon (traffic) Reef A temporarily provided structure that provides access, or on or from which persons work, or
A group of bunched vehicles travelling together, usually related to traffic signal operation Offshore consolidated rock. Often refers to coral fringing reefs in tropical waters. that is used to support material, plant or equipment.
close to capacity.
Relaxation (highway design) SCM
Pleistocene Undesirable but acceptable drop to a minimum standard. Supplementary cementing materials.
Division of Geological (less than 2 million years before present).
Residual Soil Scoping (environmental)
Pliocene Soil residue that remains after rock has been dissolved or weathered away. A survey and consultation process followed early in a project cycle to establish major
Division of the Tertiary Period environmental concerns on which to base the subsequent environmental studies.
Return Period
PLMCS Average period of time between occurrences of a given event. Scour
Public Lighting Management and Control System Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially at the base or toe of a structure.

X
 Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

Scour Protection Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Translation

Protection against erosion. A bearing made from alternate laminates of steel and elastomer bonded together during Horizontal movement of the bridge in the longitudinal or transverse direction.
vulcanization. Vertical loads are carried by compression of the elastomer. Movements parallel to
SCS Transverse
the reinforcing layers and rotations are accommodated by deformation of the elastomer.
Soil Conservation Services. The horizontal direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the bridge.
Still Water Level (SWL)
SCP TRB
Commonly abbreviated to SWL. The surface of the water if all wave and wind action were to
Supreme Council for Planning. Transportation Research Board (US).
cease.
SDO TRL
Storm Surge
Suhar Development Office. Transport Research Laboratory (UK).
A rise in average (typically over several minutes) water level above the normal astronomical
Sealed Joint tide level due to the action of a storm. Storm surge results from wind stress, atmospheric Tropical Storm
A joint provided with a joint seal. pressure reduction, and wave setup. A tropical cyclone with maximum winds less than 34 m/sec (75 mile per hour). Less strength
when compared with hurricane or typhoon (winds greater than 34 m/sec).
Seismic Waves Structural Steel
Shock waves transmitted through rock. Elements of structural-steel frame, as classified by AISC 303, “Code of Standard Practice for Tsunami
Steel Buildings and Bridges.” A long-period wave caused by an underwater disturbance such as a volcanic eruption or
Seismic-Load-Resisting System
earthquake. Commonly miscalled “tidal wave.”
Elements of structural-steel frame designated as “SLRS” or along grid lines designated as Sub-grade
“SLRS” on Drawings, including columns, beams, and braces and their connections. Embankment fill (commomn material) compacted normally. Ultramafic
Igneous with low silica content (less than 45%).
Serpentine Subsidiary roads
Alteration product of Peridotite brought about by considerable reduction in temperature and Access roads, residential roads and associated pedestrians areas, foot paths and cycle tracks. UTC
pressure. Urban Traffic Control
Subway
Setback An underground passage for pedestrians. v/c ratio
The lateral offset of the pole from the face of the curb or edge of the travelled way. Volume to Capacity ratio (abbrev) The ratio of the volume of traffic flowing on a road against
Superelevation
a measure of capacity.
Shallow Water Lateral slope applied to a road to assist drivers negotiate curves.
1) Commonly, water of such a depth that surface waves are noticeably affected by bottom Vented Floodway
Surf Zone
topography. As floodway but elevated and supported on culverts to allow the wadi to flow beneath road,
The zone of wave action extending from the water line (which varies with tide, surge, set-up,
2) More strictly, in hydrodynamics with regard to progressive gravity waves, water in which as well as overtop in more severe floods.
etc.) out to the most seaward point of the zone (breaker zone) at which waves approaching the
the depth is less than 1/25 the wavelength.
coastline commence breaking, typically in water depths of between 5 to 10 meters. VOC
Shore Vehicle Operating Cost.
SS
The narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea, including the zone between high
Short - term period spectral acceleration cofficient Waterproofed Joints
and low water lines. A shore of unconsolidated material is usually called a beach. Also used in
Open or closed joints that have been provided with some form of trough below the joint to
a general sense to mean the coastal area (e.g., to live at the shore). Swash Zone contain and conduct deck discharge away from the structure.
Shoreline The zone of wave action on the beach, which moves as water levels vary, extending from the
limit of run-down to the limit of runup. Wave Height
The intersection of a specified plane of water with the shore or beach (e.g., the high water
The vertical distance between a crest and the preceding trough.
shoreline would be the intersection of the plane of mean high water with the shore or beach). Tendon (structural)
The line delineating the shoreline on National Ocean Service nautical charts and surveys Steel cable consisting of a bunch of grouped steel wires. Wave Period
approximates the mean high water line. The time for a wave crest to traverse a distance equal to one wavelength. The time for two
Thrust successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
SI A low angle reverse fault.
International System of units Wavelength
TI (Threshold Increment) The horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves measured
Significant Wave Height Measure of loss of visibility caused by the disability glare from the road lighting luminaires. perpendicular to the crest.
The primary measure of energy in a sea state. that is calculated either as the average height of
Tidal Current Wetlands
the one-third highest waves or via energy density spectral analysis methods.
The alternating horizontal movement of water associated with the rise and fall of the tide Lands whose saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil
Sinkholes caused by the astronomical tide-producing forces. development and the types of plant and animal communities that live in the soil and on its
Solution holes in limestone. surface (e.g. Mangrove forests).
Tidal Inlet
Sliding Bearing 1) An inlet maintained by tidal flow.
A bearing that accommodates movement by translation of one surface relative to another. 2) Loosely, any inlet in which the tide ebbs and flows.

SLRS Tide
Seismic-load-resisting system. The periodic rising and falling of the water that results from gravitational attraction of the
Moon and Sun and other astronomical bodies acting upon the rotating Earth. Although the
SOL
accompanying horizontal movement of the water resulting from the same cause is also
Setting Out Line.
sometimes called the tide, it is preferable to designate the latter as tidal current, reserving the
SPT name tide for the vertical movement.
Standard Penetration Test.
Toe
SRTL Lowest part of a revetment or seawall slope, generally forming the transition to the seabed.
Segregated Right Turn Lane (used to improve traffic carrying efficiency of roundabouts).
Tower
SSD A composite structure, usually tall, used principally to carry vertical loading.
Stopping Sight distance.
Traffic Mix
SSPC The composition of traffic in respect of their vehicular classification.
Structural Steel Painting Council.

XI
 1
Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Highway Strategy
TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 HIGHWAY STRATEGY AND ROAD HIERARCHY 1-1 Figure 1.1.2.1: Rural Route Hierarchy 1-1
1.1.1 Introduction 1-1 Figure 1.1.2.2: Urban Route Hierarchyt 1-1
1.1.2 Route Classification 1-1 Figure 1.2.1.1: Logic Flow Diagram for Design Group
Selection 1-4
1.2 ROAD DESIGN STRATEGY 1-3
1.2.1 The Basis of Design 1-3
1.2.2 Design Year Level of Service 1-5
LIST OF TABLES

1.3 ANCILLARY FEATURES 1-6 Table 1.1.2.1: Functional Route Classification Descriptions 1-1
1.3.1 General 1-6 Table 1.1.2.2: Typical Operational Characteristics in a Mature
1.3.2 National Routes 1-6 Highway Network 1-2
1.3.3 Arterial Routes 1-6 Table 1.1.2.3: Operational Characteristics of Route
1.3.4 Secondary Routes 1-6 Classifications 1-2
1.3.5 Distributor Routes 1-6 Table 1.2.1.1: Design Group Definition 1-3
1.3.6 Access Routes 1-7 Table 1.2.1.2A: Definition of National Route Design Groups 1-4
Table 1.2.1.2B: Definition of Arterial Route Design Groups 1-4
1.4 REFERENCES 1-7
Table 1.2.1.2C: Definition of Secondary Route Design Groups 1-5
Table 1.2.1.2D: Definition of Distributor Route Design Groups 1-5
Table 1.2.1.2E: Definition of Access Route Design Groups 1-5
Table 1.2.2.1: Design Year Levels of Service 1-5
1.4
 Highway Strategy
Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT
1
1.1 HIGHWAY STRATEGY AND ROAD HIERARCHY

1.1.1 Introduction

1.1.1.1 The overall highway network in Oman is made up of links, many of which have quite separate and
recognisable purposes and characteristics. These purposes are largely, but not exclusively, related to the types
of travel for which they provide.

1.1.1.2 Considering the country in its entirety, and as part of land mass of the Arabian Peninsula, travel
demand ranges from the short distance local, inter-urban or village to village, to the long distance international
or pan-national. While neither of these extremes can be considered as more important than the other to the
individual traveller, it is clear that large sections of the national economy are dependent on the long distance
transport of goods and (to some extent) people over concentrated routes.

1.1.1.3 Other important functions served by individual routes are the provision of a corridor for the routing
of utilities and of space and light between buildings in the urban environment.

1.1.2 Route Classification

1.1.2.1 In purely transportation terms, it is possible to categorize a route within the network as being :
Figure 1.1.2.2 Urban Route Hierarchy
1. For long distance high speed journeys
2. For national interregional journeys and those between important regional and urban areas
3. For journeys within regional and urban areas 1.1.2.3 A functional road classification system is based upon the strategic functions met by each route
4. For local journeys made up of one or more links in the network. The classification of road links on the basis of such functional
5. For access to individual destinations. considerations has a number of advantages for planning, design, route signing and mapping, which include:

1.1.2.2 In practice many routes serve more than one journey type but are categorized, designed and signed n The consideration of an individual link as part of a longer route or chain of links to ensure a continuity of
on the basis of their most strategic usage. The level ascribed to a route is always that relating to its “highest” construction standards and driver experience along that route.
function in terms of dealing with through traffic. Figures 1.1.2.1 and 1.1.2.2 show diagrammatically the way in n The consideration of the functional importance of a route in whole or in part, independently of the traffic
which the various classifications serve rural and urban areas. flow that a section of it happens to carry.

The operational aspects of the performance or characteristics of a route are not considered at all as part of the
definition of the functional classification of a route. Table 1.1.2.1 provides the functional classification for roads in
Oman.

Route Classification Functional Description

Specialist long distance high speed routes between the most important centres (including ports and airports) and
to major or strategic international border crossings. National Routes form a self contained coherent national
National Routes
network providing rapid and safe transportation between key centres throughout the Country, providing high
design speeds and high quality cross sections and alignments.
Routes between major centres, major centres and National Routes and important links between National Routes.
Together, Arterial and National Routes form a self contained coherent network providing interconnected medium
Arterial Routes
distance links across the Country, providing access to regional and local areas. Rural Arterial Routes may bypass
towns if traffic levels justify.
Regional or area networks made up of links between towns and between towns and Arterial Routes. They
Secondary Routes
provide some access to local areas and form urban routes between major traffic generators.
Local networks which link identifiable traffic generators such as urban zones, villages and major villages and
Distributor Routes Secondary or Arterial Routes. A service road to a higher classified route may form a part of the Distributor Route
network.
Access Routes Routes to individual settlements or commercial centres and roadside developments

Figure 1.1.2.1 Rural Route Hierarchy Table 1.1.2.1 Functional Route Classification Descriptions

1.1
 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Highway Strategy Highway Design Standards 2017

1.1.2.4 Such a functional classification system should be the result of a study of the complete national Route Typical Mature Operational Characteristics
road network, which should also provide a comprehensive road numbering system. This is based upon the Classification
classification of individual routes. Route classification designations are equally applicable to the rural and No frontage development or direct access to property or to the local Distributor or Access Route system. No provision
for pedestrians. Grade separated junctions with Arterial Routes spaced sufficiently far apart that through traffic is
urban situation and it is clear that the classification of a particular route is not sufficient to identify the design not affected by local commuter traffic. Routes normally bypass urban areas, but where they must pass through or
standards which should be applied to individual parts of that route. close to towns they do not form part of the local road system. National Routes may prohibit access to certain types
National
of traffic. (eg. Pedestrians, cyclists, animal drawn vehicles, ridden animals, specialist invalid carriages or vehicles
with an engine size of less than 50 cc.) National Routes require service areas at regular intervals which provide fuel,
1.1.2.5 In parts of a highway network which have been in use for a number of years, roads of a similar emergency repair facilities together with opportunities for rest and relaxation, food and drink and depots for police,
functional classification tend to share similar operational characteristics, while in parts which are still developing, emergency vehicles and road maintenance facilities.
some roads of a particular functional classification may have operational characteristics which are more typical Grade separated or at-grade junctions with National Routes or with Secondary Routes. If roadside development is
Arterial
allowed on dual carriageways, it is accessed from the rear or from service roads which link to the local road network.
of a lower classification. This phenomenon can cause confusion in terms of a road’s classification. Operational
Junctions with Arterial Routes may be either grade separated or at-grade depending upon traffic requirements.
characteristics are a transient situation which can be altered by highway improvement work, while functional Secondary
Junctions with Distributor or Access Routes are normally at-grade.
classification is based upon factors external to the network and tends to remain unchanged over relatively long
Distributor Junctions with Access Routes, Secondary Routes or (exceptionally) Arterial Routes are normally at-grade.
periods of time. For this reason a system of functional classification as a basis for the long term management
At-grade junctions with other Access Routes, Distributor and (exceptionally) Secondary Routes. Direct access is
of the total road network is preferred. normally provided to all roadside property. Details of positioning and standards of such access may be subject to
Access
approval by the Client or Overseeing Authority. Curbside parking is normally allowed. May form part of a service bus
1.1.2.6 Table 1.1.2.2 sets out some of the operational characteristics of functionally classified roads in a mature route. A service road to a higher classification route may be an Access Route.

highway network, whilst Table 1.1.2.3 illustrates the range of functions that particular road categories might assume. Table 1.1.2.2 Typical Operational Characteristics in a Mature Highway Network

Parameter Pedestrian Areas Access Distributor Routes Secondary Routes Arterial Routes National Routes
Routes
Main Activities Walking Walking Connect villages, village clusters or urban localities. Connect regional and urban population centres. Long/ Long distance high speed travel for passenger
Meeting Vehicle Access Vehicle movements near beginning and end of longer trips. medium distance traffic passing through population centres. cars, commercial vehicles and public transport.
Trading Goods delivery Public transport routes. May serve military and strategic purposes.
Servicing Properties
Possible local bus route
Pedestrians Main Activity Considerable freedom Minimal outside village and urban areas. Controlled where Minimal. Segregation using bridges/underpasses, barriers, None. Pedestrians should be prohibited from access
Pedestrian priority possible with barriers and pedestrian crossings separated pedestrian routes etc. to National Route corridors unless confined to fenced
Complete freedom walkways which are well separated from vehicular traffic.

Parking None Considerable Considerable – Some. In villages and urban areas in off road parking lay- None None
– roadside preferably in marked bys
parking bays in urban/village
areas
Goods vehicles Normally none. Delivery of goods and services only Minimal through trips Free movement. Free movement.
May be time limited Limitations on stopping, No stopping.
access. – only for delivery loading/unloading
to trading premises.
Other vehicle access to Emergency vehicles only Main activity Some Limited to significant traffic generators only. For rural routes None except to major traffic generators or existing isolated None
roadside developments access limited to routes with traffic flows of less than 200 properties – with special permission.
veh/h.
Local Traffic movements None Access to Main activity Main activity - Linking to Arterial Routes Some in village and urban areas. None. Junction spacing and access control designed
properties Some access to Very little in rural areas to discourage local traffic. (Alternative routes must be
properties provided and signed.)

Through Traffic movements None None Rural medium distance traffic. Main activity Main activity.
No stopping
Max Posted Speed Limits 10 km/h where permitted 40 km/h in 60 km/h in urban areas 60 to 80 km/h in urban areas 60 to 100 km/h in village/urban areas. 80 to 100 km/h in rural 80 to 100 km/h in urban areas
urban areas 80 km/h in rural areas 80 to 100 km/h in rural areas areas. For dual carriageways with controlled access 100 100 to 120 km/h in rural areas
60 km/h in km/h.
rural areas

Table 1.1.2.3 Operational Characteristics of Route Classifications

1.2
 Highway Strategy
Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT
1
1.2 ROAD DESIGN STRATEGY 1.2.1.3 The following items should be noted in respect of Table 1.2.1.1:

n Terrain
1.2.1 The Basis of Design a) In level terrain, sight distances as governed by both horizontal and vertical alignment are generally long, or
can be made so without undue difficulty. In rolling terrain natural slopes can rise above and fall below the
1.2.1.1 Individual links on a particular route may carry different traffic levels, may pass through different
road alignment. Occasional steep grades may require earthworks to maintain alignment standards.
terrain or through urban or rural environments. The task of the road designer is to provide a road which fits with
its classification and provides a reasonably consistent “driver experience”, while at the same time responding b) In mountainous terrain natural grade changes are pronounced or severe and earthworks are frequently
to the different design conditions which result from the varying traffic levels, terrain and environment. required to maintain alignment standards.
c) Care should be taken to provide drivers with a reasonably consistent “driver experience” in their passage
1.2.1.2 The approach taken in this Standards Document is to establish a group of design categories within along a route. Individual short lengths which vary in character from the route as a whole should be designed
each route classification. These categories take into account Design Conditions such as those shown in Table carefully to preserve as far as possible this consistent experience. This may involve the choice of a Design
1.2.1.1. These individual categories of design within each route classification are termed “DESIGN GROUPS”. Group for a section of road which is more attuned to the adjacent lengths of the route than to the section
under design.

Serial n Environment
Design Variables Design Group Parameters Definitions Procedure for Design Group Selection
No.
a) Rural and urban areas possess different characteristics in terms of land use, population, development and
National
road pattern density. Urban areas are those in which significant numbers of people live and work and
Arterial
which provide shops and support services for this population. Rural areas include smaller villages which
Select appropriate design features from
1 Route Classification Secondary As Table 1.1.2.1 provide housing but little in the way of support services. In marginal situations, cognizance should be taken
tables
Distributor of the overall “feel” of the area through which a road will pass. Allowance should be made for expected
Access population figures and density at and beyond the design year.
Flat/Rolling Select appropriate design features from b) It should be noted that the subdivision of these factors into individual design conditions is of necessity
2 Terrain See para. 1.2.1.3
Mountainous tables
somewhat coarse. This is to limit the number of Design Groups which result from different combinations
Rural or Urban Rural Select appropriate design features from of these design conditions to a manageable level.
3 See para. 1.2.1.3
Environment Urban tables
n Traffic
4 Traffic Flow Traffic Flow Design year flow See Table 1.2.1.2 A to E a) This is based on the flow (service volume) for the design year which corresponds to the design level of
service (LoS).
5 Traffic Mix Traffic Mix Design year mix Percentage heavy trucks
b) It should be noted that the consideration of design year level of service is not always appropriate as a basis
a. Not allowed or expected. of design. In a mature situation which has seen high traffic flows for some time and significant further
Whether on-road growth is anticipated, it may be more appropriate to consider both first year and whole life rates of return
Whether on-road parking is b. Not allowed but expected
6 parking is expected Yes/No
expected or allowed. for a range of provided traffic capacities which can be provided within available budget and land take
or allowed.
c. Allowed
envelopes.
A No access allowed Select appropriate design n Adjustment to traffic capacity
Access allowed from Select appropriate design and/or provide a) Tables 3.1.2.3 and 3.1.3.4 in Section 3 (Road Cross Sections and Capacities) set out a number of adjustments
The achievable level B
7 Service roads service roads
of Access Control to traffic capacity which result from departures from “ideal conditions”.These adjustments should be taken
Direct access allowed.
C (At the discretion of the Select appropriate design into account when reaching decisions on the cross section necessary for a particular link design.
Overseeing Authority.)
Consider in conjunction with Access
Whether roadside Control.
8 development is Yes/No Yes/No Consider possibility of future development
allowed and reserve corridor width for service
roads if necessary
Military or Strategic Beyond the scope of this document. Client Authority to select Design Group appropriate to
9
significance. requirements or define alternative design standards.

Table 1.2.1.1 Design Group Definition

1.3
 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Highway Strategy Highway Strategy Highway Design Standards 2017

1.2.1.4 Each Design Group is identified by the alphabetic letter appropriate to the route classification in the design
1.2.1.4 Each Design
road hierarchy, Group
followed byis
a identified
number. Thebyselection
the alphabetic letter appropriate
of the Design Group in any to the route
particular classification
situation in the
follows the Route
route classification Design design
design Design recommended
Recommended Design Service
design Design no.No.
of of no.
No.ofof Min Possible
Possible Frontage
Frontage
road hierarchy, followed
logic set out in Figureby a number.
1.2.1.1, whilst The selection of
the definitions the Design
appropriate to Group in any particular
the individual situation
Design Groups follows
are shown on the Classification
by terrain type. Group speed
group speed max
max Posted loS
Posted LoS Service c/w’s
traffic c/w’s lanes
lanes
in in lane curbside
curbside development
development
by terrain type. km/h
km/h Speed
Speed traffic
flow each width
each width
(m) parking
parking allowed
allowed?
logic Table
set out in Figure
1.2.1.2 A to E.1.2.1.1, whilst the definitions appropriate to the individual Design Groups are shown on (see(see note) km/h
note) km/h flow
pc/hr direction (m)
direction provision
provision?
(onepc/hr
way)
Table 1.2.1.2 A to E.
A1 130 120 B/C (one way) 2
4000 3 3.75 No No
national
National A2 A1 130 130 120 120 B/C B/C 25006350 2 2 2 4 3.75
3.75 No
No No
No
rural flat/rolling
Rural flat/ A3 A2 110 130 100 120 B/C B/C 7004000 1 2 1 3 3.65 No No
rolling 3.75 No No
A4 130 120 B/C 4000 2 3 3.75 No No
national
A3 130 120 B/C 2500 2 2 3.75 No No
A5 130 120 B/C 2400 2 2 3.75 No No
rural mountainous A4 110 100 B/C 700 1 1 3.65 No No
A6 110 100 B/C 300 1 1 3.65 No No
National A5 110-130 100-120 B/C 6350 2 4 3.75 No No
A7 110 100 B/C 3750 2 3 3.65 No No
Rural
national
mountainous A8 A6 110-130
110 100-120
100 B/C B/C 20004000 2 2 2 3 3.75
3.65 No
No No
No
urban flat/rolling
A9 A7 110-130
90 80100-120 B/C B/C 6502500 1 2 1 2 3.75
3.65 No
No No
No
A10 A8 9090-110 8080-100 B/C B/C 3500300 2 1 3 1 3.65
3.65 No
No No
No
national
urban A11 90 80 B/C 1600 2 2 3.65 No No
National A9 110 100 B/C 5600 2 4 3.65 No No
mountainous
Urban flat/ A12 90 80 B/C 300 1 1 3.65 No No
rolling A10 110 100 B/C 3750 2 3 3.65 No No
notes: In cases where single c/w construction may later be upgraded to dual c/w, use dual c/w design speed and standards
A11 110 100 B/C 2000 2 2 3.65 No No
Table 1.2.1.2A Definition of National Route Design Groups
A12 90 80 B/C 650 1 1 3.65 No No
National A13 90 80 B/C 5100 2 4 3.65 No No
Urban
mountainous A14 90 80 B/C 3500 2 3 3.65 No No
A15 90 80 B/C design1600 2 2 3.65 No No
route classification design design recommended design Service no. of no. of Min Possible Frontage
by terrain type. groupA16 speed90 80
max Posted loS B/C traffic300 c/w’s1 lanes in 1 3.65
lane No
curbside No
development
km/h Speed flow each width (m) parking allowed?
Notes: In cases where single c/w construction
(see note) km/h may later be upgraded
pc/hr to dual c/w, use dual c/w design speed
direction and standards
provision?
(one way)
Table 1.2.1.2A Definition of National Route Design Groups
B1 110 100 B/C 4000 2 3 3.65 No No
arterial
B2 110 100 B/C 2500 2 2 3.65 No No
rural flat/rolling
Route Design
B3 Design
110 Recommended
100 Design
B/C Design
800 No.
1 of No.1of Min
3.65 Possible
No Frontage
No
Classification B4Group speed
110 max 100
Posted LoS
C Service
4200 c/w’s
2 lanes
3 in lane
3.65 curbside
No development
No
by terrain type.
arterial km/h Speed traffic each width (m) parking allowed
B5 110
(see km/h100 C 2800
flow 2 2
direction 3.65 No
provision No
rural mountainous
B6 note)
90 80 C pc/hr
350 1 1 3.65 No No
(one way)
B7 110 100 C 4200 2 3 3.65 No No

Arterial
arterial B8 B1 110110 100
100 CB/C 4000
2500 22 23 3.65
3.65 No
No No
No
Rural flat/
urban flat/rolling B9 B2 90110 100
80 CB/C 2500
1100 12 22 3.65
3.65 No
No No
No
rolling
B10 B3 90110 100
80 CB/C 800
650 11 11 3.65
3.65 No
No No
No
B11 B4 90
90-110 80
80-100 CC 4000
4200 22 33 3.65
3.65 No
No No
No
arterial
(DSTF = Design Service Traffic Flow)
Arterial
urban B12 90 80 C 2200 2 2 3.65 No No
(DSTF = Design Service Traffic Flow) Rural
mountainous B5 90-110 80-100 C 2800 2 2 3.65 No No
mountainous B13 70 60 C 400 1 1 3.65 No No
B6 90 80 C 350 1 1 3.65 No No
FigureFigure
1.2.1.11.2.1.1
LogicLogic
FlowFlow Diagram
Diagram forfor DesignGroup
Design GroupSelection
Selection notes: In cases where single c/w construction may later be upgraded to dual c/w, use dual c/w design speed and standards
B7 90-110 80-100 C 4200 2 3 3.65 No No
Table 1.2.1.2B Definition of Arterial Route Design Groups
Arterial B8 90-110 80-100 C 2500 2 2 3.65 No No
Urban flat/
rolling B9 90 80 C 1100 1 2 3.65 No No
B10 90 80 C 650 1 1 3.65 No No
B11 90 80 C 4000 2 3 3.65 No No
Arterial
Urban B12 90 80 C 2200 2 2 3.65 No No
mountainous
B13 70 60 C 400 1 1 3.65 No No
1-4
Notes: In cases where single c/w construction may later be upgraded to dual c/w, use dual c/w design speed and standards
Table 1.2.1.2B Definition of Arterial Route Design Groups

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 Highway Strategy
Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT
1
Route Design Design Recommended Design Design No. of No. of Min Possible Frontage Route Design Design Recommended Design Design No. of No. of Min Possible Frontage
Classification Group speed max Posted LoS Service c/w’s lanes in lane curbside development Classification Group speed max Posted LoS Service c/w’s lanes in lane curbside development
by terrain type. km/h Speed traffic each width parking allowed by terrain km/h Speed traffic each width parking allowed
(see note) km/h flow direction (m) provision type. km/h flow direction (m) provision
pc/hr pc/hr
(one way) (one way)
Secondary C1 110 100 C 2600 2 2 3.65 No No Access
Rural flat/ Rural flat/ E1 70 60 D 650 1 1 3 Yes Yes
rolling C2 110 100 C 700 1 1 3.65 No No rolling
C3 110 100 C 600 1 1 3.65 No Yes Access
Secondary C4 90 80 C/D 2500 2 2 3.65 No No Rural E2 30-70 20-60 D 300 1 1 3 Yes Yes
Rural mountainous
mountainous C5 90 80 C/D 600 1 1 3.65 No No
Access
C6 70-90 60-80 C/D 500 1 1 3.65 No yes Urban flat/ E3 50 40 D 500 1 1 3 Yes Yes
rolling
Secondary C7 90 80 C/D 2750 2 2 3.65 No No
Urban flat/ Access
rolling C8 90 80 C/D 900 1 1 3.65 Yes No Urban E4 50 40 D 200 1 1 3 Yes Yes
C9 90 80 C/D 700 1 1 3.65 Yes Yes mountainous
Secondary C10 70 60 C/D 2500 2 2 3.65 No No Table 1.2.1.2E Definition of Access Route Design Groups
Urban
mountainous C11 70 60 C/D 400 1 1 3.65 Yes Yes or No
1.2.2 Design Year Level of Service
Notes: In cases where single c/w construction may later be upgraded to dual c/w, use dual c/w design speed and standards
Table 1.2.1.2C Definition of Secondary Route Design Groups 1.2.2.1 Level of Service is considered in more detail in Section 3. It is however relevant as part of the
strategy for highway design to define broadly the Levels of Service which the designer should aim to provide.
Route Design Design Recommended Design Design No. of No. of Min Possible Frontage Clearly as a road is designed on the basis of design year traffic flows, it is the LoS under these flows at the
Classification Group speed max Posted LoS Service c/w’s lanes in lane curbside development
by terrain km/h Speed traffic each width parking allowed design year which must be considered. The design levels of service are set out in Table 1.2.2.1. The service
type. km/h flow direction (m) provision flows for design which are shown in Table 1.2.1.2 are based upon these levels of Service.
pc/hr
(one way)
Distributor Design Route Appropriate design year level of service
Rural flat/ D1 90 80 C 600 1 1 3.5 Yes Yes Groups classification
Rural Flat/Rolling Rural Mountainous Urban
rolling
A National B/C B/C B/C
Distributor
Rural D2 50-90 40-80 C/D 450 1 1 3.5 Yes Yes B Arterial B/C C C
mountainous
C Secondary C C/D C/D
Distributor
Urban flat/ D3 70 60 C/D 800 1 1 3.5 Yes Yes D Distributor C C/D C/D
rolling E Access D D D
Distributor
Table 1.2.2.1 Design Year Levels of Service
Urban D4 70 60 C/D 400 1 1 3.5 Yes Yes
mountainous Note : B/C lies between B and C
C/D lies between C and D
Table 1.2.1.2D Definition of Distributor Route Design Groups
In most cases it is appropriate to design for a 20 year period.

1.2.2.2 The design service flow is the traffic flow for use in determining the traffic capacity to be provided
in a road design. The traffic capacity is dependent on factors such as the number of lanes, the provision or
otherwise of crawler lanes, the overtaking provision on two lane roads, junction numbers and layouts and
the level of access control to roadside developments. These factors are amongst the elements of design to
be considered in the design process. The design service flows shown in Tables 1.2.1.2A to E are derived from
information given in Chapters 12 and 13 of the US Highway Capacity Manual and are subject to the assumptions
set out in Section 3. It must be noted that if individual circumstances dictate that these assumptions must be
varied then the corresponding design flows will also vary. The design engineer must ensure that the flows used
as the basis for design capacity are corrected to allow for variations in these assumptions.

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1.3 ANCILLARY FEATURES 1.3.3 Arterial Routes

1.3.3.1 Route signing: Route signing for designated Arterial Routes should be differentiated from other route
1.3.1 General
classifications in some way. This is covered in more detail in Section 19 (Traffic Signs and Road Markings).
1.3.1.1 Road features help drivers identify the characteristics of the road which they are using. This is part
1.3.3.2 Rest areas:The greater frequency of junctions, even on lengths of Arterial Route with grade separated
of the “driver experience”, which assists in providing a perception of a driver’s expectations for other route
junctions, and the generally shorter trip lengths on these roads means that there is seldom a requirement for
characteristics such as the expected range of running speeds. They should therefore be consistent and can
the provision of rest areas as part of the highway layout. Exceptions to this will occasionally be identified
assist in the achievement of an efficient and safe road network.
and in such cases identified, needs should be met. In normal circumstances however the market generated
1.3.1.2 The following subsections characterise the route classification in terms of signing, rest areas and by numbers of travellers wanting rest, fuel, food and drink will ensure that private enterprise will provide the
vertical clearance. necessary facilities in the region of appropriate junctions.

1.3.3.3 Minimum vertical clearances for bridges and other structures over the route should be 6 m in line
1.3.2 National Routes
with the policy for such clearances. All vertical clearances should be signed as being 5.5 m.
1.3.2.1 Route signing: National Routes should be differentiated from other route classifications in ways
other than their cross sections. It is envisaged that route signing will be differentiated in some way. In Oman 1.3.4 Secondary Routes
the GCC colour style of signing is followed whereby most major direction signs on all roads are blue with white
1.3.4.1 Route signing: Route signing for designated Secondary Routes should be differentiated from other
border and lettering. It is not intended that the existing direction sign system should be changed. Direction
route classifications by means of background colour. Such secondary signs should be physically smaller than
signs should show route classification and destination. Signs on roads of National Highway standard should
those for National and Arterial Routes. This “colour - coding” of direction signs has been proved to assist
in addition carry a separate identification sign to strengthen their identification as an addition to the standard
in driver perception of directions for the route they are following, See Section 19 (Traffic Signs and Road
existing style of signing. This is covered in more detail in Section 19 (Traffic Signs and Road Markings).
Markings).
1.3.2.2 Rest areas: Fast travel on routes of this type calls for concentration on the part of drivers. The long
1.3.4.2 No need to plan rest areas where Secondary Routes are integrated with the local network, towns and
distances, often involved together with the apparent “sameness” of the surroundings can lead to fatigue and
villages that it serves. Those trip lengths are shorter in normal circumstances.
a need to stop and rest from time to time. The separation of these routes from the surrounding area, together
with the long distances between junctions means that there is a need to provide rest areas at regular intervals
1.3.5 Distributor Routes
along the route. The incorporation of refreshment, fuel and service facilities, depots for police and highway
maintenance organisations together with the stationing of other emergency vehicles ensures that the amenity 1.3.5.1 Route signing: Route signing on Distributor Routes will not always be necessary. When direction
of the route is maintained for both users and operators. The location of these rest areas is a matter for the signing is required it will be to villages or small towns, to neighbourhoods in larger towns and to specific
design of individual National Highway standard links and while a degree of variety in the architectural and destinations such as tourist sites. Local experience will determine whether or not there is a requirement for
service design of the facilities provided is refreshing to travellers, the internal traffic circulation arrangements signing at a particular junction. Such signs should be of a different background colour to those for Secondary
should be sufficiently uniform to avoid confusing tired drivers who may well access a range of such rest areas. Routes and should use a different and recognizable format.

1.3.2.3 The optimum spacing of these rest areas will depend upon the preferences of travellers and the 1.3.5.2 Vertical clearances for bridges and other structures should be from 4 to 6 m. All vertical clearances
economics of their operation. Initially a distance of no more than 100km is recommended as a reasonable to be signed as 0.5 m less than the actual clearance height.
spacing.

1.3.2.4 Minimum vertical clearances for bridges and other structures over the route should be 6 m in line
with the policy for such clearances. All vertical clearances should be signed as being 5.5 m.

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1.3.6 Access Routes

1.3.6.1 Route signing: Route signing will rarely be required on Access Routes. Where it is provided, it should
use the same format as signing on Distributor Routes.

1.3.6.2 Vertical clearances for bridges and other structures should be from 4 to 6 m vertical clearances.
All vertical clearances to be signed as 0.5 m less than the actual clearance height.

1.4 REFERENCES

1. AASHTO Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2011

2. US Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual 2000

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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Planning Procedures, Scheme Appraisal & Design

TABLE OF CONTENT DRAWINGS

2.1 PLANNING PROCEDURES 2-1 GD 2-01: Conventions (Scale: N.T.S) 2-6

2.1.1 General 2-1 GD 2-01a: General Plan and Profile Layout (scale: N.T.S) 2-7
2.1.2 Scheme Identification 2-1 SD 2-01: Symbols-1 (Scale: N.T.S) 2-8
2.1.3 Utility Information 2-1 SD 2-02: Symbols-2 (Scale: N.T.S) 2-9
2.1.4 Land Acquisition 2-1
GD 2-02: Abbreviations/Acronyms 2-10
2.1.5 Inter-Governmental Consultation 2-2
2.1.6 Public Consultation 2-2

2.2 SCHEME APPRAISAL AND DESIGN 2-2

2.2.1 General 2-2
2.2.2 Feasibility Studies 2-2
2.2.3 Preliminary Design 2-3
2.2.4 Detailed Design 2-4

2.3 TECHNICAL NOTES 2-5

2.3.1 Surveys and Mapping 2-5
2.3.2 Drawing Standards 2-5
2.3.3 Geotechnical Conditions 2-5
2.3.4 Meteorological Conditions 2-5
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2.1 PLANNING PROCEDURES 2.1.3 Utility Information

2.1.3.1 At an early stage in the project cycle, the proponent or designer will need to obtain all information
2.1.1 General
concerning existing and proposed services which could be affected. The main agencies which are responsible
2.1.1.1 A planning framework for organizing the physical development of the Sultanate of Oman is produced for providing this information are noted as follows:
by the Ex-Supreme Committee for Town Planning. Within this framework, Regional Plans for all areas of the n Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
country are developed by the Ministry of Housing.
n Ministry of Agriculture
2.1.1.2 Based on these Regional Plans, the Supreme Council for Planning draws up Town Structure Plans n Public Authority for Electricity and Water
for all areas of the Sultanate. These Town Structure Plans are the detailed basis on which development takes n Telecommunications Companies
place, including road schemes which are implemented by:
n Relevant Municipalities
Location Implementing Agency
n Oil and Gas Companies
1) Within the Governorate of Muscat Muscat Municipality
n Waste Water Companies
2) Within the Governorate of Dhofar Ministry of Transport and Communications and the Office of the
n Other concerned utility providers as necessary
Minister of State and Governor of Dhofar
3) In Suhar Suhar Development Office
2.1.4 Land Acquisition
4) All other places  Ministry of Transport and Communications and the Ministry of
Regional Municipalities and Water Resources 2.1.4.1 It is important to note that information required for land acquisition should be gathered at the
preliminary design stage; however, the formal commencement of land acquisition procedures should not be
2.1.1.3 The Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources, the Office of the Minister of State and
started ahead of formal scheme acceptance from approving parties. This is to avoid abortive land purchases
Governor of Dhofar, and the Ministry of Transport and Communications also look after all roads outside the
for design which is subsequently modified or cancelled.
Governorate of Muscat and the Wilayat of Suhar. The Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources,
however, may carry out road improvements as part of beautification schemes. 2.1.4.2 The Ministry of Housing is responsible for the assembly of land to be acquired and follows the
following procedures:
2.1.2 Scheme Identification n The Employer submits its plans to the Ministry of Housing.

2.1.2.1 20 year Development Plans have been produced for each Region in the Sultanate and are co- n The Ministry of Housing reviews and issues a no-objection letter, if plans are acceptable.
ordinated by the Supreme Council for Planning (SCP). From these Development Plans, a 5 year Plan for the n The plans are submitted to the Ministry of Legal Affairs, which prepares a Royal Decree.
entire country is drawn up. A budget is produced for each Ministry based on the 5 year Plan and a set of
When the Royal Decree is made, the compensation that the landowner will receive is fixed in accordance with
priorities and programs is developed. These are then used by individual Ministries to finalize their 5 year Plan.
standard procedures and scales. Procedures include the agreement of details between affected people and the
2.1.2.2 The identification of schemes can come from a variety of sources, however, the inclusion of schemes relevant compensation committee. When agreement is difficult to reach, formal dispute procedures can be
into a formal priority list to be designed and implemented based exclusively on relative need. Works such as followed by affected persons.
junction improvements and road reconstruction are normally promoted because of traffic congestion, poor
2.1.4.3 Where required, “Land Reference” drawings showing basic details of expropriation areas and other
safety conditions, or road pavement failure.
details should be prepared, accompanied by a land reference schedule noting owners, case numbers and other
2.1.2.3 New areas of traffic generation resulting from land-use development also give rise to requirements information. Preparation of this material requires the co-ordination between all relevant concerned authorities,
and plans for new road links and junctions, whilst the expanding role of tourism in the economy of the particularly important being the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Interior, Municipalities, and the Ministry of
Sultanate is also a factor which impacts on the need to develop an effective road system. Regional initiatives Regional Municipalities and Water Resources.
in the form of GCC proposals for international road networks also influence scheme identification, whilst the
2.1.4.4 From the Land Reference Drawings in every land acquisition case, a “Land Interest” drawing should
general public too, is also sometimes the promoter of road schemes where these relate to local movement and
be prepared giving all details of each individual land acquisition. The information shown on the drawing should
access associated with residential areas.
include the owners name, area or areas of land to be acquired and the unit cost. It must also include any
accommodation works to be carried out within the road construction contract (e.g. replacement of a boundary
wall) and any direct compensation for items such as crops.

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2.1.5 Inter-Governmental Consultation 2.2 SCHEME APPRAISAL AND DESIGN

2.1.5.1 Designers must consult with the following governmental organizations and other relevant concerned
2.2.1 General
authorities during the planning and design stages of any project:
n Ministry of Transport and Communications - DGRLT 2.2.1.1 The conventional stages used for designing a highway scheme consist of the following:

n Royal Oman Police n Phase 1 - Pre-feasibility and/or Feasibility Study

n Ministry of Defense – MOD Engineering Services n Phase 2 - Preliminary Design

n Supreme Council for Planning n Phase 3 - Detailed Design

n Ministry of Housing The scope of each phase is specified by the Client depending on project conditions and in some cases may
n Public Authority for Electricity and Water include particular additions such as the application of Value Engineering and/or Risk Assessment techniques to
design procedures. However, in broad terms, the work which would be covered in each Phase is presented in
n Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
the following sub-sections.
n Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
n Ministry of Agriculture 2.2.2 Feasibility Studies
n Muscat Municipality, Dhofar Municipality and other relevant Municipalities
2.2.2.1 Following scheme identification, a feasibility study should be carried out to determine the viability of
n Ministry of Heritage and Culture
the project in economic, environmental and engineering terms. The feasibility study would investigate alternative
options to establish the most promising solutions for further study and refinement, and establish priorities and
2.1.6 Public Consultation
initial budget estimates. A decision will need to be made regarding the scale of the economic feasibility study
2.1.6.1 Procedures for public consultation can take place, where deemed necessary, for highway projects to be carried out. The preparation of feasibility studies can be particularly time-consuming and use extensive
countrywide. There are, however, some procedural differences in the method of conducting the consultation manpower resources. In some cases, where there are prior uncertainties about the economic viability of a project,
process between regions and between project proponents. For example, in most rural areas, if public a short and quick pre-feasibility study should be carried out. This typically involves an engineer/planner and an
consultation is necessary, it is normally carried out through the Wali of the region concerned who would economist for about one month input per expert. A pre-feasibility study calculates project costs and benefits
consult local representatives. When appropriate, agents from the Employer, together with their designers to a lesser degree of accuracy, say +/- 25% of costs and benefits, than those used in a full feasibility study.
typically meet the Wali and other concerned parties to explain the proposals and clarify any issues arising. The results of a pre-feasibility study however, will indicate whether a full feasibility study should be carried out
and also whether the scope of the project needs to be changed from its original form.
2.1.6.2 Within capital and other large urban areas, information on road project proposals can be conveyed
to the general public, stakeholders, and those directly affected by various means which can include press 2.2.2.2 Typically, the issues listed below would be included in the pre-feasibility or/and feasibility study of a
releases and other news media. General letters can be circulated where necessary to members of the public major highway scheme and need careful consideration. The actual extent of time and effort required to address
who are likely to be directly affected by the works in some way, and can include information such as the extent these issues should be consistent with the relative size and importance of the individual project in question.
and time scale of construction and advance information on road diversions. n Development of alternative options, routes or strategies and establishment of the area of traffic influence,
n Preliminary topographical survey as necessary to supplement available mapping and/or imagery,
2.1.6.3 The amount of public consultation and the procedures involved will be related to the size and
importance of the project, the level of impact likely to be felt, and the respective administrative authority. n 
Initial appraisal of site conditions including land use, development boundaries, terrain, drainage and
Designers will be expected to support and assist the Employer as necessary throughout this entire process. geotechnical characteristics,
n Identification of major utility lines in the project area,
n 
Collection and analysis of existing traffic and axle load data, traffic growth indicators, and relevant
development planning,
n Conducting and analyzing traffic counts and axle load weighing surveys as necessary,
n Prediction of traffic use by traffic type and by time period as necessary over the design life of the project,
n Establishment of initial engineering design criteria and structural concepts,
n Preparation of suitable scale drawings illustrating project horizontal location and other geometric features,
including major engineering features such as bridges and other structures, interchanges, protection works
etc. Typical drawing scales for highway geometric design would depend on circumstances, conventionally
ranging between 1: 5 000 and 1:10 000,

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Appraisal of the advantages and disadvantages of project alternatives for various user groups, economic
n 2.2.2.7 Small scale highway projects, such as individual junction improvement schemes, may not require
benefits of the project, and other non-quantifiable benefits, a full feasibility study and/or economic analysis or a full environmental impact study. In such cases, a reduced
Preliminary appraisal of the environmental impacts of the alternatives and preliminary discussion with the
n feasibility scope would be appropriate which, and when suitable, could be initiated at the start of Phase 2 -
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs. This will include an initial review of the potential for noise and Preliminary Design - as a particular requirement.
air pollution,
Land ownership and the implications of the alternatives considered,
n
2.2.3 Preliminary Design
Use of simple framework evaluation, or log-frame analysis or similar, which considers all relevant project
n 2.2.3.1 Once a scheme has been chosen to progress to preliminary engineering design, the designer will prepare
issues to arrive at a “Preferred Option”. draft preliminary engineering drawings, cost estimates and other documentation to enable the proposals for the
construction of the scheme to be submitted for approval to the Client. Should a scheme have options to be carried
2.2.2.3 Traffic demand predictions are particularly important in this context, notably in areas where urban
through to preliminary design, these options will be developed to the same level of detail. This will enable further
and economic growth in combination with road network development will change travel patterns over the
comparative analysis of options, in a process similar to the feasibility study approach, but with more refined input.
longer term. In such cases, traffic predictions should reflect wherever possible, the network wide conditions
over the life of the scheme by using appropriate modeling techniques via project specific traffic models, or 2.2.3.2 Typical preparatory work could include:
use of existing models or adaptations. This is critical for estimations of lane, junction and other requirements
n A fully controlled topographical survey of the approved design corridor to establish accurate ground
including predictions of commercial vehicle use and subsequently, axle load predictions.
levels and levels and coordinates of other natural and man-made features such as utility corridors, roads
2.2.2.4 It is important to ensure that economic analysis is performed using standard parameters and and urban development. Alternative methods of producing mapping such as using aerial photography
assumptions throughout. This is essential in order to be able to compare the economic indicators between (photogrammetric measures) may be used to produce the same information, which will be ultimately
other road sector projects which may have been analyzed independently and possibly at different dates. transposed into a digital terrain model. This work will be of sufficient standard, scale and accuracy to be
used for both Preliminary Engineering and subsequent Detailed Design and conform to mapping projection
2.2.2.5 The feasibility study must be presented in the form of a full technical report complete with associated system WGS84,
drawings and all necessary calculations and supporting data to justify the selection of the “Preferred Option or n Investigation into all existing and planned utility lines within the project corridors. This will entail visual
Options”. This report should include: inspection by the designer as well as formal enquiries being made to the various utility authorities in
An executive summary in English and Arabic which summarizes the contents of the report, and includes a
n Oman. Should this information be considered inadequate (for whatever reason), the possibility of further
project description, the main issues related to the scheme, alternatives considered and their analysis, and investigation using physical means and/or specialist equipment (e.g. ground radar) will be discussed with
the final economic, engineering and environmental conclusions, their comparison and subsequent choice the Employer,
of a “Preferred Option or Options”, n Investigations into existing land uses, and all current and planned development schemes within the project

nSufficient data and calculations, including traffic survey results and subsequent analysis/modeling to corridor to enable suitable design responses to be made,
enable an independent examination of the technical competency of the work and any assumptions made, n Preliminary soil and geotechnical investigations at critical sites to determine material strength and other

nApproach to the economic analysis, methodology, evaluation period (conventionally 20 years) and properties, (See Section 14 of these standards),
explanation of values and assumptions made in respect of all inputs and parameters, including discount n For cross drainage and road surface drainage, the analysis of catchment areas and runoffs to establish
rates, vehicle operating costs, values of time, accident costs and road maintenance costs etc., drainage requirements and protection works, (see Section 12 of these Standards),
A section presenting the method of evaluation of the alternatives and the reasoning behind the choice of
n
n Preparation of key plans, typical cross sections and other typical drawings, layouts and setting out plans
the “Preferred Option”, and profiles (horizontal scales usually between 1:2000 to 1:2500 and at 1:1000 in difficult terrain or complex
Supporting drawings which clearly show the main aspects of the schemes and highlight issue of particular
n urban conditions), structural and bridge general arrangements and side elevations, preliminary pavement
relevance, design, and other relevant design features associated with the scheme,
An “Engineer’s Cost Estimate” which must be produced to a level of accuracy of at least within + 20% to –
n n Preparation of Right of Way drawings showing existing land ownership boundaries, overlaid with scheme
20% of the true cost. The cost estimation must be as accurate as possible, consistent with the level of detail plans illustrating the potential extent of expropriation required for construction of the scheme,
of the initial design work and all major components of the project must be accounted for and rates listed. n EIA surveys and analysis and subsequent development of mitigation measures to relieve environmental
All cost estimates for the study must be established consistently, using fixed rates to ensure compatibility impacts such as noise pollution with preparation of outline mitigation plans and drawings as necessary,
of results.
n Liaison and consultation with all concerned Ministries, Authorities and other Stakeholders,
2.2.2.6 On completion and acceptance of the feasibility study, based on initial consultations with the Ministry n An “Engineer’s Cost Estimate” reflecting in a BoQ format, the more accurate calculations of quantities and
of Environment and Climate Affairs (MECA), a separate “Scoping Report” covering the preliminary appraisal of recognition of more design detail with the specific intention of providing accuracy in the range of +15% to
environmental impact will be submitted to the MECA in support of an application for an Environmental Permit. -15% of the true cost,
This will determine the type and extent of environmental analysis required during preliminary design to fulfill n Analysis and comparison of options as necessary, using techniques noted in Sub-section 2.2.2 to determine
the requirements for subsequent granting of a Final Environmental Permit. the final “Preferred Option”.

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2.2.3.3 The submission of draft drawings and supporting documents would be accompanied by a Draft 2.2.4 Detailed Design
Preliminary Engineering Report which would provide a full and detailed explanation of the work undertaken on
an item by item basis. A typical report layout would contain some or all of the following sections, supported 2.2.4.1 Following approval by the Client of the preliminary design, the designer will complete the design in

with appropriate technical appendices: detail and produce tender documentation as instructed. This work would consist, typically, of the following:

1) Executive Summary (produced in English and Arabic) Undertaking final geotechnical and other surveys as appropriate,
n

2) Introduction and Project Description Ongoing liaison with all concerned Ministries, Authorities and other Stakeholders,
n

3) Design Parameters Detailed design of all the elements of the works including production of final road layout plans and profiles,
n

4) Mapping/Topographic Surveys conventionally at a horizontal scale of 1:1000 or 1:500 urban and 1:2000 or 1:1000 rural, with a horizontal/
5) Traffic Surveys and Analysis vertical distortion of 1:10 for profiles,

6) Geotechnical Survey and Analysis Drawings showing all project elements sufficient for the Contractor to accurately price and construct the
n

7) Structural Design works,

8) Hydrology and Drainage Design Preparation of all schedules, including bar bending schedules,
n

9) Pavement Design Preparation of Land Ownership and Expropriation Plans,

n

10) Road Lighting and Landscaping Preparation of Appendices to the Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction,
n

11) Environmental Issues Preparation of Special Specifications,

n

12) Cost Estimates Preparation of a Bill of Quantities,

n

13) Appraisal of Options (if appropriate) and Conclusions

Preparation of the Prime Document including Conditions of Contract, Form of Tender etc.
n

2.2.3.4 In addition to the Draft Preliminary Engineering Report, a separate Draft Environmental Impact
2.2.4.2 The detailed design drawings and contract documents should be submitted in draft, accompanied
Assessment Report should be produced which complies with Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
by a Draft Detailed Design Report, which presents the technical aspects of the design in a similar format to the
project scoping requirements and following Employer approval, should be submitted in support of the
Preliminary Engineering Report, in particular the justification for any deviations or other modifications made
application for a Final Environmental Permit.
to the agreed content of that Report. Reporting should include information on environmental design issues
2.2.3.5 At the discretion of the Employer, the Draft Preliminary Engineering Report and drawings should be including environmental engineering such as mitigation works where necessary. It should also contain all the
subject to an independent “Road User Safety Audit” conducted by a Professional Engineer. Subsequent Road relevant calculations and associated assumptions used for the production of the Detailed Design and include
User Safety Audit recommendations would be managed as necessary by the designer. results and analysis of any Detailed Design surveys undertaken.

2.2.3.6 On completion of the preliminary engineering work and approval of the Final Preliminary Engineering 2.2.4.3 At the discretion of the Client Authority, the Draft Detailed Design Report and Drawings should be
Report, the design submission will have addressed and resolved all major technical and environmental issues subject to an independent “ Road User Safety Audit”. The Audit recommendations shall be addressed by the
related to the project, established accurate expropriation needs, and produced a reasonable cost estimate. designer, who shall coordinate with the Royal Oman Police (ROP) during design phase to get approval on the
proposed management and diversions of traffic during construction.

2.2.4.4 Based on the items and measures listed in the detailed bill of quantities, an Engineers Cost Estimate
will be produced by the designer to be within +10% to -10% of the true value.

2.2.4.5 At the end of the Detailed Design Stage, the Client will have sufficient documentation to be able to
move forward towards Tendering and Construction Award.

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2.3 TECHNICAL NOTES 2.3.4 Meteorological Conditions

2.3.4.1 Designers should pay special attention to the development of all infrastructure proposals related
2.3.1 Surveys and Mapping
to hydrology, including design return periods, the sizing of drainage openings and scour protection for
2.3.1.1 At a National level, the responsibility for mapping rests with the Ministry of Defense. Country-wide embankments, culverts and wadi bridges. This is covered in Section 12 of these standards and is particularly
coverage is available at 1:100,000, whilst certain areas are available at larger scales of 1:50,000. Mapping can important in relation to areas that are prone to extreme rainfall events and is one of the major issues to which
be obtained for government projects from the National Survey Authority on production of an official request this Highway Design Standard has been specifically focused.
in the form of a “letter of authority” from the Client.
2.3.4.2 Close liaison with the Directorate General of Water Resources Assessment shall be maintained
2.3.1.2 The SCP also is a source of country-wide base mapping produced directly from satellite photography throughout all stages of Hydrological Study related to road design, from the initial collection of statistical data
with an image based background having a resolution of 0.5m horizontally and 0.2m vertically. to the production of Hydrology Reports, for technical advice and review of reporting.

2.3.1.3 Land ownership information is held by the Ministry of Housing for the entire country except Suhar,
which is held by the Suhar Development Office (SDO).

2.3.1.4 For road planning/design, it is usual that in most cases, topographical surveys will need to be
undertaken. These should be tailored to the individual project, be based on mapping projection system WGS84
and be of sufficient quality and extent to be used for project development stages from preliminary to detailed
design and construction. This is to avoid carrying out extra surveys at later stages.

2.3.2 Drawing Standards

2.3.2.1 These design standards contain, where appropriate, engineering drawings appended to each
Section. Engineering Drawings are classed as “GD” (General Drawings) or “SD” (Standard Drawings). General
Drawings provide broad guidelines for the issues, items or components illustrated and do not imply full and
detailed coverage or information. Standard Drawings are mandatory drawings applicable to the subjects
presented and can form, where appropriate, either partially or fully, a part of the contract design submission.

2.3.2.2 In order to simplify and standardize drawing submissions which accompany the various stages of
the design cycle, the following standard drawings (SDs) are provided at the end of this Section:
n 
GD 2-01 Drawing Standards – illustrating standards for drafting generally and layout treatments for
presentation of road alignment information,
n SD 2-01 and SD 2-02 – illustrating mandatory symbols to be used on all mapping and drawings, And
including, in the case of SD 2-03, a standard title block and frame, on which the presentation of all contract
drawings must be based.
n GD 2-02 – illustrating mandatory drawing/mapping abbreviations/acronyms.

2.3.3 Geotechnical Conditions

2.3.3.1 There are several geotechnical conditions prevailing in Oman that require special consideration,
including expanding clays, gypsum, meta-stable sand and mobile dune areas. These issues are addressed in
Section 14 of these standards entitled “Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations”, and elsewhere in this
document.

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Planning Procedures, Scheme Appraisal & Design Highway Design Standards 2017

GD 2-01 Conventions (Scale: N.T.S)

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GD 2-01a General Plan and Profile Layout (Scale: N.T.S)

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SD 2-01 Symbols-1 (Scale: N.T.S)

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PE: Polyethylene

HP: High Pressure

SD 2-02 Symbols-2 (Scale: N.T.S)

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Planning Procedures, Scheme Appraisal & Design Highway Design Standards 2017

PROPOSED GRADE LEVEL

Y.L. YELLOW LINE

W.L. WHITE LINE

GD 2-02 Abbreviations / Acronyms

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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Road Cross Sections & Capacities

TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 TRAFFIC FLOWS, CAPACITIES AND Figure 3.2.2.1: Rural National Route - Dual Carriagway
LEVELS OF SERVICE 3-1 with Service (Distributor) Road - Design Group A2 3-8

3.1.1 Introduction 3-1 Figure 3.2.2.2: Rural Arterial Route - Single Carriageway -
Design Group B3 3-9
3.1.2 Dual Carriageway Roads 3-1
3.1.3 Single Carriageway Roads - Rural 3-3 Figure 3.2.2.3: Urban Secondary Route - Dual Carriageway
with Service (Distributor) Road - Design Group C7 3-10
3.1.4 Single Carriageway Roads - Urban 3-5
Figure 3.2.2.4: Rural - National & Arterial Routes 3-11
3.2 CROSS SECTIONAL PARAMETERS 3-5 Figure 3.2.2.5: Rural - Secondary & Distributor Routes 3-12
3.2.1 General 3-5 Figure 3.2.2.6: Urban - Dual Three Lane National
3.2.2 Cross Section Information By Design Group 3-18 & Arterial Routes 3-13
3.2.3 Utilities in the Road Corridor 3-18 Figure 3.2.2.7: Urban - Dual Two Lane National
3.2.4 Vertical Clearance to Structures 3-18 & Arterial Routes 3-14
3.2.5 Horizontal Clearances - General 3-18 Figure 3.2.2.8: Urban - Secondary, Distributor
3.2.6 Clearances to Overhead Electrical Lines 3-18 & Access Routes 3-15
Figure 3.2.2.9: Typical Cut and Fill Sections in Soil
3.3 REFERENCES 3-20 Formation 3-16
Figure 3.2.2.10: Typical Cut and Fill Sections
in Rock Formation 3-17
Figure 3.2.4.1: Clearance Envelopes at Structures 3-19
LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1.2.1: National and Arterial Dual Carriageway Lane Table 3.2.2.1 D: Basic Cross Section Details
Flows for Varying Free Flow Speeds and Levels of Service 3-1 for Distributor Routes 3-7
Table 3.1.2.2: Dual Carriageway Free Flow Speeds, Levels Table 3.2.2.1 E: Basic Cross Section Details for Access
of Service and Service Volumes 3-2 Routes 3-7
Table 3.1.2.3: Flow Speed Adjustments from Base Table 3.2.6.1: Minimum Clearances of Electrical
Conditions - Dual Carriageways 3-2 Overhead Lines with respect to Roads 3-18
Table 3.1.2.4: Service Volume Adjustments Applicable
to Dual Carriageway Flows 3-3
Table 3.1.3.1: Single Carriageway and Multilane Rural
Road Levels of Service 3-3
Table 3.1.3.2: Class 1, Rural, 2-Lane Single Carriageway.
Free Flow Speeds, LoS and Service Volumes 3-4
Table 3.1.3.3: Service Volume Assumptions 3-4
Table 3.1.3.4: Single Carriageway Free Flow Speed
Adjustments 3-4
Table 3.1.3.5: Reduction in Ave. Travel Speed related to
the Relative Length of No-Passing Zones 3-4
Table 3.1.4.1: Urban Single Carriageway Levels of Service
Description 3-5
Table 3.1.4.2: Urban Single Carriageway Levels of Service 3-5
Table 3.1.4.3: Examples of Service Volumes for Urban
Roads (subject to the conditions in table 3.1.4.4) 3-5
Table 3.1.4.4: Base Conditions for Urban Figures in
previous Table 3.1.4.3 3-5
Table 3.1.4.5: Lane Utilization Factors for Inclusion in
previous Table 3.1.4.4 3-5
Table 3.2.2.1 A: Basic Cross Section Details
for National Routes 3-6
Table 3.2.2.1 B: Basic Cross Section Details
for Arterial Routes 3-6
Table 3.2.2.1 C: Basic Cross Section Details
for Secondary Routes 3-7
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3.1 TRAFFIC FLOWS, CAPACITIES AND LEVELS OF SERVICE 3.1.2.2 Table 3.1.2.1 applies to high standard roads operating free of influence from the effects of junctions
or other conditions which would affect traffic speeds or volumes. It sets out the observed relationships between
3.1.1 Introduction maximum lane density, maximum speeds, maximum service flow rates and resulting volume/capacity ratios
for Levels of Service A to E for a range of Free Flow Speeds and under ideal conditions. Further explanation of
3.1.1.1 This Section sets out: the terms used in the column headings is set out in the notes below the table.
1) The current Level of Service concepts as they apply to dual and single carriageway roads, linking these
where possible with lane density, speeds and maximum service flow rates. Dual Carriageway National and Arterial Routes (link conditions with no junction effects)

2) Adjustments to be made to these flows and speeds to account for variations in geometry and other Max Density Maximum Speed Max Service Flow Rate
LoS Max V/C ratio
conditions. (pc/km/lane) (km/h) (pc/h/lane)
(Consideration of items 1 and 2, together with knowledge of the road classification and Table 1.2.1.2 A to E in FFS = 120 km/h
Section 1 enables a choice of Design Group to be made for any particular design situation.) A 7 120.0 0.35 840
3) The cross sectional dimensions of each of the Design Groups. B 11 120.0 0.55 1320

4) The cross sectional attributes such as Utilities considerations and the vertical and horizontal clearances C 16 114.6 0.77 1840
required. D 22 99.6 0.92 2200
E 28 85.7 1.00 2400
3.1.1.2 Levels of Service (LoS): Current practice indicates that levels of service should be considered in
FFS = 110 km/h
relation to the configuration of the road being considered, hence separate LoS definitions are given for both
A 7 110.0 0.33 770
dual and single carriageway roads. The tables in this sub-section are derived from information contained in
B 11 110.0 0.51 1210
the US TRB Highway Capacity Manual 2000 (Metric Edition). It should be noted that the figures set out in these
C 16 108.5 0.74 1740
tables relate to a set of specified standard conditions. The figures set out must be adjusted to take account
D 22 97.2 0.91 2135
of prevailing conditions which may differ from these standards. These standard conditions are termed “Base
E 28 83.9 1.00 2350
Conditions”.The necessary adjustment factors are set out in the following sub-sections.
FFS = 100 km/h

3.1.2 Dual Carriageway Roads A 7 100.0 0.30 700

B 11 100.0 0.48 1100
3.1.2.1 Generalized Level of Service definitions for these roads are: C 16 100.0 0.70 1600
a) 
Free flow conditions. Drivers are able to travel at speeds controlled only by the design geometry of the D 22 93.8 0.90 2065
road, their own preference, the capabilities of their vehicle and any enforced speed restrictions. Ability to E 28 82.1 1.00 2300
manoeuvre and change lanes is unaffected by other traffic.
FFS = 90 km/h
b) Free flow conditions although the presence of other vehicles is noticeable. Drivers may have to take note A 7 90.0 0.28 630
of other traffic in making manoeuvres and changing lanes. Minor disruptions are easily absorbed without
B 11 90.0 0.44 990
speed changes.
C 16 90.0 0.64 1440
c) 
Free flow may be impaired by other vehicles from time to time. Travel speeds may be reduced from time
D 22 89.1 0.87 1955
to time. Ability to manoeuvre and change lane impaired by presence of other traffic. Minor disruptions can
E 28 80.4 1.00 2250
give rise to local disturbance and possible interruption of flow.
Table 3.1.2.1 National and Arterial Dual Carriageway Lane Flows for Varying Free Flow Speeds and Levels of Service
d) 
Flow is impaired by traffic density. Ability to manoeuvre and change lanes is restricted. Only very minor
Notes:
disruptions can be absorbed without causing significant breakdown of flow and queuing.
1) O
 verall levels of service are dependent upon link, entry and exit ramps and mainline weaving sections
e) 
Unstable operation at or very near capacity. Vehicles operate with minimal headways necessary for 2) pc/km/lane = Passenger cars per km per lane
maintaining uniform flow. Ability to manoeuvre and change lanes is severely restricted. Even minor 3) V/C ratio = Flow volume to available capacity ratio
4) pc/h/lane = Passenger cars per hour per lane
disruptions cannot be absorbed and cause queues to form reducing Level of Service still further.
5) F
 FS = Free Flow Speed, ie. The average speed of vehicles on a section of road, under low volume conditions when drivers tend
f) 
Forced or breakdown flow. Demand exceeds theoretical capacity causing queues to form upstream. This to run at their desired speeds and are not constrained by control delay. (In the absence of other information base condition free
reduces demand downstream of any notional disruption or random situation to provide Level of Service E flow speed can normally be taken as 85% of design speed).

downstream until some further disruption occurs. Traffic speeds are very low.

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3.1.2.3 Table 3.1.2.2 shows service volumes for Levels of Service A to E for lower standard two and three No. Condition Base Condition Adjustment Required
lane dual carriageways running through a range of terrain types, and under the specific operating conditions
Variation FFS Adjustment
shown at the base of the table. Reduction (km/h)
1 Median Divided carriageways - 0.0
FFS (km/h) No. of Lanes Terrain Service Volumes (veh/h) No Median Undivided carriageways - 2.6
LoS A LoS B LoS C LoS D LoS E 2 Minimum lane width 3.6 m. 3.6 m. 0.0
100 2 Level 1200 1880 2700 3450 4060 3.5 m. 1.0
Rolling 1140 1800 2570 3290 3870 3.4 m. 2.1
Mountainous 1040 1640 2350 3010 3540 3.3 m. 3.1
3 Level 1800 2830 4050 5180 6100 3.2 m. 5.6
Rolling 1710 2700 3860 4940 5810 3.1 m. 8.1
Mountainous 1570 2470 3530 4520 5320 3.0 m. 10.6
80 2 Level 960 1510 2190 2920 3520 3 Minimum right shoulder 1.8 m Consider only 3.6 m. 0.0
Rolling 910 1440 2090 2790 3360 lateral clearance between TOTAL
edge of travel lane and the lateral 3.0 m. 0.6
Mountainous 830 1310 1910 2550 3070 nearest obstacle or object that clearance 2.4 m. 1.5
influences traffic behaviour.
3 Level 1440 2260 3290 4390 5290 1.8 m. 2.1
Rolling 1370 2160 3140 4180 5040 1.2 m. 2 lane – 3.0
Mountainous 1250 1970 2870 3830 4610 “ 3 lane – 2.7
Table 3.1.2.2 Dual Carriageway Free Flow Speeds, Levels of Service and Service Volumes 0.6 m. 2 lane – 5.8
Notes: Operating condition assumptions are: “ 3 lane – 4.5
1) Highway with 100 km/h FFS has 5 access point/km. 0 m. 2 lane – 8.7
2) Highway with 80 km/h FFS has 15 access points /km.
3) Lane width 3.65m.
“ 3 lane – 6.3
4) Shoulder width > 1.8 m. 4 Access point density No. of access points per km. 0 0.0
5) Peak Hour Factor 0.88 6 4.0
6) 5% Trucks
12 8.0
7) All drivers are regular users of the road.
8) Level terrain - Road related earthworks insignificant. Sight distances as governed by terrain are generally long and unobstructed. 18 12.0
9) Rolling terrain - Natural slopes frequently rise above and fall below road grade. Occasional steep slopes offer some restriction to 24 or more 16.0
normal horizontal and vertical alignment.
5 Weather and visibility In areas noted for frequent heavy rain or fog, take local advice
10) Mountainous terrain - Changes in elevation of the ground relative to the road are abrupt and significant.
Table 3.1.2.3 Flow Speed Adjustments from Base Conditions - Dual Carriageways
3.1.2.4 The Free Flow Speeds and Service Volumes shown in Tables 3.1.2.1 and 3.1.2.2 should be modified
to account for variations in the assumed base conditions. The conditions to be taken into account in FFS 3.1.2.6 It should be noted that, where the actual condition exceeds the base condition for any of these base
corrections are the existence or otherwise of a median, minimum lane width, lateral clearances from the edge conditions, the adjustment for the base condition itself should be used.
of the running lanes, the number of access points and the weather and visibility conditions. These factors
Adjusted free flow speed is given by:
together with necessary adjustments are indicated in Table 3.1.2.3.
FFSA = FFSB – AM – AL – AC – AA - AW
3.1.2.5 It should be noted also that service volumes remain largely independent of FFS for Levels of Service
of C and above. This may be relevant to the designer, therefore only at and beyond the design year unless Where : FFSA = Adjusted free flow speed
design Levels of Service of D or below are chosen. The design year Levels of Service for compliance with these FFSB = base free flow speed
Standards are set out in Table 1.2.2.1 in Section 1 of these Standards. AM = Adjustment for median condition
AL = Adjustment for lane width
AC = Adjustment for lateral clearance
AA = Adjustment for access point density
AW = Adjustment for frequent poor visibility and weather conditions

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3.1.2.7 Direct adjustment of flow rate and service volume to take into account the minimum distance 2 Lane Single Carriageways
between interchanges, traffic mix, driver characteristics (in terms of the percentage of drivers who are regular
Multilane
users of the facility) and terrain can be made from Table 3.1.2.4. Class 1 Class 2

Condition Base Condition Adjustment Required LoS Major Inter Town Routes, Access and local Routes. (Includes divided carriageways and undivided
Arterials and daily commuter Major routes through single carriageway multi-lane roads)
For closer spacing consider weaving flow see routes. Roads on which mountainous or difficult
Minimum interchange spacing 3.5 km.
current TRB Highway Capacity Manual drivers expect to travel at terrain.
relatively high speeds. Drivers do not necessarily
Driver characteristics For DPF = 0.5 expect to travel at high speed.
All are regular users. DPF = 1
(Driver Population Factor) allow 10% reduction
Traffic able to travel at its desired speed. Traffic speeds may fall to 80 Free flow conditions. Virtually no effect from other
Convert demand to equivalent pcu figure from Average speeds of 90 km/h. Passing to 90 km/h but drivers are vehicles. Minor disruptions to flow are easily
Traffic mix Passenger cars only demand is below passing capacity and not delayed by slow moving absorbed without changes to travel speeds.
design year traffic mix
platoons of 3 or more vehicles are rare. platoons for more than 40% of
A
Drivers are delayed for no more than 35% their travel time.
Terrain Level (grades <= 2%) See service volumes in Table 3.1.2.2 of their travel time by slow moving traffic.
Max. two-way service flow rate of up to
Table 3.1.2.4 Service Volume Adjustments Applicable to Dual Carriageway Flows 490 Pcu/h is possible.
Running speeds of 80 km/h (slightly more Traffic speeds may fall Free flow but presence of other vehicles is
in level terrain) are possible. Passing below 80 km/h. Drivers are noticeable. Average speeds as for LoS A but
demand is significant and equal to not delayed by slow moving drivers have less freedom to manoeuvre. Minor
3.1.3 Single Carriageway Roads - Rural passing capacity at lower boundary platoons for more than 55% of disruptions are easily absorbed but with a slight
B
of Level B. Drivers can be delayed in their travel time. and noticeable effect.
3.1.3.1 Different criteria are applicable to rural and urban single carriageways. These are treated separately platoons for up to 50% of their travel time.
Max two-way flow rate of up to 780 Pcu/h
in the following paragraphs: is possible.
Average speeds can exceed 70 km/h Speeds may fall below 70 The influence of other traffic is marked. Ability to
3.1.3.1.1 Rural single carriageway Level of Service definitions are shown in Table 3.1.3.1. Such single even though passing demand exceeds km/h. Drivers are not delayed manoeuvre is affected. For FFS>80km/h speeds
carriageways are considered as either Class 1 or Class 2 two lane roads or as multi lane roads. passing capacity. Traffic flow is stable but for more than 70% of their reduce somewhat. Minor disruptions cause
susceptible to congestion due to turning travel time. serious local deterioration in service - queues
C
traffic and slow vehicles. Drivers can be form behind any significant disruption.
3.1.3.1.2 Class 1 Rural single carriageways are those on which drivers expect to travel at relatively high speeds. delayed behind slow moving traffic for up
The road classifications which can be expected to fall into Class 1 are, National, Arterial and Secondary Routes to 65% of their travel time. Max two-way
flow of up to 1190 Pcu/h is possible.
in flat or rolling terrain. In some instances a Distributor Route in flat or rolling terrain might also be considered
Unstable traffic flow in which turning Speeds may fall below 60 Ability to manoeuvre is severely restricted due to
as a Class 1 single carriageway subject to the judgment of the Designer and the agreement of the Overseeing vehicles and roadside distractions km/h. Drivers are not delayed traffic congestion. Travel speeds are reduced.
Authority. cause major “shockwaves” to the for more than 85% 0f their Only minor disruptions can be absorbed without
flow pattern. Passing demand high but travel time extensive queues forming.
passing capacity approaches zero as
3.1.3.1.3 Class 2 Rural single carriageways are those on which drivers do not necessarily expect to travel at the two traffic streams start to operate
D
high speed. The road classifications which can be expected to fall into Class 2 are Access and Distributor Routes separately. Platoon sizes of 5 to 10
vehicles common and drivers can be
and Secondary Routes in mountainous terrain. delayed for 75 to 80% of their travel time.
Average speeds of up to 60km/h can be
3.1.3.1.4 Multi-lane rural single carriageways have more than one continuous lane in each or either direction. achieved. Max two-way flow of up to
1830 Pcu/h possible.
Single carriageways with a climbing lane are not considered as multi-lane roads for the purpose of the
Critical flow conditions. Passing is Drivers are delayed for more Unstable flow at or near capacity of the road.
application of the definitions in Table 3.1.3.1. virtually impossible and drivers can be than 85% of their travel time. Vehicles operate with min headways to maintain
delayed behind slow moving traffic for uniform flow, - densities vary with FFS. Disruptions
up to 80% of their travel time average cannot be readily dissipated causing queues to
E speeds under ideal conditions may drop form – service deteriorates to LoS E. For roads
below 60 km/h and 40km/h on sustained FFS between 70 and 100 km/h, mean speeds
upgrades. Max. two-way flow of up to at capacity are from 65 to 90km/h but highly
3200 Pcu/h is possible. (max capacity for unpredictable and variable.
the road)
Heavy congestion with demand Heavy congestion with Forced or breakdown flow. Arrival rate exceeds
F exceeding flow capacity. demand exceeding flow discharge or when demand exceeds capacity.
capacity. Operation within unstable queues.
Note: Ideal (base) conditions are for level terrain, 3.6m. lane widths, 2.0m shoulders, 20% no passing zones,
access point density 5/km, trucks - 14% (rural) 2% (urban).

Table 3.1.3.1 Single Carriageway and Multilane Rural Road Levels of Service

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3.1.3.1.5 It is seen that the ability of faster vehicles to overtake slower ones is fundamental to rural single Ref Condition 1 Base Condition Variation Adjustment Required FFS Adjustment
carriageway Level of Service definitions. Reduction (km/h)
Shoulder width excess of 1.8m. 0.0
3.1.3.1.6 Table 3.1.3.2 sets out Class 1 Rural 2-lane single carriageway service volumes for Levels of Service A
1.2 to 1.8m. 2.1
to E for various terrain types. This table is illustrative only as it is founded upon the assumed base conditions Lane width 3.65m.
0.6 to 1.2m. 4.2
set out in Table 3.1.3.3. Variations to these base conditions must be taken into account when projecting LoS
0 to 0.6m. 6.8
service volumes for individual design cases (See Tables 3.1.3.4 and 3.1.3.5).
Shoulder width excess of 1.8m. 0.7

Service Volumes (two-way veh/h) 1.2 to 1.8m. 2.8

FFS Lane width 3.3 to 3.65m.
Terrain
(km/h) LoS A LoS B LoS C LoS D LoS E 0.6 to 1.2m. 4.9

Level 260 490 900 1570 2680 0 to 0.6m. 7.5

1
Rolling 130 260 710 1490 2500 Shoulder width excess of 1.8m. 1.7
100-130
1.2 to 1.8m. 3.8
Mountainous 40 160 310 510 1410 Lane width 3.0 to 3.3m.
0.6 to 1.2m. 5.9
Level n/a 490 900 1570 2680
0 to 0.6m. 8.5
90 Rolling n/a 260 710 1490 2500
Shoulder width excess of 1.8m. 3.5
Mountainous n/a 160 310 510 1410
1.2 to 1.8m. 5.6
Level n/a n/a 490 1420 2680 Lane width 2.7 to 3.0m.
0.6 to 1.2m. 7.7
80 Rolling n/a n/a 280 1100 2500
0 to 0.6m. 10.3
Mountainous n/a n/a 180 870 1410
0 0.0
Level n/a n/a n/a 490 2680
6 4.0
70 Rolling n/a n/a n/a 280 2500
Number of access points per
2 12 8.0
Mountainous n/a n/a n/a 180 1410 km.
18 12.0
Table 3.1.3.2 Class 1, Rural, 2-Lane Single Carriageway. Free Flow Speeds, LoS and Service Volumes
24 16.0
3 Weather and visibility In areas noted for frequent heavy rain or fog - take local advice
Service Volume Assumptions for Table 3.1.3.2
Table 3.1.3.4 Single Carriageway Free Flow Speed Adjustments
Directional split 40/60
Note: Lane widths of less than 3.65 m on National, Arterial and Secondary Routes are NOT recommended. Lane widths of less
Level terrain 20% than 3.0 m on other routes are NOT recommended.
No passing zones Rolling terrain 40%
3.1.3.1.7 In addition to the adjustments set out in Table 3.1.3.4, allowance should be made for the prevalence
Mountainous terrain 60%
of no-passing zones (see Table 3.1.3.5) the directional split of traffic flows, the combined effects of gradient
Trucks 14%
degree and length, and the proportion of heavy trucks in the traffic mix.
Small vans/4x4’s 4%
Table 3.1.3.3 Service Volume Assumptions Two-Way Reduction in Speed (km/h)
Demand Flow for the following No-Passing Zones (% of length of section)
Rate (Pcu/h)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
200 0 1.0 2.3 3.8 4.2 5.6
400 0 2.7 4.3 5.7 6.3 7.3
600 0 2.5 3.8 4.9 5.5 6.2
800 0 2.2 3.1 3.9 4.3 4.9
1000 0 1.8 2.5 3.2 3.6 4.2
1500 0 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
2000 0 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.8
2500 0 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7
3000 0 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.3

Table 3.1.3.5 Reduction in Ave. Travel Speed Related to the Relative Length of No-Passing Zones
Note: The lack of apparent trend in the average travel speed reductions stems from the fact that travel speed is related also to flow
rate. Hence the reductions shown are against a varying base speed. The figures are based on observation and are not subject to
theoretical considerations.

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3.1.3.1.8 For more information on traffic capacities and levels of service, the reader is directed to the US TRB Service Volumes (vph) Road Class
Highway Capacity Manual Metric Measurement Edition Ref 2. Lanes Parameter
A B C D E I II III IV
Class l Signal density (sigs/km) 0.5 2 3 6
3.1.4 Single Carriageway Roads - Urban
1 N/A 740 920 1010 1110 Free Flow Speed (km/h) 80 65 55 45
3.1.4.1 The Level of Service definitions for urban single carriageways are shown in Table 3.1.4.1 2 N/A 1490 1780 1940 2120 Cycle length (secs) 110 90 80 70
3 N/A 2210 2580 2790 3040 Effective green ratio 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45
LoS Level of Service Description 4 N/A 2970 3440 3750 4060 Adj. Sat. flow rate 1850 1800 1750 1700
Class ll Arrival Type 3 4 4 5
Free flow at average travel speeds which are about 90% of FFS. Vehicles unimpeded by others on the road. Control delay at
A 1 N/A N/A 620 820 860 Unit extension(s) 3 3 3 3
signal intersections is minimal.
2 N/A N/A 1290 1590 1650 Initial queue 0 0 0 0
Reasonably unimpeded operation at average travel speeds usually about 70% of FFS. Ability to manoeuvre only slightly
B 3 N/A N/A 1920 2280 2370 Other delay 0 0 0 0
restricted. Control delay at signal intersections is not significant.

Stable operation. Ability to maneuver more restricted. Longer queues at signal intersections. Average speed about 50% of 4 N/A N/A 2620 3070 3190 Peak hour factor 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
C
FFS. Class lll %lefts - %rights 10 10 10 10
Small increases in flow begin to cause substantial increases in delay and decreased travel speed. Average travel speeds are 1 N/A N/A 600 790 840 Left-turn lane Yes Yes Yes Yes
D
about 40% of FFS.
2 N/A N/A 1250 1530 1610 Lane utilization factor See Table 3.1.4.5
E Significant delays and travel speed of about 33% of FFS. 3 N/A N/A 1870 2220 2310 Table 3.1.4.4 Base Conditions for Urban Figures in previous
4 N/A N/A 2580 2960 3080 Table 3.1.4.3
F Extremely low travel speeds of between 33% and 25% of FFS. Congestion and queues at junctions. Class lV No. of Lanes Traffic in Most Lane Utilisation
Lane Group
1 N/A N/A 270 690 790 in Lane Heavily Trafficked Adjustment
Movements
Table 3.1.4.1 Urban Single Carriageway Levels of Service Description Group Lane (%) Factor
2 N/A N/A 650 1440 1520
1 100 1
3.1.4.2 The Service volume is the maximum hourly rate at which vehicles can be expected to pass along a 3 N/A N/A 1070 2110 2180
Through or shared 2 52.5 0.952
uniform segment of highway, under assumed specific (base) conditions while maintaining a designated level 4 N/A N/A 1510 2820 2900
3 36.7 0.908
of service.
Table 3.1.4.3 Examples of Service Volumes for 1 100 1
Urban Roads. (Subject to the Conditions Exclusive left turn
3.1.4.3 Urban roads are considered in 4 Classes depending upon the Free Flow Speed which is comfortably 2 51.5 0.971
in Table 3.1.4.4)
attainable. These are shown in Table 3.1.4.2 which sets out also the average travel speed attainable for each 1 100 1
such urban road class under Levels of Service A to F. Exclusive right turn
2 56.5 0.885

Single Carriageway - Urban Routes (km/h) Table 3.1.4.5 Lane Utilization Factors for Inclusion in previous
Parameters Table 3.1.4.4
Class l Class ll Class lll Class IV
FFS Range 90 to 70 km/h 70 to 55 km/h 55 to 50 km/h 50 to 40 km/h 3.2 CROSS SECTIONAL PARAMETERS
Typical FFS 80 km/h 65 km/h 55 km/h 45 km/h
LoS Average Travel Speed (km/h) 3.2.1 General
A >72 >59 >50 >41
3.2.1.1 Sub-section 3.2 presents the cross sectional information for road design in the Sultanate by Design
B 72>56 59>46 50>39 41>32
Group in tabular form (Table 3.2.2.1A to E), indicating principle cross section provision and dimensions.
C 56>40 46>33 39>28 32>23
D 40>32 33>26 28>22 23>18 3.2.1.2 This is supplemented by three visual renditions of a selection of cross sectional treatments in Figures
E 32>26 26>21 22>17 18>14 3.2.2.1 to 3.2.2.3 representing particular Design Groups.
F <=26 <=21 <=17 <=14
3.2.1.3 In addition to the above mentioned tables and perspective drawings, typical cross sectional
Table 3.1.4.2 Urban Single Carriageway Levels of Service information is presented in graphical form, detailing basic cross sectional parameters for a range of conditions.
These stylized, indicative diagrams are presented in “half sections”, and “full sections”, and are self explanatory
3.1.4.4 Service volumes for urban roads are highly dependent upon the base values assumed for the range
(see Figures 3.2.2.4 to 3.2.2.8). A final pair of cross sections indicates standard side slopes and ditch treatments
of variables which affect their performance. Table 3.1.4.3 shows values for service volumes for Levels of Service
for soil and rock conditions and are presented as Figures 3.2.2.9. and 3.2.2.10. Further information on
A to E under a defined set of base conditions.
geotechnical issues of cut and fill slopes, protection and stabilization, can be found in Section 14 (14.3.3 and
3.1.4.5 The base conditions for the service volumes in Table 3.1.4.3 are set out in Table 3.1.4.4. 14.3.4) of these Standards.These perspectives have used computer generated backgrounds which are not
meant to represent any specific location in Oman, rather they are meant to broadly characterize prevailing rural
and urban conditions for illustrative purposes.
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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Cross Sections & Capacities Highway Design Standards 2017

Route Design Design No of No of Lanes Min. Desirable Right Desirable Left Normal Median Width Median Width Sidewalk Desirable verge strip Possible curbside Min. Corridor width Min. Reserved Land
Classification by Group Speed cwys in Each Lane (outer) Shoulder (inner) Shoulder (Separation (m) between inner MINUS Left Hand Width width (shoulder or parking provision required (Excluding Right of Way Width (m)
Terrain Type (km/h) Direction Width Width (m) Width (m) lanes of dual carriageway) (inner) Shoulders (Min.) (m) footway) to SBP or Service Roads, Ditches,
(m) (m) Boundary (m) Earthworks, Landscaping
and Future Provision) (m)
A1 130 2 4 3.75 3 1.5 15 12 0 2 No 55 120

National Rural A2 130 2 3 3.75 3 1.5 15 12 0 2 No 47.5 120

flat/rolling A3 130 2 2 3.75 3 1.5 15 12 0 2 No 40 120
A4 110 1 1 3.65 3 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 17.3 120
A5 110-130 2 4 3.75 3 1.5 3.71 - 12 0.71-9 0 2 No 43.71 - 52 120

National Rural A6 110-130 2 3 3.75 3 1.5 3.71 - 12 0.71- 9 0 2 No 36.21 - 44.5 120
mountainous A7 110-130 2 2 3.75 3 1.5 3.71 - 12 0.71 - 9 0 2 No 28.71 - 37 120
A8 90-110 1 1 3.65 3 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 17.3 120
A9 110 2 4 3.65 2.5 1.5 3.71 - 15 0.71 - 12 0 2 No 41.91 - 53.2 120

National Urban A10 110 2 3 3.65 2.5 1.5 3.71 - 15 0.71 - 12 0 2 No 34.61 - 45.9 120
flat/rolling A11 110 2 2 3.65 2.5 1.5 3.71 - 15 0.71 - 12 0 2 No 27.31 - 38.6 120
A12 90 1 1 3.65 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 16.3 80
A13 90 2 4 3.65 2.5 1.5 7.5 4.5 0 2 No 45.7 120

National Urban A14 90 2 3 3.65 2.5 1.5 7.5 4.5 0 2 No 38.4 120
mountainous A15 90 2 2 3.65 2.5 1.5 7.5 4.5 0 2 No 31.1 120
A16 90 1 1 3.65 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 16.3 80

Table 3.2.2.1 A Basic Cross Section Details for National Routes

Route Design Design No of No of Lanes Min. Desirable Right Desirable Left (inner) Normal Median Width Median Width Sidewalk Desirable verge strip Possible Min. Corridor width required Min. Reserved Land
Classification Group Speed cwys in Each Lane (outer) Shoulder Shoulder Width (m) (Separation (m) between MINUS Left Hand Width width (shoulder or curbside parking (Excluding Service Roads, Right of Way Width (m)
by Terrain Type (km/h) Direction Width Width (m) inner lanes of dual (inner) Shoulders (Min.) (m) footway) to SBP or provision Ditches, Earthworks,
(m) carriageway) (m) Boundary (m) Landscaping and Future
Provision) (m)
B1 110 2 3 3.65 2-3 1.5 15 12 0 2 No 46.90 - 44.90 120
Arterial
B2 110 2 2 3.65 2-3 1.5 15 12 0 2 No 37.6-39.6 120
Rural flat/rolling
B3 110 1 1 3.65 2-3 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 15.3-17.3 80
B4 90-110 2 3 3.65 2-3 1.5 3.71 - 12 0.71 - 9 0 2 No 35.61 - 43.90 & 33.61-41.90 100
Arterial
Rural B5 90-110 2 2 3.65 2-3 1.5 3.71 - 12 0.71 - 9 0 2 No 26.31 - 28.31 & 34.6 - 36.6 80
mountainous
B6 90 1 1 3.65 2-3 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 15.3 - 17.3 80
B7 90-110 2 3 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.5 10 7 2 2 No 42.90- 44.90 120

Arterial B8 90-110 2 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.5 10 7 2 2 No 35.6 - 37.6 80

Urban flat/rolling B9 90 1 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 No 25.6 - 27.6 80
B10 90 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 No 18.3 - 20.3 50
B11 90 2 3 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.5 3.71 - 7.5 0.71 - 4.5 2 2 No 38.61-42.40 & 36.61- 40.4 120
Arterial
Urban B12 90 2 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.5 3.71 - 7.5 0.71 - 4.5 2 2 No 31.31 - 35.10 & 29.31-33.10 100
mountainous
B13 70 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 No 18.3 - 20.3 80

Table 3.2.2.1 B Basic Cross Section Details for Arterial Routes

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Design Design No of No of Min. Desirable Right Desirable Left (inner) Normal Median Width Median Width Sidewalk Desirable verge strip Possible Min. Corridor width Min. Reserved
Route Group Speed cwys Lanes Lane (outer) Shoulder Shoulder Width (m) (Separation (m) between inner MINUS Left Hand Width (Min.) width (shoulder or curbside parking required (Excluding Land Right of Way
Classification (km/h) in Each Width Width (m) lanes of dual carriageway) (inner) Shoulders (m) footway) to SBP or provision Service Roads, Ditches, Width (m)
by Terrain Type Direction (m) (m) Boundary (m) Earthworks, Landscaping
and Future Provision) (m)
C1 110 2 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.2 6.9 4.5 0 2 No 30.5 - 28.5 80
Secondary
Rural flat/ C2 110 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 14.3 - 16.3 50
rolling
C3 110 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 14.3 - 16.3 50
C4 90 2 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.2 3.11-6.9 0.71-4.5 0 2 No 30.5 - 28.5 & 26.71 - 24.71 80
Secondary
Rural C5 70-90 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 14.3 - 16.3 50
mountainous
C6 70-90 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 No 14.3 - 16.3 50
C7 90 2 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.2 5 2.6 2 2 No 30.6 - 32.6 80
Secondary
Urban flat/ C8 90 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 18.3 - 20.3 50
rolling
C9 90 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 18.3 - 20.3 50
Secondary C10 70 2 2 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 1.2 3.11-6.9 0.71-4.5 2 2 No 32.5 - 34.5 & 28.71 - 30.71 80
Urban
mountainous C11 70 1 1 3.65 1.5 - 2.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 18.3 - 20.3 50

Table 3.2.2.1 C Basic Cross Section Details for Secondary Routes

Route Design Design No of No of Min. Desirable Right Desirable Left Normal Median Width Median Width Sidewalk Desirable verge strip Possible Min. Corridor width Min. Reserved
Classification Group Speed cwys Lanes Lane (outer) Shoulder (inner) Shoulder (Separation (m) between inner MINUS Left Hand Width (Min.) width (shoulder or curbside parking required (Excluding Land Right of Way
by Terrain Type (km/h) in Each Width Width (m) Width (m) lanes of dual carriageway) (inner) Shoulders (m) footway) to SBP or provision Service Roads, Ditches, Width (m)
Direction (m) (m) Boundary (m) Earthworks, Landscaping
and Future Provision) (m)
Secondary D1 90 1 1 3.50 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 Yes 12-14 50
Rural flat/
rolling
Secondary D2 50-90 1 1 3.50 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 Yes 12-14 50
Rural
mountainous
Secondary D3 70 1 1 3.50 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 16-18 30
Urban flat/
rolling
Secondary D4 70 1 1 3.50 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 16-18 30
Urban
mountainous

Table 3.2.2.1 D Basic Cross Section Details for Distributor Routes

Route Design Design No of No of Min. Desirable Right Desirable Left Normal Median Width Median Width Sidewalk Desirable verge strip Possible Min. Corridor width Min. Reserved
Classification Group Speed cwys Lanes Lane (outer) Shoulder (inner) Shoulder (Separation (m) between inner MINUS Left Hand Width (Min.) width (shoulder or curbside parking required (Excluding Land Right of Way
by Terrain Type (km/h) in Each Width Width (m) Width (m) lanes of dual carriageway) (inner) Shoulders (m) footway) to SBP or provision Service Roads, Ditches, Width (m)
Direction (m) (m) Boundary (m) Earthworks, Landscaping
and Future Provision) (m)
Secondary E1 70 1 1 3.00 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 Yes 11 - 13 20
Rural flat/ rolling
Secondary E2 30-70 1 1 3.00 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 0 2 Yes 11 - 13 20
Rural
mountainous
Secondary E3 50 1 1 3.00 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 15 - 17 20
Urban flat/
rolling
Secondary E4 50 1 1 3.00 0.5 - 1.5 n/a n/a n/a 2 2 Yes 15 - 17 20
Urban
mountainous

Table 3.2.2.1 E Basic Cross Section Details for Access Routes

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Figure 3.2.2.1 Rural National Route - Dual Carriagway with Service (Distributor) Road - Design Group A2 (computer generated virtual background)

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(computer generated virtual background) Figure 3.2.2.2 Rural Arterial Route - Single Carriageway - Design Group B3

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Cross Sections & Capacities Highway Design Standards 2017

Figure 3.2.2.3 Urban Secondary Route - Dual Carriageway with Service (Distributor) Road - Design Group C7 (computer generated virtual background)

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8 see note

Figure 3.2.2.4 Rural - National & Arterial Routes

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Figure 3.2.2.5 Rural - Secondary & Distributor Routes

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Figure 3.2.2.6 Urban - Dual Three Lane National & Arterial Routes

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Figure 3.2.2.7 Urban - Dual Two Lane National & Arterial Routes

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Figure 3.2.2.8 Urban - Secondary, Distributor & Access Routes

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Figure 3.2.2.9 Typical Cut and Fill Sections in Soil Formation

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8 - For high cut excavations exceeding 30 meters, specific geological study is

necessary and shall be conducted by the Consultant and the Contractor in
order to determine the required slope of the cut and other reinforcement
measures, as deemed necessary.

Fair to Good Rock

Conditions, 50 < RQD < 75 1H:4V to 1H:3V 8

50 1H:3V to 1H:2V

Figure 3.2.2.10 Typical Cut and Fill Sections in Rock Formation

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Cross Sections & Capacities Highway Design Standards 2017

3.2.2 Cross Section Information By Design Group 3.2.5.1.a Sight Distance: Checks should be made on the positioning of all highway equipment and apparatus
to ensure that horizontal sight line requirements are not infringed. Objects which can cause difficulties of this
3.2.2.1 Cross section base information for each Design Group is set out in Tables 3.2.2.1A to E. Note that variations sort are bridge abutments, permanent and temporary traffic signs, trees and other landscape planting, buses
from these standards are permissible only on the issue of a Variation Acceptance Notice by the Overseeing Authority. at bus stops and roadside parking provision. In addition, items such as advertising signs can cause similar
problems. (See also Section 4 of these Standards “Road Link Geometry.”)
3.2.3 Utilities in the Road Corridor
3.2.5.1.b Traffic Speeds and Capacity: Shoulder widths should be kept clear of obstructions in order to
3.2.3.1 To the Highway Engineer, road corridors are there to fulfill transportation requirements. Road maintain designed traffic capacity. The effect of obstructions at various clearances from the carriageway edge
corridors also serve as routes for utility equipment which is necessary to maintain the lifestyle and functioning is included in previous sub-sections 3.1.2 and 3.1.3.
of a modern society.
3.2.5.1.c Safety: Solid objects close to the carriageway edge form an obvious danger to vehicles which may
3.2.3.2 Utility equipment must be located at correct depths and distances apart one from another. For run off the road. Particular care should be taken on the outside of bends and in areas where vehicles may be
information concerning the required lateral and vertical dimensional requirements, see Section 20 of these braking. Further guidance may be obtained from consideration of the concept of the “Forgiving Roadside” as
Standards. set out in AASHTO RSDG Roadside Design Guide (see Section 16 of volume 2).

3.2.3.3 Utilities equipment requires attention and maintenance from time to time and this will require
excavation to gain access to buried pipes and cables. For this excavation not to cause disruption of traffic flow 3.2.6 Clearances to Overhead Electrical Lines
and also to avoid unnecessary delay and expense to the Utility authorities, it is important that: 3.2.6.1 General: The following paragraphs are provided as an initial planning guide to the horizontal and
a) Utilities equipment is not positioned beneath the carriageway, and vertical clearance requirements for overhead electrical transmission lines ranging from low voltage (0.415
b) Each utility authority can identify and locate its equipment easily and quickly. kV) to Extra High Voltage (400 kV). These indicate, typically, the clearances which would be desirable for the
instances quoted. In all cases, matters of proximity of electrical transmission services to highways, whether
3.2.3.4 Additional information on utilities and pavement reinstatement following excavation for work
it is for crossing or running parallel to the road, will require liaison with the relevant Electrical Authority and
carried out by the undertaken utilities are set out in Section 20 of Volume 2.
full compliance with their current minimum clearance standards. This is particularly important in some special
cases where normal standards might need to be increased, or in very constrained circumstances where
3.2.4 Vertical Clearance to Structures
relaxation of desirable clearance standards may need consideration.
3.2.4.1 Clearances between the road surface and any form of structure above the carriageway or shoulders must
Clearances to overhead line adjacent to roads(h) Overhead Line Nominal System Voltage
be sufficient to prevent a high vehicle striking the obstruction. (see Figure 3.2.4.1 “Clearance Envelopes at Structures”). (Horizontal) Low Voltage 11 KV 33 KV 132 KV(a) 220 KV(a) 400 KV(a)
3.2.4.2 Minimum vertical clearance for main roads (National, Arterial, and Secondary) shall be 6.0 m. For 1.8 m from property
National and Arterial Roads 5 m (f) 10 m (f) 25m 25m 50m
line (e)
Distributor and Access Roads, the minimum vertical clearance shall vary between 4.0 and 6.0 m depending
1.8 m from property
on the site condition and subject to approval of the variation notice by the overseeing authority. All vertical Secondary, Distributor and Access Roads 5 m (f) 10 m (f)(g) 25m 25m 50m
line (e)
clearances shall be signed as 0.5 m less than the actual clearance height.
Clearances to overhead line crossing roads(h) Overhead Line Nominal System Voltage
3.2.4.3 For main roads, an absolute minimum vertical clearance of 5.5m may be acceptable in certain cases (Vertical) Low Voltage 11 KV 33 KV 132 KV(a) 220 KV(a) 400 KV(a)
subject to the issue of a Variation Acceptance Notice by the Overseeing Authority.
National and Arterial Roads 8 m (b) 10 m (c) 10 m (c) 18.5 m (d) 18.5 m 18.5 m
3.2.4.4 All vertical clearances should be carefully analyzed to establish the minimum vertical separation
Secondary, Distributor and Access Roads 8 m (b) 10 m (c) 10 m (c) 17.5 m (d) 17.5 m 17.5 m
between the road surface and the underside surface of the structure wherever this may occur in plan.
Table 3.2.6.1 Minimum Clearances of Electrical Overhead Lines with respect to Roads
3.2.4.5 A difficulty which can arise in some unusual circumstances is the interruption to sight distance caused
Notes:
by a bridge or gantry on a sag curve. When an obstruction above the road surface occurs on a sag curve, (a) Reference: Oman Electricity Transmission Company S.A.O.C statutory system safety rules.
the effect on sight distance should be checked against both the horizontal and vertical alignments and design (b) Reference: Oman Electric Standard Standard OES 3, L.T. Overhead Lines, Paragraph 12.
changes effected where necessary. (c) Reference: Oman Electric Standard OES 1:1995, 33KV and 11KV Overhead Lines, Paragraph 9.1.
(d) Reference: Oman Electric Standard OES 32:1995, Double Circuit 132KV Overhead Transmission Line, Schedule 4.
(e) Reference: Dhofar Power Company.
3.2.5 Horizontal Clearances - General (f) Reference: Mazoon Electricity Company S.A.O.C.
(g) On low speed roads, a reduced clearance of 8 m may be applied, depending on specific site considerations and safety.
3.2.5.1 Objects on either side of the carriageway can have a significant effect on sight distance, traffic
(h) OHL external clearances are measured under the (wind, temperature,..) load conditions as detailed in the following international references:
speed, capacity, design and safety. The following recommendations are made: - B S EN 50341-1:2012, Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 1 kV -Part 1: General requirements - Common specifications.
- Energy Networks Association ENA Technical Specification TS 43-8: Issue 4, 2015, Overhead Line Clearances.
(i) In addition to the above, minimum horizontal and vertical clearances should be maintained in between overhead lines for various
nominal voltage ratings. Reference: Oman Electric Standard OES 1:1995, 33KV and 11KV Overhead Lines, Paragraph 9.3.

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1. For National, Arterial, and Secondary roads, H shall be 6m minimum

H H
2. H may be reduced to 5.5m on National, Arterial,
and Secondary roads subject to issue of a Variation Acceptance Notice
by the Overseeing Authority.

3. For all other roads, H may vary from 4 to 6m as a minimum.

Figure 3.2.4.1 Clearance Envelopes at Structures

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3.2.6.2 Overhead lines should be located on uniform alignment outside the clearance zone and as near as
practical to the right-of-way line so as not to interfere with traffic operation and to preserve space for future
highway or street improvements or other utility installations. Where there are curbed sections, the utilities
should be located as far as practical behind the face of outer curbs and, where feasible, behind the sidewalks
at such locations that will not interfere with adjacent property use.

3.2.6.3 To the extent practical, utility line crossings of the highway should cross on a line generally normal
to the highway alignment. Those utility crossings that are more likely to need future servicing ( 0.415,11 & 33
kV )should be encased or installed in tunnels to permit servicing without disrupting the traffic flow.

3.2.6.4 For lower order routes, Secondary, Distributor, and Access, the minimum clearances can be reduced
(in agreement with the Electrical Authority), provided that public safety, or the safety of the support or reliability
of the supply are not compromised. Where constraint to support locations is encountered, the use of suitable
safety barriers (Section 16 of these Standards) should be investigated.

3.2.6.5 Vertical Clearance: An electrical overhead line crossing a highway should be designed to run
perpendicular to the road centerline where possible, but at least not greater than 45 to 135 degrees angles
of skew. Guideline minimum clearances from road surface to overhead lines for various nominal voltage
ratings and route categories are also shown in Table 3.2.6.1, subject to co-ordination with the relevant Electrical
Authority.

3.2.6.6 Road crossings of the 132, 220, and 400kV overhead lines should be such that the minimum vertical
clearances to the road, at maximum conductor temperature and maximum creep conditions, are respected. If
required by the concerned Electrical Authority, provisional road crossings should be provided at the location
to allow for future conversion into underground cabling if necessary.

3.3 REFERENCES

1) AASHTO Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2011

2) US Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual 2000

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Road Link Geometry

TABLE OF CONTENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION 4-1 4.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 4-14

4.1.1 General 4-1 4.5.1 Gradients 4-14
4.5.2 Climbing Lanes 4-14
4.2 SPEED ON THE HIGHWAY 4-1 4.5.3 Vertical Curves 4-16
4.2.1 General 4-1 4.5.4 Stopping Distances on Grades 4-18
4.2.2 Design Speed 4-1 4.5.5 Unpaved Road Design Consideration 4-18
4.2.3 Posted Speed 4-1
4.2.4 Operating Speed (Free Flow Speed) 4-1 4.6 THE CO-ORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS 4-19
4.2.5 Running Speed 4-1
4.2.6 Operating Speed Controlling Factors 4-2 4.6.1 Design Principles 4-19
4.2.7 Design Note 4-2 4.6.2 Safety on Gradients 4-20
4.2.8 Speed Control By Traffic Calming/Other Measures 4-2
4.7 DRAINAGE 4-20
4.3 SIGHT DISTANCES 4-3 4.7.1 General 4-20
4.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance 4-3 4.8 GRAVEL AND TRACK ROADS 4-21
4.3.2 Passing Sight Distance 4-4 4.8.1 Design Criteria 4-21
4.3.3 Decision Sight Distance 4-4
4.9 REFERENCES 4-21
4.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 4-4
4.4.1 Introduction 4-4
4.4.2 Circular Curves 4-4
4.4.3 Transition Curves 4-6
4.4.4 The Application of Super-Elevation 4-7
4.4.5 Sight Distances on Horizontal Curves 4-12
4.4.6 Carriageway Widening on Curves 4-13
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES

Figure 4.4.2.1: Curve Radii Suitable for Rural Single Table 4.2.5.1: Relationships between Design Speed and Table 4.6.6.2A: Calculated and Design Values for traveled
Carriageways 4-6 Running Speed for Single Carriageway Roads 4-1 way widening on open highway curves (Two-lane
Highways, One-way or Two-way) 4-13
Figure 4.4.4.1: Application of Superelevation-1 4-8 Table 4.3.1.1A: National Routes - Design Group, Design
Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements. 4-3 Table 4.4.6.1: Single and Two Lane Ramp Width (m) for
Figure 4.4.4.2: Application of Superelevation-2 4-9
Traffic Condition Types and Curve Radii (width includes
Table 4.3.1.1B: Arterial Routes - Design Group,
Figure 4.4.4.3: Compound Curves 4-10 allowance for passing a broken down vehicle) - from
Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements 4-3
Figure 4.4.4.4: Reverse Curves 4-11 AASHTO A Policy on GDHS 2004 4-13
Table 4.3.1.1C: Secondary Routes - Design Group,
Figure 4.4.5.1: Horizontal Visibility Envelope 4-12 Table 4.6.6.2B: Adjustments for traveled way widening
Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements 4-3
values on open highway curves (Two-lane highways,
Figure 4.5.2.1: Longitudinal Section Showing Extent Table 4.3.1.1D: Distributor Routes - Design Group, Design One-way or Two-way) 4-14
of Climbing Lane on Single Carriageway 4-15 Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements 4-4
Table 4.5.3.1 A: National Paved Routes Vertical
Figure 4.5.2.2: Plan and Section Showing Detail of Start of Table 4.3.1.1E: Access Routes-Design Group, Design Alignment Standards 4-17
Climbing Lane on Single Carriageway 4-15 Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements 4-4
Table 4.5.3.1 B: Arterial Paved Routes Vertical Alignment
Figure 4.5.2.3: Plan Showing End of Climbing Lane Table 4.3.3.1: Decision Sight Distances by Design Speed 4-4 Standards 4-17
on Single Carriageway 4-15
Table 4.4.2.1 A: National Route Super-elevation and Design Table 4.5.3.1 C: Secondary Paved Routes Vertical
Figure 4.5.2.4: Plan Showing Start of Climbing Lane Speed Minimum Curve Radii 4-5 Alignment Standards 4-17
on Dual Carriageway 4-15
Table 4.4.2.1 B: Arterial Route Super-elevation and Design Table 4.5.3.1 D: Distributor Paved Routes Vertical
Figure 4.5.2.5: Plan Showing End of Climbing Lane Speed Minimum Curve Radii 4-5 Alignment Standards 4-17
on Dual Carriageway 4-16
Table 4.4.2.1 C: Secondary Route Super-elevation and Table 4.5.3.1 E: Access Paved Routes Vertical Alignment
Figure 4.5.2.6: Climbing Lane and Hairpin Bend Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii 4-5 Standards 4-18
in Mountainous Terrain 4-16
Table 4.4.2.1 D: Distributor Route Super-elevation and Table 4.5.4.1: Stopping Sight Distances on Gradients 4-18
Figure 4.5.3.1: Sight Distance on Crest Curve 4-16 Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii 4-5
Table 4.5.5.1: Guidelines for minimum radius of Curvature
Figure 4.5.3.2: Headlight Sight Distance Limitation Table 4.4.2.1 E: Access Route Super-elevation and Design for New Construction of Unpaved Surfaces with No
on Sag Curves 4-18 Speed Minimum Curve Radii 4-5 Superelevation 4-18
Figure 4.6.1.1: Alignment and Profile Relationships – Table 4.4.3.1: Maximum Horizontal Circular Curve Radii for Table 4.5.5.2: Guidelines for Maximum side friction factor
1 (After AASHTO GDHS 2004) 4-20 which Transitions are required (by Design Speed) 4-7 and minimum radius (new construction ADT from 250 to 400
Figure 4.6.1.2: Alignment and Profile Relationships – Table 4.4.4.1: Longitudinal Gradient Differences between veh/day, limited heavy vehicle traffic) 4-19
2 (After AASHTO GDHS 2004) 4-21 Carriageway Edge and Centerline for Super-elevation Table 4.5.5.3: Guidelines for Minimum Rate of Vertical
Application 4-7 Curvature to Provide Design Stopping Sight Distance on
Table 4.4.4.2: Transition Curve Runoff Length Adjustments Crest Vertical Curves for New Construction of Very
by Number of Lanes Rotated 4-7 Low-Volume Local Roads 4-19

Table 4.4.4.3: Super-elevation Runoff Lengths 4-12 Table 4.8.1.1: Maximum Gradient Length
(Unpaved Roads) 4-21
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4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2.2.3 If it becomes necessary to reduce the design speed because of, say, a change in terrain or from a
rural to an urban environment, this should be done gradually, giving drivers time to adjust to the expectation
4.1.1 General of a reduced alignment standard. Any such reduction should be maintained for a significant length of the
highway before returning once more to higher design speed. Sudden reductions in design speed for a short
4.1.1.1 The information set out in this and other sections of these Highway Design Standards is provided length will, even if clearly signed, give rise to dangers of increased accident rates as drivers continue with their
to assist in the design and construction of the nation’s highway network to a series of coherent and largely expectations from the previous section of the road.
uniform standards. Individual designers must ensure however that these standards are not followed slavishly
and without thought or the use of sound engineering judgement. Situations, particularly in the areas of link 4.2.3 Posted Speed
and junction design, may well arise where the requirements of a site specific problem mean that a variation
from these National Standards is necessary. Such variations can be sanctioned on the granting of a “Variation 4.2.3.1 The posted legal speed limit is the maximum safe allowable speed on a road in the context of its
Acceptance Notice” by the Overseeing Authority, the principles of which are set out in the preface to this geometry together with traffic level and mix, and of roadside conditions. The posted speed must never be
document. greater than the design speed. In general, the posted speed should be between the design speed and 85% to
90% of the design speed. At very low design speeds the road characteristics may allow the use of the design
speed as the posted speed.
4.2 SPEED ON THE HIGHWAY
4.2.4 Operating Speed (Free Flow Speed)
4.2.1 General
4.2.4.1 This is the speed at which the majority of drivers travel past a particular point during free flow
4.2.1.1 Travellers assess the value of any transportation facility in terms of its quickness, convenience and conditions. The most frequently used measure of operating speed is the 85th percentile of the distribution of
economy. These are all directly linked to its speed. observed speeds at a point on the highway. (This terminology is used in the AASHTO Design manual, the term
Free Flow Speed is used in the TRB Highway Capacity Manual and is interchangeable with Operating Speed in
4.2.1.2 The design objective for any public works engineering project is to satisfy the public’s demand for
these Design Standards.)
service in an economical and safe manner. A highway should therefore be designed to operate at a speed
which satisfies the majority of travellers.
4.2.5 Running Speed
4.2.1.3 The design speeds for the various Design Groups range from 130 km/h to 50 km/h. The 130 km/h
4.2.5.1 This is the speed at which an individual vehicle travels. It is an average speed over a section of the
speeds relate to National and Arterial Routes (Design groups A1, A2, A4, A5) while the lowest design speeds
road. The Average Running Speed is the most appropriate speed measure for evaluating Levels of Service and
apply to Access Routes in difficult terrain. Driver expectations on these two categories of routes and everything
Operating Costs. The Average Running Speed is the sum of the distances travelled by all vehicles on a highway
in between are generally in line with the design speeds and recommended posted speeds set out in these
section over a given period, divided by the sum of their running times.
standards.
4.2.5.2 For dual carriageway multi-lane highways, for flow rates ranging from low to fairly high, running
4.2.1.4 In highway design, a number of measures of speed are used. These include design speed, posted
speed is relatively insensitive to flow rate. As the flow rate approaches capacity, running speed reduces
speed, operating (or free flow) speed and running speed.
substantially with further increases in flow rates. For single carriageway roads, running speed decreases
linearly as flow increases over the complete range of flow rates (see Table 4.2.5.1).
4.2.2 Design Speed
Average running speed (km/h)
4.2.2.1 This is the speed which is selected to determine the geometric design features of the highway. Design speed (km/h)
Low volume Intermediate volume Volume approaching capacity
It is the maximum safe speed on a road in the context of the design geometry of its horizontal and vertical
50 45 42 41
alignments. It is desirable that the running speeds of most drivers are at or below the design speed. A driver
60 54 51 47
running at a speed significantly greater than the design speed will find that the sight distances provided on
70 62 58 52
the road start to become inadequate. In general, it is this sight distance limitation, rather than curve severity
80 70 65 56
(horizontal or vertical) or super-elevation provision that limits the safety of travel at speeds above the design
90 78 72 59
speed.
100 85 78 61
4.2.2.2 Once a design speed is selected for a length of highway, it should be consistent over that length. 110 92 84 62
This speed should be consistent with the speeds which drivers are likely to expect on a given highway. These 120 98 90 62
Table 4.2.5.1
expectations result from factors such as the classification of the road, cross section geometry, roadside 130 104 94 62 Relationships between
environment, terrain, previous experience on other similar highways and trip length. A change in design speed Design Speed and
Design speed is the desirable maximum safe speed which can be maintained over a section of highway
should be no more than 10 km/h at one time and the designer should attempt to introduce such a change at a Running Speed for Single
Running speed is the average for total traffic flow Carriageway Roads
junction.

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4.2.6 Operating Speed Controlling Factors 4.2.6.8 The weather and visibility levels: Drivers are most comfortable in dry and clear conditions in daylight.
The incidence of heavy rain or fog, particularly at night time reduces traffic running speeds and flow rates.
4.2.6.1 In relation to design work, it is useful to appreciate the factors, noted below which govern speed. Research has shown that capacities reduce from dry daytime levels by between 13% and 25% in dry night time

4.2.6.2 The capabilities of the vehicle: Trucks are assumed to be able to maintain a cruising speed on long conditions and between 38% and 47% in wet dark conditions.

stretches of road with a gradient of 2% or less which is consistent with the majority of passenger cars. Modern 4.2.6.9 The presence of other vehicles: It clearly increases the overall traffic level on a road reducing the
passenger cars have levels of performance which have increased dramatically in recent years. Whether the level of service and the resulting running speeds.
recent trend towards reducing emissions and fuel consumption will reverse this trend is difficult to predict.
However, most modern passenger cars are able to maintain speeds at or in excess of the design speeds used 4.2.6.10 Speed limitations, established either by law or traffic control devices: Local speed limitation on a
in these design standards on gradients within the allowable ranges. road may be necessary for reasons of safety. Such a limitation may be achieved either through the imposition
of a posted speed limit or by taking one or more of a number of speed control measures.
4.2.6.3 The capabilities of the driver: The categorization of driver behavioural patterns is a major research
area in which much work is still needed. One area in which some progress has been made is in the field of the 4.2.6.11 Enforcement of a posted speed limit by the ROP may be by means which include:
performance of older drivers. n The continuous presence of Police patrols.

4.2.6.4 Highway designs which do not take into account the requirements of nearly a quarter of drivers n Police mobile radar or laser based (or other) speed measurement devices.
increase the accident risk for all road users. In particular, research in the US has shown that for every decade n Static roadside number plate and instantaneous speed recording cameras.
after the age of 25, drivers need twice the brightness of light at night in order to receive visual information. n Static roadside number plate recording cameras used in pairs at a known and significant distance apart to
Other well known effects of driver aging include: record the time that it takes a vehicle to cover the known distance. This time indicates the average speed of
n Slower reaction times the vehicle over the distance.
n Slower information processing
4.2.6.12 The imposition of a speed limit which is too far below drivers’ perception of a safe speed on a road
n Slower decision making will generally be ignored unless it is rigorously (and expensively) enforced by the Police. It has been found that
n Visual deterioration the raising of an unduly low speed limit to one which is closer to drivers’ perceived safe speed will generally
n A decline in ability to judge speed, time and distance result in a reduction in running speeds. Hence the arbitrary posting of a limit which is unrelated to design and
general running speeds may not achieve the desired result.
n Decreased depth perception ability
Limited physical mobility
n
4.2.7 Design Note
n Possible side effects from prescription drugs
4.2.7.1 The speed limit to be applied to a length of road should be fixed prior to the design of its alignment.
4.2.6.5 A further manifestation of driver behaviour on traffic flow and speeds is the question of the use of
a road by “week -day” regular drivers or weekend leisure drivers. Research has shown that weekend speeds, 4.2.8 Speed Control By Traffic Calming/Other Measures
at times when drivers are not regular users of a particular stretch of highway and are free of time constraints,
can be up to 10% lower than on weekdays. Research in Germany has shown that weekend capacities of 6 and 4.2.8.1 Alternative speed control measures that are commonly used in connection with traffic calming
4 lane Autobahns reduce by some 7% and 11% respectively from their weekday equivalents because of the (Reference 3) are designed to reduce the driver’s perception of what is a safe and appropriate speed over a
change from business regular drivers to leisure road users. This is most pronounced on roads through areas (generally fairly short) length of road include:
of notable scenic beauty and on routes to and from leisure related traffic generators. 1. Automatic speed notification signs
2. Approach transverse road markings
4.2.6.6 The physical characteristics of the highway: This is the area over which the highway designer has 3. Longitudinal lane edge lane markings to produce an optical effect of narrower lane width
most control. Even so the designer has to react to external factors such as the terrain and the environment 4. Narrowing of the roadway
through which a road passes and these have a very great effect on the physical characteristics of the highway 5. Chicanes
under design. 6. Narrow “gateways”
7. Audible rumble strips, either transverse or longitudinal set in the road surface
4.2.6.7 The degree of roadside interference: This relates to factors such as lateral clearance between traffic
8. Short narrow one way working sections, generally with one direction of travel having clearly marked right
flow and roadside obstructions, (including curbside parking) and access to the roadway from side roads and
of way over the one way section
roadside development. The presence of these features reduces traffic flow and running speeds and reduces
9. Speed humps
safety.
4.2.8.2 The suitability of these measures for all but the lowest running speeds decreases as the numbering
of this list increases. In particular speed humps, which may extend across the whole carriageway or take the
form of a low hump in the centre of each lane are dangerous if struck at high speed.

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4.2.8.3 The design speeds and recommended posted speeds for each Design Group are set out in subsequent Route Design Design Speed km/h Recommended max Min Stopping Sight Min Passing Sight
Tables 4.3.1.1A to E. These speeds are consistent with foreseen driver expectations and it is not anticipated that Classification by terrain type Group Posted Speed km/h Distance (m) Distance (1 cwy) in (m)
they will be exceeded by more than a small percentage of vehicles. Neither is it anticipated that they will be Arterial B1 110 100 220 n/a
Rural flat/rolling
beyond the expectations of the majority of drivers. B2 110 100 220 n/a
B3 110 100 220 360
Arterial B4 90-110 80-100 160-220 n/a
4.3 SIGHT DISTANCES Rural mountainous
B5 90-110 80-100 160-220 n/a
B6 90 80 160 270
4.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance
Arterial B7 90-110 80-100 160-220 n/a
4.3.1.1 Despite the vehicle’s speed, it is important that a driver can stop in time to avoid a collision with a Urban flat/rolling
B8 90-110 80-100 160-220 n/a
stationary object in his path. In order to stop, the driver must be able to see the object, react to its presence B9 90 80 160 n/a
and bring his vehicle to a safe halt. For any one driver, the reaction time is effectively constant and independent B10 90 80 160 270
of speed. (A recommended design value of 2.5 seconds is ascribed to this period.) The reaction distance is Arterial B11 90 80 160 n/a
therefore the distance travelled over that period of time at the speed of the vehicle. The braking distance is Urban mountainous
B12 90 80 160 n/a
the distance required to bring the vehicle to a halt at a deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2. The design stopping sight
B13 70 60 105 210
distance is the sum of these two elements. (It is acknowledged that this is based on a vehicle rate of deceleration
Table 4.3.1.1B Arterial Routes - Design Group, Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements
figure of 3.4 m/s2 which is conservative for a vehicle with a well maintained modern braking system, with good
unworn tyres and operating on a dry road surface with a sufficient level of frictional resistance.)
Route Design Design Speed Recommended Min Stopping Sight Min Passing Sight
4.3.1.2 These stopping sight distances should be maintained through the design of both horizontal and Classification by terrain type Group km/h max Posted Speed Distance (m) Distance (1 cwy) in (m)
km/h
vertical alignments and through care in the placing of roadside furniture particularly on the inside verges
C1 110 100 220 n/a
of bends. Such interruptions to the line of sight may be direction signs, advertising boards, parked vehicles Secondary
C2 110 100 220 360
(including buses at bus stops) or unpermitted development within the highway corridor. Rural flat/rolling
C3 110 100 220 360
4.3.1.3 Stopping sight distances are shown for each Design Group in Table 4.3.1.1A to E C4 90 80 160 n/a
Secondary
C5 70-90 60-80 105-160 210-270
Route Design Design Speed km/h Recommended max Min Stopping Sight Min Passing Sight Rural mountainous
Classification by terrain type Group Posted Speed km/h Distance (m) Distance (1 cwy) in (m) C6 70-90 60-80 105-160 210-270
National A1 130 120 285 n/a C7 90 80 160 n/a
Rural flat/rolling Secondary
A2 130 120 285 n/a C8 90 80 160 270
Urban flat/rolling
A3 130 120 285 n/a C9 90 80 160 270
A4 110 100 220 360 Secondary C10 70 60 105 n/a
Urban mountainous C11 70 60 105 210
National A5 110-130 100-120 220-285 n/a
Rural mountainous
A6 110-130 100-120 220-285 n/a Table 4.3.1.1C Secondary Routes - Design Group, Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements
A7 110-130 100-120 220-285 n/a
A8 90-110 80-100 160-220 270-360 Route Design Design Speed km/h Recommended max Min Stopping Min Passing Sight
Classification by terrain type Group Posted Speed km/h Sight Distance (m) Distance (1 cwy) in (m)
National A9 110 100 220 n/a
Urban flat/rolling Distributor D1 90 80 160 270
A10 110 100 220 n/a
Rural flat/rolling
A11 110 100 220 n/a
Distributor D2 50-90 40-80 65-160 150-270
A12 90 80 160 270 Rural mountainous
National A13 90 80 160 n/a
Distributor D3 70 60 105 210
Urban mountainous
A14 90 80 160 n/a Urban flat/rolling
A15 90 80 160 n/a Distributor D4 70 60 105 210
Urban mountainous
A16 90 80 160 270
Table 4.3.1.1A National Routes - Design Group, Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements. Table 4.3.1.1D Distributor Routes - Design Group, Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Link Geometry Highway Design Standards 2017

Route Min Stopping 4.3.3.4 Recommended decision sight distances for a range of design speeds and avoidance manoeuvres
Design
Classification by Design Speed Recommended max Sight Distance Min Passing Sight are shown in Table 4.3.3.1. These distances have been developed empirically for a range of highway decision
Group
terrain type km/h Posted Speed km/h (m) Distance (1 cwy) in (m)
situations. It is clearly not necessarily practical to design an alignment which provides these sight distances
Access
E1 70 60 105 210 along its complete length. The designer should however be aware of the desirability/need to ensure that
Rural Flat/Rolling
Access sufficient sight distance is provided on the approach to design features which call for more complex decision
E2 30-70 20-60 35-105 150-210
Rural mountainous making on the part of the driver.
Access
E3 50 40 65 150
Urban flat/rolling Design speed Decision Sight Distance (m) in accordance with Avoidance manoeuvre A: Stop on rural road - t = 3.0 secs
Access (km/h) Avoidance Manoeuvre A to E
E4 50 40 65 150 Stop on urban road - t = 9.1
Urban mountainous Avoidance manoeuvre B:
A B C D E secs
Table 4.3.1.1E Access Routes - Design Group, Design Speeds and Sight Distance Requirements 50 70 155 145 170 195 Speed/path/direction change
Avoidance manoeuvre C: on rural road - t varies between
60 95 195 170 205 235 10.2 and 11.2 secs
4.3.2 Passing Sight Distance
70 115 235 200 235 275 Speed/path/direction change
4.3.2.1 On most roads faster vehicles will come up behind and wish to overtake slower ones. On single 80 140 280 230 270 315 Avoidance manoeuvre D: on suburban road - t varies
between 12.1 and 12.9 sec
carriageways this entails the overtaking vehicle pulling out and travelling in the opposing lane for the distance 90 170 325 270 315 360
Speed/path/direction change on
required to pull clear of the overtaken vehicle, and then return to its own right hand lane. To carry out this 100 200 370 315 355 400 Avoidance manoeuvre E: urban road - t varies between
manoeuvre in safety requires that the opposing lane is free of traffic for a sufficient distance ahead. This in turn 14.0 and 14.5 secs
110 235 420 330 380 430
requires that the driver of the overtaking vehicle can see sufficiently far ahead to know that the opposing lane 120 265 470 360 415 470
is free of oncoming traffic for a sufficient distance. Table 4.3.3.1 Decision Sight Distances
130 303 522 396 452 505 by Design Speed
4.3.2.2 The time needed to execute the passing manoeuvre is dependent on the speeds of the overtaken
and overtaking vehicles. The time available for the execution of the passing manoeuvre is the time that it takes
4.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
for a vehicle moving in the opposite direction to reach the point at which the overtaking vehicle regains its
own side of the road, and is therefore dependent on the speed of the oncoming vehicle. For safety, the time 4.4.1 Introduction
available must be greater than the time needed and the sight distance required for the manoeuvre must be at 4.4.1.1 The horizontal alignment of a road is made up of straights and curves. The curves may be sections
least the distance of the oncoming vehicle at the start of the manoeuvre. of circular arcs and may also be transition sections of increasing or decreasing curvature which provide a

4.3.2.3 Passing sight distances are shown for each Design Group in Table 4.3.1.1 A to E transition from a straight to a radius of curvature or from one radius of curvature to another and vice versa.
These curved sections may have a degree of super-elevation applied.

4.3.3 Decision Sight Distance 4.4.1.2 The objective of the designer is to provide an alignment which is safe and comfortable for travellers
operating at the required running speed and which is an aesthetically pleasing addition to the environment
4.3.3.1 In certain instances a driver may be called upon to carry out more complex information processing
through which it runs. This is achieved through the provision of safe and comfortable curve radii, super-
than deciding that there is an unexpected obstruction in the road ahead and that he should stop. Such
elevation and transition sections while at the same time maintaining the necessary sight distances. This must
circumstances may be the signing of a complicated junction, extensive but inadequately signed road works or
of course also be achieved at minimum cost consistent with compliance with these design objectives.
a reduction in the road cross section.

4.3.3.2 Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise
4.4.1.3 This approach is applicable to both dual and single carriageway roads. It should be noted however
that for rural single carriageways the alignment should allow provision for overtaking by providing passing
difficult to perceive information source or condition in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered,
sight distances at intervals that are as frequent as possible. (Level of Service on single carriageway rural roads
recognise the condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path and initiate and complete
is highly dependent on the available overtaking length on a road section.)
the manoeuvre safely and efficiently.

4.3.3.3 Decision sight distance offers drivers a range of options in the way in which they deal with a potential 4.4.2 Circular Curves
possible hazard and because of this it should offer drivers additional margins for error in their decision making
and in the execution of any manoeuvres which they decide to carry out. For this reason it must allow sufficient 4.4.2.1 Minimum curve radii for different design speeds are defined from consideration of rates of radial

time between first becoming aware of a situation and taking appropriate action. This time is available only if (centripetal) acceleration. This affects both comfort and safety. The force required to move a vehicle from its

the line of sight back along the road is sufficiently long. This decision sight distance is always significantly straight path is this radial acceleration multiplied by its mass. This force is supplied by friction between the tyres

more than the stopping sight distance. and the road surface. The inertial force acts through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. The balance of these two
forces induces an overturning moment which is resisted by a weight transfer from the inner to the outer wheels.
The friction available (the Kf factor) reduces with increasing speed. Kf values for each Design group are shown in
Tables 4.4.2.1 A to E.

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4.4.2.2 The use of super-elevation enables higher levels of centrifugal force to be generated within the Route Design Design Recommended Horizontal Curves Transition curves
available Kf values. Minimum radii for no applied super-elevation (other than “normal” 2% positive crossfall) for Classification by Group Speed max Posted
Terrain Type km/h Speed km/h Design max Max Min Design Min Radius Desirable* Spiral
each Design Group is shown in Tables 4.4.2.1 A to E. Radii of less than this value are permissible with the use of Safe Side Superelevation Speed Radius (m) without transition length
Friction (%) for Max removal of for min radius (m)
super-elevation. Minimum radii using the maximum permissible super-elevation rates are also shown in the tables. Factor Superelevation standard
(m) 2% adverse
Route Design Design Recommended Horizontal Curves Transition curves cross fall
Classification Group Speed max Posted Secondary C1 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61
by Terrain km/h Speed km/h Design max Max Min Design Min Radius Desirable* Spiral
Safe Side Superelevation Speed Radius (m) without transition length Rural flat/rolling
Type C2 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61
Friction (%) for Max removal of for min radius (m)
Factor Superelevation standard 2% C3 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61
(m) adverse cross
fall Secondary Rural C4 90 80 0.13 8 305 2190 50
mountainous
National A1 130 120 0.08 6 955 3880 72 C5 70-90 60-80 0.15-0.13 8 170-305 1450-2190 39-50
Rural flat/ C6 70-90 60-80 0.15-0.13 8 170-305 1450-2190 39-50
rolling A2 130 120 0.08 6 955 3880 72
A3 130 120 0.08 6 955 3880 72 Secondary C7 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50
Urban flat/rolling
A4 110 90 0.11 6 560 2970 61 C8 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50

National A5 110-130 100-120 0.11-0.08 8 500-835 3090-4000 61-72 C9 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50
Rural Secondary Urban C10 70 60 0.15 4 205 1180 39
mountainous A6 110-130 100-120 0.11-0.08 8 500-835 3090-4000 61-72
mountainous
A7 110-130 100-120 0.11-0.08 8 500-835 3090-4000 61-72 C11 70 60 0.15 4 205 1180 39

A8 90-110 80-100 0.13-0.11 8 305-500 2190-3090 50-61 Table 4.4.2.1 C Secondary Route Super-elevation and Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii
National A9 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61
Urban flat/ Route Design Design Recommended Horizontal Curves Transition curves
rolling A10 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61
Classification by Group Speed max Posted
A11 110 100 0.11 6 560 2090 61 Terrain Type km/h Speed km/h Design max Max Min Design Min Radius Desirable* Spiral
Safe Side Superelevation Speed Radius (m) without transition length
A12 90 80 0.13 6 340 2090 50 Friction (%) for Max removal of for min radius (m)
Factor Superelevation standard
National A13 90 80 0.13 6 340 2090 50 (m) 2% adverse
Urban cross fall
mountainous A14 90 80 0.13 6 340 2090 50
A15 90 80 0.13 6 340 2090 50 Distributor
D1 90 80 0.13 6 340 2090 50
Rural flat/rolling
A16 90 80 0.13 6 340 2090 50
Distributor Rural
D2 50-90 40-80 0.13-0.17 8 75-305 791-2090 28-50
Table 4.4.2.1 A National Route Super-elevation and Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii mountainous
Distributor
D3 70 60 0.15 4 205 1180 39
Route Design Design Recommended Horizontal Curves Transition curves Urban flat/rolling
Classification Group Speed max Posted Distributor Urban
by Terrain km/h Speed km/h Design max Max Min Design Min Radius Desirable* Spiral D4 70 60 0.15 4 205 1180 39
Safe Side Superelevation Speed Radius (m) without transition length mountainous
Type
Friction (%) for Max removal of for min radius (m)
Factor Superelevation standard 2% Table 4.4.2.1 D Distributor Route Super-elevation and Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii
(m) adverse cross
fall Route Design Design Recommended Horizontal Curves Transition curves
B1 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61 Classification by Group Speed max Posted
Arterial Terrain Type km/h Speed km/h Design max Max Min Design Min Radius Desirable* Spiral
Rural flat/ B2 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61 Safe Side Superelevation Speed Radius (m) without transition length for
rolling Friction (%) for Max removal of min radius (m)
B3 110 100 0.11 6 560 2970 61 Factor Superelevation standard
B4 90-110 80-100 0.11-0.13 8 305-500 2190-3090 50-61 (m) 2% adverse
Arterial cross fall
Rural B5 90-110 80-100 0.11-0.13 8 305-500 2190-3090 50-61
mountainous Access
B6 90 80 0.13 8 305 2190 50 E1 70 60 0.15 6 185 1380 39
Rural Flat/Rolling
B7 90-110 80-100 0.11-0.13 6 340-560 2090-2970 50-61 Access Rural
E2 30-70 20-60 0.15-0.19 8 20-170 325-1450 20-39
Arterial B8 90-110 80-100 0.11-0.13 6 340-560 2090-2970 50-61 mountainous
Urban flat/ Access
rolling B9 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50 E3 50 40 0.19 4 90 632 28
Urban flat/rolling
B10 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50
Access Urban
B11 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50 E4 50 40 0.19 4 90 632 28
Arterial mountainous
Urban B12 90 80 0.13 4 380 1830 50 Table 4.4.2.1 E Access Route Super-elevation and Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii
mountainous
B13 70 60 0.15 4 205 1180 39

Table 4.4.2.1 B Arterial Route Super-elevation and Design Speed Minimum Curve Radii *: refer to section 4.4.3.4

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Link Geometry Highway Design Standards 2017

Basic laws of mechanics show the relationship between vehicle speed, (V km/hr) curve radius,(R m.) super-
elevation (e %) and generated side friction factor (f) to be :
 !.!"#!! !!
 =    
!!!.!"#$ !"#$

Research and experience over many years have resulted in the general acceptance of a series of limiting values
 !.!"#!! !! (!!!.!"#$) !!
for “e” and “f” for use in highway horizontalf  =   curve  =   design.   -­‐ 0.01e  
!!!.!"#$ !"#$ !"#$
 !.!"#!! !!
Writing the above equation for f :  =    
!!!.!"#$ ! (!!!.!"#$)
! !"#$
!!
f  =    -­‐0.01e    -­‐0.01e  
!"#$ !"#$
!! (!!!.!"#$)
f  =    -­‐0.01e  
The value of 0.01ef is always sufficiently small !! !"#$ for !it to  !!be neglected, hence the expression becomes:
 !.!"#!! =   =    !"#  (!.!"!
fR  min     =    -­‐0.01e  
!
  !"#!!!"#)
 
!"#$ !
!!!.!"#$ ! !"#$
f  =    -­‐0.01e  
!"#$
!.!"#$!!  !!
L   ! =  !"#  (!.!"!
=  (!!!.!"#$)
R!min       to provide  
f  =   conservative
fmax used for curve design is sufficiently !"    !-­‐!"#
0.01e  
!
!!!"# ) a substantial margin of safety over f values at
the point of an impending skid. fmax values Rmin    vary =  !"#$ between 0.19 at  50 km/h, 0.14 at 80 km/h and 0.08 at 130 km/h.
!"#  (!.!"!!"# !!!"# )
(!!! )!! !
!.!"#$!
For a fuller discussion on side friction LL  r=  !=     ∆ super-elevation
!  ×(b   ! )  
f  =factors,
  !.!"#$!  -­‐!"
0.01e   !
and part played by each on the behaviour of a
cornering vehicle, see AASHTO ManualL  2011. !"#$
=   Writing   the simplified curve equation above to solve for R :
(! !!" )!)!
! !
∆∆!
LLrr    ==    
(!!
 ×(b
 ×(b
 !! !!)  )  
!

Rmin    =    
!"#  (!.!"!
(!!! )!! !"# !!!"# )
Lr  =   !!!.!(!  ×(b! )  
(!!∆)!! ! !!)   =  
4.4.2.3 Rural single carriageway roads:  =  The
Lb!.!"#$!
rw    
designer
!  ×(b! )  has less freedom to select curve radii suitable for an
∆! ! !
L  =   than
alignment with single carriageway roads (!!he  
)!!does for dual carriageways. This is because of the requirement
Lr  =  !"∆  ×(b! )  
to provide the maximum possible number of lengths
!!!.!(!
! which allow passing sight distance. The use of medium
! !!) 28.65  𝑆𝑆
bw    =     𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = Rsafe
1 −overtaking.
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐  
to large radius long curves reduce the length (!!! )!available
! !! for a straight alignment which allows 𝑅𝑅
Lr  =   ∆ !!!.!(!  ×(b ! )  
! !!)
Figure 4.4.2.1 shows radii of curvature bwhichw    =   are and are   not suitable for use on roads of this type.
!
  (! )!
!
28.65  𝑆𝑆
Urban single carriagewayLroads:
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = Rovertaking
1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 than  
4.4.2.4 r  =   ∆ Urban roads
 ×(b! )   generally have less requirement for
! !
!
𝑅𝑅
28.65  𝑆𝑆
do rural ones. For this reason the radial   values shown in Figure 4.4.2.1 should be applied 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 =only
R 1when
− 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
a road,  
𝑅𝑅
although urban, may have a significant   overtaking
!!!.!(!! !!)requirement. In all other cases, the designer of an urban
bw    =    
single carriageway may use his engineering     !!
judgement and the design standards set out in this document to
select curve radii consistent with stopping   sight distance and decision sight distance where justified.
    28.65  𝑆𝑆
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = R 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐  
4.4.2.5 Dual carriageways: Dual carriageway
  roads generally have no requirement for the provision𝑅𝑅of
passing sight distance. The sightline parameters
  are therefore stopping sight distance at all times, and decision
Figure 4.4.2.1 Curve Radii Suitable for Rural Single Carriageways
sight distance where justified.    
  4.4.3.2 The geometric curve generally used for this transition is the Euler Spiral (alternatively called the
4.4.3 Transition Curves  
Clothoid). The Spiral has a radius of infinity at its tangent end and a radius equal to that of the circular arc
4.4.3.1  
A driver entering a curve from a straight section of road has to steer a transition from the straight to where it joins tangentially at the point where the two curves meet. The radius of curvature at any point on a
the arc curvature. This is not a problem with large radius curves, but as the radius decreases it becomes more spiral varies inversely with the distance travelled along the spiral. Thus the radius of curvature changes at a
noticeable. The abrupt change from   a straight to a more sharply curved alignment is also aesthetically less uniform rate with passage along the curve. In driving terms this equates to a driver turning the steering wheel
pleasing. For this reason a transition curve may be introduced to “ease” the alignment from straight to curved at a constant rate from the straight ahead position until a constant curve radius is achieved, at which point the
without any abrupt change of line. A properly designed transition curve provides a natural easy to follow path steering wheel is held in a fixed position for the circular arc.
for drivers such that the lateral force increases and decreases gradually and uniformly as a vehicle enters and
4.4.3.3 Maximum radii when transitions are required: Transition curves are unnecessary when large radius
leaves a circular curve.
circular arcs are used. The maximum radii for which transition curves provide significant benefits are set out
in Table 4.4.3.1.

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Design speed (km/h) Maximum radius (m) 4.4.4 The Application of Super-Elevation
20 24
4.4.4.1 Super-elevation may be required on a circular curve, whether or not transitions are used. The
30 54
methods to be used for changing from a section with camber or normal crossfall to full super-elevation on
40 95 a circular curve are illustrated in Figures 4.4.4.1, 4.4.4.1a and 4.4.4.2, and are self explanatory. Treatments of
50 148 shoulders are also shown on these Figures. When a straight is crowned (normal crossfall) the first stage is to
60 213 rotate the side of the camber on the outside of the curve about the centerline to produce a crossfall of 0%. This
70 290 distance is called the tangent runout. In all cases this should be achieved on the straight before the start of any
80 379 curvature. If a straight has a crossfall which falls away from the inside of an upcoming curve, it may be rotated
90 480 about any convenient axis to produce a 0% crossfall towards the inside of the curve. In practice this rotation
100 592 is generally the centerline for single carriageway roads and about the inside edge of the median fast lane for
110 716 dual carriageways, although this depends on site requirements.
Design speed (km/h) Gradient difference
120 852 Table 4.4.3.1 Maximum Horizontal Circular 20 0.80%
Curve Radii for which Transitions are 4.4.4.2 The rate of change of super-elevation for the tangent runout,
130 1000 required (by Design Speed) 30 0.75%
and any further crossfall application over the super-elevation run-
 !.!"#!! controlled
off length should be applied at the appropriate !! 40 0.70%
4.4.3.4 Considering the length of transition curves, the following should be noted:  =     rate. The
!!!.!"#$ !"#$
length over which both this carriageway rotation and the application 50 0.65%
Minimum transition length: There is a requirement to avoid transitions which are too short as these impose
1. 
of further super-elevation is applied, is controlled by consideration 60 0.60%
unduly high rates of radial acceleration !! (!!!.!"#$)
of the difference in gradient of the curbf  lines
=   with respect  -­‐0.01e  
to that of 70 0.55%
Maximum transition length: Transition curves which are too long can mislead and confuse a driver as to
2.  !"#$
the centerline of the carriageway. The maximum normal arithmetic 80 0.50%
the radius of the circular curve which he or she is approaching. This has been found to give rise to safety longitudinal gradient differences allowed are shown !! in Table 4.4.4.1. 90 0.47%
problems. f  =    -­‐0.01e  
!"#$ 100 0.44%
3. Desirable transition length: Optimum transition lengths have been found to correspond to some.
 !.!"#!! !!  !.!"#!! !! ! 110 0.41%
  =     Table 4.4.4.1  =  Longitudinal
 !  
2.0 seconds of travel time at the design speed. Such lengths
!!!.!"#$are !"#$ set out in Table 4.4.2.1 A to E R min    =  
!!!.!"#$ !"#$  
Gradient!"#  (!.!"! Differences !"#between
!!!"# ) 120 0.38%
Desirable spiral length: L = 2V/3.6 Carriageway Edge and Centerline
!! (!!!.!"#$) 130 0.35%
for Super-elevation !! (!!!.!"#$) Application
Where: f  =    -­‐0.01e   fL    ==    !.!"#$!!    -­‐0.01e  
!"#$ !"#$
L= Desirable length of the spiral (m) !"
4.4.4.3 Super-elevation run-off length (the distance to run from 0% to full design super-elevation) is given by:
V= Design speed (km/h) !! !! !!
f  =    -­‐0.01e    !.!"#!!
Lf  r=  =    !"#$    =-­‐!  0.01e  
(!!! )!
 ×(b!   )  
!"#$ !!!.!"#$ !"#$ ∆
2s= 2 seconds
 !! Where Lr = Minimum runoff length (m)  !!
min    =   radius changes from
! )!
(!
4.4.3.5 The minimum necessary length of a spiral Rwhose   infinity (tangent) to a value    =!  =  (!!!.!"#$)
LR  =rmin      ×(b  
 )  -­‐0.01e  
! !
!"#  (!.!"!!"# !!!"# ) ∆ = Maximum relative gradientfdifference (%) !!"#
!"#  (!.!"!
∆ ! !!!"# )
R is given by the expression : !"#$
n1 = Number of lanes rotated about chosen axis
!.!"#$!! !!!.!(!
!.!"#$! !
! !!)
Minimum spiral length L  =     bw = Adjustment factor for number
b
L   =  
=  of
  !lanes
! rotated
    (one side of axis) No. of Adjustment Length
  =   -­‐
w    
!" w = Width of one lane (m)
f !" ! 0.01e  
!
Lanes Factor increase
!"#$
Where: relative to
(!!! )!!
ed = Design super-elevation rate (%) single lane 28.65  𝑆𝑆
(!!! )!!
L = Minimum length of the spiral (m.) Lr  =    ×(b! )   r =   ∆ L  =    !! )  
 ×(b 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻bw = R 1− 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
rotation  
∆ Rmin     !   n1
V = Design speed (km/h) For ramps, the super-elevation runoff length is!"#  (!.!"!
given by!"# !!!"# ) expression:
a similar (multiplication 𝑅𝑅
factor)
R = Curve radius (m) (!! )!! (! )!
Lr  =   ∆!
 ×(b! )    Lr  =!.!"#$!
  ! !  ×(b
! ! )   1 1 1
q = Rate of increase of lateral acceleration (m/sec3) L  =   ∆!  
Where w1 = width of ramp !" 1.5 0.83 1.25
The value of q varies between 0.3 and 0.9 depending upon!!!.!(! the design
! !!) speed. The recommended minimum
bw    =     ed = Design super-elevation rate  b
and w    =  
!!!.!(!! !!)
  2 0.75 1.5
value for q is 1.2 m/s . The use of lower values will yield longer,!more “comfortable” spiral
3 ! !! (!!! )!!
Lr  =   ∆difference
∆ 1 = the maximum allowable gradient  ×(b! )   2.5 0.7 1.75
curve lengths; however, such lengths would not represent the minimum length consistent with driver  
28.65  𝑆𝑆 3 0.67 2 28.65  𝑆𝑆
comfort. This expression gives a minimum transition length. In practice values of around three𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
times R 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 4.4.4.4   The adjustment factor (bw) L  =  (!! )!!  ×(b )  
= the 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
0.64= R 1 −2.25
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐  
used in the expression in para  4.4.4.3
𝑅𝑅 r ! 3.5 𝑅𝑅
minimum may be used and should coincide as closely as possible with the super-elevation runoff length. ∆!is given by the expression:
The length of spiral adopted should be the greatest value between formulas shown in sections 4.4.3.4 ; Table 4.4.4.2 Transition Curve
    !!!.!(!! !!)
4.4.3.5 and 4.4.4.3. bw    =     Runoff Length Adjustments by
!! Number of Lanes Rotated
   
28.65  𝑆𝑆
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = R 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐  
    𝑅𝑅 4.7

     
 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Link Geometry Highway Design Standards 2017

Figure 4.4.4.1 Application of Superelevation-1

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Figure 4.4.4.2 Application of Superelevation-2

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Link Geometry Highway Design Standards 2017

Figure 4.4.4.3 Compound Curves

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REVERSE CURVES WITH TANGENT

REVERSE CURVES WITH NO TANGENT

Figure 4.4.4.4 Reverse Curves

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Link Geometry Highway Design Standards 2017

4.4.4.5 Runoff lengths for a range of super-elevation rates and design speeds are shown in Table 4.4.4.3. 4.4.4.6 In respect of the location of runoff length with regard to the start and end of the spiral curve, where
Note that lengths relate to numbers of lanes to ONE side of the axis of rotation. Hence if a 2-lane single the spiral transition length is insufficient for the complete runoff of super-elevation, or where no transition
carriageway is rotated about its centerline, with one curb line rising and the other falling relative to the centerline is used, the position of the start and end of the runoff relative to the curve tangent point must be identified.
gradient, the super-elevation runoff length is given by the value in Table 4.4.4.3 for one lane rotation. If the Where a transition is used, then its length should be used for transition runoff.
same carriageway is rotated about a curb-line, the runoff length is given by the value for two lane rotation.
The balance, (or all where there is no transition,) of the runoff length should be applied as follows:
Super-elevation - per cent n On the tangent straight 66%
No. of 3.65m
Vd
wide lanes 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 On the circular curve 34%
km/h n
rotated
Runoff length (m) from zero to design super-elevation rate
1 10 16 21 26 31 37 42 47 52 57 63 4.4.5 Sight Distances on Horizontal Curves
40 2 16 23 31 39 47 55 63 70 78 86 94
4.4.5.1 See also sub-section 4.3. Note that care must be taken to ensure that the total clear corridor width
3 21 31 42 52 63 73 83 94 104 115 125
is sufficient to provide the appropriate sight distance at all points along the alignment. This is of particular
1 11 17 22 28 34 39 45 51 56 62 67
concern across the inside of smaller radius curves where the road may be in cut (or tunnel) or where signs,
50 2 17 25 34 42 51 59 67 76 84 93 101
safety barriers etc. or parked vehicles may be present.
3 22 34 45 56 67 79 90 101 112 124 135
1 12 18 24 30 37 43 49 55 61 67 73
60 2 18 27 37 46 55 64 73 82 91 100 110
3 24 37 49 61 73 85 97 110 122 134 146
1 13 20 27 33 40 46 53 60 66 73 80
70 2 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 119
3 27 40 53 66 80 93 106 119 133 146 159
1 15 22 29 37 44 51 58 66 73 80 88
80 2 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 120 131
3 29 44 58 73 88 102 117 131 146 161
 !.!"#!! !!175
 =    
!!!.!"#$ !"#$
1 16 23 31 39 47 54 62 70 78 85 93
! (!!!.!"#$)
90 2 23 35 47 58 70 82 93 105 116 f  =  !128 140  -­‐0.01e  
!"#$
3 31 47 62 78 93 109 124 140 155 171 186
!
1 17 25 33 41 50 58 66 75 83 f  =   !91  -­‐0.01e  100
!"#$
100 2 25 37 50 62 75 87 100 112 124 137 149
 !!
3 33 50 66 83 100 116 133 149 166 Rmin    =  
183 199  
!"#  (!.!"!!"# !!!"# )
1 18 27 36 45 53 62 71 80 89 98 107
!.!"#$!!
110 2 27 40 53 67 80 93 107 120 134 L  =   147!"   160
3 36 53 71 89 107 125 142 160 178 196 214
(!!! )!!
Lr  =    ×(b! )  
1 19 29 38 48 58 67 77 86 96 106
∆ 115 Figure 4.4.5.1 Horizontal Visibility Envelope
120 2 29 43 58 72 86 101 115 130 144 158
(! ! )!! 173
Lr  =   ∆!
 ×(b! )  
3 38 58 77 96 115 134 154 173 192 211 231 4.4.5.2 To determine whether an object will form a sight line obstruction in this situation, it is necessary to
!!!.!(!! !!)
1 21 31 42 52 63 73 83 94 104 bw    =  115 125   calculate the “horizontal sight offset” (HSO) for the curve. This is given by the expression:
!!
130 2 31 47 63 78 94 110 125 141 156 172 188
28.65  𝑆𝑆
3 42 63 83 104 125 146 167 188 209 229 250 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = R 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐  
𝑅𝑅
Table 4.4.4.3 Super-elevation Runoff Lengths
  Where S = required stopping sight distance (m)
Note: Vd is design speed in km/h.
Super-elevation of 9% or more is to be used only in exceptional circumstances   R = Curve Radius in m.
when permitted under the Design Variation Procedure.
 

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4.4.6 Carriageway Widening on Curves 4.6.6.2 Traveled-way Widening values:

4.4.6.1 On curves below 400m radius, vehicle swept paths cannot always remain within the standard width This section provides the traveled way widening values on the main road as function of the curve radius and
of a lane. The problem is mainly one for larger trucks and buses. To allow for this it can sometimes be necessary speed, for the assumed design condition for a WB-19 vehicle on a two-lane highway are presented in below
to widen lanes on such radii mostly in relation to junction and turning lane provision. The degree of widening Table 4.6.6.2A
for various radius ranges by design vehicle type is set out in Table 4.4.6.1.
Metric
Radius Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions Roadway Width = 7.2 m Roadway Width = 6.6 m Roadway Width = 6.0 m
on inner (Case 1: one-way single lane (Case 2: one-way single lane which (Case 3: two lanes Radius
edge of which does not allow for passing a allows for passing a stationary operation, of curve Design Speed (km/h) Design Speed (km/h) Design Speed (km/h)
pavement (m) stationary vehicle) vehicle) one-way or two-way) (m)
50 60 70 80 90 100 50 60 70 80 90 100 50 60 70 80 90 100
A B C A B C A B C 3000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6 2500 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1 2000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6 1500 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5 1000 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9 900 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7 800 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5 700 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4 600 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9 500 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2
Width Adjustment for Edge Treatment (no adjustment necessary for other edge treatments) 400 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4
Non- 300 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6
Mountable
add 0.3m none add 0.3m 250 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7
curb - one
side
200 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9
Non-
Mountable 150 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
add 0.6m add 0.3m add 0.6m
curb - both 140 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3
sides
130 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.4 2.4
Stabilised Lane width for conditions B and C Deduct shoulder width. Deduct 0.6m where shoulder width
shoulder on tangent may be reduced to 3.6m Lane width for conditions B and C is 1.2m or wider. 120 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6
on one where shoulder is 1.2m or wider. may be reduced to 3.65 m. where
110 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8
or both sides shoulder is 1.2 m. or wider.
100 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0
Table 4.4.6.1 Single and Two Lane Ramp Width (m) for Traffic Condition Types and Curve Radii (width includes
allowance for passing a broken down vehicle) - from AASHTO A Policy on GDHS 2004 90 2.5 2.8 3.1
80 2.8 3.1 3.4
70 3.2 3.5 3.8

Table 4.6.6.2A Calculated and Design Values for traveled way widening on open highway curves
(Two-lane Highways, One-way or Two-way)
Notes: Values shown are for WB-19 design vehicle and represent widening in meters. For other design vehicles, use adjustments
in the below Table.
Values less than 0.6m may be disregarded.
For 3-lane roadways, multiply above values by 1.5.
For 4-lane roadways, multiply above values by 2.

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Road Link Geometry Highway Design Standards 2017

The differences in track widths of the SU, WB-12, WB-19, WB-20, WB-20D, WB-30T, and WB-33D [SU, WB-40, 4.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
WB-62, WB-65, WB-67D, WB-100T, and WB-109D] design trucks are substantial for the sharp curves associated
with intersections, but for open highways on which radii are usually larger than 200 m, with design speeds 4.5.1 Gradients
over 60 km/h, the differences are insignificant. Where both sharper curves (as for a 50 km/h design speed) and
large truck combinations are prevalent, the derived widening values for the WB-19 truck should be adjusted in 4.5.1.1 A vertical alignment is normally made up of inclined straights and vertical curves. These curves
accordance with below Table 4.6.6.2B. are either “crest curves” or “sag curves” whose lengths and levels of curvature are controlled by the design
standards.
Metric
4.5.1.2 Lane capacity and level of service are related to free flow speed. Gradients which reduce vehicle
Radius of Design Vehicle
speeds reduce levels of service. Most passenger cars can negotiate gradients of at least 4 or 5% without losing
curve (m) SU-9 SU-12 WB-12 WB-20 WB-20D WB-28D WB-30T WB-33D
speed, Trucks speeds however are more sensitive to gradients. If truck speeds fall appreciably they have an
3000 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 0 0 0 0 0
effect on passenger cars, particularly on single carriageways. Trucks lose speed as they climb and therefore
2500 -0.4 -0.4 -0.3 0 0 0 0 0.1
gradient length is also a significant factor in alignment design which should aim to maintain capacity over the
2000 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 0 0 0 0 0.1 complete length of a section of highway.
1500 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 0 -0.1 0 0 0.1
1000 -0.5 -0.4 -0.4 0 -0.1 0 0 0.1 4.5.1.3 If gradients of sufficient severity and length to slow truck traffic appreciably cannot be avoided, the
900 -0.5 -0.4 -0.4 0 -0.1 0 0 0.1 provision of a climbing lane should be considered. This will maintain the capacity of both a single carriageway
and a dual carriageway 4 lanes road running at level of service C or above.
800 -0.5 -0.5 -0.4 0 -0.1 0 0 0.2
700 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 0.1 -0.1 0.1 0 0.2 4.5.1.4 The desirable and absolute maximum gradients and gradient lengths for all Design Groups are set
600 -0.6 -0.5 -0.5 0.1 -0.1 0.1 -0.1 0.2 out in the Design Group Standards in Table 4.5.3.1 A to E. These are based upon a speed drop for a truck of
500 -0.6 -0.6 -0.5 0.1 -0.2 0.1 -0.1 0.3 15 km/h (desirable) and 15 to 20 km/h (maximum). Absolute values should be used with caution, applicable to
400 -0.7 -0.6 -0.6 0.1 -0.2 0.1 -0.1 0.3 locations only where clear justification can be made.
300 -0.8 -0.7 -0.7 0.1 -0.3 0.1 -0.1 0.4
250 -0.9 -0.8 -0.8 0.1 -0.3 0.2 -0.1 0.5 4.5.2 Climbing Lanes
200 -1.1 -1 -0.9 0.2 -0.4 0.2 -0.2 0.6
4.5.2.1 Climbing lanes (also known as crawler lanes) are justified on a two lane road when the following
150 -1.3 -1.2 -1.1 0.2 -0.6 0.3 -0.2 0.8
conditions are fulfilled:-
140 -1.4 -1.2 -1.2 0.3 -0.6 0.3 -0.2 0.9
1. Upgrade traffic flow exceeds 200 vehicles per hour
130 -1.5 -1.3 -1.2 0.3 -0.6 0.3 -0.2 1
2. Upgrade truck flow exceeds 20 vehicles per hour
120 -1.6 -1.4 -1.3 0.3 -0.7 0.3 -0.3 1.1
3. One or more of the following applies:
110 -1.7 -1.5 -1.4 0.3 -0.8 0.4 -0.3 1.2
a) A greater than 15 km/h speed reduction is expected for a typical heavy lorry
100 -1.8 -1.6 -1.5 0.4 -0.8 0.4 -0.3 1.3
b) The Level of Service on the grade is E or F
90 -2 -1.8 -1.6 0.4 -0.9 0.4 -0.4 1.4
c) A reduction of two or more levels of service is expected when moving from the approach to the grade.
80 -2.2 -1.9 -1.8 0.5 -1 0.5 -0.4 1.6
70 -2.5 -2.2 -2 0.5 -1.2 0.6 -0.5 1.9 4.5.2.2 In many instances in severely undulating terrain the provision of a climbing lane can maintain
Table 4.6.6.2B Adjustments for traveled way widening values on open highway curves capacity at considerably less cost than would be required to construct a dual carriageway. Additionally the
(Two-lane highways, One-way or Two-way) provision of a climbing lane may be suitable as a staged improvement to an existing road. A key factor in
Notes:
assessing whether a climbing lane may be of benefit is the average speed of heavy lorries at the start of
Adjustments are applied by adding to or subtracting from WB-12 Semi Intermediate SemiTrailer Truck 12 m
the values in Table approximate an incline. As a common practice a climbing lane can be considered on grades greater than 4% when the
Adjustments depend only on radius and design vehicle; they WB-20 Interstate SemiTrailer Truck - 20 m approximate percentage value of the gradient multiplied by its length is equal to, or greater than, 1300.
are independent of roadway width and design speed. WB-20D Double Trailer Combination - 20 m approximate
For 3-lane roadways, multiply above values by 1.5. WB-28D Rocky Mountain Double-Trailer Combination - 28 m 4.5.2.3 Climbing lane details are set out in Figures 4.5.2.1 to 4.5.2.6. See also AASHTO Exhibits for the same.
For 4-lane roadways, multiply above values by 2. approximate Climbing lane width should not be less than 3.65 m and the shoulder width should be the same as for the
SU-9: Single Unit truck - 9 m approximate WB-30T Triple-Trailer Combination - 30 m approximate
adjacent sections of the road. Pavement construction details should reflect the traffic flow and mix expected to
SU-12: Single Unit Truck 12 m approximate WB-33D Turnpike-Double Combination - 33 m approximate
use the lane.

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Figure 4.5.2.2 Plan and Section Showing Detail of Start of Climbing Lane on Single Carriageway

Figure 4.5.2.1 Longitudinal Section Showing Extent of Climbing Lane on Single Carriageway

4.5.2.4 Figure 4.5.2.2: Layout at Start of Climbing Lane - The full width of the climbing lane shall be
provided at point S, which lies 100m uphill from the 2% gradient on the preceding sag curve. Widening to
create the climbing lane shall be achieved through use of a taper as shown, and which shall be designed
to encourage drivers to follow the nearside channel unless overtaking. The taper shall provide a smooth
transition, by utilising the road curvature to develop the extra width, wherever possible.

Figure 4.5.2.3: Layout at End of Climbing Lane - The full width of the climbing lane should be maintained up or
down the gradient to a point F, 220m beyond the end of the 2% point of the crest curve. After point ‘F’ a taper
of between 1/30 and 1/40 is provided to narrow the carriageway width from the offside thereby removing the
extra width that allowed the provision of the climbing lane.

Figure 4.5.2.4: Layout at Start of Climbing Lane - The full width of the climbing lane shall be provided at a point Figure 4.5.2.3 Plan Showing End of Climbing Lane on Single Carriageway
S in a similar manner to that described for single carriageway, but preceded by a taper of at least 1/45, as shown.
Wherever possible the additional width should be developed by utilising the road curvature to provide a smooth
transition.

Figure 4.5.2.4 Plan Showing Start of Climbing Lane on Dual Carriageway

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Figure 4.5.2.5: Layout at End of Climbing Lane: The full width of the climbing lane shall be maintained up the 4.5.3 Vertical Curves
gradient to a point F, in a similar manner to that described for single carriageway road, but followed by a taper
of 1/45. Where site conditions permit longer tapers should be considered. A smooth transition should be used 4.5.3.1 As in the case of horizontal curves, vertical curves involve radial acceleration. The forces needed to

wherever possible. counter this acceleration are provided either by the weight of the vehicle on crest curves, or by the reaction
of the road on sag curves. A vertical curve joins two straight tangents. Parabolic curves are normally used.
The change in gradient between the two tangents is measured by the angle between their extensions at their
intersection point. The rate of vertical curvature of a curve connecting these tangents is the length of curve per
percent of the algebraic difference in the intersecting grades. This value (K) defines a radius of curvature and
is a parameter which is directly related to sight distance and comfort.

4.5.3.2 In the case of crest curves, the main design considerations for vertical curves are the provision of
appropriate sight distances and the control of vertical radial acceleration (see Figure 4.5.3.1). Sight distances for
crest curves depend upon K value and observer and object heights. The observer’s eye height is taken to be
1.080 m. The object height for stopping sight distance is 0.600 m. For passing sight distance the object height
is 1.080 m.

Figure 4.5.2.5 Plan Showing End of Climbing Lane on Dual Carriageway

Figure 4.5.3.1 Sight Distance on Crest Curve

K values, which provide the necessary stopping and passing sight distances for a range of design speeds, are
shown in Table 4.5.3.1 A to E. If decision sight distance is required across a crest curve, the necessary curve
length is computed from:

a) When sight distance is less than curve length

b) When sight distance is greater than curve length

Where : for both case (a) and (b)

L = Length of vertical curve in meters
S = Sight distance in meters
A = Algebraic difference in grades – percent.
h1 = Height of observer’s eye above road level
Figure 4.5.2.6 Climbing Lane and Hairpin Bend in Mountainous Terrain
h2 = Height of object above road level (0.6m for stopping sight distance; 1.08 for passing sight distance).
Notes
1) Curve widening necessary is to be assessed using appropriate proprietary software for relevant standard vehicles.
2) Design Speed consideration is not normally required for cases such as this. Speeds will normally be low and maximum super-
elevation should be restricted to not more than 6%.
3) Maximum longitudinal gradient on Setting Out Line should normally be restricted to 4%.
4) In all cases, designers should check the longitudinal profiles of the inner and outer edges of the travelled way along the length
of the hairpin bend and over the lengths of superelevation application approaches to ensure that an absolute maximum gradient
of 10% is not exceeded.

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Route Design Design Recommended Vertical gradients Route Design Design Recommended Vertical gradients
Classification Group Speed Max Posted Vertical curves Classification Group Speed Max Posted Vertical curves
by Terrain km/h Speed km/h Desirable Absolute by Terrain km/h Speed km/h Desirable Absolute
Type Max Max Max Max length Crest Crest Type Max Max Max Max Crest Crest Sag
Gradient length (m) Gradient (m) approx. Stopping Passing Sag Gradient length (m) Gradient length (m) Stopping Passing (K value)
approx. (20km/h Sight Sight (K approx. approx. Sight Sight
(15km/h hgv speed Distance Distance value) (15km/h (20km/h Distance Distance
hgv speed reduction) (K value) ( K value) hgv speed hgv speed (K value) (K
reduction) reduction) reduction) value)
National A1 130 120 3% 525 4% 470 124 n/a 73 Arterial C1 110 100 5% 275 6% 295 74 n/a 55
Rural flat/ Rural flat/
rolling A2 130 120 3% 525 4% 470 124 n/a 73 rolling C2 110 100 5% 275 6% 295 74 617 55
A3 130 120 3% 525 4% 470 124 n/a 73 C3 110 100 5% 275 6% 295 74 617 55
A4 110 100 3% 525 4% 470 74 617 55 Arterial C4 90 80 9% 220 10% 210 39 n/a 38
Rural
National A5 110-130 100-120 4% 350 6% 375 74-124 n/a 55-73 mountainous C5 70-90 60-80 9% 220 11% 210 17-39 272-438 23-38
Rural
mountainous A6 110-130 100-120 4% 350 6% 375 74-124 n/a 55-73 C6 70-90 60-80 9% 220 11% 210 17-39 272-438 23-38
A7 110-130 100-120 4% 350 6% 375 74-124 n/a 55-73 Arterial C7 90 80 7% 220 10% 210 39 n/a 38
Urban flat/
A8 90-110 80 5% 275 6% 295 39-74 438-617 38-55 rolling C8 90 80 7% 220 10% 210 39 438 38
National A9 110 100 4% 350 5% 375 74 n/a 55 C9 90 80 7% 220 10% 210 39 438 38
Urban flat/
rolling A10 110 100 4% 350 5% 375 74 n/a 55 Arterial C10 70 60 11% 140 13% 130 17 n/a 23
Urban
A11 110 100 4% 350 5% 375 74 n/a 55 mountainous C11 70 60 11% 140 13% 130 17 272 23
A12 90 80 6% 400 7% 295 39 438 38
Table 4.5.3.1 C Secondary Paved Routes Vertical Alignment Standards
National A13 90 80 6% 400 7% 295 39 n/a 38
Urban
mountainous A14 90 80 6% 400 7% 295 39 n/a 38
Route Design Design Recommended Vertical gradients
A15 90 80 6% 400 7% 295 39 n/a 38 Classification Group Speed Max Posted Vertical curves
by Terrain km/h Speed km/h Desirable Absolute
A16 90 80 6% 400 7% 295 39 438 38
Type Max Max. length Max Max. length Crest Sag
Table 4.5.3.1 A National Paved Routes Vertical Alignment Standards Gradient (m) approx. Gradient (m) approx. Crest Passing (K
(15km/h hgv (20km/h Stopping Sight value)
Route Design Design Recommended Vertical gradients speed hgv speed Sight Distance
Classification Group Speed Max Posted Vertical curves reduction reduction Distance (K
by Terrain Type km/h Speed km/h Desirable Absolute (K value) value)
Max Max Max Max Crest Crest Distributor
Gradient length (m) Gradient length (m) Stopping Passing Sag Rural flat/ D1 90 80 6-7% 425 8% 210 39 438 38
approx. approx. Sight Sight (K rolling
(15km/h (20km/h Distance Distance value)
hgv speed hgv speed (K value) (K Distributor
reduction) reduction) value) Rural D2 50-90 40-80 10% 180 10-14% 170 7-39 150-438 13-38
mountainous
Arterial B1 110 100 3% 525 4% 500 74 n/a 55
Rural flat/ Distributor
rolling B2 110 100 3% 525 4% 500 74 n/a 55 Urban flat/ D3 70 60 7% 180 7-9% 190 17 272 23
B3 110 100 3% 525 4% 500 74 617 55 rolling

Arterial B4 90-110 80-100 5% 275 7% 300 39-74 n/a 38-55 Distributor

Rural Urban D4 70 60 11% 140 11-12% 140 17 272 23
mountainous B5 90-110 80-100 5% 275 7% 300 39-74 n/a 38-55 mountainous
B6 90 80 6% 425 7% 600 39 438 38 Table 4.5.3.1 D Distributor Paved Routes Vertical Alignment Standards
Arterial B7 90-110 80-100 5% 275 6% 300 39-74 n/a 38-55
Urban flat/
rolling B8 90-110 80-100 5% 275 6% 300 39-74 n/a 38-55
B9 90 80 5% 500 6% 600 39 n/a 38
B10 90 80 5% 500 6% 600 39 438 38
Arterial B11 90 80 8% 220 8% 210 39 n/a 38
Urban
mountainous B12 90 80 8% 220 8% 210 39 n/a 38
B13 70 60 9% 220 9% 210 17 272 23

Table 4.5.3.1 B Arterial Paved Routes Vertical Alignment Standards

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Route Design Design Recommended Vertical gradients d. Appearance: Very short vertical curves should be avoided. When very flat curves are called for they should
Classification Group Speed Max Posted Vertical curves be of a length (in meters) equal to 0.6 times the design speed in km/h. See also section 4.6 dealing with the
by Terrain km/h Speed km/h Desirable Absolute
Type integration of horizontal and vertical alignments.
Max Max. length Max Max. Sag
Gradient (m) approx. Gradient length (m) Crest Crest (K
(15km/h hgv approx. Stopping Passing value)
speed (20km/h Sight Sight 4.5.4 Stopping Distances on Grades
reduction hgv speed Distance Distance
reduction (K value) ( K value) 4.5.4.1 It should be noted that stopping distances on grades will vary from those on a flat road. The gradient
Access will assist deceleration on an up-grade and will hinder it on a down-grade. Stopping sight distances therefore
Rural Flat/ E1 70 60 7% 220 9% 210 17 272 23
Rolling
should be modified from their standard values in line with the distances shown in Table 4.5.4.1

Access Rural Stopping sight distance (m.)

E2 30-70 20-60 12% 140 12-16% 130 2-17 60-272 6-23
mountainous Design speed
Downgrades Upgrades
km/h
Access 3% 6% 9% 12% 15% 3% 6% 9% 12% 15%
Urban flat/ E3 50 40 8% 180 15% 140 7 150 13
rolling 20 20 20 20 23 24 19 18 18 17 17
30 32 32 35 39 45 31 30 29 28 27
Access
Urban E4 50 40 12% 140 15% 130 7 150 13 40 50 50 53 58 70 45 44 43 41 40
mountainous
50 66 70 74 80 98 61 59 58 56 55
Table 4.5.3.1 E Access Paved Routes Vertical Alignment Standards 60 87 92 97 105 128 80 77 75 72 70
70 110 116 124 135 161 100 97 93 90 86
4.5.3.3 It should be noted that subject to approval under the Design Variation Procedure, Access Route
80 136 144 154 168 n/a 123 118 114 110 n/a
Gradients may increase up to 16% when designed in accordance with AASHTO requirements.
90 164 174 187 n/a n/a 148 141 136 n/a n/a
100 194 207 n/a n/a n/a 174 167 n/a n/a n/a
110 227 243 n/a n/a n/a 203 194 n/a n/a n/a
120 263 281 n/a n/a n/a 234 223 n/a n/a n/a
130 302 323 n/a n/a n/a 267 254 n/a n/a n/a

Table 4.5.4.1 Stopping Sight Distances on Gradients

4.5.5 Unpaved Road Design Consideration

Unpaved roads are intended to operate at low to moderate speeds. Design Speeds for unpaved roads should
normally be 70 km/h or less, but may occasionally be as high as 80 km/h in situations the designer considers
appropriate.

Light beam distance should equal or exceed the stopping sight distance
4.5.5.1 Horizontal Alignment Consideration for Low Traffic Volume Road
Design of horizontal alignment on unpaved roads differs from paved roads because paved and unpaved roads
Figure 4.5.3.2 Headlight Sight Distance Limitation on Sag Curves have different surface friction characteristics and because unpaved roads are typically designed for low-speed
operation.
4.5.3.4 For sag curves, the criteria used to determine the length of sag curves are:
Minimum radius(m) for specified traction coefficient
a. Headlight sight distance: Figure 4.5.3.2 shows the effect of a vertical sag curve on the available night time Design Speed (km/h)
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
sight distance using headlights. K values which provide these headlight sight distances for sag curves are
20 15 15 15 20 35
shown in Table 4.5.3.1. If it is necessary to use a sag curve which is shorter than that given by use of these
30 15 20 25 40 75
k values, the road must be provided with adequate lighting.
40 30 35 35 65 130
b. Passenger comfort: Curve lengths using headlight beam sight distances will provide a sufficiently low rate
50 40 50 50 100 200
of radial acceleration to avoid passenger discomfort.
60 60 75 75 145 285
c. Drainage: While headlight sight distance controlled curve lengths are the minimum acceptable and longer
lengths are preferable where they can be provided, care must be taken with carriageway drainage with very 70 80 100 100 195 385

long flat curves. Particular care must be exercised where the K value exceeds 51. Table 4.5.5.1 Guidelines for minimum radius of Curvature for New Construction
of Unpaved Surfaces with No Superelevation

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4.5.5.2 Vertical Alignment consideration for Low Traffic Volume Road All locations for 0-100 vpd and “lower risk” locations for All locations for 100-250 vpd and “lower risk” locations
100-250 vpd1 (Limited Heavy Vehicle) for 250-400 vpd2 (Limited Heavy Vehicle)
A- Minimum Radius for Low Volume Roads:
Design Speed Stopping sight Rate of vertical curvature K3 Stopping sight Rate of vertical curvature K3
In constrained situations and where low traffic of 250 to 400 veh/day is foreseen, the limiting values of fmax (km / h) distance (m) distance (m)
Calculated Design Calculated Design
and Rmin shown in below Exhibit may be used.
20 15 0.3 0.5 15 0.3 0.5
Minimum radius(m), Rmin 30 25 0.9 1 30 1.4 2
Maximum design side 40 35 1.9 2 40 2.4 4
Design Speed(km/h) Max Superelevation rate (%),e max
friction factor, fmax
4 6 8 10 12 50 45 3.1 4 55 4.6 5
20 0.18 15 15 10 10 10 60 60 5.5 6 70 7.4 8
30 0.17 25 20 20 20 20 70 75 8.5 9 90 12.3 13
40 0.17 35 30 30 25 25 80 95 13.7 14 110 18.4 19
50 0.165 60 55 50 45 45 90 120 21.9 22 130 25.7 26
60 0.155 100 90 80 75 70 100 140 29.8 30 155 36.5 37
70 0.145 150 135 125 115 105 Table 4.5.5.3 Guidelines for Minimum Rate of Vertical Curvature to Provide Design Stopping Sight Distance on Crest
80 0.14 180 160 150 135 125 Vertical Curves for New Construction of Very Low-Volume Local Roads
1 “lower risk” locations are locations away from intersections, narrow bridges, railroad-highway grade crossings, sharp curves,
90 0.14 245 220 200 185 170
and steep grades
100 0.13 325 290 265 240 225 2 “higher risk” locations are locations near intersections, narrow bridges, or railroad-highway grade crossings, or in advance of sharp
curves or steep downgrades
Table 4.5.5.2 Guidelines for Maximum side friction factor and minimum radius 3 The rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of the curve (L) per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades (A), i.e., K=L/A.
(new construction ADT from 250 to 400 veh/day, limited heavy vehicle traffic)

B- Sag Vertical Curves: 4.6 THE CO-ORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
There are no special guidelines for design of sag vertical curves on very low-volume local roads. Sag vertical
curves should generally be designed in accordance with Chapter 3 of the AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design 4.6.1 Design Principles
of Highway and Streets (2011).
4.6.1.1 Horizontal and vertical alignments are greatly interdependent and should not be designed in
C- Crest Vertical Curves: isolation. Guidelines should be followed as presented in subsequent paragraphs.
Given the geometry of stopping sight distance on horizontal and crest vertical curve, the costs for even marginal
or incremental improvements make reconstruction of very low-volume local roads to increase stopping sight 4.6.1.2 Vertical and horizontal alignments should be in a proper balance. A very flat profile with sharp
distance not cost effective except in unusual cases. horizontal curves, or one with long flowing horizontal curves and short steep vertical slopes and curvatures
should be avoided.
Research NCHRP Report 400 (7) found that, even on higher volume roadways, accidents associated with limited
sight distance are extremely rare events. Furthermore, there was no indication that lengthening of the sight 4.6.1.3 Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curves, or vice versa, generally results in a pleasing
distance of a crest vertical curve has any demonstrable effect on reducing the number of collisions. Collisions appearance. Such combinations of vertical and horizontal alignment must of course be analysed for their effect
related to limited sight distance are even less likely on very low-volume local roads than on the higher volume on traffic. In particular:
roads studied in NCHRP Report 400 (7).
a. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be used at or near to the top of a significant crest vertical curve.
This is because a driver may not perceive the horizontal curve, especially in the dark. This situation may be
overcome by making the horizontal curve longer than the vertical one, such that the horizontal curvature is
apparent well before the crest.
b. Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced on a steep down grade at or near to the low point of a
sag curve. In this situation, the foreshortened view gained by the driver means that anything other than a
very gentle curve appears unduly distorted. In addition, lorries in particular, can reach their highest speeds
at such points and erratic or dangerous operation can occur.
c. On single carriageway roads the need for frequent and lengthy passing sections often takes precedence
over the general guidelines for the integration of horizontal and vertical alignment. In such a case the
provision of long tangent sections will help to achieve sufficient passing sight distance.

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4.6.1.4 Both horizontal and vertical profiles should be made as straight and level as practical at intersections,
where sight distance along both routes is important and vehicles may have to slow or stop.

4.6.1.5 A series of examples of integrated alignments illustrating best practice are set out in Figures 4.6.1.1
and Figure 4.6.1.2.

4.6.2 Safety on Gradients

4.6.2.1 In cases where gradients at or near the maximum allowable have to be used, care must be taken to
avoid a sharp horizontal curve at the foot of such a grade. This is because of the danger of a vehicle running
out of control on the down grade and arriving at the bend at too high a speed for safety.

4.6.2.2 On gradients which are either long or have appreciable horizontal curvature along their length it may
be necessary to provide a means of slowing or stopping vehicles which are in danger of running out of control.
This can normally be achieved through the provision of an escape ramp, either with or without a deceleration
facility.

4.6.2.3 For information on the provision and design of these facilities, see Section 16 of these standards.

4.7 DRAINAGE

4.7.1 General

4.7.1.1 Carriageway drainage is an important element of alignment design. In order for surface water to
run off the carriageway surface easily and quickly there must be a fall at any point of at least 2%. This fall must
guide surface water towards a point or area where it can be collected and drained away from the carriageway.

4.7.1.2 This fall may be the result of camber or crossfall, of longitudinal gradient, or a combination of the
two.Areas of difficulty can be crossfall crossover where the crossfall is swung from one hand to the other as
super-elevation is applied to a series of bends. Also areas where the terrain, and hence the vertical alignment,
has little or no longitudinal gradient.

4.7.1.3 Where the natural longitudinal fall is insufficient, (between 0.3% to 0.5%), drainage is best achieved
by introducing gradients at the channel while maintaining the alignment gradient on the lane centerline. This
will bring about variations in the crossfall or camber but provided that the gradient differentials between the
channel and the centerline are small (no more than 2%), this will be acceptable.

4.7.1.4 For roadside drainage purposes generally, and at curbs in particular, designers should ensure
that minimum longitudinal slope in the direction of drainage, or along the channel formed by curb face and
road surface should normally between 0.3% to 0.5%. This is to effect flows to roadside channels and gulleys.
Special consideration should be given to the design of curbside drainage in flat areas since combinations
of near horizontal proposed grade level gradients and superelevation application can result in almost flat or
very shallow gradients across the road surface and longitudinally at curbs. To avoid ponding, this should be
avoided where possible, and minimised where not.

Figure 4.6.1.1 Alignment and Profile Relationships – 1 (After AASHTO GDHS 2004)

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4.8 GRAVEL AND TRACK ROADS

4.8.1 Design Criteria

4.8.1.1 Many of the limiting alignment criteria for roads constructed without a paved or sealed surface are
the same as for other roads with the same design speed and carrying similar traffic. This is particularly so as
many gravel and track roads may eventually be sealed or paved without significant change to their alignment.

4.8.1.2 In relation to the carriageway, an unpaved road lane width should be 4.0 m

4.8.1.3 An area requiring particular and special attention however is drainage (see also Section 12-Drainage
Design). This is because of the danger of erosion of the pavement surface from water running along or across
the alignment. Gravel and track roads tend to lie in sparsely populated regions where traffic flows are low and
maintenance effort to correct such damage is necessarily limited. Good practice dictates therefore that every
effort should be made to” design out” as much of the problem as possible.

4.8.1.4 In mountainous areas the problem of erosion and scour of the road pavement and drainage
channels becomes more serious and requires further effort to limit its effects. Hence maximum gradients
for roads of this type should ideally be less than for sealed or paved roads.
Gradient Maximum Length
The limiting gradients for gravel and track roads are set out as desirable
12% 135 m.
maxima in the Design Group Table 4.5.3.1.
13% 120 m.
4.8.1.5 Where it is not realistically possible to provide gradients and 14% 105 m.
gradient lengths in accordance with Table 4.5.3.1 then gradients up to 16% 15% 90 m.
may be used subject to approval under the Design Variation Procedure. 16% 75 m.
Recommended maximum lengths for such gradients are set out in Table
Table 4.8.1.1 Maximum Gradient
4.8.1.1. Length (Unpaved Roads)

4.8.1.6 Where possible longitudinal “benches” (short lengths with a slight reverse gradient) should be
introduced into long gradients at regular intervals. The object of this is to collect water which runs down the
alignment from above and allow it to discharge laterally before it can reach quantities and velocities which can
seriously damage the road surface further down the slope. Such a bench should also be used at the top of a
gradient. This will affect the “purity” of the vertical alignment of the route but should be achieved in such a way
as to:
n Maintain sight distance requirements for the (relatively low) design speeds involved.
n Make possible an alignment which would be acceptable for a sealed or paved road through surface
regrading only.

4.8.1.7 In situations where the limiting gradients cannot reasonably be achieved it may be desirable to seal
or pave gradients over critical lengths to protect their surfaces from water damage.

4.9 REFERENCES

1. References American Association of State Highway Officials – Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
Figure 4.6.1.2 Alignment and Profile Relationships – 2 (After AASHTO GDHS 2004) 2011
2. US Transportation Research Board – Highway Capacity Manual 2000
3. Transport in the Urban Environment 1997 – UK Institution of Highways and Transportation – Section 20
“Traffic Calming and the Control of Speed”

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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Junction Selection & Capacity Considerations

TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES

5.1 GENERAL SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS 5-1 Figure 5.1.3.1: Type of Junction Suitable for Varying
Traffic Flows on all road classes 5-1
5.1.1 Introduction 5-1
5.1.2 Design Objectives 5-1
5.1.3 Junction Types 5-1 LIST OF TABLES
5.1.4 Junction Spacing 5-2

Table 5.3.1.1: Junction Levels of Service According to

5.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES 5-2
Average Delay 5-3
5.2.1 Introduction 5-2
5.2.2 General Considerations 5-2
5.2.3 Geometric and Operational Requirements 5-2
5.2.4 Safety 5-3
5.2.5 Pedestrian Provision 5-3

5.3 JUNCTION EVALUATION 5-3

5.3.1 General 5-3
5.3.2 Operational Issues - Capacity 5-4
5.3.3 Operational Issues - Delay 5-4
5.3.4 Queuing Delays 5-4
5.3.5 Geometric Delay 5-4
5.3.6 Resource Costs 5-4
5.3.7 Junction Detailed Design 5-5

5.4 REFERENCES 5-5

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5.1 GENERAL SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS 5.1.2.4 For unsaturated junctions, geometric delay is likely to be the main design delay factor under
consideration, whilst queuing and general congestion delay will predominate at heavily trafficked junctions.
5.1.1 Introduction Even small delays at junctions can accumulate over relatively short periods of time to significant levels
in economic terms, particularly for heavily used urban situations. Care must therefore be exercised when
5.1.1.1 Junctions are one of the most crucial components in a highway transport system, being constraints assessing what would be an acceptable delay at a particular junction location. This may be related to a wider
to link flows where delay, accidents and emissions tend to be concentrated. Determining the optimum junction network strategy where delay might be increased in some cases where movements are discouraged, and
design for a specific set of conditions can be complex and in most cases require the use of computer software decreased in other cases where movements carry public transport.
to analyze alternative designs with various patterns of traffic demand to determine flows, capacities and delay.
Nevertheless, engineering judgment combined with knowledge and experience of the designer, still remains 5.1.2.5 Fuel consumption is an important consideration given that significant reductions in fuel use can
the most important factor in arriving at the most suitable solution. be achieved by reducing stop start conditions and overall delays with consequent economic, noise and air
pollution reduction benefits.
5.1.1.2 The basic role of a junction is to facilitate the safe and efficient transfer of traffic streams from one
side of a junction to the other. Transfers can be between roads of the same or different levels in the hierarchy 5.1.2.6 For most large junctions where capital expenditure is high, an economic appraisal should show that
(See Section 1), but usually by not more than between adjacent levels. Access roads for instance should not the capital costs of the scheme are more than covered by the economic benefits derived.
connect with primary roads.
5.1.3 Junction Types
5.1.1.3 Junction conflicts can be categorized for road traffic as being diverging, merging or crossing, but
further categories can exist between vehicle classes, for instance cyclists and buses, and between pedestrians 5.1.3.1 Various junction types provides a natural hierarchy that cater for increasing levels of traffic flow.
and vehicles. All of which must be considered and balanced in the junction design process. These are:
n Priority controlled junctions (See Section 6)
5.1.1.4 The primary features to be considered in the design of road junctions are that:
n Priority controlled junctions with partial or full channelization (See Section 6)
n The capacity of the road network largely depend on the capacity of the junctions, particularly in urban
n Roundabouts (See Section 7)
areas,
n Roundabouts with part-time or full- time control by traffic signals (See Section 7)
n The majority of serious injury road accidents occur at junctions,
n Conventional traffic signal control (See Section 8)
n Conflict between pedestrians and vehicles are greatest at junctions.
n Grade separated junctions (See Section 9)
5.1.2 Design Objectives
5.1.3.2 Figure 5.1.3.1 (Ref 1) illustrates broadly the typical level of flows of major and minor road traffic that
5.1.2.1 In brief terms, the design objectives for junctions should be to minimize the following: can be handled by particular types of junctions. This is a generalized figure, which is a reasonable first guide as
to the type of junction which should be planned. Specific site circumstances, however, may result in boundary
n Traffic accidents
shifts between junction types, and therefore recognition of this possibility must be made. Predominant
n Traffic congestion
influences are the pattern of movement through the junction, particularly the relative numbers of left turning
n Traffic delay traffic and any special geometric characteristics.
n Fuel consumption
n Air pollution and noise

5.1.2.2 Accident risk should be minimized particularly for vulnerable users, whilst design should attempt to
reduce the severity of accidents as far as practical. Safe and convenient passage for pedestrians and cyclists is
necessary, especially so in urban conditions for people with visual or mobility impairment.

5.1.2.3 Capacity should be adequate for the particular situation, designed with a view to achieving
compatibility with the overall delays and levels of service on approach roads, particularly the mainline
approaches. Conflicts in the junction area between junction users and traffic related to existing or planned
developments in the vicinity should be minimized.

Figure 5.1.3.1 Type of Junction

Suitable for Varying Traffic Flows
on all road classes.

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Junction Selection & Capacity Considerations Highway Design Standards 2017

5.1.4 Junction Spacing 5.2.2.5 Where a major road is to provide a high level of service, a corresponding level of service for junctions
should be consistently offered for mainline traffic along that route. It may be that some predicted junction flows
5.1.4.1 Generally, spacing is determined by the level of the road in the hierarchy (see Section 1) and proportion do not in numerical terms warrant this treatment. However, to maintain “driver expectation” for a particular
of through traffic (non local) which it is intended to carry, and the nature and frequency of intersecting roads. class of road with a particular level of junction provision, consistency of design is essential.

5.1.4.2 Should the number and importance of exiting cross routes necessitate multiple, closely spaced 5.2.2.6 Should the junction or junctions be part of an area wide traffic control system, or is likely to form
junctions, consideration should be given to combining roads before they meet the main road providing part of a future system, (See Section 8) then due allowance for this must be made in the preliminary stages of
benefits in relation to road safety and main road capacity. the design process.

5.1.4.3 Junctions should be spaced at regular intervals, where possible, so that driver expectation is
reinforced and they are associated with a particular class of road. Junctions spacing shall conform with the 5.2.3 Geometric and Operational Requirements
requirements stated in Sections 6, 9 and 17. Spacing should be at the very minimum, just greater than the
5.2.3.1 Layouts for junctions should be designed to provide the heaviest traffic flows with the easiest and
stopping sight distance of the 85th percentile speed on the major road (for stopping sight distances refer to
shortest paths, but in such a way that does not encourage high speeds. The resulting smooth and relatively
table 4.3.1.1 A to E).
slow passage through a junction will enhance safety aspects particularly for vulnerable users. The introduction
of sharp turns, or complex paths which include several changes of direction should be avoided wherever

5.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES possible. Drivers should know what to expect in respect of traffic/traffic and pedestrian/traffic conflicts when
entering a junction having recognized its layout and taken adequate note of approach signing.

5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.3.2 Junction layouts should be designed with due allowance for vehicle swept paths and will be

5.2.1.1 The principles of good junction design can be listed under the following headings: determined largely by the typical (most common for that location) type of commercial vehicle that might
reasonably use the facility. This is not necessarily the longest vehicle. In high end junction, design this is
n General Considerations
conventionally taken as a semitrailer or draw bar trailer, and a fixed axle bus for lower order routes where large
n Geometric and operational requirements of vehicular traffic commercial vehicles would not typically penetrate but bus service and utility vehicles would. Junction designs
n Safety should allow for occasional encroachment in lower order roads where considered appropriate.
n Provision for pedestrians
5.2.3.3 Primary design principles are to reduce or separate conflicts as much as reasonably possible.
Choice of layout will determine the numbers and degree of conflicts. Roundabouts result in the least number
5.2.2 General Considerations
of conflicts eliminating crossing conflicts entirely. Conflicts can be managed by providing channelization using
5.2.2.1 The layout and control aspects of junctions should be considered together to determine the best raised curbs or by utilizing painted Ghost Islands. Extensive use of small islands at junctions can however
design solution to a particular problem, with the fundamental goal of providing road users with consistent become ineffective and confusing for drivers and should be avoided.
standards which would not be confusing. On lengths of road under design, use of a mixture of junction types
5.2.3.4 Channelization at junctions which can separate merging, crossing and diverging conflicts should be
and control treatments is likely to create uncertainty for drivers and therefore increase the risk of accidents.
designed at such a scale to allow drivers in adequate time to understand the nature of the streams of traffic
Similarly for pedestrians, consistent treatment helps the user to understand and therefore use the system
and clearly see which streams they will or will not conflict. Only under these conditions will the gaps in traffic
appropriately.
be utilized effectively and result in full operational efficiency.
5.2.2.2 Major/Minor priority layouts are the most common form of control allowing main road traffic to
5.2.3.5 It is critical that ALL road users have adequate visibility at junctions including pedestrians as well as
progress without delay. This however is only suitable for lightly trafficked roads and also with the proviso that
drivers. This is to ensure that conflicting traffic movements can be seen in sufficient time so that appropriate
main road speeds are not excessive and overtaking not allowed in the area.
action can be taken to avoid accidents. This principle applies to all junctions irrespective of size or type.
5.2.2.3 Higher traffic levels warrant higher junction provision with more complex layouts and more
5.2.3.6 Junction location should be restricted wherever possible to locations where mainline or side road
sophisticated traffic controls. In such cases, given the uncertainty of traffic predictions, designers should
profiles are not in significant crest curve. To increase driver’s forward visibility of junction layouts, it is always
always consider if stage construction would be appropriate, with built-in provision for upgrading at a later
preferable to locate junctions on level approaches or within sag curves. Uphill approaches to a junction make
date if traffic levels warrant.
it difficult for drivers to understand the layout and should be avoided where possible.
5.2.2.4 Design of junctions, particularly grade separated junctions, needs careful consideration of the
5.2.3.7 Speed differentials between mainline traffic and turning (merging and diverging) traffic are
direction of priority. Normally associated with the heaviest traffic flow demand, this situation is sometimes
undesirable and should be reduced by providing merge or diverge lanes with tapered entrance/exits. Provision
controlled by the overall network strategy.
of a storage lane for left turning traffic off a mainline is another safety and operational measure that can also
improve junction effectiveness, eliminating conflict with mainline “through” traffic coming from behind. In
cases where right turning movements predominate at junction approaches affecting capacity for through and
left turning traffic, exclusive segregated right turn lanes should be considered.
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5.2.3.8 The design of road signing and road marking is an integral part of the design process for junctions 5.3 JUNCTION EVALUATION
and should receive serious attention to ensure that they fulfill their role effectively. Layouts should be checked
to see that they can be adequately signed without ambiguity, that clear advance signing is provided and that 5.3.1 General
signing does not affect junction visibility in any way. (See Section 19 of these Standards).
5.3.1.1 Junction design and evaluation have in-built levels of uncertainty given the difficulties of forecasting
5.2.4 Safety traffic use, especially urban traffic flows and patterns. Traffic flows can change significantly in composition,
volume and direction on an hourly and daily basis. The respective operational efficiency of alternative
5.2.4.1 Safety considerations should remain as the core element for all junction design, from initial concept junction designs will also affect the attractiveness of a junction thus implying an iterative process rather than
to detailed design and layouts should, when instructed by the Employer be subjected to independent audit the application of a simple fixed trip matrix. Care must be exercised, therefore, when choosing the most
during the design process. Critical factors in the realization of a reduction in occurrence and severity of representative design condition, and a variety of design flows should be tested which may lead to a range of
accidents at junctions are: proposals that offer varying levels of service and other advantages or disadvantages.
n A reduction in high vehicle speeds through the junction
5.3.1.2 In cases where junction design is not constrained by other factors, relative assessments of safety,
n The presence of unobstructed visibility on all approaches to the junction
performance, operational efficiency and resource costs can be used to assist in the choice of the preferred
n Appropriate geometric standards for the typical design vehicle, and design option. Evaluation should cover the effects at other junctions and links caused by the proposals within
n Integration of the traffic information and control systems within the junction. a highway network across a pre-identified “Area of Influence.” Conventional economic assessment should
include a comparison of network wide parameters for vehicle-km and delay, applying appropriate values for
5.2.4.2 Whilst there remains flexibility in the planning process to design junctions appropriate to specific time and vehicle operating costs to ultimately determine economic parameters such as FYRR, EIRR and NPV
conditions, the following general recommendations hold: for scheme alternatives.
1) It is not recommended that traffic signals be used on high speed roads (posted speeds greater than 80km/h)
based on safety grounds. 5.3.1.3 Traffic forecasting in absolute terms, particularly long range forecasting, is not a precise science,
2) It is not recommended that at-grade roundabouts be used on high speed roads (posted speeds greater and to achieve a good level of accuracy is not always possible, even when using sophisticated modeling tools.
than 100km/h) based on safety grounds. An exception to this case would be the terminal points for the Junction evaluation, however, provided that consistent traffic figures are used for testing, can reveal the true
high speed road where roundabouts are a safe provision and particularly useful to introduce a change of relative ranking of the alternatives looking at the life of the scheme and the effect of proposals over the area of
road hierarchy or route classification, unless a transition segment of about 500 m with reduced speed is influence.
introduced on the approaches of the roundabout.
5.3.1.4 In order to further ensure that there is a consistent approach to economic analysis of junctions in
Oman, the adoption of suitable values for Time and VOCs shall require presentation to and verification by the
5.2.5 Pedestrian Provision Overseeing Authority before use.

5.2.5.1 Pedestrian safety is considered in Section 17, however, a brief word about basic principles at 5.3.1.5 General guides to the operational efficiency of junctions, both signalized and non-signalized are
junctions are given. Pedestrian safety should receive careful consideration from the earliest stage of design, shown in Table 5.3.1.1. This uses a similar “Level of Service” type approach as used in Section 4 of these
especially for urban and semi-urban areas. It could be possible for designs to provide separate routes for standards – “Road Link Geometry”. Average delay per vehicle is the usual measure of junction operational
pedestrians which lead them away from the busiest parts of the junction to places where road widths are success. This can be applied over specific time periods either to a particular movement or selective traffic
reduced and traffic movements are more predictable. At the junction, one of several provisions could be movements or for all traffic using the junction. As noted earlier, care must be exercised in evaluating junction
considered to improve pedestrian safety via: improvements beyond the immediate boundary of those specific sites.
n Providing a raised central island refuge at unmarked crossing places
n A pedestrian crossing without signal control with/without a central island refuge Ave. Stopped Delay
Ave. Stopped Delay
Level of Service (LoS) for Signalized Junctions
A signal controlled crossing; or for Un-signalized Junctions (sec/veh)
n (sec/veh)
n A grade separated crossing (pedestrian underpass or bridge) A <=10.0 <=10.0
B >10.0 and <=20.0 >10.0 and <=15.0
5.2.5.2 Choice of the above facilities is dependent on predicted traffic volumes, and the pattern of movement
C >20.0 and <=35.0 >15.0 and <=25.0
of both vehicles and pedestrians, and should be designed in accordance with Section 8 and other standards
D >35.0 and <= 55.0 >25.0 and <= 35.0
provided in this document and their associated references.
E >55.0 and <= 80.0 >35.0 and <= 50.0
F > 80.0 > 50.0

Table 5.3.1.1 Junction Levels of Service According to Average Delay

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Junction Selection & Capacity Considerations Highway Design Standards 2017

5.3.1.6 Table 5.3.1.1 indicates the best LoS “A” being with virtually no traffic based delay down to LoS “F”, 5.3.4 Queuing Delays
which is conventionally considered to be at unacceptable levels and associated, for example, at signalized
junctions, with very long cycle times. (Ref 2) 5.3.4.1 For each traffic stream approaching a junction, the queuing delay is dependent on:

n The capacity of the junction to pass that traffic under prevailing conditions (i.e. the maximum service rate
5.3.2 Operational Issues - Capacity of the junction on that approach under prevailing conditions)
n The arrival rate of vehicles on that approach.
5.3.2.1 Capacity analysis is primarily concerned with the ability of the junction to cope with the various
traffic movements that will be made on it. For priority and roundabout junctions (space sharing), this depends 5.3.4.2 The arrival rate is the average rate (vehs/h) at which the traffic upstream approaches the junction
essentially on the arrival patterns of the major movements, the junction layout, type of control and gap and is measured upstream of any queue. The prevailing capacity is the average rate at which traffic can enter
acceptance characteristics. the junction on the arm under consideration at the design condition.

5.3.2.2 For isolated signalized junctions (time sharing), the situation is different. There is no dependence on 5.3.4.3 The arrival rate and the prevailing capacity can change significantly, particularly over peak periods
arrival patterns; there is no fixed priority and no gap acceptance issues for through traffic. where sudden short peaks within the peak period can occur. Where practicable, the junction design should
provide sufficient capacity to keep the ratio of arrival rate to prevailing capacity to less than 0.9 for each traffic
5.3.2.3 For all types of junctions, the traffic composition is an important consideration when evaluating
stream.
capacities, since the distribution of vehicle sizes and associated operational characteristics in a traffic queue or
stream affects capacity. For intersections, capacity is expressed as pcus (passenger car units) per hour for any 5.3.4.4 Where such capacity buffers cannot be maintained, and ratios are above 1, there will be continual
particular movement. A single pcu is the base unit of flow to which all other vehicles types are converted. For queue growth until such time that arrival rates drop to levels which can be cleared by that particular junction
a particular junction type, if a heavy vehicle takes say twice the time of a single passenger car unit to navigate leg. The junction design will affect the total amount of queuing delay and the distribution of delay on the various
a particular junction type, the equivalent pcu value for that vehicle would be 2pcus. traffic streams. The design can thus be used to achieve given objectives for the movement and distribution of
traffic.
5.3.2.4 For priority junctions and roundabouts, it is conventional under normal geometric conditions
to assume that heavy vehicles and large buses are equivalent to two pcus. Similarly, for traffic signalized
5.3.5 Geometric Delay
junctions, the effects of various vehicle types under saturated conditions can be taken as:
n Car or light goods vehicle = 1.0 pcu 5.3.5.1 The geometric delay is a function of the junction geometry and on the speed of a vehicle as it
n Medium goods vehicle = 1.5 pcu decelerates on the junction approach, negotiates the junction and accelerates away on leaving. The total
geometric delay for any flow pattern can be obtained by multiplying the delay per vehicle in each stream by the
n Heavy goods vehicle = 2.3 pcu
corresponding flow and summing for all the traffic streams. The resulting aggregated traffic delays, in both the
n Bus/coach = 2.0 pcu
with and without project cases, are compared in terms of their difference in vehicle operating cost and driver/
n Motorcycle = 0.4 pcu passenger time, to obtain the net benefits for the with-project case.
n Bicycle = 0.2 pcu
5.3.6 Resource Costs
5.3.2.5 In cases of particularly high cross-junction gradients or other extreme geometric constraint, the
designer should nominally adjust the standard values quoted here appropriately. 5.3.6.1 The generalized cost of traffic operation at a junction will consist of:
n Time (delay) costs
5.3.3 Operational Issues - Delay n Vehicle operating costs, and
5.3.3.1 There are two types of delay that occur at junctions depending on their level of saturation, congestion n Accident Costs
delay and geometric delay. Congestion delay, arising from queuing, is caused entirely by other traffic and is
5.3.6.2 For optimization of the junction design, the objective should be to minimize these costs, discounted
dependent on the levels of flow and available capacity on any particular approach. The other type, geometric
over the planned life of the junction, in comparison with the capital cost of the scheme and discounted
delay, is fixed, and is dependent on the geometry of the junction and control strategies that apply.
maintenance costs over the life of the junction.

5.3.6.3 Vehicle operating cost (VOC) consist of two elements, fixed and variable costs, with fixed cost
comprising of items such as license, insurance and taxes, and variable costs, comprising of fuel, tires, oil,
maintenance etc. which relate to use. Values of time relate to the trip purpose and type of vehicle, normally
linked to the average wage of passenger car drivers and heavy vehicle drivers.

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5.3.7 Junction Detailed Design

5.3.7.1 There are many proprietary programs available for analysis of junctions, some of which attempt to
include safety requirements as well as capacity estimates. These parameters may sometimes be in conflict,
with lower capacity junctions providing higher safety parameters and vice versa for higher capacity junction
designs. In such cases, these conflicts should be reconciled for the situation that prevails at each junction,
meaning taking a considered and professionally balanced view of all the contributory features to arrive at a
preferred solution.

5.3.7.2 Current programs available for the analysis of junctions are noted in respective Junction Design
Sections 6, 7, 8 and 9 in which basic geometric design standards are also presented. Typically these programs
input design geometry and traffic movements to calculate performance overall and on individual junction legs,
predicting queue lengths and delays over a series of time slices. They can also be used for checking swept
paths of various vehicle types on junction designs. These programs should be used, where appropriate, to
conduct a series of tests to ensure the robustness of junction design to accommodate traffic demand.

5.4 REFERENCES

1. Transport in the Urban Environment 1997 UK - The Institution of Highways and Transportation
2. Highway Capacity Manual (2000), Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington,
D.C., 2000.

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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Priority Junctions & U- Turn Facilities

TABLE OF CONTENT

6.1 MAJOR/MINOR PRIORITY JUNCTIONS - 6.3.9 Median Openings 6-9

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 6-1 6.3.10 Traffic Islands and Refuges 6-9
6.1.1 Introduction 6-1 6.3.11 Design of Channelizing Islands – T Junctions
6.1.2 Junction Types 6-1 and Staggered Junctions 6-9
6.1.3 Junction Configurations 6-1 6.3.12 Design of Channelizing Islands – Splay
(Skewed) T and Staggered Junctions 6-10
6.1.4 Choice of Major/Minor Priority Junctions 6-2
6.3.13 Design of Rural Cross Road Islands 6-10
6.1.5 Simple Junctions 6-2
6.3.14 Diverging Tapers and Lanes 6-11
6.1.6 Ghost Island Junctions 6-3
6.3.15 Merging Lanes 6-11
6.1.7 Single Lane Dualling Junctions 6-3
6.3.16 Stagger Distances 6-15
6.1.8 Major/Minor Priority Junctions on Dual
Carriageways 6-3 6.3.17 Junctions on Climbing Lanes 6-15
6.1.9 Crossroads 6-3 6.3.18 Skew Junctions and Junctions on Curves 6-15
6.1.10 Staggered Junctions 6-3 6.3.19 Right In – Right Out Junctions with Local
Grade Separation 6-16
6.2 MAJOR/MINOR PRIORITY JUNCTIONS -
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 6-3 6.4 BRINGING DESIGN COMPONENTS
TOGETHER 6-17
6.2.1 Siting and Alignment 6-3
6.4.1 General 6-17
6.2.2 Edge Treatments 6-4
6.4.2 Assembly of Design Elements 6-17
6.2.3 Pedestrian Provision 6-4
6.2.4 Landscaping 6-5
6.5 PROVISON OF MEDIAN U-TURNS 6-18

6.3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 6-5 6.5.1 General Principles 6-18

6.5.2 Geometric Design 6-18
6.3.1 General 6-5
6.3.2 Design Speed and Visability 6-5
6.6 PRIORITY JUNCTION OPERATIONAL
6.3.3 Design Vehicle and Corner Radii 6-6 ISSUES 6-19
6.3.4 Carriageway Widths – Major Road 6-6
6.6.1 Junction Spacing 6-19
6.3.5 Carriageway Widths – Minor Road 6-7
6.6.2 Capacity and Operational Checks During Design 6-19
6.3.6 Carriageway Widths on Curves 6-7
6.3.7 Central Islands 6-7 6.7 REFERENCES 6-19
6.3.8 Left Turning Lanes 6-8
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES
Figure 6.3.11.1: Rural T Junction and Staggered Junction 6-9
Figure 6.1.2.1: Simple T Junction 6-1 Table 6.1.4.1: Possible Junction Types for Different
Figure 6.3.12.1: Left Splayed Channelizing Island Design 6-10 Major Road Carriageway Types 6-2
Figure 6.1.2.2: Ghost Island Junction 6-1
Figure 6.3.12.2: Right Splayed Channelizing Island Design 6-10 Table 6.3.2.1: “y” Distances for Major Road Design Speeds 6-5
Figure 6.1.2.3: Single Lane Dualling – Junction 6-1
Figure 6.3.13.1: Crossroad Islands Rural Conditions 6-10 Table 6.3.6.1: Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and
Figure 6.1.3.1: Crossroads Junction Configuration 6-2
Figure 6.3.14.1: Major/Minor Priority Junctions with Carriageway Widths 6-7
Figure 6.1.3.2: Skew or Y Junction 6-2 Nearside Diverging Taper 6-11 Table 6.3.7.1: Taper Rates for Development of Central Islands 6-7
Figure 6.1.3.3: Staggered (Left – Right) Junction 6-2 Figure 6.3.14.2: Major/Minor Priority Junctions with Table 6.3.8.1: Direct Taper Length by Design Speed 6-8
Figure 6.1.4.1: Approximate Level of T- junction Provision Nearside Deceleration Lane/Taper 6-11
Table 6.3.8.2: Deceleration Lengths by Junction Type and
for Single Carriageway Roads for various Major/Minor Figure 6.3.15.1: Typical Local Dualing at - Grade Junction 6-12 Gradient (for left and right turns) 6-8
Design Year Traffic Flows 6-2
Figure 6.3.15.2: Left-Right Staggered Layout Table 6.3.11.1a: Channelizing Island Offsets 6-9
Figure 6.1.5.1: Simple Major/Minor Priority Junction with on Single Carriageway 6-13
Passing Bay 6-3 Table 6.3.11.1b: Setting Radius R1 6-9
Figure 6.3.15.3: Typical Right-Left Staggered Layout
Figure 6.2.1.1: Use of Hatching in meter strips to Eliminate on Single Carriageway 6-14 Table 6.3.15.1: Major/Minor Priority Junctions
Overtaking Maneuvers 6-3 Merging Lengths 6-15
Figure 6.3.17.1: Major/Minor Priority Junction with
Figure 6.2.1.2: Use of Double Lines to Deter Overtaking Climbing Lane - Junction to Left of Upgrade 6-15 Table 6.3.16.1: Right/Left Staggered Junctions -
Maneuvers 6-3 Minimum Stagger Distance 6-15
Figure 6.3.17.2: Major/Minor Priority Junction with
Figure 6.2.2.1: Edge Treatment Transitions 6-4 Climbing Lane - Junction to Right of Upgrade 6-15 Table 6.5.2.3: Minimum designs for U-Turns 6-19
Figure 6.2.3.1: Typical Urban Separator Island 6-4 Figure 6.3.18.1: Major/Minor Priority – Junction
Figure 6.3.2.1: Visibility Standards 6-5 Skew to the Right 6-15

Figure 6.3.2.2: Visibility Standards on Curved Major Roads 6-6 Figure 6.3.18.2: Major/Minor Priority Junction –
Skew to the Left 6-16
Figure 6.3.3.1: Compound Curve – Corner Radii 6-6
Figure 6.3.18.3: Major/Minor Priority Junction –
Figure 6.3.4.1: Major/Minor Priority Junction with Ghost Island 6-6
Minor Road on Curve 6-16
Figure 6.3.5.1: Minor Road – Carriageway Approach
Figure 6.3.19.1: Local Grade Separation 6-16
Dimensions 6-7
Figure 6.3.19.2: Local Grade Separation T Junction
Figure 6.3.7.1: Ghost Island and Taper 6-7
(Major Road Speed in the Region of 120 km/h) 6-17
Figure 6.3.7.2: Physical Island and Taper 6-7
Figure 6.4.2.1: Assembly of Components to Create Single
Figure 6.3.8.1: Overlapping Deceleration Lanes Right-Left Carriageway T Junctions 6-17
Stagger 6-8
Figure 6.4.2.2: Alternative Left/Right Staggered Junctions 6-18
Figure 6.3.9.1: Median Opening – Priority Markings Example 6-9
Figure 6.4.2.3: Alternative Right/Left Staggered Junctions 6-18
Figure 6.5.2.1: Indirect U-Turn Layout 6-19
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6.1 MAJOR/MINOR PRIORITY JUNCTIONS - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS a) Simple T-Junction, consisting of a T or staggered arrangement without any ghost or physical raised islands on
the major road, and without ghost or physical channelizing islands on the minor approach roads.
6.1.1 Introduction b) Ghost Island Junction, consisting of a T or staggered arrangement within which an area is marked on the
carriageway shaped and located so as to direct traffic movement.
6.1.1.1 Priority junctions are the most frequent form of junction type and function by traffic on the minor
roads giving way to traffic on the major road. Control is mandated by the provision of either a “Give Way” sign
or a “Stop” sign with corresponding road marking as necessary. Stop signs should be seldom used and relate
to situations where sight distances are restricted.

6.1.1.2 All major/minor road priority junctions have the advantage that major road traffic is not delayed;
however care must be taken to ensure that very high speeds and overtaking maneuvers are not encouraged
in the area of the junction, and that junction design, particularly where traffic predictions are uncertain, should
allow flexibility for efficient upgrading in the future.

6.1.1.3 See Section 19 for the detail and application of road markings and GCC Manual.

6.1.1.4 The major road is the road to which is assigned a permanent priority of traffic movement over that
of the other road or roads.

A minor road is a road which has to give priority to the major road.
Figure 6.1.2.2 Ghost Island Junction
A Simple Junction is a T- or staggered junction without any ghost or physical islands in the major road, and c) Single Lane Dualling Junction, consisting of a T or staggered arrangement within which the median islands
without channelising islands in the minor road approach are shaped and located to direct traffic movements

6.1.1.5 For more heavily used junctions, more complex forms of junction layout are required. Due to the
uncertainty of traffic forecasting, designers should always consider whether the layout they are designing
could be upgraded to provide more capacity, if this should prove necessary in the future.

6.1.1.6 Sequences of junctions should not involve many different layout types. A length of route or bypass
containing roundabouts, single lane dualling, ghost islands, simple priority junctions and grade separation
would inevitably create confusion and uncertainty for drivers and may result in accidents. Safe road schemes
are usually straightforward, containing no surprises for the driver.

6.1.1.7 All of the relevant safety issues should be addressed to ensure as safe a design as possible, to take
account of road users’ specific requirements.

6.1.1.8 The capacity of the junction should be checked for adequacy. This includes a check if the junction Figure 6.1.2.3 Single Lane Dualling - Junction
is located on a route which might experience a wide variation in flow and turning movements, particularly
those having prolonged daily peak periods, over a day, week, or year. The check should be undertaken prior to 6.1.3 Junction Configurations
assembling the component parts to form a complete junction.
6.1.3.1 For each of the Types of junction there are five basic CONFIGURATIONS for design purposes
illustrated as follows:
6.1.2 Junction Types
1) Crossroads – An at - grade junction of two roads that cross approximately at right angles
6.1.2.1 There are three basic TYPES of at-grade priority 2) T-junction – An at - grade junction of two roads, at which the minor road joins the major road approximately
junction: Simple T- Junction, Ghost Island Junction and Single at right angles
Lane Dualling Junction. They are presented graphically in the
3) Skew or Y Junctions – An at - grade junction of two roads, at which the minor road approaches the major
following sub paragraphs. For illustration purposes, black
road at an oblique angle and terminates at the junction
lines indicate curbs. The actual use of curbs in particular
4) Staggered Junction – An at - grade junction of three roads, at which the major road is continuous through
locations, however, will depend on circumstances.
the junction, and the minor roads connect with the major road so as to form two opposed T-junctions
(See Sub-section 6.2.2. Edge Treatments).
Figure 6.1.2.1 Simple T Junction

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5) Right In – Right Out Junction with Local Grade Separation - see Figure 6.3.19.1, consisting of an at- grade Junction Type
intersection of two roads, at which the minor road approaches the major road. It acts to restrict traffic Carriageway Type
Simple Ghost Island Dualling
movements at the junction to right turns only. Such junctions can be applied to both single and dual
Standard Location T Stagger Cross T Stagger Cross T Stagger Cross
carriageways where physical islands prevent unauthorised left turning.
Yes Yes
Urban Yes Yes Possibly Yes Yes No No
(Dual 1) (Dual 1)
Single 2-lane Cwy
Yes Yes
Rural Yes Yes Possibly Yes Yes No No
(Dual 1) (Dual 1)
Yes
Urban No No No No No No No No
(Dual 2)
Dual 2- lane Cwy
Yes
Rural No No No No No No No No
(Dual 2)
Urban No No No No No No No No No
Dual 3- lane Cwy
Rural No No No No No No No No No

Table 6.1.4.1 Possible Junction Types for Different Major Road Carriageway Types
Note: 1. Left Turns at these junctions are banned – Junctions operate as Right-In, Right-Out only.
2. Dual 1 refers to single lane dualling as noted in 6.1.7 and Dual 2 refers to conventional 2 lane dual carriageways.

Figure 6.1.3.1 Crossroads Junction Configuration Figure 6.1.3.2 Skew or Y Junction

Figure 6.1.4.1 Approximate

Level of T- junction Provision
for Single Carriageway
Roads for various Major/
Minor Design Year Traffic
Flows
Figure 6.1.3.3 Staggered (Left – Right) Junction
6.1.4.3 In most situations, the 2-way AADT at design year is used to determine the approximate form and
size of provision of new junctions. In some cases, should there be particular seasonal or other special events
6.1.4 Choice of Major/Minor Priority Junctions leading to extreme peaks, then design reference flows should be reviewed accordingly and adjusted, or

6.1.4.1 The following Table 6.1.4.1 shows the major/minor priority junction forms that are considered consideration given to the adoption of an alternative type of junction.

suitable for various major road carriageway types for both rural and urban situations. This table should be 6.1.4.4 From both Table 6.1.4.1 and figure 6.1.4.1, it can be seen that there are several mandatory principles
regarded as the basic starting point in choosing the most appropriate type of major/minor priority junction to that govern the selection of priority junctions as described in the following sub-sections.
use at a particular site.

6.1.4.2 In addition to the table, the following diagram, Figure 6.1.4.1 may be useful when further considerations 6.1.5 Simple Junctions
of site options are investigated. For single carriageway roads, it shows in broad terms the various levels of
6.1.5.1 Simple junctions are appropriate for most minor junctions on single carriageway roads, but must
T-junction which could be applicable for different combinations of traffic flows. The information accounts for
NOT be used for dual carriageways. second sentence to read as follows: “For new rural junctions, they shall
geometric and traffic delays, entry and turning flows and accident costs; and is a reasonable first guide, subject
only be used where the 2-way AADT on the minor road is not expected to exceed 300 vehicles and the flow on
to other considerations noted in Section 5, Junction Selection and Capacity Considerations. This Figure helps
the major road is not expected to exceed 13000 vehicles.”
the designer to broadly decide what type of priority junction could be appropriate for various combinations of
major and minor road flow.

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6.1.5.2 At existing rural, and at urban junctions, the cost of upgrading a simple junction to provide a left 6.1.7.6 The core feature of this type of junction is that there is only ONE through lane in each direction on the
turning facility will vary on site characteristics. second sentence to read as follows: “However, upgrading major road, thus designed to prevent overtaking and excessive speeding through the zones of traffic conflict.
should always be considered where the 2-way AADT on the minor road exceeds 500 vehicles, where a left-
turning accident problem is evident, or where traffic waiting on the major road to turn left inhibits the through 6.1.8 Major/Minor Priority Junctions on Dual Carriageways
flow and creates a hazard.”
6.1.8.1 Major/Minor priority junctions can also be used on rural dual carriageways but without the facility for
6.1.5.3 For cases where traffic flows making any left turns. This reduces the operation of this type of T-junction to a Right-in, Right-out facility.
are not high enough to warrant the
construction of a formal left turning 6.1.9 Crossroads
facility, consideration should be made
6.1.9.1 Cross roads are in general not recommended and should only be considered in rural and urban
for provision of low cost alternatives
areas where minor road traffic levels are very low and ghost islands or single lane dualling are not warranted.
such as the introduction of a passing
Staggered junctions are a much safer alternative than cross roads when a large proportion of the minor
bay (Figure 6.1.5.1).
Figure 6.1.5.1 Simple Major/Minor Priority Junction with Passing Bay road traffic will perform a crossing maneuver. Crossroads should be avoided and not be used on new road
construction whenever possible.
6.1.6 Ghost Island Junctions

6.1.6.1 Ghost islands shall be used on new single carriageway roads, or in the upgrading of existing 6.1.10 Staggered Junctions
junctions to provide left turning vehicles with a degree of protection from through flow traffic. They are
6.1.10.1 Staggered junctions consist of a major road with opposed T-junctions on either side (Figure 6.1.3.3)
relatively inexpensive and considered to be effective in improving safety.
and split cross traffic movements into stages.
6.1.6.2 In cases of rural single carriageway roads where overtaking opportunities are restricted on either side
6.1.10.2 Where choices can be made, a preference for left-right staggers rather than right-left staggers should
of the junction, the use of ghost islands should be carefully balanced with the possibility of illegal overtaking
be followed. This arrangement eliminates the need for crossing traffic to wait in the middle of the major road to
maneuvers in the area, even over areas of hatched out road markings. Therefore, Ghost Island will not be used
turn left and is considered to be the safest option for this configuration.
if there are restricted overtaking opportunities on adjacent links or where traffic turning left out of the minor
road would need to make the maneuver in 2 stages.
6.2 MAJOR/MINOR PRIORITY JUNCTIONS - DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
6.1.7 Single Lane Dualling Junctions

6.1.7.1 This type of priority junction is to be used on rural single carriageway roads to prevent overtaking on
6.2.1 Siting And Alignment
the major road in the junction area, and where it is desirable, to allow the left turn out of the minor road to be 6.2.1.1 On new single carriageways, where overtaking opportunities are limited, the introduction of ghost
carried out safely. In general terms, it should therefore be used where there are good overtaking opportunities island or single lane dualling junctions should only be made on non-overtaking sections of road.
on adjacent links and used in preference to Ghost Islands where there is some restriction to overtaking on
adjacent links or where the left turn movement needs to be carried out in two stages. 6.2.1.2 To additionally reduce the risk of overtaking in the junction area, the use of diagonal hatching within
the meter strips as shown in Figure 6.2.1.1 or the introduction of double yellow lines along the median hatching
6.1.7.2 Because of the detailed nature of the layouts for single lane dualling, it is only appropriate for roads as shown in Figure 6.2.1.2, both promote safer operation of the junction.
with paved shoulders or hard strips.

6.1.7.3 To avoid any misinterpretation by drivers that single lane dualling is the start of a full dual carriageway
width with overtaking opportunities, this type of junction should not be used on roads having a series of
alternating single and dual carriageway sections. It should not be used where the single carriageway junction
is within 3km of the end of a taper which terminates a long length of full 2 lane dual carriageway.

6.1.7.4 This junction type should not be used where there is an overtaking lane which passes across the Figure 6.2.1.1 Use of Hatching in Meter Strips to Eliminate Overtaking Maneuvers
junction site.

6.1.7.5 Single lane dualling is formed by widening the major road to provide a median island, a left turning
lane and an adequate space for vehicles wanting to turn left from the minor road (Figure 6.1.2.3). This form
of junction also enables most left turning traffic from the minor road to perform turns in two stages. The
exception to this is for some commercial vehicles where cab visibility to the right can be restricted and in such
cases, the maneuver will need to be done in one stage.
Figure 6.2.1.2 Use of Double Lines to Deter Overtaking Maneuvers

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6.2.1.3 To further emphasize Ghost Islands, the use of different colored surfacing within the hatched area
of island can be applied. The whole effect is to encourage traffic containment to a single lane and deter any
possibility of high speed or overtaking through the junction.

6.2.1.4 In horizontal terms the junctions should not be provided on curves if possible, but when unavoidable,
the junction located on the outer side is preferable.

6.2.1.5 Skewed junctions should be avoided if possible to reduce confusion of priority movements.
Wherever possible, horizontal realignments of the minor road should be undertaken on the approach to a
junction, in order to square it up with the major road.

6.2.1.6 Where there is a preponderance of junctions which need reducing in number, or junctions are
particularly problematic, consideration should be given to network modifications, wherever feasible, to join
together, remote from the major road, pairs or more of connecting roads. The cost effectiveness of connecting
such routes together with a link road before joining a new major road should always be investigated.
Figure 6.2.2.1 Edge Treatment Transitions
6.2.1.7 Junctions are best located on level ground, or on ground where approaches do not exceed 2%
gradients either up or down. Downhill gradients greater than this, can induce higher major road speed on 6.2.2.2 In urban conditions, carriageway edges are generally curbed, with mountable types used where
approaches to junctions and can lead to misjudgment of entry speed by minor road traffic. Both instances pedestrian protection is not required and non-mountable where curbs are used next to pedestrian sidewalks
increase the propensity for accidents at the junction. Uphill gradients where junctions are located on crests or other areas where pedestrians require protection. The use of curbs can be applied to all cases of priority
can also be undesirable since drivers may not be able to see the full extent of the junction layout until they are junctions, provided the design geometry, particularly overall carriageway widths, is maintained.
very close to or within the junction area.
6.2.2.3 For high speed rural roads where posted limits are at or above 100km/h, central islands created for
6.2.1.8 Uphill gradients on minor road approaches can also increase the minimum acceptable gaps in single lane dualling should be formed using “lip” curbs on safety grounds. Curbs types, sizes and application
major road traffic required for drivers to pull out and slot into gaps in the major road traffic, whilst downhill are discussed in Section 16 of these Standards.
approaches can encourage speed and result in an increased risk of over-running the “Give Way” line. In cases
such as these, the designer must always try to create a final level section of road within 15m minimum of the 6.2.3 Pedestrian Provision
major road edge.
6.2.3.1 The need for pedestrians should be considered throughout the design process. They are usually
6.2.1.9 To ensure clarity of view of drivers entering the junction to turn left in 2 stages, the super-elevation satisfied by providing refuge islands, zebra or signal controlled crossings. The type of treatment, however,
of the central area of road enclosed by the extended median edges should always slope downwards towards will depend on the forecast traffic and pedestrian flows (See Section 17 of these Standards – Pedestrian Safety
the minor road so that a clear view of the width of this area is presented to the driver. This is important on Measures and Local/Development Access).
super-elevated curved sections of major road through junctions where continuous outward falls (away from
the minor road) can seem to tell the driver that there is insufficient median width for them to accommodate
waiting vehicles and undertake a 2-stage maneuver, which is then subsequently done (inefficiently) in one
movement.

6.2.2 Edge Treatments

6.2.2.1 Priority junctions will be used in both rural and urban conditions, with a requirement to match up
with respective standard cross sectional edge provision for the major and minor road. Rural situations will
most likely have shoulders without curbs on the major and minor roads, whilst urban situations, particularly
where there are pedestrian movements, will be fully curbed with sidewalk provision. The layouts in this Section
6 show in most cases the rural design situation, without curbs, and with the use of 1.0m hard strips in the
junction area. Hard strips will require transition into mainline and minor road shoulders as necessary. These
treatments are shown typically in Figure 6.2.2.1.

Figure 6.2.3.1 Typical Urban Separator Island

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6.2.3.2 Defined pedestrian crossing points such as zebra and controlled crossings on minor roads should 6.3.2.2 The envelope of visibility is determined by eye height as defined in Section 4 of these Standards,
be a minimum of 15m setback from the “Give Way” line and should be placed so as to reduce the width of road Road Link Geometry. Drivers approaching a major/minor priority junction in the direction of the major road
crossing that pedestrians incur. This should not be at the expense of large detours away from pedestrian desire shall be able to see the minor road entry from a distance equating to the stopping sight distance (SSD) for the
lines. design speed of the major road as described in Section 4. This visibility provides drivers on the major road with
the opportunity to slow down and stop safely should traffic enter the major road from the minor road.
6.2.3.3 Central refuges (see Figure 6.2.3.1) should be used wherever possible for pedestrians on simple
junctions, particularly in urban areas. They should, however, NOT be used in rural situations on major roads. 6.3.2.3 For minor road traffic, visibility can be separated out into three separate elements as shown in
Figure 6.3.2.1 as follows:
6.2.3.4 In urban areas where pedestrian activity is very high, pedestrian fencing can be used at junctions to
1) Drivers approaching the major road on the minor road will have unobstructed views of the junction and a
channel pedestrians to particular crossing points and to stop indiscriminate crossing of roads. The design of
stopping sight distance equivalent to the SSD of the minor road. This allows drivers to slow down and to
pedestrian railing, however, should not obstruct visibility at the junction for either drivers or pedestrians.
stop safely at the junction if necessary. If the junction signing includes a “Give Way” sign, the envelope of
visibility will include the sign.
6.2.4 Landscaping
2) From a point 15m back from the edge of the running mainline carriageway and along the centerline of the
6.2.4.1 Landscaping can provide obvious amenity benefit; however, carefully planned landscape treatment minor road (See Figure 6.3.2.1), all drivers must be able to see the full junction form and peripheral parts
of major/minor priority junctions can enhance the look of the junction area and through selective grading and which will enable the driver to understand the layout of the junction, the likely available movements and
planting, more clearly define the type and scale of junction for the approaching motorist. conflicts, and any possible required action before reaching the major road.
3) The distance back along the road to a point from which full visibility is measured along the major road
6.2.4.2 Selective planting can also assist the motorist waiting to emerge from the minor road to judge the
is called the “x” distance. This is measured back along the centreline of the minor road from the outside
speed of approaching traffic. This can be important in open flat, featureless areas where there are no natural
carriageway running edge of the major road. The “x” distance MUST be 9.0m in all but exceptional cases.
reference points. Landscaping can also provide a positive background for road signs used on a junction whilst
From this point an approaching driver to the major road must be able to see clearly points to the left and
visually uniting various component parts.
right on the nearer edge of the major road running carriageway at the distanced given in Table 6.3.2.1
6.2.4.3 Planting should take account of the operational/geometric needs of the junction in respect of sight measured from its intersection with the centreline of the minor road. This is known as the “y” distance,
distances required, but not result in unusually heavy maintenance requirements in this respect due to plant shown in Figure 6.3.2.1. This sight distance is mandatory and under no circumstances are relaxations
growth. (See Section 15 of these Standards which covers landscaping issues in more detail.) of this length acceptable. It is unnecessary to provide larger “y” values than those stated since there is
little advantage in doing so because it can encourage higher speeds on the minor road approach and take
the attention away of the driver from immediate junction conditions. Increased visibilities should not be
6.3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS introduced to increase the capacities of various turning movements.

6.3.1 General Major Road Design Stopping Sight

Speed (km/h) Distance (m)
6.3.1.1 The geometric design standards which follow are dealt with on an item by item basis. Designers 20 20
will therefore need to review each component part of a priority junction as presented here in order to build a 30 35
suitable design. The options given for each component in each section allow for all combinations of possible 40 50
requirements; however, this process of building a junction from a “kit of parts” may in some cases require an 50 65
iterative approach which could require replacing initial components with replacement components if, at the
60 85
end of the first design effort, the junction for whatever reason does not appear to be adequate.
70 105
80 130
6.3.2 Design Speed and Visibility
90 160
6.3.2.1 Geometric design standards of junctions are related to traffic speeds on the major road (for new 100 185
road construction this will be the design speed as noted in Section 4) where there are gaps in the major road 110 220
traffic streams. Drivers emerging from the minor road of a priority junction must have sufficient visibility to 120 250
the right and left along a single carriageway road. In cases where the major road is a dual carriageway, with 130 285
a median of adequate width to shelter turning traffic, visibility to the right is not needed for the traffic turning
Table 6.3.2.1 “y” Distances for Major
from the minor road, but visibility for this traffic is needed to the right from the central median area of the road. Road Design Speeds
This principle also applies to traffic on the major road wanting to turn left into a minor road. Poor visibility
increases accident potential and reduces the efficiency of operation of a junction. Drivers approaching a major/
minor priority junction should be provided with the unobstructed visibility indicated in the following sub- Figure 6.3.2.1 Visibility Standards

sections.

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6.3.2.4 If a major road is designated as “One Way”, a single visibility splay in the direction of oncoming 6.3.3.3 Where large goods vehicles will comprise a
traffic is adequate and if a minor road acts as a one way exit from a major road, no visibility splays are higher than normal proportion of turning movements,
required; however, forward visibility for turning vehicles must be provided. then use of compound curves is recommended as
shown in Figure 6.3.3.1.
6.3.2.5 If the line of vision
lies partly within the major road
6.3.4 Carriageway Widths – Major Road
carriageway, it shall be made
tangential to the nearer edge of the 6.3.4.1 All basic geometric carriageway parameter
major road lane as shown in Figure definitions; which are covered in subsequent sub–
6.3.2.2. section text; are shown in following Figures 6.3.4.1
and 6.3.4.2. These generic diagrams are presented
6.3.2.6 In particularly difficult
as an aid to understanding the meaning of the terms
situations, the “x” distance can
used in the text, and not as a representation of any
be reduced from 9m to 4.5m for
specific geometric design.
lightly trafficked simple junctions,
and in exceptionally difficult cases 6.3.4.2 At Ghost Island junctions, the through lane
Figure 6.3.2.2 Visibility Standards on Curved Major Roads
to 2.4m back from the nearer edge in each direction (c) shall not be greater than 3.65m
of the major road carriageway running lane. Application of these relaxations shall be done only after the wide, exclusive of hard strips, but shall not be less
Variations Procedure for departure from standards has been followed. than 3.0m wide. Hard strips should be a minimum of Figure 6.3.3.1 Compound Curve – Corner Radii
1.0 meter wide.
6.3.2.7 These visibility standards apply to new junctions and junction improvements. They should be
used in conjunction with other design requirements such as parking restrictions near junctions and careful
placement of traffic signs, landscaping and street furniture, to ensure sight distances are not compromised.

6.3.3 Design Vehicle And Corner Radii

6.3.3.1 Allowances will be made for the swept path of long vehicles where they can be reasonably assumed
to use a single or staggered set of priority junctions. All geometric design parameters in this Section 6 have
been based on the use by a 16.5m long articulated truck (semi-trailer) whose width requirement during turning
is normally greater than for most other vehicles. In cases where it is known that more demanding vehicles will
use the junction, specific checks shall be made to ensure that designs for turning are adequate. For simple
junctions with low traffic, it can be accepted that some encroachment into conflicting traffic lanes will occur
occasionally and that shoulders/hard strips will be used by a limited number of turning vehicles.

6.3.3.2 Standard provision of minimum circular radii at simple priority junctions shall be 6.0m in urban areas Figure 6.3.4.1 Major/Minor Priority Junction with Ghost Island
and 10.0m in rural areas. Where it is envisaged that large goods vehicles will use a junction, the recommended
circular corner radius is as follows:- 6.3.4.3 At single lane dualling junctions, the through lane width in each direction of travel (c) will be 4.0m,
1) 10m radius at a simple urban junction in conjunction with a 1:5 tapers on both major and minor roads over exclusive of hard strips. The overall width (inclusive of hard strip) is sufficient for vehicles to pass a stationary
a distance of 30m. The 30m is measured from the centerline of the minor road on the edge of the near vehicle without having to leave the paved width.
travelled way for the case of the major road, and from the edge of the major road carriageway back along
the minor road for the minor road.
2) 15m radius on rural simple junctions, with tapers of 1:6 over a distance of 25m.
3) 15m radius at ghost island junctions, with tapers of 1:6 over a distance of 30m
4) 15m radius at simple staggered junctions, with tapers of 1:8 over a distance of 32m
5) 20m radius in all other cases.

The above radii apply only where there are no nearside lane merge/diverge tapers or acceleration or
deceleration lanes.

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6.3.5 Carriageway Widths – Minor Road 6.3.6.3 Recommended widths for turning lanes for various corner radii are provided in Table 6.3.6.1:

6.3.5.1 For minor roads where the approach is a nominal 7.3m and where a channelizing island is provided, Single Lane Width Lane Widths for One or Two Lane Traffic (excluding
Corner Radius or Single Lane Width with space to hardstrip) (m)
both lanes shall be 4.0m wide at the point where the hatched markings surrounding the channelizing island Curve Radius (m) (excluding hardstrip (m) Pass a Stationary Vehicle
start (“b” in Figure 6.3.5.1). At the point where the channelizing island starts, the widths on either side shall be (including hardstrip) (m) Inside Lane Outside Lane Total

as follows: 10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9

1) On the approach to the major road (“d” in Figure 6.3.5.1), 4.0m wide for a ghost island on the major 15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
road, or 4.5m wide for single lane dualling on the major road, exclusive of hard strips. If the approach 20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
direction on the minor road consists of two lanes, this dimension will be 5.5m. 25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
2) Width “c” on the exit from the major road will be 4.5m wide for a ghost island or 5.0m wide for single lane 30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
dualling on the major road, exclusive of hard strip. See Figure 6.3.5.1. 40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
6.3.5.2 If the junction is a simple junction without channelizing islands on the minor road, the nominal
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
approach width shall continue up to the tangent point of the curve to join the edge of the major road running lane.
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6

Table 6.3.6.1 Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Carriageway Widths

6.3.7 Central Islands

6.3.7.1 Conflicting movements can be separated
by painted or raised islands set out with road
markings such that the number of conflicts at any
given point can be reduced. Painted guide islands
can be accentuated by the use of colored or textured
surfaces. However, the designer shall be careful not
to provide numerous small islands which can be
Figure 6.3.7.1 Ghost Island and Taper
confusing to drivers and as result be ignored.

6.3.7.2 The designer should note that

preventing or reducing traffic conflicts by
separation results in drivers being confronted with
simple decisions on their choice of movement at
any one time. This can result in increased safety.
However, for separation to be effective, junctions
must be large enough so that drivers can see in
Figure 6.3.7.2 Physical Island and Taper
adequate time, those vehicles with which they
must interact and those which they do not. If this Taper Rate for Ghost Island
Major Road Design Speed (km/h)
Figure 6.3.5.1 Minor Road – Carriageway Approach Dimensions does not occur, then gaps in traffic flows cannot and Single Lane Dualling (1 : a)

be used efficiently by traffic entering the junction. 50 1:20

6.3.6 Carriageway Widths on Curves 60 1:20
6.3.7.3 For central islands, either ghost
70 1:20
6.3.6.1 In cases where carriageways are taken around corners and constitute a single lane or lanes over a islands or single lane dualling, shall normally be
80 1:25
specific length, then adequate lane width shall be allowed for the “swept” area and “cut in” area of design developed symmetrically around the centerline
90 1:30
vehicles. of the major road to their maximum width at the
100 1:30
taper rates shown in Table 6.3.7.1. The maximum
6.3.6.2 For cases where the turning lane length is at or greater than 50m an allowance shall be made for 110 1:35
island width shall continue through the junction
passing stationary vehicles as noted in sub-section 6.3.4.3. 120 1:40
to the tangent point of the minor road radius
and the edge of the major road carriageway. 130 1:45

See Figure 6.3.7.1. Table 6.3.7.1 Taper Rates for Development of Central Islands

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6.3.7.4 In the case of single lane dualling, the island should be introduced by means of hatched road 6.3.8.3 The direct taper length is the length over which the width of a left Table 6.3.8.1 Direct Taper
Length by Design Speed
markings until there is adequate width to fit the appropriate sign on the nose of the physical (raised) island turning lane is developed. For ghost islands and physical islands in single
with the required running clearances to it. See Figure 6.3.7.2. lane dualling, left turning lanes shall be introduced by means of a direct taper Design Speed Direct Taper
whose length is part of the deceleration length and is dependent on the design (km/h) Length (m)
6.3.7.5 When junctions are located on climbing lanes (see Sub-section 6.3.17) or on sharp curves, central 50 5
speed. Taper lengths for various design speeds are given in Table 6.3.8.1, these
islands should be introduced asymmetrically to suit the prevailing design circumstances. Asymmetrical 60 5
refer to left turning lanes, and can be used for right turning as well.
designs of islands can also be used in other circumstances, for example in a junction improvement scheme to 70 15
reduce land take/cost if it is preferable to widen on one side only. 6.3.8.4 At right-left staggered ghost island junctions, the deceleration 80 15
lengths would overlap, whilst the width of the central ghost island shall not
6.3.7.6 For new junctions, the preferred width of a ghost island shall be 3.5m, but a relaxation to 3.0m is 90 25
be increased to allow deceleration lanes to lie side by side. The starting points
permissible if conditions dictate. In urban and suburban situations, a wider dimension of 5.0m can be used 100 25
of the left turning section shall be joined by a straight line, which will mean
to advantage to shelter commercial vehicles turning left from the minor road and to execute this turn in two 110 30
at higher design speeds, that the full width of the turning lane will not be
independent maneuvers. Dimensions greater than 5.0m shall not be used. 120 30
developed until the end of the diverging section as shown in Figure 6.3.8.1. In
130 35
6.3.7.7 Along rural roads where design speeds are above 85km/h or where hard strips are present, then such cases, the width of the turning lane shall be the width of the ghost island.

ghost islands should not be wider than 3.65m because this would create a sense of open space that could
encourage dangerous overtaking in junction areas.

6.3.7.8 In cases of junction improvement design, the width of ghost islands shall not be less than 2.5m.
It can be reduced only in cases where space is extremely limited and a reduction in ghost island width is
unavoidable.

6.3.7.9 At single lane dualling junctions the width of the central island at the crossing point shall be 10.0m
including the median hard strips. This width will shelter the majority of large goods vehicles turning left from
the minor road. Where it is known that exceptionally large commercial vehicles will use the median for shelter
for turning, then depending on predicted vehicle size, a width of 14m will be provided for articulated vehicles
or 16.5m for trailer combinations. Figure 6.3.8.1 Overlapping Deceleration
Lanes Right-Left Stagger
6.3.7.10 The minimum width of a physical island, normally located at the end of a direct taper over which a
6.3.8.5 The overall length of a left turning lane provided at a ghost island junction, and single lane dualling
left turn lane is developed, shall be 3.5m. There is no relaxation to this dimension.
(see Figures 6.3.4.1) shall be determined by the major road design speed and the gradient. This will consist of
a turning length and a deceleration length. This element shall be provided in accordance with Table 6.3.8.2, in
6.3.8 Left Turning Lanes
which the gradient is the average for the 500m stretch of major road before the minor road.
6.3.8.1 A turning length is provided to allow long vehicles to position themselves correctly for the left turn. Deceleration Lengths (m) by Priority Junction Type
Turning lengths shall be minimum 10-15 m long irrespective of the type of junction, design speed or gradient. Ghost Island and Single Lane Dualling Dual Carriageway (right-in/right-out junctions)
Design Speed
It shall be measured from the centerline of the minor road and is shown in Figures 6.3.4.1. (km/h) up gradient down gradient up gradient down gradient
0-4% >4% 0-4% >4% 0-4% >4% 0-4% >4%
6.3.8.2 Should capacity calculations indicate that there could be significant periods when vehicles will need
to queue to turn left, then the turning length shall be increased to accommodate reservoir queuing. If this 50 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

junction is designated as a ghost island junction, then consideration should be given to provision of a curbed 60 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 40

central island to provide a higher level of protection to standing vehicles in the left turning lane. Should site 70 40 25 40 40 40 25 40 55

conditions prohibit this raised island provision, then reservoir space, if needed, should still be provided at 80 50 35 50 50 50 35 50 70
ghost island junctions. 90 70 45 70 70 70 45 70 90
100 80 55 80 80 80 55 80 110
110 100 70 100 100 100 70 100 130
120 110 80 110 110 110 80 110 150
130 125 95 125 125 125 95 125 170

Table 6.3.8.2 Deceleration Lengths by Junction Type and Gradient (for left and right turns)
Notes: Gradients of >4% should be avoided where possible

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6.3.9 Median Openings 6.3.11 Design of Channelizing Islands – T Junctions and Staggered Junctions

6.3.9.1 The opening “h” in the median for single lane dualling priority junctions at the crossing point shall 6.3.11.1 The following notes cover the recommended geometric Minor Road Inclination (deg) Offset “d” (m)
be 15.0m wide as shown in Figure 6.3.9.1. layout for T-junctions and staggered junctions where the minor 70 1.5
road centerline is inclined to the major road at an angle of between 80 2
70 degrees and 110 degrees. The layout is presented in Figure 90 2.5
6.3.11.1. This should be read in conjunction with Table 6.3.11.1. 100 2
1) 
“Edge of major road carriageway” means the edge of the 110 1.5
running carriageway.
Table 6.3.11.1a Channelizing Island Offsets
2) The circular arc “R1” is tangential to the offset, d, from the minor
road centerline and the offside edge of the through traffic lane Width (w) of Major Road
h Radius R1 (m)
on the major road into which left turning traffic from the minor Carriageway at Junction (m)

road will turn. 9.5 12

3) By striking a circular arc of radius (R1+2) meters from the same 10 12
centre point as arc R1 to intersect the edge of the major road 11 14
carriageway, point A is established where a straight line drawn 18.0 (single lane dual) 22
from the center point of arc R1 to this intersection crosses R1. Table 6.3.11.1b Setting Radius R1
4) Circular arc R2 is tangential to the offside edge of the major road Table note: Radius R1 is normally the same
Figure 6.3.9.1 Median Opening – Priority Markings Example offside diverging lane and also passes through point A value as R2 but should be designed to ensure
that the island nose is positioned between 2-4m
5) The design ensures that left turning traffic from the major road from the edge of the main carriageway and that
6.3.9.2 In the region of the median opening, to avoid confusion as to turning priority, particularly where the
will not clash with traffic waiting to turn left from the minor the width of the island lies between 2-5 meters.
width of the central island has been increased to cater for large goods vehicles, it is recommended that the
road.
area be channelized to show priority movements. An example is shown in Figure 6.3.9.1.

6.3.10 Traffic Islands and Refuges

6.3.10.1 Traffic islands should be provided in the mouth of the minor road junction at all major/minor priority
junctions except in the case of simple junction. This will provide the following:
n Guidance to long vehicles in executing turning movements
n Channelization of intersecting or merging streams of traffic
n A warning to advancing motorists that there is a traffic junction ahead
n Protection for vehicles waiting to carry out maneuvers, particularly left turns, and
n Assistance to pedestrians crossing the minor road at the junction.

6.3.10.2 Curbed traffic islands must have an area of at least 4.5 square meters and shall be treated to be
easily seen and recognized as such, in poor lighting conditions. Smaller areas for islands shall be defined by
road markings. Risk of overrunning is reduced by offsetting the island noses away from the running edge of
the travel lanes. Recommended offset is 2.0m. In urban areas where the major road design speed is less than
85km/h, this dimension can be reduced to 1.5m.

6.3.10.3 In cases where the island acts as a refuge for pedestrians, it shall be 2.5m wide (desirable) and
have openings in the centre of the carriageway constructed at the same level as the road to make it easier
for pedestrians to negotiate. See Figure 6.2.3.1. At the road opposite edges, dropped curbs will be used. (See
Section 16 of these Standards)

Figure 6.3.11.1 Rural T Junction and Staggered Junction

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6.3.12 Design of Channelizing Islands – Splay (Skewed) T and Staggered Junctions 1) The minor road center line is turned with a radius of at least 50m to meet the edge of the major road at
right angles.
6.3.12.1 For skew junctions that intersect at angles outside of the range 70 to 110 degrees, their design
procedure is the same as above, but with the following qualifications ( See Figures 6.3.12.1 and 6.3.12.2). 2) For right hand splays the island should be about 15m long. The left hand side of its tail (seen from the minor
road approach) should touch the curved minor road centerline and be rounded off at a radius of 0.75m
to 1.00m.
3) Offset “d”, for right hand splay junctions, is 4.5 meters.
4) For left hand splay junctions, the circular arc R1 touches the curved minor road centerline and is tangential
to the offside edge of the through traffic lane of the major road into which left turning traffic from the minor
road will turn.
5) The island should be about 15m long, with the tail offset about 1.0m to the left of the curved minor road
centerline (seen from the minor road approach) and rounded off with a radius of 0.75m to 1.00m.

6.3.13 Design of Rural Cross Road Islands

6.3.13.1 Priority controlled crossroads should be avoided where possible as noted in 6.1.9.1. Details for island
design are similar to the above but with some difference as shown in Figure 6.3.13.1. This relates to rural situations
where long vehicles are predicted and intersection angles are between 70 to 110 degrees. The following notes
apply:
1. 
The long axis of the island is inclined at 5
degrees to the minor road centerline and the
island is always 3m wide

Figure 6.3.12.1 Left Splayed 2. The circular arc R1 has a radius of 11m and is
Channelizing Island Design tangential to the right hand side of the island
(seen from the minor road approach) and
the centerline of the major road. (In some
cases where the skew is between 100 to 110
degrees, R1 should be reduced to 8m to create
a suitable island.
3. The circular arc R2 has a radius of 11m and is
tangential to the major road centerline and
minor road centerline.
4. Where the minor road centerline is inclined to
the major road at angles less than 70 degrees,
R1 will normally be 12m and R2 will be
8m. Conversely, where the minor road
centerline is inclined to the major road
axis at angles greater than 110 degrees,
R1 will normally be 8m and R2 will
be 12m.
5. 
In the case of two skew roads meeting at
a crossroad, the minor road centerlines
should be offset relative to each other by
approximately the width of a single island.
Figure 6.3.12.2 Right Splayed
Channelizing Island Design Figure 6.3.13.1 Crossroad Islands Rural Conditions

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6.3.14 Diverging Tapers and Lanes

6.3.14.1 Traffic on the major road when slowing down to turn left into a minor road tends to impede the vehicles
behind them that are not turning. It is therefore useful to provide a facility to enable traffic streams to diverge at a
narrow angle at broadly the same speed before speed differentials become apparent. This can be done by providing
a diverging taper. Left turning traffic from the major road benefit greatly from this provision which gives lane
space to slow down and wait before maneuvering. (See paragraph 6.3.8.3) where this specific design component
is covered.

6.3.14.2 In terms of policy, the use of diverging tapers in Oman is not common practice, particularly on roads Figure 6.3.14.1 Major/Minor Priority Junctions with Nearside Diverging Taper
having design speeds at or above 85km/h. The most common provision is that of the development of a short
diverging taper to the start of a deceleration lane which runs parallel with the major road up to the right hand 6.3.14.6 The desirable length of nearside diverging taper shall be that of the relevant deceleration length
curve of the priority junction. To maintain driver expectation in Oman, this is the recommended configuration given in Table 6.3.8.2. Where there are sufficient reasons (for example extreme site constraints), these lengths
in all cases where design speeds are at or above 85km/h. For lower design speed roads, particularly in urban can, as a design relaxation, be reduced by 50% where the design speed is 85km/h subject to an absolute
areas, where land take costs are very high, and where design traffic levels and turning movements would not minimum length of provision of 35m.
result in unacceptable interaction, diverging tapers can be considered.
6.3.14.7 The provision of an auxiliary deceleration lane instead of a direct taper allows turning traffic to move
6.3.14.3 Nearside right turn diverging tapers shall not be provided at simple priority junctions. Nearside right off the mainline before deceleration. (See Figure 6.3.14.2)
turn diverging tapers and deceleration lanes will be provided in all cases where the major road design speed is
85km/h or more. They shall be provided at other junctions in the following circumstances for traffic in the design
year:
1) The volume of right turning traffic is greater than 600 vehicles AADT.
2) Where the percentage of large goods vehicles is greater than 20%, and the volume of left turning traffic is
greater than 450 vehicles AADT”.
3) The junction is on an incline or decline greater than 4% at any design speed and the volume of left turning
traffic is greater than 450 vehicles AADT.
Note: Where the major road traffic volume is greater than 7000-8000 AADT in any of the above cases, the figures for turning traffic
can be halved. At some junctions, there may be benefits in providing nearside diverging tapers at lower flows.
Figure 6.3.14.2 Major/Minor Priority Junctions with Nearside Deceleration Lane/Taper
6.3.14.4 In some instances, the application of diverging tapers and deceleration lanes should not automatically
be provided. Such cases are as follows: 6.3.14.8 At higher major road flows over 7000 - 8000 AADT, deceleration lanes should be of adequate length
to allow for the speed change from the major road to the turn into the minor road and will not be less than 80m.
1) Where the minor road is on the inside of a curve and it is possible that the sight distance of the minor road
The length would also depend on the storage requirement of turning traffic.
traffic requiring to turn onto the major road is adversely affected.
2) Where the design speed of the road is less than 85km/h. 6.3.14.9 The auxiliary lane should start with a direct taper (See Figure 6.3.14.2) of length determined from
3) Where cost implications are prohibitive. In such cases, adequate advance signing must be provided. Table 6.3.8.1 used for single lane dualling and dual carriageway roads, and the deceleration length should be
determined from Table 6.3.8.2.
6.3.14.5 Nearside diverging tapers will be formed by a direct proportional increase to a width of 3.5m at the
start of a deceleration lane (see Figure 6.3.14.1) or at the point of joining the minor road turning radius (see
6.3.15 Merging Lanes
figure 6.3.14.2), which should be a minimum of 20m for a major road design speed of 85km/h, and 40m radius
where the major road design speed is greater than 85km/h. The width of lane around the turn into the minor 6.3.15.1 It is policy in Oman to use merging lanes rather than merging tapers. Merging lanes allow minor
road will depend on the radius of turn selected and a “Give Way” road marking will be provided to clarify the road traffic to accelerate to the running speed of the major road before joining the major road traffic stream.
priority at this point on the junction. (See Figure 6.3.14.1) Merging lanes should only be used on dual carriageway junctions.

6.3.15.2 The parallel lane length should be as shown in Table 6.3.15.1, but with the addition of a final taper to
the major road edge from the 3.5m parallel lane width. A minimum length of 35m should be used for this “end”
merge taper length. For dimensions of merging tapers and auxiliary lane refer to below figures 6.3.15.1, 6.3.15.2
and 6.3.15.3

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Figure 6.3.15.1 Typical Local Dualing at - Grade Junction

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Figure 6.3.15.2 Left-Right Staggered Layout on Single Carriageway

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Figure 6.3.15.3 Typical Right-Left Staggered Layout on Single Carriageway

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6.3.15.3 The lengths of merge lane are shown in Table 6.3.15.1 Major Road Design Merging Length (B)
Speed (km/h) meters
6.3.16 Stagger Distances 50 50
60 60
6.3.16.1 The stagger distance for junctions is the distance along the
70 70
major road between the centerlines of the two minor roads.
80 80
6.3.16.2 For simple major/minor priority junctions with a left/right 90 90
stagger, the minimum stagger distance should not be less than 50m. 100 110
For left/right staggers, ghost island junctions shall also have a 50m min 110 110
stagger.
130 110

6.3.16.3For single lane dualled junctions the stagger shall be 40m Table 6.3.15.1 Major/Minor Priority
minimum and for dual carriageway junctions the left/right stagger shall be Junctions Merging Lengths
a minimum of 60m. This is based on the design vehicle being an 18.35m
drawbar trailer combination negotiating the stagger. These distances are Figure 6.3.17.2 Major/Minor Priority Junction with Climbing Lane - Junction to Right of Upgrade
to be provided as a minimum on all staggered junctions either new or
6.3.17.2 Simple major/minor priority junctions and single lane dueling shall not be used within climbing lane
upgraded.
sections because of potential safety issues. Staggered junctions of other types shall be avoided where possible
6.3.16.4 For simple junctions at right/ on climbing lane sections. The reason for this is that individual application of staggered junctions or climbing
Design Speed Stagger distance (m)
left staggers, the minimum stagger lanes have their own associated demands for driver concentration, whilst combining the two might well make
(km/h) Ghost Island Single Lane Dualling Dual Carriageway
distance shall be 50m. The minimum the decision making process for some drivers very difficult and confusing.
50 10+80+10=100 - 10+80+10=100
right/left stagger for other priority major/
60 10+80+10=100 - 10+80+10=100
minor junctions will be as dictated in
70 10+100+10=120 - 10+100+10=120 6.3.18 Skew Junctions and Junctions on Curves
Table 6.3.16.1 below.
80 10+100+10=120 10+100+10=120 10+100+10=120
6.3.18.1 The parameters for designing these types of junction are presented in Figures 6.3.18.1, 6.3.18.2, and
6.3.17 Junctions on Climbing 90 10+120+10=140 10+120+10=140 10+120+10=140
6.3.18.3 respectively. The parameter values have been explained in earlier sub-sections and shall be followed
Lanes 100 - - 10+140+10=160 accordingly.
110 - - 10+160+10=180
6.3.17.1 The key dimensions for major/ 130 - - 10+180+10=200
minor junctions located on a climbing
Table 6.3.16.1 Right/Left Staggered Junctions - Minimum Stagger
lane are shown in Figures 6.3.17.1 and Distance
6.3.17.2 for junctions on the left and
right of the upgrade respectively.

Figure 6.3.17.1 Major/Minor Priority Junction with Climbing Lane - Junction to Left of Upgrade Figure 6.3.18.1 Major/Minor Priority Junction – Skew to the Right

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6.3.19.2 A typical local grade separation would

be a low cost facility having low traffic use,
connecting either side of the major road by a right-
in right-out junction with a single carriageway
road and over-bridge or underpass. It is not a
replacement for a full grade separation, the design
of which is covered in Section 9. This treatment
can reduce major road widening and the main
line geometry for through traffic can continue
without change. Figure 6.3.19.1 illustrates such an
arrangement.

6.3.19.3 Merge lanes should be provided

where the dual carriageway has a design speed
of 85km/h and above and the volume of right
turning traffic in the design year exceeds 600
AADT. In cases where the lane and end taper is
on an upgrade of 4% or more, or where there
is a high (20%) proportion of large commercial Figure 6.3.19.1 Local Grade Separation
vehicles, the threshold can be reduced from 600

Figure 6.3.18.2 Major/Minor Priority Junction – Skew to the Left to 450 AADT.

6.3.19.4 In some cases, there may be benefit from provision of merging lanes at lower threshold traffic
levels.

6.3.19.5 An exclusive turning lane for right tuning traffic of at least 25m radius for a major road design speed
of 85km/h and at least 30m radius for higher major road design speeds shall be used to introduce the merging
or lane from the minor road. The initial width of the lane, which is dependent on the selected turning radius,
(See Table 6.3.6.1), shall be decreased at a constant taper rate dependent on the design speed.

6.3.19.6 Junction right-in, right-out arrangements are illustrated in Figure 6.3.19.2 for high speed conditions
where traffic conditions are more demanding. For lower conditions on 2 lanes dual carriageway where design
speed is 80 km/h or less and minor road traffic is light, merging lanes are not mandatory and can be replaced
by giveway marking accompanied by related signage. Design methods of these junctions should use the
geometric requirements already covered in earlier sections.

6.3.19.7 Right turn merges to the major road will be designed to provide constant turning width in
accordance with Table 6.3.6.1. Detail of the island as approached along the minor road will be as detailed
in Section 6.3.11. If there is a merging lane as shown in Figure 6.3.19.2, the widths and tapers shall be as
instructed in sub-section 6.3.15 “Merging Lanes”. A minimum length of 35m should be used for this “end”
Figure 6.3.18.3 Major/Minor Priority Junction – Minor Road on Curve
merge taper length.

6.3.19.8 For the right turn diverge from the major road, the channelising island described in sub-section
6.3.19 Right In – Right Out Junctions with Local Grade Separation
6.3.19.7, shown in Figures 6.3.19.2, shall be designed to provide a constant width around the turning lane into
6.3.19.1 For instances where traffic on the major road is moving at high speed or is very heavy and continuous, the minor road. The width shall be determined from Table 6.3.6.1. Where the nearside diverging taper or nearside
it is often beneficial in term of safety not to allow any left turn crossing maneuvers at T junctions. Such diverging lane exists (as shown in Figures 6.3.14.1 and 6.3.14.2), the hatched markings should extend along their
maneuvers, which are the cause of most serious accidents at priority T junctions, should be accommodated by current path until the intersection with the center line of the minor road. The island will be contained within
nearby provision of roundabouts if appropriate or a local grade separation to indirectly allow for all movements. these road markings as shown in Figures 6.3.19.2. On dual carriageways, with a design speed of > 110 km/h, the
merging lane can be preceded by a short nose of 40m length formed between it and the end of the 30m radius
approach curve as set out in sub-section 6.3.19.5. The back of the nose should have a minimum width of 2.0m.

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(refer to section 6.3.15)

(refer to section 9.4.3)

Figure 6.3.19.2 Local Grade Separation T Junction (Major Road Design Speed in the region of 120km/h)

6.3.19.9 This style and layout of local interchange is a special form of priority junction which lies between
the provision of an at - grade major/minor T Junction and a full high standard grade separation, the types of
which are covered in Section 9 of these Standards. This junction is at the lowest end of the types of Compact
Grade Separations (See Ref 2) which are considered to cater more economically for flows in the range 12,000
to 30,000 AADT and less than 10% of the mainline traffic on the minor road.

6.4 BRINGING DESIGN COMPONENTS TOGETHER

6.4.1 General

6.4.1.1 The objective of design for a major/minor priority junction is to present drivers with a consistent
standard for layouts for given conditions so as not to confuse them. This design should provide, wherever
possible, simple and easy movements which match the heavier traffic demand. Achievement of this encourages
smooth and easily understood maneuvers which promotes safety and efficiency of operation. Unnecessary
sharp changes in junction paths and complex routes requiring several changes of direction should be avoided.

6.4.2 Assembly of Design Elements

Figure 6.4.2.1 Assembly of Components to Create Single Carriageway T Junctions
6.4.2.1 Sub-section 6.3 introduced the component parts of major/minor priority junctions as a series
of separate elements, each being designed or incorporated under particular conditions. These separate 6.4.2.2 The single unit must be designed such that approaching drivers can see and understand in advance,
components require bringing together so that the junction can be viewed as a whole, and the operation of the the layout and signing of the junction and the path that they must take to undertake their desired movement.
junction can also be assessed as a single unit. This will involve understanding the likely traffic actions related to the junction of crossing, merging and diverging
vehicles.

6.4.2.3 Figures 6.4.2.1 to 6.4.2.3 illustrate how the component parts of the design can be fitted together to
form a final junction layout. Figure 6.4.2.1 shows the build up of some of the various components for a single
carriageway T Junction. Figures 6.4.2.2 and 6.4.2.3 illustrate the build up of possible staggered junctions in
various cases. The component parts described in Sub-section 6.3 can collectively make up all variations of
major/minor junction design.

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6.5 PROVISON OF MEDIAN U-TURNS

6.5.1 General Principles

6.5.1.1 Median U-Turns, particularly isolated mid-block locations, should only be associated with relatively
low traffic demands, where major road speeds are moderate and main line traffic levels are not high. U-Turns
require a generous median width normally difficult to provide except in semi urban and rural locations.
Ghost Island
Although it is considered preferable not to use U-Turns as a deliberate road design policy, this provision can
become necessary in specific circumstances, examples of which are:
1) Regularly spaced U-Turn openings for emergency vehicle use, maintenance and policing of highways on
controlled access highways and dual carriageways through open undeveloped areas,
2) For removing U-Turn maneuvers from a downstream intersection where it might reduce overall junction
capacity,
3) For reducing left turns from major roads at cross road junctions by providing a U-Turn downstream of the
junction to enable drivers to access developments on the opposite carriageway,
4) To enable cross access on a dual carriageway without crossing conflicts, by virtue of merging and diverging
on both carriageways.
Single Lane Dualling
6.5.1.2 Issues which relate to the design of U-Turns are:-
1) The median width – which will need to accommodate the expected design vehicle without it encroaching
Figure 6.4.2.2 Alternative Left/Right Staggered Junctions into the carriageway that is being entered, or that which is being left. Median widths can vary between 5m
and 15m or more for cars and commercial vehicles respectively when an allowance for a left turn lane is
made,
2) Traffic conditions – which will require consideration of the level of traffic flows on the main carriageways
and the type and intensity of traffic likely to use the U-Turn for various design conditions,
3) Visibility and sight distances – to ensure drivers can anticipate traffic paths and movements and make the
necessary adjustments to avoid conflict,
4) Requirements of left turning lanes - without which, major road traffic will be interrupted and queues may
form which project into the high speed lane of the through carriageway which is being left. This increases
potential for rear end collisions,
5) The combined median width and carriageway width in order to allow the design U-Turning vehicle to
Ghost Island perform the necessary maneuver to the slow lane of the joining carriageway without encroaching on the
shoulder or curb.

6.5.2 Geometric Design

6.5.2.1 The basic design procedures for U-Turn areas follow the same principles as that for left turns from
major roads in the previous sub-sections but with the following proviso’s:-
1) The movement of the design vehicle performing the U-Turn will be checked on the detailed design layout
using appropriate computer software to confirm the safety of the stationary position in the middle of the
median opening and the swept paths on the carriageway being entered,
2) Adjustments to median width will be made as necessary to ensure adequate turning width and clear views
of oncoming traffic for the driver,

Single Lane Dualling 3) U-Turns without the provision of left turn lanes of diverging tapers are not recommended for general traffic
use,
Figure 6.4.2.3 Alternative Right/Left Staggered Junctions 4) U-Turns are not allowed on three lane dual carriageways.

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6.5.2.2 In cases where a U-Turn is suitable and necessary, but the median width is insufficient to 6.6 PRIORITY JUNCTION OPERATIONAL ISSUES
accommodate the design vehicle, then an alternative form of U-Turn can be considered. This option is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 6.5.2.1. It is not always suitable for urban situations because of the land take and 6.6.1 Junction Spacing
frontage severance, however in semi-urban and rural conditions, this configuration can be a useful measure.
6.6.1.1 On new highways, junction spacing is dependent on the classification of the road, design speed,
existing and future corridor development, and frequency of intersection of existing roads. Each design situation
must be considered on its own unique merits, with a view to providing safe and consistent signals to the driver.

6.6.1.2 As a general rule, an absolute minimum spacing of 300m between the end of an entrance taper
and start of an exit taper, is a fixed requirement for roads in rural and semi-rural areas where design speeds
are 80km/h and above and should be supported with operational checks for design traffic volumes. Designers
should, wherever possible, provide spacing in excess of this distance.

6.6.1.3 In urban areas, where road design speeds are less than 80km/h, the junction spacing between tapers
or turning radii will be at a minimum. The stopping sight distance for that category of road should be factored
upwards by 15%.

6.6.1.4 For U-Turns on non-access controlled divided highways, where they are provided to serve existing
and future roadside development, spacing of openings should be between 400m to 800m and need not be
equally spaced between junctions.

6.6.2 Capacity and Operational Checks During Design

Figure 6.5.2.1 Indirect U-Turn Layout
6.5.2.3 Minimum widths of median to accommodate U-turns by different design vehicles turning
from the lane adjacent to the median are given in Table 6.5.2.3. These by
dimensions 6.6.2.1 Details of manual calculations for junction capacity can be found in the UK DMRB Geometric Design
6.5.2.3 Minimum widths of median to accommodate U-turns differentare for a vehicles
design four-laneturning from the
divided facility. If the U-turn is made from a median left-turn/U-turn lane, the width needed is the of Major/Minor Priority Junctions TD 42/95. Delay and queue length calculations, however, are conventionally
lane adjacent to the median are given in Table 6.5.2.3. These dimensions are for a four-lane divided facility.
separator width; the total median width needed would include an additional 3.5 m for a single median calculated using computer methods and automatically include capacity calculations. It is recommended that
If the U-turn is made from a median left-turn/U-turn lane, the width needed is the separator width; the total
turn lane. the most appropriate tool for modelling priority junction operation is PICADY (See Ref 4) and that secondary
median width needed would include an additional 3.5 m for a single median turn lane.
checks can be made using other proprietary software.

6.6.2.2 For analysis of swept paths and clearances for design turning vehicles, designers should utilize
reputable, internationally recognized proprietary programs as necessary.

6.7 REFERENCES

1) UK DMRB – TD 42/95 Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.

2) UK DMRB - TD 40 Compact Grade Separated Intersections.
3) AASHTO – A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2011 - “Indirect Left Turns and U-Turns”.
4) UK TRL (Transport Research Laboratory) - PICADY (latest version).

Table 6.5.2.3 Minimum designs for U-Turns

Table 6.5.2.3: Minimum designs for U-Turns
Further information on design issues for other circumstances for U-Turns, including location of U-Turns with respect to signalized
Further information
junctions can be on design
found viaissues for other circumstances
the references for U-Turns,
provided (See Referenceincluding
3). location of U-Turns with respect to
signalized junctions can be found via the references provided (See Reference 3).
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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Roundabouts
TABLE OF CONTENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION 7-1 7.7.1 Exit Width 7-9

7.1.1 General Design Principles 7-1 7.7.2 Exit Curb Radius 7-9

7.2 TYPES OF ROUNDABOUT 7-1 7.8 ROUNDABOUT DESIGN –

VISIBILITY AND SIGHT DISTANCE 7-10
7.2.1 Mini Roundabouts 7-1
7.2.2 Compact Roundabouts 7-1 7.8.1 General 7-10
7.2.3 Normal Roundabouts 7-2 7.8.2 Forward Visibility on Approach 7-10
7.2.4 Grade Separated Roundabouts 7-2 7.8.3 Forward Visibility at Entry 7-10
7.2.5 Signalized Roundabouts 7-2 7.8.4 Visibility to the Left 7-10
7.2.6 Double Roundabouts 7-2 7.8.5 Circulatory Visibility 7-11
7.8.6 Pedestrian Crossing Visibility 7-11
7.3 LOCATION OF ROUNDABOUTS 7-3 7.8.7 Exit Visibility 7-11
7.3.1 General 7-3 7.8.8 Crossfalls and Longitudinal Gradients – General 7-11
7.8.9 Cross-Fall on the Circulatory Carriageway 7-11
7.4 DESIGN HIERARCHY 7-3 7.8.10 Cross-Fall on Exits and Shoulder
7.4.1 Selection of Roundabout Type 7-3 Termination at Entry/Exit 7-12

7.5 GEOMETRIC DESIGN – 7.9 SEGREGATED RIGHT TURN LANES 7-12

CENTRAL AREAS AND ISLANDS 7-4 7.9.1 General 7-12
7.5.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD) 7-4 7.9.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity 7-13
7.5.2 Circulatory Carriageway 7-4 7.9.3 Geometric Design Standards 7-13
7.5.3 Central Islands 7-5 7.9.4 Sight Distances 7-14
7.5.4 Splitter Islands 7-5 7.9.5 Approach Layout 7-15

7.6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN - ENTRIES 7-5 7.10 ROUNDABOUTS - OPERATIONAL ASSESSMENT 7-15
7.6.1 General 7-5 7.10.1 Capacity and Operational Checks During Design 7-15
7.6.2 Approach Half Width and Entry Width 7-5
7.6.3 Alignment of Entry Lanes 7-6 7.11 REFERENCES 7-16
7.6.4 Entry Flaring 7-6
7.6.5 Entry Angles 7-7
7.6.6 Entry Curb Radius 7-8
7.6.7 Entry Path Radius 7-8

7.7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN – EXITS 7-9

LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES

Figure 7.2.2.1: Compact Roundabout 7-1 Figure 7.8.4.1: Visibil ity to Left fromGive Way Line 7-10 Table 7.4.1.1: Selection of Roundabout Types and
Recommended Provision for Pedestrians 7-3
Figure 7.2.1.1: Mini Roundabout 7-1 Figure 7.8.4.2: Visibility to Left from Give Way Line 7-10
Table 7.5.3.1: Turning Widths - Smaller Normal and
Figure 7.2.3.1: Normal Roundabout 7-1 Figure 7.8.5.1: Circulatory Visibility 7-11
Compact Rbts. 7-5
Figure 7.2.4.1: Grade Separated Roundabout 7-2 Figure 7.8.6.1: Visibility Required at Pedestrian
Table 7.8.3.1: Forward Visibility Distances 7-10
Crossing at Next Exit 7-11
Figure 7.2.6.1: Double Roundabout 7-2
Table 7.9.3.1: Minimum Corner Radii/Curve Radii/
Figure 7.8.9.1: Using One Crown Line to join Splitter
Figure 7.5.1.1 : Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD) for a Carriageway Width 7-13
Islands 7-11
Circular Roundabout 7-4
Table 7.9.4.1: Minimum Stopping Sight Distances 7-14
Figure 7.8.9.2: Using One Crown Line to divide the
Figure 7.5.1.2: ICD for a Double Roundabout 7-4
Carriageway in the Ratio 2:1 7-12 Table 7.9.5.1: Segregated Right Turn Approach Treatments 7-15
Figure 7.5.2.1: Reverse Curvature Example 7-4
Figure 7.8.10.1: Terminating Shoulders/Hard Strips - Single Table 7.9.5.2: Minimum Approach Tapers 7-15
Figure 7.5.3.1: Turning Widths required for Smaller Carriageway 7-12
Table 7.9.5.3: Desirable Minimum Entry/
Normal and Compact Roundabout 7-5
Figure 7.8.9.3: Using Two Crown Lines 7-12 Exit Taper Length Factors 7-15
Figure 7.6.2.1: Approach Half Width & Entry Width 7-5
Figure 7.8.10.2: Terminating Shoulders/Hard Strips - Dual
Figure 7.6.3.1: Splitter Island Arc projected onto Carriageway 7-12
Roundabout Central Island Tangentially 7-6
Figure 7.9.1.1: Representative Layout of Non-Physical
Figure 7.6.4.1: Average Effective Flare Length 7-6 Separation 7-12
Figure 7.6.5.1: Entry Angle on Large Roundabouts 7-7 Figure 7.9.1.2: Representative Layout showing Physical
Figure 7.6.5.2: Entry Angle at Smaller Roundabouts 7-7 Separation 7-13

Figure 7.6.7.1 A: Establishment of Entry Path Radius 7-8 Figure 7.9.3.1: Segregated Right Turn Island ≤50m long
(Section X-X) 7-13
Figure 7.6.6.1: Entry Curb Radius 7-8
Figure 7.9.3.2: Physical Segregated Right Turn Lane
Figure 7.6.7.1 B: Establishment of Entry Path Radius 7-8 without Pedestrian Facilities 7-14
Figure 7.6.7.1 C: Establishment of Entry Path Radius 7-8 Figure 7.9.3.3: Physical Segregated Right Turn Lanes with
Figure 7.6.7.1 D: Establishment of Entry Path Radius 7-8 Pedestrian Facilities Approach/Exit
(Design Speed ≤85km/h) 7-14
Figure 7.6.7.2: Staggering of East-West Arms to increase
Deflection 7-9 Figure 7.9.5.1: Dedicated Approach and Exit for Segregated
Right Turn Lane Approach and Exit
Figure 7.7.1.1: Single Carriageway Exit with Long Splitter (Design Speed ≤60km/h) 7-15
Island 7-9
Figure 7.9.5.3: Physically Segregated Right Turn Lane
Figure 7.8.2.1 A: Measurement of Stopping Sight with Give Way on Exit (Design Speed ≤60km/h) 7-15
Distance on Curved Approach 7-10
Figure 7.9.5.2: Diverge/Merge Layout for Segregated
Figure 7.8.2.1 B: Measurement of Stopping Sight Right Turn Lane Island <50m Long
Distance on Curved Approach 7-10 (Design Speed ≤60km/h) 7-15
Figure 7.8.3.1: Forward Visibility Required at Entry 7-10 Figure 7.10.1.2: Roundabout Parameters 7-16
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7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 TYPES OF ROUNDABOUT

7.1.1 General Design Principles 7.2.1 Mini Roundabouts

7.1.1.1 Roundabouts are junctions with a one-way circulatory carriageway around a central island. Circulating 7.2.1.1 Mini Roundabouts do not have a
vehicles have priority over those vehicles that are approaching the roundabout. For design purposes there are curbed central island. This feature is replaced
six principle types, namely: with a flush or domed circular white central
1) Mini Roundabouts island marking between 1.0m and 4.0m in
2) Compact Roundabouts diameter which is capable of being driven
3) Normal Roundabouts over if this is unavoidable. (Ref. 2) Mini
4) Grade Separated Roundabouts Roundabouts should only be used to improve

5) Signalized Roundabouts, and the performance of existing junctions where

space is severely constrained and be applied
6) Double Roundabouts.
to junctions having approach speeds of
7.1.1.2 The standards presented in this Section 7 apply to Compact, Normal, Double and Grade Separated 50km/h or less. Road markings should always Figure 7.2.1.1 Mini Roundabout
Roundabouts. Standards for signalized roundabouts are presented in Section 8 of this document, whilst mini be applied to illustrate the pattern of movement.
roundabouts (which only apply to improvements at existing junctions) can be referenced as noted. Within (See Figure 7.2.1.1)
this Section 7, therefore, the word “roundabout” excludes signalized and mini roundabouts unless explicitly
stated. 7.2.2 Compact Roundabouts

7.1.1.3 The basic design philosophy for roundabouts is to minimize delay for all vehicles whilst maintaining 7.2.2.1 A Compact Roundabout has single lane entries and exits on each arm. The width of the circulatory
the safe flow of traffic through the junction. This is achieved by providing a combination of geometric layout carriageway is such that it is not possible for two cars to pass one another (see Figure 7.2.2.1)
features that are matched to the traffic stream volumes, their speed, and to surrounding environmental
7.2.2.2 On roads with design speeds of 60km/h or less within 100m of the give way line on all approaches,
constraints such as land availability or topography. Land constraints are usually the most significant influence
Compact Roundabouts can have low values of entry and exit radii in conjunction with high values of entry
on the design process for improvements to junctions, particularly in urban situations.
deflection. This type of design has lower capacity than Normal Roundabout design, but is particularly
7.1.1.4 Designs for roundabouts should match the forecast demand, and work most effectively when there appropriate where the movement of pedestrians and cyclists require provision. For pedestrians, this type of
is a reasonable balance of flow on approach arms. They are usually unsuitable for introduction in areas where non-flared approach and exit design allows the positioning of pedestrian crossings to be more flexible.
Urban Traffic Control (UTC) or Integrated Demand Management (IDM) systems are in use.
7.2.2.3 For roads with a design speed of more than 60km/h, the design of Compact Roundabouts is similar
7.1.1.5 Entry width and sharpness of flare are the most significant determinants of capacity, whereas entry to the design of Normal Roundabouts, but the single lane entry and exit are retained.
deflection is the most important factor for safety as it influences the speed of vehicles through the roundabout.

7.1.1.6 The capacity and safety of a roundabout can be affected greatly by signing and road marking.
Roundabout design should therefore consider the need for layout of traffic signs and road markings as
an integral part of the design process. Roundabout design should also consider the need for maintenance Central overrun area may be required

activities such as landscaping and inspection and possible needs for maintenance hard standing if appropriate. Min. Radius 5m on local roads
with low traffic
7.1.1.7 The detail for and application of roadmarkings at roundabouts are contained in Section 19 of these
Standards and Reference No 1.

Figure 7.2.2.1 Compact Roundabout

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Roundabouts Highway Design Standards 2017

7.2.3 Normal Roundabouts 7.2.5 Signalized Roundabouts

7.2.3.1 A Normal Roundabout has a curbed central 7.2.5.1 These roundabouts have traffic signals on one or more of the approach arms and at the corresponding
island of at least 4.0m diameter (see Figure 7.2.3.1). point on the circulating carriageway. Further details of layouts can be obtained in Section 8 of this document
Approach arms can be single or dual carriageway. and in complementary publicaitons (see Ref. 3).
Generally, a Normal Roundabout has flared entries and
7.2.5.2 Installation of traffic signals on a part time, or continuous basis, at all or some of the entry points,
exits to allow two or three vehicles to enter or leave
can be appropriate where a roundabout cannot, for some reason, self regulate. This may be due to reasons such
the roundabout on a given arm at the same time. In
as:
such cases, the circulation carriageway should be wide
enough to allow two or three vehicles to travel side by 1) A growth in traffic flow

side around the roundabout. 2) An overloading on one or more entries or imbalance of traffic flow on approach arms
3) High circulatory speeds
7.2.3.2 Where a Normal Roundabout has more
4) Significantly different levels of flow during peak and off peak periods.
than four arms, it becomes quite large resulting in the
encouragement of higher circulation speeds. In such 7.2.5.3 In some cases, it may be possible to improve the geometry of the roundabout rather than install
cases, a Double Roundabout or a Signalized Roundabout traffic signals for particular problems. This alternative should always be investigated using appropriate
may be a better proposition to solve this problem. Figure 7.2.3.1 Normal Roundabout software before providing signals since it could be both less expensive and more effective.

7.2.4 Grade Separated Roundabouts 7.2.6 Double Roundabouts

7.2.4.1 A Grade Separated Roundabout is a roundabout that has at least one approach arm coming from a 7.2.6.1 A Double Roundabout is a junction made up of two roundabouts separated by a short length of link
road at a different level (vertically). This type of roundabout is typically used at-grade separated National and road as shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.2.6.1. This type of junction can be designed using Mini, Compact
Arterial junctions but can also be used to link underpasses, flyovers and other multiple level intersections. or Normal Roundabouts.
Roundabouts can be designed to be at higher level than the major roads, or vice-versa, at ground level with
7.2.6.2 Double Roundabouts are particularly valuable in the following situations:
the major road passing above. A typical example is given in Figure 7.2.4.1.
1) For the improvement of an existing arrangement of staggered junctions where a Double Roundabout avoids
the need to realign one of the approach minor roads and can result in significant cost savings compared to
the alternative of inserting a larger single island roundabout.
2) 
For connecting two parallel routes
separated by a feature such as a river,
railway line or expressway.
3) 
At an overloaded single roundabout,
where by reducing the traffic flows past
critical entries increase capacity overall.
4) 
At multi-leg junctions (more than 4
entries) where a Double Roundabout
may achieve higher capacity, make
more efficient use of road space
(ROW) and result in better safety
characteristics compared with a large
single roundabout.
Figure 7.2.4.1 Grade Separated Roundabout

Min. Radius 5m on local roads with low traffic

Figure 7.2.6.1 Double Roundabout

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7.2.6.3 A Double Roundabout should be designed as a single system rather than treated as two individual 7.4 DESIGN HIERARCHY
roundabouts. The link connecting the two roundabouts can in some cases be quite short and not provide
enough length for lane changing or storage. This aspect should receive early attention in the design process to 7.4.1 Selection of Roundabout Type
ensure that there is lane balance on the link road and will require assessments of likely turning movements for
the twin roundabout system. Reducing the capacity of the approaches feeding the link road can limit blocking 7.4.1.1 The selection of the appropriate roundabout type is dictated by a combination of the following factors:
back onto the roundabouts. 1) Whether the approach roads are single lane or dual carriageway,
2) The speed limit on the approach road,
3) The level of traffic flow,
7.3 LOCATION OF ROUNDABOUTS
4) The level of non motorized user (NMU) flow, and
5) Environmental constraints such as topography and land-take(value).
7.3.1 General
7.4.1.2 The following Table 7.4.1.1 provides parameters for diferent roundabout types and indicates the
7.3.1.1 In addition to its natural function as a junction for roads, roundabouts have several other useful
standard provision for pedestrians where there is sufficient demand to justify them. It should be noted that
purposes which are:
grade separation is the best option for high speed roundabouts, but may well be not cost effective.
1) They can be used to mark a significant change in road standards, for example, from National to Arterial or
from Arterial to Secondary route. It can also be used to mark the separation from grade-separated roads to 7.4.1.3 Table 7.4.1.1 – Notes:
at-grade roads, although supplementary information in terms of signing and road markings should be used 1) Signal controlled crossings to be provided only if warranted by site conditions – (Alternative is grade
to enhance the message. separation)
2) They can be used to accentuate the transition from rural to urban or suburban environments. This use, 2) Zebra Crossings should not be used where the posted speed limit equals or exceeds 60km/h
however, should not be extended to provision of roundabouts where there are no connecting side roads.
3) “Informal” crossings are unmarked pedestrian crossings which may have a pedestrian central refuge or
3) Roundabouts allow U- Turn maneuvers to be executed safely (in comparison to major/minor priority dropped curb.
U-Turns) and can accommodate heavy left turning movements.
Highest Highest Speed Highest
7.3.1.2 Banning of left turns at major/minor priority junctions (maneuver most responsible for serious Roundabout Carriageway Limit within -2way AADT Recommended
Roundabout Type
accidents) can lead to considerable inconvenience to drivers. Provision of a roundabout reasonably close to Category Provision of Road 100m on any on any Pedestrian Provision
on any approach approach(km/h) approach
the turning demand will mitigate this effect.
Grade Separated Entry/ Signal Controlled or
7.3.1.3 Roundabouts are not recommended for at-grade junctions on 3 lane dual rural high speed 1 Any Any Grade Separated
Exit Grade Separation1
carriageways since adequate deflection is difficult to achieve under these conditions. Neither are they
Signal Controlled or
recommended along routes which are subject to UTC systems unless interaction is limited. 2 Dual Carriageway > 60 Any Normal
Grade Separation1

7.3.1.4 On single carriageway roads, roundabouts can be used to provide overtaking opportunities in two 3 Single Carriageway >60 >8000 Signal Controlled1 Normal
ways. Roundabouts can be sited to facilitate lengths of straight road overtaking sections along the route. They 4 Single Carriageway >60 <8000 Informal3 Compact
can also be used to provide an overtaking opportunity by having a short section of two lanes on the exit arms 5 Dual Carriageway ≤60 >25000 Signal Controlled Normal
of the roundabout. The lengths of the two lane sections will depend on traffic demand predictions. Zebra2 / Signal
6 Dual Carriageway ≤60 16000-25000 Normal
Controlled
7.3.1.5 Roundabouts should ideally be located whenever possible, on level ground or in sag curves rather 7 Dual Carriageway ≤60 <16000 Informal3 / Zebra2 Normal
than near crests of curves where it is sometimes difficult for the driver on an up-gradient to appreciate junction 8 Single Carriageway ≤60 >12000 Zebra2 Normal
layouts to the full. This does not mean that a roundabout cannot be designed on crest curves or are unsafe in
9 Single Carriageway ≤60 8000-12000 Informal3 / Zebra2 Normal or Compact
such situations. In this case, given all the necessary sight distances, signing and roadmarkings are provided
10 Single Carriageway ≤60 <8000 Informal3 Compact
correctly, such a junction should operate satisfactorily.
Table 7.4.1.1 Selection of Roundabout Types and Recommended Provision for Pedestrians
7.3.1.6 In cases where it is necessary to provide a series of roundabouts on the same route, they should
be of similar design for reasons of consistency and hence safety, to the extent that this is possible given the
associated traffic predictions.

7.3.1.7 In all cases, where a new or improved roundabout provision is being designed, checks should be made
of the effect of the roundabout operation on adjacent junctions, particularly in respect of queue formation which
may be at increased risk. Traffic management measures could be appropriate in such cases where interaction is
significant.

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7.5 GEOMETRIC DESIGN – CENTRAL AREAS AND ISLANDS

7.5.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD)

7.5.1.1 The inscribed circle diameter “D” of a roundabout is the diameter of the largest circle that can be
fitted to the junction outline. Figure 7.5.1.1 illustrates this for a circular roundabout and 7.5.1.2 for a double
roundabout. Where roundabouts are not symmetrical, the local value in the region of entry should be used.

Figure 7.5.2.1 Reverse Curvature

Example

7.5.2.4 It is poor design practice to introduce reverse curves at the edge of the roundabout between entry
and adjacent exit. This does not reflect actual vehicle paths and leaves localized “dead” pavement areas which
are not used. In order to avoid this situation, curves can be linked with short straight sections. Reducing the
size of the roundabout is another option or converting to a double roundabout might be helpful. Where there
is a considerable distance between entry and exit, for instance on a three arm roundabout, use of reverse
curves is acceptable. (see Fig. 7.5.2.1)
Figure 7.5.1.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD) Figure 7.5.1.2 ICD for a Double Roundabout
for a Circular Roundabout 7.5.2.5 In some cases, there may be situations where one section of the circulatory road has a relatively
low flow, resulting in unused area of carriageway, usually adjacent to the splitter island. To accommodate this
7.5.1.2 It is not recommended that the inscribed circle diameter of Normal Roundabout should exceed occurance, the following design procedures may be useful:
100m. Large diameters give rise to high speeds on the circulatory carriageway and should be discouraged. An 1) For large roundabouts, the circulatory carriageway width may be reduced by extending the splitter island
alternative to a single large roundabout is to provide two roundabouts with a connecting road. preferably using curbs, although it can be achieved by using markings. This method of width reduction
can also be used in the early life of a scheme as an interim measure until traffic volumes build to sufficient
7.5.1.3 A minimum value for an inscribed circle diameter for both a Normal or Compact Roundabout is 28m.
levels. As a complimentary measure, an offside entry lane can also be taken out of use, for example by
This is the minimum value which allows sufficient space for the swept path of the designated design vehicle.
painting out using colored or textured surfacing.
(Articulated commercial trailer vehicle with a single axle at the rear and with an overall length of 15.5m)
2) For smaller roundabouts, increasing the size of the central island is a more suitable method of interim
7.5.1.4 If an inscribed circle diameter lies somewhere between 28m and 36m, then provided the traffic can circulatory carriageway reduction, preferably by physical means, although colored surfacing or hatch
be accommodated, consideration should be given to design the junction as a Compact Roundabout. markings can also be used.

7.5.2 Circulatory Carriageway 7.5.2.6 It should be noted that to reduce the entry width in areas adjacent to pedestrian crossings, hatch
markings on the road should not be used. This would be inappropriate in the controlled areas of zebra or signal
7.5.2.1 The geometry of the circulatory carriageway should in general be circular and have constant width. controlled crossings.
In cases of complex roundabouts, where non-circular geometry is required, the use of tight curves should be
avoided as they increase the risk of commercial vehicles shedding loads. There is also a risk of loss of control
by drivers.

7.5.2.2 The width of the circulatory carriageway must be between 1.0 and 1.2 times the maximum entry
width (see sub-section 7.6.2 - Entry Width) and excluding any overrun area (See Figure 7.5.3.1)

7.5.2.3 At Normal and Grade Separated Roundabouts, the width of the circulatory carriageway should not
exceed 15m. At Compact Roundabouts it should not exceed 6m, although an additional overrun area may be
required for small values of ICD to allow use by the designated design vehicle (see subsection 7.5.3).

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7.5.3 Central Islands 7.5.4 Splitter Islands

7.5.3.1 The central island should be circular and at 7.5.4.1 Splitter islands are used on each roundabout arm, situated and shaped to separate and direct traffic
least 4m in diameter. The ICD, the width of the circulatory entering and leaving the roundabout. They are generally curbed, which is the recommended treatment, but
carriageway and the central island diameter are all they can be established by road markings also if space is restricted.
interdependent since establishing any two of these
7.5.4.2 Splitter island geometry is defined by the alignment geometry of entrances and exits and is generally
parameters automatically fixes the third.
unique to each project site. It is the central residual area at the approach arms to roundabouts between entrances
7.5.3.2 Roundabout standards are based on a and exits which is left after the optimum roundabout geometry has been established. (See previous Figure
Design Vehicle which is 15.5m long, articulated with 7.2.3.1).
a single rear axle. The turning circle required for
7.5.4.3 Road markings may also be used to extend a splitter island on the approach, exit or on the circulatory
this vehicle on a roundabout with an inscribed circle
carriageway itself.
diameter of between 28m and 36m is shown in Figure
7.5.3.1 and Table 7.5.3.1. This demand is more onerous 7.5.4.4 Curbed splitter islands provide refuges for pedestrians, provided they are of sufficient width (2.5m
than for an 11m long rigid vehicle, a 12m long coach, min.) to accommodate adequate standing space for wheelchair users accompanied by pushers, and persons
a 15m long bus, a 17.9m articulated bus, a 18.35m with prams, pushchairs and pedal cycles. Signs can also be placed on raised splitter islands providing there is
long drawbar-trailer combination and a 16.6m long sufficient clearances and adequate visibility is maintained.
articulated vehicle. Figure 7.5.3.1 Turning Widths required for Smaller
Normal and Compact Roundabout
Notes
a Main central island 7.6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN - ENTRIES
b Central overrun area, where provided Central Island Minimum
R1 (m) R2 (m)
Diameter (m) ICD (m)
c Remaining circulatory carriageway width 7.6.1 General
(1.0 to 1.2 x maximum entry width) 4.0 3.0 13.0 28.0
d Vehicle 6.0 4.0 13.4 28.8 7.6.1.1 When considering the appropriate entry design for safety and capacity, the following parameters are
e 1m clearance minimum
8.0 5.0 13.9 29.8 relevant:
f Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD)
10.0 6.0 14.4 30.8 1) Approach Half Width
7.5.3.3 The swept path of the Design Vehicle may 12.0 7.0 15.0 32.0 2) Entry Width
impinge by up to 0.3m into either the inner or outer 14.0 8.0 15.6 33.2 3) Entry Flaring
1.0m clearance allowance. This infringement is not 16.0 9.0 16.3 34.6 4) Entry Angle
considered to be sufficient grounds to increase the 18.0 10.0 17.0 36.0 5) Entry Curb Radius
dimensions given in the accompanying Table 7.5.3.1
Table 7.5.3.1 Turning Widths - Smaller Normal and
on which to establish roundabout design basics. Each is considered in turn in the following sub-sections.
Compact Rbts.

7.5.3.4 Light vehicles must have sufficient entry deflection at Compact or small Normal Roundabouts. To 7.6.2 Approach Half Width and Entry Width
accommodate this, it may be necessary to provide an overrun area which should be developed around the
curbed central island. This should be of a suitable profile to allow trailers to mount it safely but be sufficiently 7.6.2.1 The approach half width ‘v’ is the width of
unattractive for light vehicles to mount it. Details of profiles for overrun areas, where necessary should conform the approach carriageway, excluding any hatching, in
to relevant guidelines. (Ref. 4) advance of any entry flare (See Figure 7.6.2.1). It is the
shortest distance between the median line, or the edge of
the median on dual carriageway roads, and the nearside
edge of the road. In situations where there are yellow
edge lines or hatching next to the curb, the measurement
should be taken between marking rather than curb to
curb.

Figure 7.6.2.1 Approach Half Width & Entry Width

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7.6.2.2 The entry width ‘e’ is the width of the carriageway at the point of entry and is measured from the 7.6.3.2 On multi-lane entries, it is important to ensure that entries are used equally in order to avoid the situation
point A at the left hand end of the Give Way line along the normal to the nearside curb. (see Figure 7.6.2.1). where some lanes exceed capacity and others are continually underutilized. On flared entries, designs should
For capacity calculations, the measurement should be taken as the total width of lanes that drivers would use consider situations that might arise where the queue from an overused lane might block back and prevent vehicle
(in other words the effective width measured between edge lines and/or hatching). Depending on roundabout access to other lanes on the approach.
circumstances, the entry width and the effective width can be the same.
7.6.4 Entry Flaring
7.6.2.3 Entry width is a key factor influencing capacity, in combination with length of and sharpness of flare.
One or two lanes can be added to the approach at a Normal or Grade Separated Roundabout, however as a general 7.6.4.1 This geometric parameter is defined by the localized widening of the point of entry to a roundabout.
standard, not more than two lanes should be added, and no roundabout entry should be more than four lanes Normal roundabouts conventionally have flared entrances with the addition of one or more lanes at the give-way line
wide. to increase capacity. For Compact Roundabouts, entries are only slightly flared in order to accommodate large goods
vehicles.
7.6.2.4 Lane widths at the Give Way line (measured along the normal to the nearside curb, as for entry
width) must not be less than 3m or more than 4.5m; with the 4.5m value appropriate at single lane entries and 7.6.4.2 Figure 7.6.4.1 shows graphically the geometric parameters which define entry flares. The average
values of 3m to 3.5m appropriate at multilane entries. flare length, l’, is the average length over which the entry widens. It is the length of curve CF’ as shown.

7.6.2.5 On a single carriageway approach to a Normal Roundabout, the entry width must not exceed 10.5m. In order to determine the average effective flare length, l’, the following procedures are necessary:
On a dual carriageway approach to a Normal Roundabout, the entry width must not exceed 15m. 1) Construct curve GD parallel to the median HA (center line or edge of central reserve or splitter island) and
distance v from it,
7.6.2.6 Where flaring is provided, tapered lanes should have a minimum width of 2.5m.
2) Construct curve CF’ parallel to curve BG (the nearside curb) and at a constant distance of BD from it, with
7.6.2.7 For the case of single carriageway roads, where predicted flows are low and increased lane width F’ the point where CF’ intersects line DG,
is unnecessary on operational grounds, a Compact Roundabout design with single lane entries should be 3) Note that the length of curve CF’ is the average effective flare length l’.
provided. Note in cases where the line AB is not perpendicular to the median, the length AD will differ slightly from v.

7.6.2.8 The development of entry lanes must account for the predicted turning proportions and possible
lane bias, since drivers have a tendency to use the nearside lane. The use of lane bifurcations, where one lane
widens into two lanes, can maximize the use of the entry lane width. However, the use of very short offside
lanes is not recommended since they are not well used generally and can be an area for collection of debris,
affecting road safety, particularly for motorcyclists.

7.6.2.9 For new projects and highway improvement projects, the design convention is to consider design Figure 7.6.4.1 Average Effective Flare Length
horizon flows after opening. This can result in overdesign of roundabouts initially until traffic levels have Notes/Legend
increased such that the facilities operate under a more balanced demand. Future flows will determine future 1. AB= e (entry width),
layouts and the land take required for that ultimate situation. Interim measures, however, should be explored 2. G
 H= v (approach half width at point G which is the
best estimate of the start of the flare),
to establish if a phased roundabout development is feasible. This can be done by reducing entry width and
3. D
 G is parallel to AH and distance v from AH (v is
circulatory widths in the early operational phases, and increasing these parameters as traffic flows increase measured along a line perpendicular to both AH
over time. and GD and, therefore, the length of AD is only
equal to v if AB is perpendicular to the median atA).

7.6.3 Alignment of Entry Lanes 7.6.4.3 The total length of entry widening (BG) will be about twice the average effective flare length.

7.6.3.1 The alignment of entry lanes is of critical 7.6.4.4 The capacity of an entry can be improved by increasing the average effective flare length.
importance in all cases. The only exception to this is with Appropriate values of l’ can be estimated from capacity relationships determined by TRL (Ref 5). The results
Compact Roundabouts in urban areas. In all other cases, will be determined by the amount of expropriation required since similar levels of capacity can be obtained
the curb line of the splitter island (or median curb in the from a range of flare lengths and entry widths. A minimum length of flare of about 5.0m in urban areas and
case of a dual carriageway) will continue in an arc to meet 25.0m in rural areas is desirable, but capacity should be the determining parameter.
tangentially with the curb on the central island in order to
reduce the risk of vehicle paths overlapping. (see Figure 7.6.4.5 Effective flare lengths greater than 25m may improve the geometric layout of a junction but have
7.6.3.1). little effect on the capacity. Use of effective flare lengths of 100m or more is considered to be lane widening
(not a flared entry). Where flares are used, they should be developed gradually without any sudden changes in
Figure 7.6.3.1 Splitter Island Arc projected onto
Roundabout Central Island Tangentially alignment.

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7.6.4.6 The sharpness of a flare, S, is defined by the formula: S= 1.6 [e - v] /l’ and is a measure of the rate 7.6.5.3 For smaller or compact roundabouts, the entry angle is measured as shown in Figure 7.6.5.2. This
at which extra width is developed in the entry flare. The value of S will depend on the availability of land for method is used where there is insufficient separation between entry and adjacent exit to be able to define the
expropriation and the required capacity. path of the circulating vehicle clearly. In this case, circulating traffic that will leave at the following exit, will be
influenced by the angle at which that arm joins the roundabout. The angle between the projected entry and
7.6.4.7 Values of S which are greater than 1 correspond to sharp flares and values of S which are smaller
exit paths is measured and then halved to find ( ). The procedure is as follows:
than one ( 0 ≤ S ≤ 1 ) relate to flares which are more gradual. Long flares are more efficient in terms of driver
1) Construct line BC as in Figure 7.6.5.2, and following the steps in section 7.6.5.2
use, however, sharper flares take less land and are more conducive to applying pedestrian crossings.
2) Construct the curve JK in the next exit as the locus of points midway between the nearside curb and the
7.6.4.8 Although entry width and sharpness of flare, (a function of flare length and widening), have the median line (or edge of any splitter island or central reserve),
most significant effect on capacity, other variables such as entry angle and entry radius (see sub-sections 3) Construct the line GH as the equivalent of line BC i.e. the tangent to the curve JK at the point where JK
following) can still be important. When capacity is at a premium, small changes in these variables can produce intersects the border of the inscribed circle,
the same effect as making a large change in a single variable. 4) The lines BC and GH intersect at L. The entry angle ( ) is therefore half of the angle HLB.
5) Note that if GLB exceeds 180 degrees, ( )becomes zero.
7.6.5 Entry Angles

7.6.5.1 The entry angle to a roundabout

( ) serves as a geometric substitute for
the conflict angle between entering and
circulating traffic flows. Depending on
the size of the roundabout, the following
methods in the following subsections should
be used to determine the entry angle.

7.6.5.2 For large roundabouts, where

the arms are well separated, the angle to be
measured is basically the angle between the Figure 7.6.5.2 Entry Angle at Smaller Roundabouts
projected path of an entering vehicle and the
path of a circulating vehicle (see Figure 7.6.5.1). 7.6.5.4 For cases where it is not clear which of the two methods should be used, the following procedure
The method used to measure it is as follows: Figure 7.6.5.1 Entry Angle on Large Roundabouts will determine the appropriate method:

1) Construct the curve EF as the locus of the mid-point between the nearside curb and the median line (or the 1) All three vehicle paths should be constructed (entry, exit and circulatory) and the entry and exit paths
edge of any splitter island or median), projected towards the roundabout center.

2) Construct BC as the tangent t o EF at 2) The choice of construction for ( ) is dependent on where the projections meet: if the meeting point is
closer to the center of the roundabout than the arc of the circulatory line (the median line of the circulatory
the give way line,
carriageway) then the method illustrated in Figure 7.6.5.1 should be adopted.
3) Construct the curve AD as the locus of the mid-point of the circulatory carriageway (a proxy for the average
3) If the meeting point is outside of that area then the construction shown in Figure 7.6.5.2 should be adopted.
direction of travel for traffic circulating past the arm),
4) The limiting case is where all three median lines intersect at a point, it is common for the circulatory
4) The entry angle ( ) is the acute angle between BC and the tangent to AD.
carriageway median approximately to bisect the angle between the other two medians, so that the two
methods become equivalent.

7.6.5.5 The entry angle ( ) should lie between 20 degrees and 60 degrees. Low entry angles force the
drivers to look over their shoulders or use their mirrors to merge with circulating traffic. Large entry angles
induce lower capacity and can produce excessive entry deflection which can lead to sharp braking at entry,
accompanied by shunt type accidents, particularly when approach speeds are high.

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7.6.6 Entry Curb Radius

7.6.6.1 The parameter, r, is the minimum

radius of curvature at the nearside curb line over
the distance from 25m ahead of the give way line
to 10m downstream of it (see Figure 7.6.6.1). It is
the radius of best fit circular curve over a length
of 25m.

7.6.6.2 The entry curb radius should not be

less than 10m, except at Compact Roundabouts.
If the approach will be used by large goods
vehicles, then in that case, the entry curb radius
shall be not less than 20m. It should be noted that
entry curb radii in excess of 100m will produce
inadequate deflection. Figure 7.6.6.1 Entry Curb Radius
Figure 7.6.7.1 C Establishment of Entry Path Radius Figure 7.6.7.1 D Establishment of Entry Path Radius
7.6.6.3 Increases in capacity can be gained by increasing the curb entry radius, however, once the value of Notes on Figures 7.6.7.1 (A to D):
20m is reached, further increases in curb entry radius only result in marginal increases in capacity. If the curb 1. Fig A = Ahead movement on a 4-arm Roundabout
entry radius is reduced below 15m, there is a consequent reduction in capacity. 2. Fig B = R ight turn where the approach curves to the right
3. Fig C = R ight turn where the approach curves to the left
4. Fig D = R ight turn at a roundabout on a “Y” Junction
7.6.7 Entry Path Radius 5. E
 ntry path radius should be measured over the smallest best fit circular curve over a distance of 25m occurring along the
approach entry path in the vicinity of the give way line, but not more than 50m in advance of it.
7.6.7.1 The entry path radius is a measure of the deflection to the right imposed onto vehicles entering the 6. Starting point is 50m in advance of the give way line and at least 1m from the nearside curb or centre line.
roundabout. It is the most important determinant of safety at roundabouts because it controls the speed of
vehicles through the intersection and whether drivers are likely to give way to circulating vehicles. 7.6.7.4 The actual construction of the path is a matter of engineering and geometric judgment and should
be carried out by two independent designers, (one to design and one to check), to ensure that a representative
7.6.7.2 In order to determine the entry path radius, the fastest path allowed by the geometry is drawn. This
result is produced.
is defined by the smoothest and flattest path that a vehicle can physically take through the entry, round the
central island and through the exit assuming that there are no other vehicles on the roundabout. Examples of 7.6.7.5 The smallest radius of this path on entry that occurs as it bends to the right before joining the
paths are shown in Figures 7.6.7.1 A to D. circulatory carriageway is called the entry path radius. This is not the same as the entry curb radius as discussed
in sub-section 7.6.6 and should not be confused with it.
7.6.7.3 The vehicle path is assumed to be 2.0m wide such that the vehicle following it would maintain a
distance of at least one meter between the centerline and any curb or edge marking. The path itself must start 7.6.7.6 The entry path radius can be measured by applying suitable templates to the curve in the region
50m in advance of the give way line. of the give way line (see Figures 7.6.7.1 A to D). It is that radius that shows the best circular curve fit over a
distance of 25m.

7.6.7.7 It is important to note that the entry path radius must be checked for all turning movements. It
must not exceed 70m at Compact Roundabouts in urban areas (where the speed limit and the design speed
within 100m of the give way line on any approach do not exceed 60km/h and 70km/h respectively). At all other
roundabout types, the entry path radius must not exceed 100m.

7.6.7.8 In certain cases, such as in urban areas where space is insufficient and there is a need to
accommodate large commercial vehicles, it may require the selection of a small Normal Roundabout or a
Compact Roundabout which is unable to provide sufficient entry deflection by means of the central island
alone. For such cases, the deflection should be provided by enlarging the splitter islands or providing a central
over-run area for goods vehicles as discussed in sub-section 7.5.3.4.
Figure 7.6.7.1 A Establishment of Entry Path Radius Figure 7.6.7.1 B Establishment of Entry Path Radius
7.6.7.9 Where an over-run area is provided that deters light vehicles from over-running , the entry path
radius should be measured relative to the perimeter of this area rather than that of the central island.

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7.6.7.10 A method for creating entry 7.7.1.3 The exit width should be reduced in such a way that it avoids exiting vehicles encroaching onto the
deflection at a Normal Roundabout is opposing lane at the end of the splitter island. Usually, the width would reduce at a taper of 1:15 or 1:20.
to stagger the arms as shown in Figure
7.7.1.4 Where the exit is on an uphill alignment, the exit width may be extended for a distance before the
7.6.7.2 in order to effect the following:
taper commences. This provides a chance for vehicles to overtake slowly accelerating goods vehicles. In cases
1) Reduce the size of the roundabout,
where the above is also combined with the exit road bending to the right immediately after the roundabout
2) Minimize land acquisition,
is negotiated, then it may will be appropriate to continue the exit width for some distance so that overtaking
3) Help to provide a clear exit route with maneuvers can be safely completed before the merge is encountered.
sufficient width to avoid conflicts.
7.7.1.5 At a Compact Roundabout, the exit width should be similar to the entry width.
7.6.7.11 Sharp curves on the approach
should not be introduced to increase entry 7.7.1.6 On exit, the edge line should continue along the projected line of the curbing once this is terminated.
deflection, although a gentle curve to the (See Section 19, Traffic Signs and Road Markings)
left preceding a right hand entry deflection
may be used. Approach curvature should 7.7.2 Exit Curb Radius
follow the requirements noted in Section 4
7.7.2.1 The exit curb radius is presented in Fig. 7.7.1.1. It is the equivalent of the entry curb radius. Values for
of these Standards.
Figure 7.6.7.2 Staggering of East-West Arms to increase Deflection the exit curb radius should exceed the largest entry radius except at Compact Roundabouts, where they should
be equal. The operation at the roundabout is to let the entering vehicle have a safe (slow) entrance speed, but
7.7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN – EXITS then allow the circulating vehicle to have a much less hindered exit so that they can accelerate away efficiently
from the roundabout to reach the running speed on the downstream link.
7.7.1 Exit Width
7.7.2.2 At compact roundabouts, the value of the exit curb radius should lie between 15m and 20m.
7.7.1.1 The exit width is the width of the
7.7.2.3 On other roundabouts, the exit curb radius should not be less than 20m or greater than 100m. A curb
carriageway on the exit and is measured
radius of 40m is considered desirable, but for larger roundabouts on high speed roads, a higher value may suit
in a similar manner to the entry width.
the overall junction geometry. A compound curve normally provides an appropriate solution, commencing
It is the distance between the nearside
with a 40m radius leading into a 100m radius. Larger values of exit radius encourage high exit speeds which
curb and the exit median (or the edge of
in some cases may be at odds with the situation on the roundabout downstream, if for instance, a pedestrain
any splitter island) or dual carriageway
crossing is provided close to the roundabout.
median, where it intersects with the outer
edge of the circulatory carriageway. As 7.7.2.4 The minimum distance between an entry arm and the next exit is determined by the minimum entry
with the entry width, it is measured normal radius (10m) and the minimum exit radius for the type of roundabout under consideration. (15m at Compact
to the nearside curb. Values are typically Roundabouts and 20m in other cases)
similar to or slightly less than entry widths
(exits have less flaring). Where possible, 7.7.2.5 Exits should be checked to ensure that vehicle paths are smooth and that they are not directed
the exit width should be provided with one towards splitter islands. Splitter islands should end at a tangent with (or be parallel to) the road center line and
more lanes than is present on the road link be of sufficient length to stop an exiting vehicle from crossing the center line into the oncoming traffic.
downstream. The exception to this rule
Figure 7.7.1.1 Single Carriageway Exit with Long Splitter Island 7.7.2.6 Where the peak exit volume comes close to the capacity of the downstream link, tapers which are
is of course with Compact Roundabouts
longer than 1:20 should be considered in order to merge traffic more efficiently since traffic density will be high
which by definition have single lane
in the exit lanes.
provision.
7.7.2.7 Sharp turns on roundabout exits should be avoided. They increase the risk of commercial vehicles
7.7.1.2 To clarify further, for example at a Normal Roundabout, if the downstream link is a single carriageway
shedding their loads and for geometric reasons, decrease the traffic capacity of the junction.
road with a long splitter island, the exit width should be between 7m and 7.5m and the exit should taper down
to a minimum of 6m (see Figure 7.7.1.1). This allows traffic to pass a stationary vehicle. If the link is a 2-lane dual
carriageway, the exit width should be between 10m and 11m and the exit should taper down to two lanes wide.

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7.8 ROUNDABOUT DESIGN – VISIBILITY AND SIGHT DISTANCE 7.8.3 Forward Visibility at Entry

7.8.3.1 Drivers of all vehicles approaching the give way line must be able to see objects of height between
7.8.1 General
0.26m and 2.0m on the full width of the circulatory carriageway for the Visibility Distance given in Table 7.8.3.1
7.8.1.1 For roundabouts, visibility for stopping sight distance must be obtainable from a driver’s eye height and measured as shown in Figure 7.8.3.1 (along the centre of the circulatory carriageway). The visibility must
of between 1.05m and 2.0m to an object height of between 0.26m and 2.0m. The exception to this rule is for also be checked from the centre of the nearside lane at a distance of 15m back from the give way line as shown.
driver visibility to the left in the circulatory carriageway on approach to the give way line, and visibility for
Inscribed Circle Visibility Distance
drivers on the circulatory carriageway who must be able to see the full width of the carriageway as well as Diameter (ICD) (‘a’ in Figures)
having adequate forward stopping sight distance. For these two cases, the object height becomes 1.05m to
<40m Whole junction
2.0m.
40m - 60m 40m

7.8.1.2 For cases where signs are to be situated in the median, verge or splitter island within the envelope 60m – 100m 50m
of visibility, including to the left, the mounting height must not be less than 2.0m above the road surface. >100m 70m

Table 7.8.3.1 Forward Visibility Distances

7.8.2 Forward Visibility on Approach
7.8.4 Visibility to the Left
7.8.2.1 Visibility on approach (stopping sight distance) must conform with lengths stipulated in Section 4
of these Standards, “Road Link Geometry” with the position of the object at the give way line as presented in 7.8.4.1 Drivers of all vehicles
Figures 7.8.2.1A and 7.8.2.1B. Chevron signs, on the approach to a roundabout, must be visible to drivers in all approaching the give way line must be
lanes from a distance equal to the stopping sight distance noted in Section 4 of these Standards. able to see the full width of the circulatory Figure 7.8.3.1 Forward Visibility Required at Entry
carriageway to their left, from the centre
of the offside lane at the give way line,
in accordance with the visibility distances
quoted in Table 7.8.3.1 and measured
along the line shown in Figure 7.8.4.1. This
includes Grade Separated Roundabouts
with bridge parapets on either side of
circulatory carriageway.

7.8.4.2 Visibility to the left must also

be checked from the center line of the
Figure 7.8.2.1 A Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach offside lane at a distance of 15m back
from the give way line as shown in Figure
7.8.2.2 Chevron signs should not be stacked. Should visibility be a problem, yellow backing boards or larger Figure 7.8.4.1 Visibility to Left from Give Way Line
7.8.4.2.
signs should be considered. If the approach to a roundabout is running up to a crest curve, then consideration
should be given to using higher mounting heights for signing. 7.8.4.3 The envelope of visibility must
be obtainable from a driver’s eye height
of between 1.05m and 2.0m to an object
height of between 1.05m and 2.00m.

Figure 7.8.2.1 B Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach Figure 7.8.4.2 Visibility to Left from Give Way Line

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7.8.5 Circulatory Visibility 7.8.7 Exit Visibility

7.8.5.1 Drivers travelling on the 7.8.7.1 On the circulatory carriageway, the exit visibility should conform to the distances quoted in the
circulatory carriageway must be able previous Table numbered 7.8.3.1. Once having crossed over the inscribed circle on exit from the roundabout,
to see the full width of the circulatory the stopping sight distance should conform to the requirements stated in Section 4 of these Standards.
carriageway ahead of them according
to the visibility distances stipulated in 7.8.8 Crossfalls and Longitudinal Gradients – General
Table 7.8.3.1. This visibility must be
7.8.8.1 At roundabout approaches, steep gradients should be avoided wherever possible or flattened to 2%
checked at a distance of 2.0m in from
before entry. Combinations of longitudinal slope and cross-falls dictate the drainage patterns on roundabouts,
the central island as indicated in Figure
and it is the steepest gradient longitudinally or transversally that will determine roundabout surface drainage
7.8.5.1. The envelope of visibility must be
direction. For reasons of simplicity, the following paragraphs assume a level roundabout and is written in
available from an eye height of between
terms of crossfalls rather than combinations of gradients.
1.05 to 2.0m to an object height of between Figure 7.8.5.1 Circulatory Visibility
1.05m and 2.0m. 7.8.8.2 On approaches and exits, super-elevation can assist drivers to negotiate the curves at a roundabout.
The cross fall when applied, should be consistent with the speed of vehicles and equal to or greater than those
7.8.5.2 It is often the case that use can be made of landscaping to make the roundabouts more noticeable to
required for adequate drainage run off. This value should not be greater than 5%. Super-elevation should be
drivers on the approach. (See Section 15). Care must be exercised if this is done, to ensure that the circulatory
reduced to 2% at a distance of 20m from the give way line since at this point, traffic would be slowing down to
visibility is not obstructed. It is conventional good practice to provide hard landscaping or grassing (or low
negotiate the roundabout.
level vegetation) on the outer 2.0m of the central island.

7.8.6 Pedestrian Crossing Visibility 7.8.9 Cross-Fall on the Circulatory Carriageway

7.8.9.1 Except in the case of large Grade

7.8.6.1 Where drivers approach a roundabout which is provided with a pedestrian crossing on the entry,
Separated Roundabouts, where long lengths
they must be able to see the full width of the crossing so that they can see if there are pedestrians waiting to
of circulatory carriageway might require super-
cross. For a signal controlled crossing, the driver must also be able to see at least one signal head. The visibility
elevation to conform to link design standards, cross-
required is the stopping sight distance for the relevant design speed of the link.
fall is necessary to drain the surface water from the
7.8.6.2 Once at the give way line, carriageway. The normal value is 2% but it should
drivers must be able to see the full width not exceed 2.5%. Checks must be made to combine
of the pedestrian crossing (irrespective of vertical alignment with cross-fall to eliminate any
whether it is signal controlled, zebra or areas that might be prone to ponding. An absolute
informal crossing) across the next exit if it minimum curb gutter profile of 0.5% can be used in
is within 20m of the give way line on that exceptional cases, however, a value of 0.67% should
arm. (See Figure 7.8.6.1). It must be noted be considered to be the practical minimum.
that pedestrian crossing should not be
7.8.9.2 At Normal Roundabouts on high speed
situated between 20m and 60m from the
roads, it is good practice to arrange for super-elevation
give way line.
to assist vehicles in their various maneuvers. This is Figure 7.8.9.1 Using One Crown Line to join Splitter Islands
achieved by providing a crown line by either joining
the ends of the splitter islands as shown in Figure
7.8.9.1, or by dividing the circulatory carriageway in
Figure 7.8.6.1 Visibility Required at Pedestrian Crossing at Next Exit the proportions 2:1 (internal to external) as shown in
Figure 7.8.9.2. In some cases, a subsidiary crown line
can be introduced to advantage in order to reduce
the crossover crown line gradient differences as
shown in Figure 7.8.9.3.

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7.8.10.2 All roundabout entries and exits should be curbed and hard strips or hard shoulders should terminate
where the roundabout widening begins. (Figures 7.8.10.1 and 7.8.10.2)

Figure 7.8.9.2 Using One Crown Line to divide the Figure 7.8.9.3 Using Two Crown Lines
Carriageway in the Ratio 2:1

7.8.9.3 The crossover crown line has a direct effect on driver comfort and may be a contributory factor for
commercial vehicles to shed their goods, or for roll-over accidents. Over a particular section, the maximum
recommended arithmetic difference in cross-fall should be 5%. Lower values are preferable, especially for
roundabouts with small ICDs. A smooth rounded crown is essential combined with no severe changes in cross-
fall. Figure 7.8.10.2 Terminating Shoulders/Hard Strips - Dual Carriageway

7.8.9.4 At Compact Roundabouts and small Normal Roundabouts, it is more appropriate to apply a single 7.8.10.3 On entry, the curbs should be started at the back of the shoulder/hard strip and terminated in a
crossfall in one direction across the full width of the circulatory carriageway. Where the design speed is set smooth curve or taper into the roundabout lane edge. On exit, the shoulder/hard strip can start at the point
at less than or equal to 60km/h, the super-elevation can fall outwards to assist drainage, reduce speeds and where the curb ends. These arrangements are shown in Figures 7.8.10.1 and 7.8.10.2 for single and dual
marginally elevate the central island thus making it more conspicuous. carriageway cases respectively.

7.8.10 Cross-Fall on Exits and Shoulder Termination at Entry/Exit

7.9 SEGREGATED RIGHT TURN LANES
7.8.10.1 Wherever necessary, cross-fall should be provided to assist vehicles on exit to accelerate away
smoothly. However, as with entries, cross-fall adjacent to the roundabout on exits should not exceed 2% and 7.9.1 General
in the case of the exit immediately turning into a left hand curve, the full super-elevation should be introduced
7.9.1.1 Segregated right-turn lanes can
gradually.
be used when there is a heavy right turn
traffic movement at a roundabout and
removal of this flow from the circulatory
carriageway would improve the overall
capacity of the junction. It is catered for
by providing an exclusive right turning
lane which is accessed on the approach
to the roundabout taking traffic through
the roundabout area without mixing with
circulatory flows, and discharging directly
into the next exit arm.

Figure 7.9.1.1 Representative Layout of Non-Physical Separation

Figure 7.8.10.1 Terminating Shoulders/Hard Strips - Single Carriageway

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7.9.1.2 These lanes can be “physical” 7.9.3 Geometric Design Standards
or “non-physical” meaning they are
7.9.3.1 Segregated right turn lanes should not be designed to encourage high speed. Speed reduction
segregated from the circulatory flow by
should be designed to take place in advance of entry to the exclusive lane and not within it.
either a raised, curbed island or by islands
created by road marking respectively. (See 7.9.3.2 The radii, used for the segregated right turn, will depend on the approach speed and the site physical
Figures 7.9.1.1 and 7.9.1.2) constraints. The perception of the approach and right turn lane will determine their approach speed. As a
result, the designer should consider speed reduction measures depending on the curve radius adopted.
7.9.1.3 Careful consideration must
be given to the needs of pedestrians and 7.9.3.3 Curve radii for segregated right turn lanes should not be less than 10m on the inside edge whilst the
other non-motorised users to ensure exit radius should be higher, or equal to the entry radius.
their requirements in terms of safety and
convenience are met. The following issues 7.9.3.4 The carriageway widths, as specified in the second column of Table 7.9.3.1, are to be used to
arise in this respect as follows: Figure 7.9.1.2 Representative Layout showing Physical Separation accommodate the swept path of a large goods vehicles and have marking provided on the inside of the curve
1) There is an extra width of carriageway to cross, to reduce the marked lane width to a minimum of 3.5m, as shown in the typical cross section in Figure 7.9.3.1.

2) There isa speed differential at t he d

 iverge a
 nd m
 erge a
 reas of the segregated right turn lane, 7.9.3.5 Where the segregated right turn lane is provided by road markings, there is no requirement to allow
3) Insufficient w
 idth p
 rovisiono
 n pedestrian r efuge islands along the length of segregated lane, for passing of stationary vehicles since they can be overtaken with caution. On the other hand, where physical
4) Possible confusion in relation to the vehicle flow direction given the segregated nature of the right turn lane. separation is used, this shall allow the right turn at the roundabout in the normal way from the non-segregated
traffic as shown in Figure 7.9.3.2
7.9.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity
Segregated Right Turn Lane Segregated Right Turn Lane
Minimum Inside Corner
Carriageway Width (for physical island Carriageway Width (for physical islands
7.9.2.1 There is a simple procedure to provide guidance to determine if an exclusive right turning lane Radius or Curve Radius
of lengths ≤50m) of lengths >50m)
would be beneficial to a roundabout design and merit further investigation. It is based on total traffic in-flows 10m 8.4m 10.9m
at entry, vehicle composition, right turning traffic and numbers of entry lanes. The inclusion of a right turning 15m 7.1m 9.6m
lane should be considered if: 20m 6.2m 8.7m
L ≥ F/E where L= flow of right turning vehicles 25m 5.7m 8.2m
F= total entry arm flow in vehs/hour 30m 5.3m 7.8m
E= total number of entry lanes on the arm including the segregated right turn 40m 4.7m 7.2m
50m 4.4m 6.9m
7.9.2.2 In cases where L and F/E are very close, consideration of other factors such as safety would need to
75m 4.0m 6.5m
be included in the appraisal.
100m 3.8m 6.3m
7.9.2.3 The capacity of a segregated right turn is dependent on the entry and exit conditions and the lane >100m 3.5m 6.0m
width. To maximize capacity, it is necessary to provide an exclusive entry lane and exit lane and provide a
Table 7.9.3.1 Minimum Corner Radii/Curve Radii/Carriageway Width
lane width of 3.5m minimum. Capacity is reduced when diverge tapers on entrance are used, and give way or
merge tapers are used at exits.

7.9.2.4 Specific site conditions will affect the capacity of a right turn lane, including turning proportions, large
goods vehicles content and geometric features. It is therefore recommended that traffic micro-simulation models
be used to estimate capacities for detailed design where diverge and merge arrangements are used at entry and
exit.

7.9.2.5 Designer should test the conditions of flow during various parts of the day, as well as for the particular
design condition such as peak hour, or peak period for a specific local traffic generator. A careful assessment
of the overall operation of the segregated right turn lane must be made to ensure it is the optimum solution
for the predicted traffic conditions, and that those conditions cannot be adequately met by adjustments to the
roundabout design related to flare length and entry width.

Figure 7.9.3.1 Segregated Right Turn Island ≤50m long (Section X-X)

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7.9.3.6 Where a physical island in excess of 50m is used, the lane widths as stipulated in the third column 7.9.3.11 Where pedestrian facilities are to be provided next to the entry or exit, the physical island shall
of Table 7.9.3.1 shall be used. extend a distance of 1.5m minimum on both entry and exit beyond the pedestrian crossing point as shown in
Figure 7.9.3.3. Non-physical islands shall start and stop at the entry and exit limits respectively, as shown in
7.9.3.7 Where roundabouts have an ICD of 50m, the right turn lane width should be based on the minimum
Figure 7.9.1.1.
curve radius on the entry or exit. For cases where the ICD > 50m, the right turn width may be reduced based
on the right turn radius. For both cases, the values of lane width recommended are given in Table 7.9.3.1. 7.9.3.12 Where a roundabout is controlled by traffic signals, the right turn lane can be incorporated into the
design provided it is physically segregated. Right turn lanes created from road markings should not be used
7.9.3.8 Under no circumstances will two segregated right turn lanes be used together. If right turn traffic
with traffic signal controlled roundabouts.
is very high and cannot be accommodated by a single segregated right turn lane, then alternative forms of
junction should be investigated. 7.9.3.13 Steep and long vertical alignments on downgrades to roundabout entries (in excess of 4% in the
vicinity of the roundabout) preclude the use of right turning lanes at these locations. Vertical alignments on the
7.9.3.9 The provision of 1.0m hardstrip, or shoulders are not to be provided at segregated right turn lanes
segregated lane should also not exceed 4%.
and shall be terminated at the start of the entry taper and started again at the end of the exit taper.
7.9.3.14 Where pedestrian crossing movement is expected, there should be no, or minimal, difference in
7.9.3.10 If road markings are used to create the lane segregation, the overall width of the island shall be
levels between the right turning segregated lane and the entry approach.
1.0m minimum. Physical islands shall be a minimum of 1.5m with extra allowance as necessary for provision
of signs and other road furniture. Physical islands shall extend a minimum of 1.5m and 6.0m into the entry and 7.9.3.15 Physically segregated right turn lanes should not be used at roundabout junctions that are not lit.
exit roads respectively, beyond the traffic deflection islands where no pedestrians are expected. This is shown
in Figure 7.9.3.2. 7.9.4 Sight Distances

7.9.4.1 The minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) throughout the

Maximum Curve Minimum Stopping
segregated right turn lane shall be the lesser of: Radius (m) Sight Distance (m)
1) The SSD obtained for the design speed of the approach (See Section 4 ≤ 20 35
of these standards), or 21 to 40 70
2) The SSD shown in Table 7.9.4.1 appropriate to the maximum nearside 41 to 80 90
curve radius. 81 to 100 120

The minimum stopping sight distance shall be applied to the segregated > 100 215
right turn lane from the end of the diverge (entry) taper to the beginning Table 7.9.4.1 Minimum Stopping
of the exit taper. Sight Distances
Figure 7.9.3.2 Physical Segregated Right
Turn Lane without Pedestrian Facilities
7.9.4.2 The maximum curve radius used to determine the SSD from Table 7.9.4.1, shall be the greater of
either the entry or exit radius of the exclusive right turn lane. For clarification, the entry radius is the radius
used immediately after the diverge taper ends, and the exit radius is the curve used immediately before the
start of the exit taper is reached.

Figure 7.9.3.3 Physical Segregated Right

Turn Lanes with Pedestrian Facilities
Approach/Exit (Design Speed ≤85km/h)

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7.9.5 Approach Layout 7.9.5.4 Entry arrangements consist of an approach taper, if this is required, and an entry type according to
the recommendations given in Table 7.9.5.1 and as shown in Figures 7.9.5.1 and 7.9.5.3.
7.9.5.1 The layout of the approach can be either an exclusive lane or a diverge taper. The exclusive lane
approach (see Figure 7.9.5.1) provides the most capacity but must be carefully signed to avoid confusion and Approach Type Approach Taper Entry Taper Design Speed (km/h) Minimum Taper Rate
lane changing at the right turn segregated lane entry. Dedicated Approach Lane No Yes ≤ 60 1:10
Diverge Yes Yes > 60 1:15
7.9.5.2 Diverging layouts, as illustrated in Figure 7.9.5.2, are a way of starting a segregated right turn lane,
either as an enhancement to an existing layout or where the approach road is a single carriageway as shown Table 7.9.5.1 Segregated Right Turn Approach Treatments Table 7.9.5.2 Minimum Approach Tapers
in Figure 7.9.5.3.
7.9.5.5 The approach taper will be dependent on the site physical constraints, and the use of the minimum
taper rates shown in Table 7.9.5.2 is recommended.

7.9.5.6 The entry taper length for the segregated right turn lane shall be provided in accordance with Table
7.9.5.3 and shall have a minimum width of 3.5m at the start of the entry taper as shown in Figure 7.9.5.1.

7.9.5.7 If lane widening is needed to accommodate swept paths of large commercial vehicles, it shall be
developed proportionally along the length of the entry taper.
Design Speed Entry/Exit Taper
7.9.5.8 The length of the entry taper can be calculated as follows: The length (km/h) Length Factor
of the entry taper is dependent on the width of the segregation island, (1.0m 50 20
for road marked islands and 2.1m for physical islands, the latter measure being 60 20
made up of the 1.5m minimum island width and 0.6m marking offset either 70 20
side), or the widening needed to allow for the swept path of large commercial
85 25
vehicles (Table 7.9.3.1). The larger of the two values shall be used to determine
≥ 100 30
the entry taper length using the factors contained in Table 7.9.5.3 by multiplying
the larger value with the factor. Table 7.9.5.3 Desirable Minimum
Entry/Exit Taper Length Factors
Figure 7.9.5.1 Dedicated Approach and Exit for Segregated Figure 7.9.5.2 Diverge/Merge Layout for Segregated
Right Turn Lane Approach and Exit (Design Speed ≤60km/h) Right Turn Lane Island <50m Long
(Design Speed ≤60km/h) 7.10 ROUNDABOUTS - OPERATIONAL ASSESSMENT
7.9.5.3 Dedicated lanes can cause difficulties for cyclists and should only be used if there is negligible cycle
7.10.1 Capacity and Operational Checks During Design
use or when cyclists can be provided with off carriageway facilities. Diverge layouts are more friendly than
dedicated lanes for cycle users. 7.10.1.1 Details of manual calculations for the capacity of normal roundabouts and the effects of changing
geometric parameters can be found in the UK TRL Report LR942 and subsequent publications.

7.10.1.2 Basic formula for calculating the capacity of an entrance to a Normal Roundabout can be expressed
as follows:

Qe = K (F - fcQc) when fcQc ≤ F

Qe = 0 when fcQc > F
Where:
K =1- 0.00347 ( – 30) – 0.978 ((1/r) - 0.05)
F = 303x2
fc = 0.210tD(1+ 0.2x2)
tD = 1+ 0.5/(1+ exp((D - 60)/10))
x2 = v+(e - v)/(1+ 2S)
S= (e - v)/l (= 1.6(e - v/l’)

Figure 7.9.5.3 Physically Segregated Right Turn Lane with Give Way on Exit (Design Speed ≤60km/h)

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And, 7.10.1.3 For Grade Separated Roundabouts, a different capacity formula is used. This is of the form:
Qe = entry capacity, pce/h Qe = 1.004F – 0.036SEP – 0.232Qc + 14.35 –fcQc(2.14 – 0.023Qc)
Qc = circulating flow in pce/h
e = entry width, m Where:

v = approach half width, m n Q

 is expressed in pcu/min
e

l = effective flare length, m n F

 and f are the normal intercept and slope of the capacity equation. (ie without the grade separated effect)
c
l = average effective flare length expressed in pcu/min.
S = sharpness of flare, m/m n Qc is the mean circulating flow past the arm under consideration for the central 30 minutes of the total
D = inscribed circle diameter, m modeled period, expressed in pcu/hour.
° = entry angle, in degree n SEP is relevant only for arms consisting of separate entry and exit ramps. It is the separation between the
r = entry radius, m point where the arm enters the roundabout and the point at which the same arm leaves the roundabout. It
K = entry capacity for the minor stream (vps) is important to note that this type of arm should be treated as a single arm, not as separate entry-only and
F = the y-intercept exit only arms. (Refer to latest ARCADY module). For the other arms, no value is entered for SEP, thus SEP
fc = the slope of the linear regression becomes equal to zero in the above equation.
Ranges of parameters which were utilized in the data base were as follows:
7.10.1.4 This capacity formula and modelling approach should also be applied to large roundabouts,
e: 3.6 to 16.5 (meters)
irrespective of grade separation, if the maximum overall diameter is in excess of 100m.
v: 1.9 to 12.5 (meters)
l, l’: 1 to infinity 7.10.1.5 Capacity, delay and queue length calculations, however, are conventionally calculated/modelled
S: 0 to 2.9 using computer methods. It is recommended that the most appropriate tool for modelling roundabout
D: 13.5 to 100 (meters) operation is ARCADY (Ref 8). All manual calculations should be verified using the latest version of ARCADY,
: 20 to 60 degrees the Application Guide to which will reflect all recent research in this area. Secondary checks can be made using
r: 3.4 to infinity (meters) other internationally acceptable proprietary software as appropriate.

7.10.1.6 For analysis of swept paths and clearances for design turning vehicles, designers should utilize
Figure 7.10.1.2 illustrates all the parameters shown on this calculation reputable proprietary programs as necessary, particularly where over-runs are built into the roundabout
design.

7.11 REFERENCES
I’=CF Average Effective
Flare Length
1) UK DMRB Vol. 6 TA 78/97 – Design of Road Markings at Roundabouts.
2) UK DMRB Vol. 6 TD 54 - Mini Roundabouts.
3) UK DMRB Vol. 6 TD 50 - Signalized Roundabouts.
4) Highway Traffic Calming Regulations, and Traffic Advisory Leaflet TAL 12/93 ‘Overrun Areas’
5) TRL Report LR 942 – The Traffic Capacity of Roundabouts 1980
6) UK DMRB TD 16/07 - Geometric Design of Roundabouts
7) UK DMRB TD 51/03 – Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at Roundabouts.
8) VISUAL ARCADY – Transport Research Laboratory UK.

Figure 7.10.1.2 Roundabout Parameters

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Traffic Signalled Junctions

TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES

8.1 TRAFFIC SIGNALLED JUNCTIONS 8-1 Figure 8.1.3.1: Phase / Stage / Intergreen / Cycle Time 8-2
8.1.1 Introduction 8-1 Figure 8.1.3.2: Traffic Light Controlled Junctions (1 of 3) 8-3
8.1.2 Site Suitability 8-1 Figure 8.1.3.3: Traffic Light Controlled Junctions (2 of 3) 8-4
8.1.3 Equipment and Operation 8-1 Figure 8.1.3.4: Traffic Light Controlled Junctions (3 of 3) 8-5
8.1.4 Intergreen Period Calculation 8-6
Figure 8.1.3.5: Intergreen Definition 8-6
8.1.5 Urban Traffic Control (UTC) 8-7
Figure 8.1.4.1: Intergreen Conflict Points 8-6
8.1.6 Layout of Traffic Signal Controlled Junctions 8-7
8.1.7 Detection for Vehicle Actuation 8-7 Figure 8.3.1.1: Typical Layout of Signals at a
Roundabout Entry 8-9
8.2 PROVIDING FOR PEDESTRIANS 8-8
8.2.1 Design Options and Justifications 8-8
LIST OF TABLES
8.2.2 Design Guidelines 8-9

Table 8.1.2.1: Minimum Visibility Distance to Primary

8.3 SIGNALIZED ROUNDABOUTS 8-9
Signals 8-1
8.3.1 Applications 8-9
Table 8.1.4.1: Calculating Intergreen Values 8-6
8.3.2 Design Principles 8-11
Table 8.1.4.2: Calculating Pedestrian Intergreen Values 8-7
8.4 REFERENCES 8-11 Table 8.2.2.1: Invitation Green Man 8-9
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8.1 TRAFFIC SIGNALLED JUNCTIONS 8.1.2.5 Particular care needs to be taken when siting traffic signals on high speed roads. “High speed”
for signal-controlled intersections is taken to mean a road where the 85th percentile approach speed at the
8.1.1 Introduction junction are 55km/h or greater. Traffic signals are not recommended in rural areas, especially where vehicle
speeds in excess of 80km/h are expected. In case of posted speed greater than 100 km/h, approach speed to
8.1.1.1 The section of the Oman Highways Design Standards and the GCC manual cover the use of traffic traffic signal should be reduced. Reference 1 gives advice on this aspect. Table 8.1.2.1 shows the minimum
light signals for the control of vehicles and pedestrians. This section covers general types of signalized visibility distance to the primary signal for various approach speeds (Reference 4).
junctions. For more details refer to GCC Manual On Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
Design Speed (km/h) (new roads), 85th Percentile Speed
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
(km/h) (existing roads)
8.1.2 Site Suitability
Visibility Distance (m) 50 65 85 110 135 165 195 230 265 295 320
8.1.2.1 Justification for the installation of traffic signals is based on a number of factors:
Table 8.1.2.1 Minimum Visibility Distance to Primary Signals
n The expected traffic and pedestrian flows
n The feasibility of alternative solutions (i.e. priority, roundabout, grade separated) 8.1.2.6 Duplicate primary signals are recommended on all high speed approaches. At some sites, signal
visibility may be improved by installing additional heads on tall posts, above the standard signal head, or on
n The expected traffic speeds
mast arm brackets above the carriageway. If intending to use mast arm signals, the designer should check
n Accident records, if it is an existing junction
Route Classification and associated vertical clearance. When drawing up the signal head arrangement, two
n Whether there is a desire to introduce controls on the junction issues should be addressed:
n Whether the junction is within a UTC area, and how close it is to other junctions (see clause 8.1.5) n Possible maintenance problems

8.1.2.2 Using light signals to control traffic at junctions has potential for four major benefits: n Signal visibility as drivers travel towards the stop line.

n Improvement of road safety by separating conflicting traffic by time 8.1.2.7 With a signal head mounted at a height of, say, 6 meters, and aligned as recommended, the optical
n Reduction in congestion performance will begin to reduce rapidly at approximately 75 meters from the stop line, which could well be
n Introduction of pedestrian crossing facilities within the dilemma zone. It is therefore essential that standard height signals are also visible to all drivers on
the approach. Two types of collision are common at high-speed sites:
n Control of traffic volumes on secondary routes
n A rear-end shunt, where one driver stops and a following one does not.
8.1.2.3 Additional benefits result from carefully designed traffic light controlled systems:
n A side impact, where a driver enters the junction after the start of red and collides with conflicting traffic.
n Selective vehicle priority (e.g. buses, emergency vehicles)
n Flexibility to assist particular streams of traffic or respond to changing traffic conditions 8.1.3 Equipment and Operation
n Generally low cost: capital costs are usually less than for roundabouts and substantially less than for grade
8.1.3.1 All new installations must include at least the following equipment:
separated junctions.
n Traffic Signal Controller
8.1.2.4 A number of dis-benefits of traffic signal controlled junctions need to be considered: n Signal poles
n Additional delays and operating costs to vehicles at times of low traffic flow e.g. overnight or during off- n Signal displays
peak periods. (The impact of this may be reduced by use of appropriate detection or by turning signals off
n Warning signs on approaches (not always necessary in urban areas, dependant on speed of approaching
during low flow periods).
traffic and visibility of signal junction)
n Potential loss of U-turn facility if a roundabout is replaced (consider signalising roundabout rather than
n Vehicle detection
replacement). U-turns may still be possible if adequate space exists and conflicts with other traffic or
pedestrian routes can be avoided. 8.1.3.2 Pedestrian push buttons and pedestrian aspects may be required in urban areas where pedestrian
n Drivers approaching a traffic signal set to green do not have to control their speed to negotiate the junction flows justify provision (see sub-section 8.2).
if going straight ahead. Hence, accident rates and severity can be higher than those at roundabouts of
8.1.3.3 New controllers should have the flexibility to function in the following ways:
similar capacity.
n By manual control
n On-going maintenance cost of traffic signal equipment, and the need to monitor continuously the signal
n To pre-determined fixed timings
operations (unless incorporated within a UTC adaptive system - see clause 8.1.5)
n By vehicle actuation
n On-going power cost for the traffic signal equipment

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n As part of an urban traffic control (UTC) system (clause 8.1.5) 8.1.3.14 An indicative arrow is a green arrow displayed with a full green and is situated only on
n Part-time the secondary signal position. It is preceded by the associated full green which stays illuminated, and
is extinguished at the same time as the full green. A typical use would be an early cut-off sequence.
n To co-ordinate with a neighbouring junction or pedestrian crossing through the use of either a link cable or
An example of a suitable location is shown figure 8.1.3.2
by the use of a cableless linking facility (CLF)
n To respond to a hurry call, i.e. where priority is given to a particular stage to ensure that a green signal is 8.1.3.15 Existing direction signing for the junction should be reviewed and modified when
given rapidly to certain vehicles e.g. emergency vehicles a junction is signalized. It may be appropriate to provide lane use signing to improve lane
n Selective vehicle priority, to minimise delays to public services, e.g. buses. discipline and reduce the associated accident potential.

8.1.3.4 The standard signal head is mounted on a post. The lowest part of the signal head or bracket must 8.1.3.16 Figures 8.1.3.2 to 8.1.3.4 show typical layouts for road markings, for further advice
be mounted at a minimum of 2.1 meters above the ground. The height of the center of the amber aspect must please refer to Section 19 of these Design Standards covering the use of road signs and road
not exceed 4.0 meters except where mounted on a tall pole or mast arm. Where signal heads are provided on markings.
both sides of an approach, the height of the amber aspects must be equal.
8.1.3.17 Signal controlled installations work at their most efficient when drivers have a clear understanding
8.1.3.5 In circumstances where the correct distance from the stop line to the primary signal cannot be of the operation. This can be an issue during the hours of darkness. When introducing signal control, the
achieved, consideration should be given to the use of an additional mini-signal head, mounted lower on the updating of the street lighting should be considered as part of the design. If there are pedestrian facilities,
primary signal pole which can be seen within the drivers line of vision. street lighting is essential.

8.1.3.6 For maintenance purposes it is normal to number signal posts. The convention is to start at the 8.1.3.18 The type of street lighting should be considered. High pressure sodium, which has a white light,
controller and work clockwise round the junction. gives good contrast. For further advice please refer to Section 18 of these Design Standards covering the
design and use of street lighting.
8.1.3.7 Each approach to the junction has a stop line; the stop line is located 2.5 meters in advance of the
primary signal which is generally mounted on the nearside of the road. The primary traffic signal should be 8.1.3.19 Modelling the operation of the junction is most readily carried out by use of computer programs
supported by a secondary signal normally sited on the far side of the junction as shown in Figure 8.1.3.2. such as OSCADY or LINSIG for isolated junctions and TRANSYT for linked networks of junctions. Further
guidance is contained in the user guides provided with the software.
8.1.3.8 The secondary signal may be sited on the entry side to the junction as a closely associated secondary
signal to avoid other traffic misreading it and stopping within the junction as shown on Figure 8.1.3.3. 8.1.3.20 The traffic signal controller gives right of way to the various movements at the junction by showing
a green signal to different sets of movements, or phases, so that conflicting movements do not receive a green
8.1.3.9 If an approach is made up of two lanes, it is advisable to provide an island to the left of the lanes and signal at the same time. Completion of the normal sequence of lights (red, red/amber, green, amber) is called
to provide a duplicate off-side primary signal as shown in figure 8.1.3.4. a cycle. A stage is that part of the cycle during which a phase or set of phases receives green. These terms are
illustrated in figure 8.1.3.1.
8.1.3.10 If pedestrian facilities are to be provided, the distance from the stop line shall be 3 meters,
thus positioning the primary signal pole 0.5 meters from the crossing studs in a convenient place to locate the

INTERSTAGE

INTERSTAGE

INTERSTAGE

INTERSTAGE
push button. INTERSTAGE STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

8.1.3.11 At a constricted site, the stop line may need to be set back from the junction to accommodate turning
Phase A
vehicles and the primary post will be further away from the junction. Also in this circumstance, if a pedestrian
facility is to be provided, the push button should be mounted on a separate post located 0.5m from the crossing
studs. Phase B

8.1.3.12 Where traffic is required to turn after the signal, the aspects may be replaced with arrow aspects.
Phase C
The arrows should be aligned to indicate the direction of movement, straight on would be indicated by arrows
pointing upwards.
Phase D
8.1.3.13 A filter arrow is a green arrow displayed on its own, normally a left hand arrow, with an associated
red signal. It is not preceded by a red + amber and is followed by a full green. Filter arrow phases may be used if Phase E
(PEDESTRIAN)
the right hand lane is a dedicated right turn movement that does not conflict with any other phase running. The
green arrow is provided as a box sign mounted on the right hand side or underneath the signal head. The filter
Blackout
Cycle Time
arrow should terminate only at the time when the full green aspect for that approach is illuminated. The filter
arrow is situated on the primary signal position only. An example of a suitable location is shown figure 8.1.3.2.
Figure 8.1.3.1: Phase / Stage / Intergreen / Cycle Time

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Figure 8.1.3.2 Traffic Light Controlled Junctions (1 of 3)

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Figure 8.1.3.3 Traffic Light Controlled Junctions (2 of 3)

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Figure 8.1.3.4 Traffic Light Controlled Junctions (3 of 3)

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8.1.3.21 The time between the end of green for one phase and the start of the green for the next phase to use 8.1.4.6 The conflict point to look for is the one where the phase ending has the furthest to travel relative to
the junction is known as the intergreen period. This period is vital to ensure the safe operation of the junction. the phase starting. From Figure 8.1.4.1 it is clear to see that in the case of phase A to phase C that this is point
If the values are too short there is a good chance vehicles will collide within the junction; if they are too long 6, but it is good practice to measure all distances to ensure that the greatest value has been correctly identified.
vehicle drivers will become frustrated leading to a lack of caution and a compromise of road safety. The period
8.1.4.7 If the difference is up to 9m, then the minimum intergreen period of 5 seconds for A to C should be
is generally signalled as in the following Figure 8.1.3.5:
satisfactory. For distances over 9m, the times given in Table 8.1.4.1 should be used. The process is repeated for
Time (seconds) Ending vehicle phase Starting vehicle phase every possible vehicle to vehicle phase change.
Green Red
Difference in Distance (meters) <9 10-18 19-27 28-37 38-46 47-55 56-64 65-73
3 seconds fixed Amber Red
Intergreen (seconds) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Vehicle to Vehicle
Variable Red Red
Intergreen Table 8.1.4.1 Calculating Intergreen Values
2 seconds fixed Red Red + Amber
Red Green 8.1.4.8 The distance may be negative and intergreen times lower than that shown in Table 8.1.4.1 can be used
Time (seconds) Ending vehicle phase Starting pedestrian phase with caution. The following advice applies in either case.
Green Red
8.1.4.9 If vehicle speeds on the phase losing right-of-way are substantially less than on the phase gaining
3 seconds fixed Amber Red Vehicle to Pedestrian
Intergreen right-of-way, possibly because of a steep incline on the approach or a predominance of slow-moving vehicles,
Variable Red Red
the intergreen should be increased. An example may be in determining an intergreen involving opposed right
Red Green
Time (seconds) Ending pedestrian phase Starting vehicle phase
Green Red
Variable Blackout – no signal Red
Pedestrian to Vehicle
Variable Red Red
Intergreen
2 seconds fixed Red Red + Amber
Red Green

Figure 8.1.3.5 Intergreen Definition

8.1.4 Intergreen Period Calculation

8.1.4.1 This section describes how the intergreen period should be calculated.

8.1.4.2 Figure 8.1.4.1 shows the intergreen conflict points that occur between conflicting vehicles. Phases
A and B both run in stage 1 and do not conflict. Phases C and D both run in stage 2 and do not conflict apart
from left turners who have to give way to each other at the center of the junction.

8.1.4.3 The vehicle to vehicle phase conflict points are as follows:

n Between phases A and C, conflict points 6, 10, 12, 15 and 16
n Between phases A and D, conflict points 5, 8, 13, 14 and 15
n Between phases B and C, conflict points 1, 2, 3, 9 and 16
n Between phases B and D, conflict points 1, 4, 5, 7 and 11 Figure 8.1.4.1 Intergreen Conflict Points

8.1.4.4 The phase conflict points from the vehicle phases to the pedestrian phases are points 17 and 18, i.e. turning vehicles, which are normally slower and may be late starting. This is particularly important when the
after the vehicle has crossed the furthest pedestrian studs. move is followed by a pedestrian phase. In such cases, after measuring the difference in swept path length and
applying Table 8.1.4.1, it is normal to add 1, or possibly 2 seconds.
8.1.4.5 The phase conflict points from the pedestrian phases to the vehicle phases are points 19 and 20, i.e.
after the vehicle has crossed the nearest pedestrian studs. 8.1.4.10 Where the starting phase is a pedestrian phase, the distance ‘x’ should be determined as the distance
from the vehicle phase stop line to the furthest studs of the pedestrian crossing points (for example from Stop
Line A to Conflict Point 18). When the pedestrian phase is ending, the intergreen is based on the crossing width
(measured at the widest point on the crossing) as shown in Table 8.1.4.2.

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8.1.4.11 The green man ‘invitation to cross’ period is covered in sub-section 8.2. 8.1.6 Layout of Traffic Signal Controlled Junctions
Road Width (meters) Clearance Starting Amber Total intergreen required 8.1.6.1 Typical layouts of traffic signals are shown in Section 4.05 of GCC manual. These illustrate some
No Central Island Blackout (seconds) All Red (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) particular points regarding the location of the primary signal as covered in Clause 8.1.3, e.g:
up to 7.2 3 3 2 8 n The relationship of the primary signal pole to the stop line and pedestrian studs
7.2 - 8.4 4 3 2 9
n Turning space for large vehicles; at a constricted site, the stop line may need to be set back from the
8.4 - 9.6 4 4 2 10
junction to accommodate turning vehicles
9.6 – 10.8 5 4 2 11
n Un-signalled facilities for right turns
10.8 – 12.0 5 5 2 12
n Location of secondary signals and closely associated secondary signals
12.0 – 13.2 6 5 2 13
13.2 – 14.4 6 6 2 14 8.1.6.2 Secondary signals must always show the same information as the primary, but they may also give
14.4 – 15.6 7 6 2 15 additional information such as a green arrow.
With an Island
8.1.6.3 At least two signals should be provided at each arm as follows:
up to 10.8 6 3 2 11
10.8 – 12.0 6 4 2 12 n Single lane approach – one primary on right hand side and one secondary across the junction or closely
12.0 – 13.2 7 4 2 13 associated
13.2 – 14.4 7 5 2 14 n Two lane approach – a refuge should be provided, two primaries and one secondary across the junction or
14.4 – 15.6 8 5 2 15 closely associated. If an island cannot be provided, consideration should be given to providing an additional
15.6 – 16.8 8 6 2 16 primary signal on a mast arm to improve visibility of the signals from the left hand lane.
16.8 – 18.0 9 6 2 17 n Multi lane approach – as per the two lane approach with the addition of a mast arm signal to improve
18.0 – 19.2 9 7 2 18 visibility of the signals from all lanes.
19.2 – 20.4 10 7 2 19
20.4 – 21.6 10 8 2 20 8.1.7 Detection for Vehicle Actuation
21.6 – 22.8 11 8 2 21
8.1.7.1 Vehicle detectors installed for permanent traffic lights at junctions or Pelican crossings may be either
Table 8.1.4.2 Calculating Pedestrian Intergreen Values of the inductive loop type or microwave vehicle detection (MVD) type.

8.1.5 Urban Traffic Control (UTC) 8.1.7.2 Inductive loop detectors are cables buried in slots cut in the surfacing; they work by detecting the
change of flux caused by the movement of metal in their vicinity.
8.1.5.1 Urban Traffic Control (UTC) is a term used to describe the technique of co-ordinating traffic signals,
normally through a centrally located computer. Areas, where signals are relatively close together and traffic 8.1.7.3 Microwave vehicle detection are located at the top of the primary traffic signal pole and work by
flows are high, lend themselves to co-ordination as benefits are achieved by progressing platoons of traffic in an detecting movement of an object towards the detector head. MVDs can also be used at portable traffic signals.
organized fashion.
8.1.7.4 MVDs have benefits over inductive loop detectors in that they are cheap to install and easy to
8.1.5.2 The basic UTC system will link together junctions using pre-determined fixed time plans. Adaptive maintain, not requiring the closure of traffic lanes to be re-cut.
systems are available to extend the scope of UTC systems so that inputs to detectors are monitored in real
8.1.7.5 MVDs are not suitable on high speed roads, or where an approach may be split into two phases. In
time and these figures fed back into the system so that the signals can be adjusted to suit the prevailing traffic
this instance, MVD’s do not have a clear definition of lane use and may demand the wrong phase.
conditions. This sort of system is best suited to networks that have frequently changing traffic flow conditions
and once set up can cater for fluctuations however caused. 8.1.7.6 MVDs have another advantage over inductive loop detectors as they operate in one direction only
and will not detect traffic exiting the junction even if it crosses the centre line.
8.1.5.3 Adaptive systems do not offer significant benefits if the network is operating at capacity, as the
system has no spare time to re-allocate. Adaptive systems are expensive to calibrate initially but can offer
significant benefits, typically 5 to 10% improvement in capacity. All systems require regular monitoring and
updating, a poorly maintained system could show significant dis-benefits to road users.

8.1.5.4 All new traffic signal controllers in the Sultanate must be capable of being linked into a UTC system
in the future.

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8.1.7.7 Depending on the type and layout of vehicle detectors when coupled to the appropriate controller 8.2 PROVIDING FOR PEDESTRIANS
they can be used to:

n Cycle by sensor for Approach Traffic 8.2.1 Design Options and Justifications
n Demand or extend the green period 8.2.1.1 There may be a need for an exclusive pedestrian signal stage. This should be considered when any
n Extend the all-red period of the following apply:
n Demand or extend the green period for a particular type of vehicle (e.g. buses) n The pedestrian flow across any one arm is in excess of 300 pedestrians per hour and this cannot be provided
n Speed up the cycle as ‘walk with traffic’.

n Provide vehicle flows for the UTC n The turning traffic into any arm has an average headway of less than 5 seconds during the green time and
conflicts with a flow of over 50 pedestrian per hour.
n Monitor vehicle speeds
n 
There are special circumstances such as significant numbers of elderly, children, infirm or disabled
n Record vehicle types
pedestrians.
8.1.7.8 Choice of detection type is influenced by the 85 percentile speed of approaching traffic (the 85
8.2.1.2 There are a number of ways of coping with pedestrian flows at traffic signalled intersections:
percentile speed is defined as the speed of which 85% of the traffic is travelling at or below):
n 
No pedestrian signal. By introducing gaps into traffic streams, traffic signals help pedestrians cross even
n 85 percentile speed less than 55 km/h - microwave vehicle detection (MVD) should be used. Only where
without special provision, especially where there are refuges and one way streets. An extended all red
microwave detection is unsuitable should loop detectors be used. (MVD’s should not be used for approaches
period between two stages to help pedestrians is not recommended. This leads to delays to traffic and
with split phases due to the difficulty in defining the limits of the lanes)
to driver disobedience since the extended period is present, even when there are no pedestrians to the
n 85 percentile speed greater than 55 km/h but less than 70 km/h - MVDs should normally be used unless
detriment of road safety.
there are special circumstances based on traffic engineering judgement. However, consideration should be
given to speed reducing measures or changing the speed limit. Intergreen values following the high speed n Full pedestrian stage. All traffic is stopped, but only on demand from a pedestrian push button. There will
approach losing right of way should be increased by 2 seconds. be one approach where the pedestrian flows are highest; the pedestrian stage should follow the vehicle
stage for that approach.
n 85 percentile speed 70 km/h or higher - loop detection should be used as MVDs may miss high speed
vehicles. Intergreen values following the high speed approach losing right of way should be increased by n Parallel pedestrian facilities (“Walk with traffic”). Where some turning movements are banned, pedestrian
2 seconds. facilities can be provided across appropriate arms that can run at the same time as traffic is still moving in
other parts of the junction.
8.1.7.9 Pedestrian detection takes the form of a pedestrian push button, when the button is pressed by the
n 
Staggered pedestrian facilities. Where there is a wide median, it is possible to economise on cycle time by
pedestrian a demand for the pedestrian phase will be lodged within the controller. The wait indicator on the
requiring pedestrians to cross the road in two parts. Half the width of the road may be crossed in front of
push button unit will remain illuminated until the green man signal is given to the pedestrian when it will go
the stop line; pedestrian barriers then direct the pedestrians away from the junction such that the distance
out. The wait indicator will be re-illuminated when the green man signal terminates. Pedestrian detection is
between the inside line of studs on each side of the median have an offset of greater than 4m. The second
important; if no pedestrian is present, it allows the controller to skip a pedestrian stage, reducing delays to
half of the road is crossed by a separate light crossing, linked to the traffic signals as a parallel stage
vehicles.
stream or as a stage that can run as walk with traffic. If the second half needs to run at the same time as
conflicting traffic, an additional stop line will be required and care should be taken to ensure that blocking
back of traffic into the junction does not occur. Vertical louvers may need to be fitted to the amber and green
aspect to ensure that the signals are only seen by traffic turning into that arm, and are not assumed to be a
secondary signal by traffic on the other side of the junction.

n 
Displaced pedestrian facility. If the junction is close to capacity, or the median is less than 3m wide, the
pedestrian crossing may be sited away from the junction by up to 50m. A light controlled pedestrian
crossing facility, staggered or straight across can be provided, linked to the main junction or operating
as a parallel stage stream within the junction controller. Care should be taken to avoid trying to change
pedestrian desire lines. Pedestrian guardrail can be used to direct pedestrians away from unsafe crossing
locations and towards the controlled facility.

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8.2.2 Design Guidelines Invitation Green Man
8.2.2.9 For non UTC installations, all round pedestrian stages should only appear if demanded and a parallel
Road Width (meters) pedestrian phase should normally only appear if a demand is present at the start of the preceding interstage.
(Minimum) (seconds)
8.2.2.1 Where pedestrians cross the road in two parts the facility
No Central Island
must be staggered to make it clear to the pedestrian that they may 8.2.2.10 At an installation in the UTC area, full pedestrian stages should only appear if demanded. Parallel
up to 7.2 5
not have right of way on the second half of the carriageway. The pedestrian phases should always appear. In order to facilitate the installation of tactile units, push buttons
8.4 - 7.2 5 must be provided where there is a pedestrian phase in parallel with a vehicle phase that does not have vehicle
crossings need not be staggered if the median island is at least
8m in width, the crossings may then be considered as separate 9.6 - 8.4 5 detection. The push button will not insert a demand but the ‘WAIT’ indicator should illuminate when a button
facilities. 10.8 – 9.6 5 has been pressed (and the Green Man is not lit).
12.0 – 10.8 5
8.2.2.2 The green man invitation to cross should be based upon 8.2.2.11 Where there is a pedestrian phase in parallel with a vehicle phase that is detector demanded,
13.2 – 12.0 6
the length of the crossing as shown in Table 8.2.2.1. At sites where the parallel pedestrian phase should always appear with the vehicle phase - the pedestrian push buttons
14.4 – 13.2 6
capacity is such that the green man invitation is likely to cause demanding the stage in parallel with the vehicle detector(s). The UTC demand bit (DX) shall normally be
15.6 – 14.4 6
an unacceptable level of congestion, which could have potential specified to demand both traffic and any parallel pedestrian phase, i.e. STAGE DEMAND.
With an Island
adverse safety implications, due to a reduction in capacity, the
up to 10.8 6
green man period may be reduced to 5 seconds. The intergreen
12.0 – 10.8 6 8.3 SIGNALIZED ROUNDABOUTS
following the green man is safety critical and may not be reduced.
13.2 – 12.0 7
8.2.2.3 For pedestrian phases that run as “walk with traffic,” 14.4 – 13.2 7 8.3.1 Applications
pedestrian push buttons should still be provided, this allows for 15.6 – 14.4 8
8.3.1.1 Traffic signal control of roundabouts can
the displaying of the WAIT indicator at times when conflicting 16.8 – 15.6 8
offer a number of benefits over the conventional
traffic is running. 18.0 – 16.8 9
roundabout operation:
19.2 – 18.0 9
8.2.2.4 Pedestrian push button units should normally be n Queue management
mounted at an angle of 45o to the curb line with the base of the 20.4 – 19.2 10
n Increased capacity
unit 1.0m from the surface of the footway. 21.6 – 20.4 10
22.8 – 21.6 11 n Accident reduction
8.2.2.5 Red Lamp Monitoring must be provided to monitor any n Pedestrian facilities
Table 8.2.2.1 Invitation Green Man
vehicle phase that conflicts with a pedestrian phase when audible
n Urban Traffic Control Linkage
and/or tactile facilities have been installed.
8.3.1.2 Signal installations can be operated
8.2.2.6 It is preferable for audible devices to only be installed where there is a full pedestrian stage, at
on a full or part time basis and can comprise full
which all the pedestrian indications appear at the same time on the same phase and there are no additional
or partial signalization. Each of the 4 possible
pedestrian phases. (The controller should be configured for ‘All Red’ extending detectors in case the facility is
combinations has different characteristics, benefits
later found necessary.) Figure 8.3.1.1 Typical Layout of Signals at a Roundabout Entry
and consequences.
8.2.2.7 However, since it is becoming increasingly difficult to include all the necessary signals on a single
8.3.1.3 When the flows using a roundabout or gyratory increase to a level where the self-regulating nature
phase card without overloading it and it is now possible, through special conditioning, to allow audible signals
of the intersection breaks down, the throughput of particular entries can be restricted by the difficulty of finding
at a full pedestrian stage comprised of more than one phase. It is important to ensure that the audible signal
gaps in the circulating traffic. The introduction of traffic signals at one or more of the nodes can produce the
is not activated until all the phases have started and that there is time to provide an adequate invitation period
necessary bias in favour of the affected entries and particularly:
for those relying on the audible signal. The audible signal must not continue past the end of the first green man
to finish. n Where delays are excessive, due to imbalanced flows, signals can alter the natural priority to a more
desirable one
8.2.2.8 In the following circumstances, only tactile devices shall be used, since audible signals would be
n Where throughput is inadequate because of high circulating speeds (rather than high flows), signals can
unsafe:
achieve an overall improvement in throughput; and
n When parallel pedestrian phases are provided; or n Where it is possible to co-ordinate the gyratory as part of an overall UTC network (usually fixed-time UTC),
n When a full pedestrian stage is provided and the appearance of the various pedestrian phases are staggered signals can reduce overall delays by taking out the random element of give-way control.
to take account of clearing traffic such that paragraph 8.2.2.7 cannot be applied.

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8.3.1.4 Installing signals on a gyratory with full time control often involves making geometric changes, as 8.3.1.12 When partial control is used on small gyratories, the lack of positive control on some entries can
an integral part of achieving throughput improvements, in ways which might not necessarily be effective or lead to uncontrolled queuing on downstream circulating links. However, provided uncontrolled entry flows are
safe on a roundabout with priority control. The scope for changes in geometry with signals includes: low, the omission of signals can be employed to advantage. For example, it can allow a four entry roundabout

n The provision of additional entry lanes and improvement in the forward visibility for signals, by the to be coordinated essentially as a three entry roundabout.

reduction or removal of entry deflection; and 8.3.1.13 The signalization of gyratories enables innovative layouts to be introduced by, for example,
n 
The provision of additional carriageway width, either to complement entry approach lanes or to incorporating additional links to cater for routes in high demand. This can involve dedicated routes across the
accommodate queuing by changing the shape of the roundabout. central island (sometimes called “Hamburger Junctions”).

8.3.1.5 At roundabouts that have a poor accident record, the introduction of signals on roundabouts can 8.3.1.14 One of the advantages of a signal controlled roundabout is that it is often possible to introduce
regulate traffic patterns, reduce the need for weaving and merging, remove gap acceptance problems and formal pedestrian facilities into the signalling arrangement. The provision of signals for traffic on the entry
reduce speeds. In addition to this, they can also provide more positive control for pedestrians, when compared approaches of a gyratory provides a natural focal point for pedestrians and it is relatively easy to provide a
with priority roundabouts. pedestrian phase. The route provided for pedestrians across the rest of the gyratory need to be related to the
pedestrian desire lines and will affect the signal system that is adopted. Pedestrians may be signaled onto the
8.3.1.6 Substantial reductions in accidents between vehicles entering and those circulating are possible on
central island of the roundabout or facilities provide on the exits to the roundabout. Crossings at exits need
large roundabouts where circulating traffic speeds are high and gaps become more difficult for drivers wishing
to be located sufficiently far away from the gyratory to minimise the likelihood of queuing vehicles interfering
to enter the roundabout to judge. Signal control can remove this doubt.
with circulating traffic. This will depend on traffic flows, overall gyratory sequence and length of the stop time
8.3.1.7 Signalization cannot and will not eliminate accidents completely and research has shown that on for traffic at the pedestrian signals.
average about 5 accidents per year can be expected at a roundabout. In general, signalization will tend to
8.3.1.15 Routeing pedestrians across the central island of a roundabout can provide a more direct path. In
reduce the numbers on sites with a high accident record (full time signals are more successful than part
that case, there may be no need for additional signals, as these may already be present on the circulating
time signals), but where signals have been introduced for other reasons at sites with a low accident record,
approaches; so, in principle, it is a simple matter to introduce a pedestrian phase at that point. Care must be
numbers can increase largely as a result of increased numbers of rear-end shunt type accidents.
exercised where the associated green time is relatively short since the time needed for pedestrians to cross can
8.3.1.8 In order to realise the benefits of signalization, some adjustments have to be made to the layout to become a limiting factor.
encourage appropriate traffic movements. If the signals only operate part time, then permanent works have to
8.3.1.16 It is good practice to control each entry or exit pedestrian set of signal on the roundabout as a
be compromised and this is believed to contribute to the less successful accident reduction performance.
separate stream in a single controller. This allows ultimate flexibility of control.
8.3.1.9 Part time control of a roundabout is employed to solve throughput at certain times of day, allowing
8.3.1.17 Care should be taken to design signal coordination, so as to encourage reduction of vehicular speed
priority control to be re introduced when traffic flows are light. Such signals can be initiated either by queue
wherever possible. This suggests favouring coordination which causes traffic platoons to slow down.
detection loop arrays or by “time of day” control. In some cases, where the traffic flows are strongly tidal,
signal control can be employed on different nodes at different times of day. 8.3.1.18 Roundabouts are highway features which require a high degree of concentration to negotiate. Hence
distractions must be kept to a minimum and signing and lining schemes must be designed with this in mind.
8.3.1.10 Part time control often gives lower off peak delays, but it provides limited scope for making geometric
Essential features to be considered in design are as follows:
changes as part of the signal installation, since a physical layout that is still suitable for priority control must
be retained. Part time control can also introduce some confusion, due to the need for associated permanent n Advanced warning signs
signing and lining, which can lead to an increase in accidents when the signals are not in use. Full time control n Clear direction signing
should always be considered as the preferred alternative to part time control, but is the only option when any n Consistent lining
of the following apply:
n Intervisibility of signal heads to be kept to a minimum
n A requirement for pedestrian crossing facilities on the gyratory; n The whole system to be kept as simple as possible
n A potential benefit from incorporation in a linked system; and
8.3.1.19 Roundabouts or gyratories may be signalized for different reasons and in a number of different ways
n Significant queues arising at various times of the day.
but in designing them care must be taken to anticipate all the ancillary effects. A balance between increased
8.3.1.11 Partial control of a roundabout is often employed where delays do not occur on all arms and is throughput and safety needs to be struck. In particular, it is necessary to address the frustration which can arise
sometimes combined with part time control. It can be a useful technique, to avoid having too many closely if motorists are delayed through long cycle times at quiet times of the day.
spaced signals around a roundabout. Indeed, installing signals at a single entry is sometimes all that is
necessary to solve a particular problem, such as queuing back onto an arterial road. Over time, it can become
necessary to install signals at additional entries.

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8.3.1.20 Timings of signals at roundabouts is key to their safe and efficient operation. The signals on Providing extra lanes for turning traffic and relating signal green time to their length can smooth traffic flow
n

the roundabout should be linked by either Cableless Linking Facility (CLF) plans or by plans driven by the through the junction.
Urban Traffic Control (UTC) system. These plans require careful calculation using a software package such Combining the green periods for vehicles and pedestrians when this can be achieved in a safe manner.
n

as TRANSYT. This enables the optimisation of the signals for different flow conditions at different times of
Linking of sets of traffic signals either by Cableless Linking or by UTC.
n
the day. It is good practice to include some demand dependency in any plans, particularly those running
overnight, to ensure that drivers are not unduly delayed. 8.3.2.5 Modelling the operation of a junction is most readily carried out by use of computer packages
such as LINSIG. This package is also capable of modelling signal controlled networks and provision of the
8.3.1.21 Design of signalized roundabouts is a complex task, requiring an understanding of driver behaviour
data required for input into the UTC system. Other packages available for this purpose are OSCADY for
and an in depth knowledge of traffic signal operation. Correctly designed, signalization of an existing roundabout
isolated junctions and TRANSYT for networks. As traffic levels continue to increase, networks may become
can offer safety and capacity benefits whilst maintaining the U-turn benefits offered by the roundabout.
oversaturated. Modelling this with conventional empirical software leads to inaccuracies since they take little
account of blocking back between junctions. Future models of this type may then need to be modelled using
8.3.2 Design Principles micro simulation software such as VISSIM.
8.3.2.1 The skill of designing a traffic signal installation is in optimising delay (vehicles and pedestrians) and
maximising the capacity whilst maintaining a high degree of safety to all users.
8.4 REFERENCES
8.3.2.2 Whilst capacity is important, the resilience of the network is also a key factor. The ability of the
network to cope with infrequent events such as road works or vehicle breakdown without complete failure of 1. UK DfT, TAL02/03, Signal-control at Junctions on High-speed Roads
the system improves the driver experience and reduces frustration. 2. UK DfT, TAL05/05, Pedestrian facilities at Signal-Controlled Junctions
3. UK DfT, TAL01/06, General Principles of Traffic Control by Light Signals
8.3.2.3 Reduction in delay and improvement in capacity can be achieved by:
4. UK The Stationary Office, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Vol. 6, Section 1, TD 9/93 Amendment No.
n Using the lowest practicable number of stages in the signal cycle
1 February 2002 Highway Link Design, Table 3, Desirable minimum Stopping Sight Distance.
n Providing alternative stages, excluding demand dependant phases when they are not demanded
n 
Providing adequate capacity on each approach to carry the maximum predicted traffic flow for that
approach, allowing for a 15% daily fluctuation in traffic flow
n Incorporating the junction into a UTC system, where appropriate.

8.3.2.4 The techniques which may be used, either alone or in combination to achieve minimum delays and
capacity improvements, may be summarised as:

n Where no conflict exists, or where the degree of conflict is acceptable, a conflicting movement may be
allowed e.g. a left turn on a full green signal. Care must be taken to ensure that drivers can carry out the
movement safely, i.e. sufficient breaks in the traffic, adequate visibility, no build up of queues waiting to
make the movement.
n Restrict movements so that conflicting manoeuvres do not occur, e.g. ban left turns, create one way streets.
n Allow left turners an unopposed period by introducing an early cut-off to opposing traffic and a left turn
indicative arrow to encourage smooth movement of traffic.
n Arrange signal stages to give unopposed left turns.
n Re-arrange stage order to minimise impact of larger intergreen periods.
n Allow simultaneous left turns (this requires space to avoid the movements conflicting).
n Separate out right turn movements with a lane controlled by a ‘Give Way’ arrangement or by a separate
traffic signal phase.
n Flaring approaches or increasing the number of entry lanes by use of narrower lanes (it is vital that the
same number of exit lanes exist to avoid blocking back). Exit lanes can be reduced but this should not
happen for at least 150m past the stop line.

8.11
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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Grade Separated Junctions

TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES

9.1 INTRODUCTION 9-1 Figure 9.3.1.1: Diamond Junction 9-2

9.1.1 General 9-1 Figure 9.3.1.2: Dumb Bell Junction 9-2
9.1.2 Warrants for Grade Separation 9-1 Figure 9.3.2.1: Half Cloverleaf Junction 9-2
Figure 9.3.3.1: Full Cloverleaf Junction 9-2
9.2 ALTERNATIVE LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS 9-1
Figure 9.3.4.1: Grade Separated Roundabout 9-3
9.2.1 Design Influences 9-1
Figure 9.3.5.1: Trumpet Junction 9-3
9.3 COMMON ALTERNATIVE LAYOUTS 9-2 Figure 9.3.6.1: Single Point Junction (2-Level) 9-3
9.3.1 Diamond Junctions 9-2 Figure 9.4.2.1: Single Lane Ramp - Parallel Exit 9-4
9.3.2 Half Cloverleaf Junctions 9-2 Figure 9.4.2.2: Two Lane Ramp - Parallel Exit 9-4
9.3.3 Full Cloverleaf Junctions 9-2
Figure 9.4.3.1: Single Lane Ramp - Parallel Entry 9-5
9.3.4 Grade Separated Roundabout 9-2
Figure 9.4.3.2: Two Lane Ramp Parallel Entry without
9.3.5 Trumpet Junction 9-3
Additional Mainline Downstream Lane 9-6
9.3.6 Single Point Junction 9-3
Figure 9.4.3.3: Two Lane Ramp Entry with Provision of
9.3.7 Other Grade Separated Junction Configurations 9-3
an Additional Downstream Mainline Lane 9-6

9.4 DESIGN CONTROLS 9-3 Figure 9.4.4.1: Ramp Cross Sections 9-7

9.4.1 Junction Elements 9-3 Figure 9.5.2.1: Formation of a Weaving Segment 9-8
9.4.2 Divergence from Mainline Flow – Exit Conditions 9-4 Figure 9.5.2.2: Recommended Minimum Ramp
9.4.3 Merging With Mainline Flow - Entry Conditions 9-5 Terminal Spacing 9-9
9.4.4 Ramp Geometry 9-6 Figure 9.5.2.3: Weaving Methodology Flowchart 9-11

9.5 TRAFFIC WEAVING 9-8

9.5.1 General 9-8
9.5.2 Further Design Information 9-8

9.6 REFERENCES 9-11

LIST OF TABLES

Table 9.4.2.1: Single Deceleration Lane Length (m) for

Mainline Design Speeds on Level to 2% Mainline Grade 9-4
Table 9.4.2.2: Deceleration Length Adjustment to Allow
for Mainline Grade 9-4
Table 9.4.3.1: Acceleration Length (m) for Entry Ramp and
Mainline Design Speeds on Level to 2% Mainline Grade 9-5
Table 9.4.3.2: Acceleration Lane Length Adjustment
for Grade 9-5
Table 9.4.4.1: Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed
(km/h) for Varying Mainline Speeds 9-6
Table 9.4.4.2: Minimum Ramp Curve Radii (m) for Varying
Design Speed and Super-elevation 9-6
Table 9.4.4.3: Single and Two Lane Ramp Width (m) for
Traffic Condition Types and Curve Radii (width includes
allowance for passing a broken down vehicle) - from
AASHTO A Policy on GDHS 2011 9-7
Table 9.5.2.1: Checking of Maximum Weaving Length
used for guidance (in meters) 9-9
Table 9.5.2.2: Service Flow Rate under prevailing
conditions (SF) (veh/h) 9-10
Table 9.5.2.3: LOS for Weaving Segments 9-11
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9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.2.4 Once a decision to provide grade separation is made therefore, the design should attempt to
minimize these consequential effects and costs without compromising the design standards of the highway
9.1.1 General works. Where possible, the most economical and least visually intrusive layout will carry the heaviest flows
at the lower level. This may not always be possible, particularly in urban areas where lengths of elevated
9.1.1.1 By definition, a grade separated junction separates conflicting traffic streams in vertical space. Such
roadway may be required to carry a major route across a number of obstacles in close proximity.
junctions may involve a number of merging, weaving and separating flows within their boundaries or may be free
flowing such that all through and turning traffic separate at the approach to the junction and merge with other 9.1.2.5 In circumstances where traffic growth projections are uncertain or may be subject to future step
streams taking the same exit route from the junction, with no “in junction” interference between these two events. increases which are dependent upon other development factors, it may be prudent to consider a staged
construction approach to the provision of grade separation. This may in turn influence the layout of the junction
9.1.1.2 In general, the less the interference of “in-junction”, the better is the ability of the junction to handle
in both its interim and final forms.
complex high traffic flows but the higher is the cost to construct.

9.1.1.3 An initial decision to construct a grade separated junction involves the need to design and construct
9.2 ALTERNATIVE LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
engineering works to separate conflicting traffic streams. This includes bridgeworks, viaduct, embankment
construction, excavation of cuttings or even tunnels. Where space is limited, these works will often necessitate
9.2.1 Design Influences
extensive earth retaining structures to support embankments and cuttings. Consequent upon this will
be possible modifications to utilities and drainage systems and to the existing local at-grade road system. 9.2.1.1 The factors which influence the type of configuration to be used in a particular situation will include:
Subsequent decisions about the degree of sophistication to be provided will influence the scope and scale of
n The number of intersection legs. (Initially and in the possible long term).
these engineering works.
n The intersection movements required.
9.1.1.4 The provision of grade separation will be the result of consideration of a balance between the costs n The route classification and character of each of the intersecting legs.
involved and the benefits to be obtained.
n The alignment constraints on the intersecting legs.
n The expected volumes of all through and turning traffic.
9.1.2 Warrants for Grade Separation
n The traffic mix and type of truck traffic.
9.1.2.1 Grade separation should initially be considered where:
n The characteristics of the site (ie. urban/rural).
n Conflict between heavy flows of traffic cannot be resolved by traffic signals or roundabouts without delays n The topography of the site.
which are either politically or economically unacceptable or which involve vehicle operating costs, the
n The environmental sensitivity and constraints of the site.
saving of which would offset the costs of construction.
n The availability and cost of land for construction.
n Interruptions by at-grade junctions are unacceptable on one or both roads eg. Dual carriageway National
Routes or some dual carriageway Arterial Routes where the design group standard calls for grade separated n The possible need for staged construction.

junctions and there is a need for consistency along such a route. 9.2.1.2 The ability of the cross route/s to carry the additional traffic which will be generated from the junction
n There is a history of accidents at an existing junction. should be considered also. Traffic backing up from congestion on the minor roads can affect the operation
of the junction which may in turn cause tail backs which obstruct the through flow on the main route. Any
9.1.2.2 The costs involved will include the financial costs of design, land take, construction and additional
necessary improvements to the cross route to avoid this happening should be considered by the designer as
maintenance over the analysis period, together with any environmental costs or disbenefits incurred through
part of the design of the junction.
the construction.
9.2.1.3 In cases where junctions are close together (mainly in urban situations), they should be considered
9.1.2.3 Grade separation can involve the creation of long lengths of visually intrusive barriers to movement
for design purposes as a single system. Weaving and merging of traffic streams downstream of one junction
across the lines of elevated or depressed highway. Grade separation will generally be accompanied by
can have an effect on the performance of the downstream junction. The signing will need to take into account
complete segregation of pedestrian traffic from the major vehicular traffic route and full access control to, from
the presence of the two (or more) junctions and will necessarily be more complex than for a single interchange.
and across the route, with junctions separated by at least 5 km to minimize disruption of the through traffic.
This will introduce the need for the provision of adequate decision sight distance on the alignments affected.
In an urban situation, even with the provision of additional pedestrian crossing points, this intrusion can be
socially damaging as it divides existing communities. 9.2.1.4 Traffic passing through an interchange should enjoy the same degree of utility and safety as on the
approaching highways. The design speed, horizontal and vertical alignment criteria and cross section should
be consistent with those of the approaching highways. This is often difficult to attain but should be maintained
as a design objective until every possibility for its achievement has been exhausted.

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9.2.1.5 A number of grade separated junction layouts have developed and even gained their own names
over the years and are in common use. Some of these are shown in sub-section 9.3. It should be noted,
however, that these layouts have no intrinsic virtues over possible variations and other layouts which are
different from those shown. The limiting factor is the ingenuity of the designer in devising a form of junction
which provides:

n Sufficient range of movement n Acceptable land take

n Sufficient capacity n Acceptable construction costs
n Acceptable user vehicle operating costs n Acceptable environmental effects.
n Safety

9.3 COMMON ALTERNATIVE LAYOUTS

9.3.1 Diamond Junctions Figure 9.3.2.1 Half Cloverleaf Junction

9.3.1.1 The simplest form of 9.3.3 Full Cloverleaf Junctions

junction giving access from the
through route to the existing ground 9.3.3.1 A layout which avoids the

level road system is known as a conflicts at the ramp/cross route junctions

“Diamond Junction”. Requiring a inherent in diamond and half cloverleaf

single bridge structure, this provides junctions is the “Full Cloverleaf”. In order

a clear through route for mainline to achieve sufficient radius on the ramp

traffic and ramp connection in all loops, this layout requires a large land
Figure 9.3.1.1 Diamond Junction
directions with a single cross route area which spreads for a considerable

by means of at-grade priority or distance from the mainline centreline.

signal controlled junctions. A similar Again, a single bridge is required and both

form of junction with roundabouts the mainline and cross route traffic pass

in place of the at-grade priority or through the junction without the need to

signal junctions is known as a “Dumb deviate. Because joining traffic enters the

Bell Junction”. An advantage of this through route only a short distance before Figure 9.3.3.1 Full Cloverleaf Junction

layout is that mainline turning traffic exiting traffic leaves it, there is only a

leaves before joining traffic enters short mainline weaving length available for these two streams to cross. This can lead to congestion and delays

the through route so that there is no Figure 9.3.1.2 Dumb Bell Junction on the through route as well as for turning traffic. In addition, the considerable distance involved in passing

mainline weaving required. around the loops can give rise to significantly increased vehicle operating costs for junction users.

9.3.2 Half Cloverleaf Junctions 9.3.4 Grade Separated Roundabout

9.3.2.1 A variation of the diamond layout for use where land is not available in all four quadrants is known 9.3.4.1 A layout which is probably the most common in many parts of the world is the “Grade Separated

as the “Half Cloverleaf Junction”. Here the ramps are located in two quadrants only and again a single bridge Roundabout”. This requires two bridge structures but is compact, can be adjusted to deal with more than a

structure is required. Note that in the example (Figure 9.3.2.1) ramps are shown in quadrants 2 and 4. The single cross route, allows full connectivity and avoids mainline merging. The layout is suitable for a situation

junction would work equally well if they were in quadrants 2 and 3, 1 and 3, or 1 and 4. An advantage of this in which the mainline crosses a traffic stream which can be routed through the roundabout. One difficulty

layout is that mainline turning traffic leaves before joining traffic enters the through route so that there is no can be providing a roundabout design that provides adequate geometry for traffic joining and leaving the

mainline weaving required. This layout requires land at a further distance from the mainline centerline and roundabout at adjacent ramp and cross route entry and exits. In general, the roundabout and cross route are

the ramp loops, particularly those with the smaller radii, may have inferior capacity and safety than those for a at existing grade while the mainline is either elevated or depressed. The design approach to be followed for

diamond layout. the roundabout is covered in Sections 5 and 7 of these standards.

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9.3.7 Other Grade Separated Junction Configurations

9.3.7.1 A range of further typical possible junction layouts are set out in the AASHTO Policy Manual on the
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004 and similar publications.

9.4 DESIGN CONTROLS

9.4.1 Junction Elements

9.4.1.1 The operation of a grade separated junction depends upon the performance of a number of separate
elements and the way in which these elements work together as a whole. The separate elements are:

n Divergence from the mainline flow

n Merging with mainline flow
Figure 9.3.4.1 Grade Separated Roundabout n Ramp transit
n Joining local road traffic at an at-grade junction element.
9.3.5 Trumpet Junction
9.4.1.2 A series of junctions along a route should be considered as a complete interchange system rather
9.3.5.1 A common junction pattern for
than as a series of unconnected separate entities. This is particularly important in urban situations, where
free flow connection to one side only of the
junctions are normally required at closer spacing than in rural areas. This design approach highlights the
mainline is the “Trumpet Junction”. This
question of lane balancing at junctions.
three legged junction may access either
side of the mainline and is convenient for 9.4.1.3 Where the volume of diverging traffic at a junction is high, there may be justification for reducing
joining to the local road system via a link the number of lanes after the ramp exit. Similarly, where the volume of traffic joining the mainline is high in
to and from the junction. Full connectivity relation to the through flow, the addition of an additional lane may be considered. The question of increasing or
is provided using only a single bridge reducing the mainline capacity between junctions should be considered also in the light of the requirement to
structure. A disadvantage of this junction provide the through driver with a consistent driver experience as he passes along the route, and the balancing
type is that it is difficult to convert to a 4 of these two pressures calling for the use of engineering judgement on the part of the designer.
leg pattern junction if it were to become
necessary. 9.4.1.4 As a general rule, the number of lanes downstream of an exit should equal the number of upstream
Figure 9.3.5.1 Trumpet Junction
lanes plus the number of lanes on the exit ramp minus one. If the number of through lanes is to be reduced
9.3.6 Single Point Junction as a result of the turning traffic volume, the number should not be reduced by more than one. The number of
lanes downstream of a ramp entry should not be less than sum of all the merging lanes minus one.
9.3.6.1 A relatively new concept for
interchange design is the single point 9.4.1.5 At gore areas, it is important that drivers can easily understand the diverge/merge layouts for
junction illustrated in Figure 9.3.6.1. This decision making. It is also important that where a series of interchanges occur along a highway, that the
type of grade separation can be used for geometry of the gore areas is consistent with the mainline design speed and that gore area treatments and
two level or three level interchanges. It layouts should be uniform and present a consistent appearance to drivers.
allows control of traffic conflicts with traffic
9.4.1.6 Also as a general rule, the principle of merge and diverge with/from the mainline traffic should be
signals at a single point instead of using
done with the use of parallel lanes and short tapers rather than application of single long tapers. This complies
two physically separate junctions (Diamond
with current safety policies in Oman and reflects the driver expectation in the Sultanate.
configuration) or a single large roundabout
(Two Bridge Roundabout configuration). Its 9.4.1.7 In addition to the ruling design guidelines provided in this Section 9 of the Standards, designers
main advantage is that it is more efficient should incorporate as necessary any further applicable detailed design recommendations contained in Chapter
than other alternatives having higher traffic 10 “General Ramp Design Considerations” of AASHTO “A Policy on the Geometric Design of Highways and
Figure 9.3.6.1 Single Point Junction (2-Level)
capacity and less delay in comparison to Streets” 2011.
conventionally designed signal controlled diamond interchanges. Care must be exercised to reduce the size of
the junction as it can result in quite large open areas if poorly designed.

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Grade Separated Junctions Highway Design Standards 2017

9.4.2 Divergence from Mainline Flow – Exit Conditions Design Speed for Exit Curve (Ramp Controlling Speed)
Mainline design speed km/h.
Stopped 20 km/h 30 km/h 40 km/h 50 km/h 60 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h
9.4.2.1 All divergence is to be from the right hand side of the carriageway. The purposes of the exit
50 75 70 60 45 - - - -
arrangements are to:
60 95 90 80 65 55 - - -
n Position diverging traffic prior to its exit from the through route and before the final “decision point” for the
70 110 105 95 85 70 55 - -
manoeuvre.
80 130 125 115 100 90 80 55 -
n Adjust the speed of the diverging traffic to a level consistent with the design speed of the exit ramp without
90 145 140 135 120 110 100 75 60
affecting mainline traffic.
100 170 165 155 145 135 120 100 85
The task of positioning traffic in the right hand lane of the through route as it approaches the diverging taper is 110 180 180 170 160 150 140 120 105
accomplished by directional signing. Further signing at the start of the taper directs traffic into the deceleration 120 200 195 185 175 170 155 140 120
taper and ramp. 130 220 210 205 195 185 170 155 135

9.4.2.2 The turning traffic flow controls whether a single lane deceleration lane and ramp is sufficient or Table 9.4.2.1 Single Deceleration Lane Length (m) for Mainline Design Speeds on Level to 2%
Mainline Grade
whether two (or possibly and very occasionally more) lanes are required. Deceleration taper and lane details
for a single lane ramp exit are set out in Figure 9.4.2.1 where ramp nose definitions are shown. Upgrades Downgrades
a) ‘Physical Nose’ relates to a physical separation dimension before the intercept point of ramp and mainline Grade
Apply adjustment to length from Table 9.4.2.1
shoulder edges, whilst the ‘Gore Nose’ relates to the point where the unsurfaced open ground area between
3% - 4.5% 90% 120%
mainline and ramp begins. Table 9.4.2.2 Deceleration Length
4.5% - 6% 80% 135% Adjustment to Allow for Mainline Grade
b) Recommended Gore Nose width ranges are given between carriageway edges and include shoulders since
shoulder widths can vary depending on road classification and ramp provision, whilst Physical Nose widths
are measured between shoulder edges as shown. 9.4.2.4 Beyond the point where deceleration to the ramp design speed is achieved, the ramp geometric
design should be based upon at least the ramp design speed.

9.4.2.5 A two lane exit is shown in Figure 9.4.2.2. Note that for this configuration, the deceleration length
required from Table 9.4.2.1 should be provided between the end of the second taper and the ramp control point.

(refer to paragraph 9.4.2.3)

75m

Figure 9.4.2.1 Single Lane Ramp - Parallel Exit (90m) (90m)

(refer to paragraph 9.4.2.3)

9.4.2.3 Note that the length annotated as “L” is the length over which vehicle speed must be reduced from
the design speed of the through route to that of the exit ramp. The necessary deceleration lengths for a range Figure 9.4.2.2 Two Lane Ramp - Parallel Exit
of through lane and ramp design speeds are shown in Table 9.4.2.1. Adjustments to these lengths to allow for
both up and down grades on the through route are set out in Table 9.4.2.2

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9.4.3 Merging With Mainline Flow - Entry Conditions 9.4.3.3 Distance La in Figure 9.4.3.1 is the acceleration length necessary for a vehicle starting at the ramp
design speed to accelerate up to the design speed of the through route. The necessary acceleration lengths
9.4.3.1 All merging is from the right hand side of the carriageway. The purposes of the merging arrangements for a range of ramp and mainline design speeds are shown in Table 9.4.3.1. Adjustments to these acceleration
are to: lengths to take account of the effect of mainline grades are shown in Table 9.4.3.2.
n Allow merging traffic to match the speed of mainline traffic. This involves acceleration from the ramp
design speed to that of the mainline. Entry Ramp Design Speeds (km/h)
40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
n Enable merging traffic to join the mainline without affecting traffic passing through on the mainline. This involves Mainline Design Speed (km/h)
the provision of a merging or gap acceptance area alongside the through lanes of the mainline. Upgrade 3% - 4.5% Downgrade 3% - 4.5%
Apply adjustment to values from Table 9.4.3.1
The taper distance at entry of mainline should be 90m or at a rate of 1:25 (when the design speed at mainline
60 130% 140% 140% - - 70%
is less or equal to 110km/hr); And 110 when mainline speed is greater than 110 km/hr.
70 130% 140% 140% 150% - 65%
Acceleration length and merge area details are shown in Figures 9.4.3.1 for single lane parallel entry conditions. 80 140% 150% 150% 150% 160% 65%
90 140% 150% 150% 150% 160% 60%
100 150% 160% 170% 170% 180% 60%
110 150% 160% 170% 170% 180% 60%
120 150% 160% 170% 170% 180% 60%
130 155% 165% 175% 175% 185% 60%

Upgrade 4.5% - 6% Downgrade 4.5% - 6%

Mainline Design Speed (km/h)
Apply adjustment to values from Table 9.4.3.1
60 150% 150% - - - 60%
70 150% 160% 170% - - 60%
80 150% 170% 190% 180% - 55%
(refer to paragraph 9.4.3.3) 90 160% 180% 200% 210% 220% 55%
100 170% 190% 220% 240% 250% 50%
Figure 9.4.3.1 Single Lane Ramp - Parallel Entry
110 200% 220% 260% 280% 300% 50%

9.4.3.2 Point A in Figure 9.4.3.1 is the start of the acceleration length. Point A should coincide with the nose 120 230% 250% 300% 320% 350% 50%

of the taper for a ramp horizontal radius of less than 300 m. For a ramp radius of 300 m or more, point A may be 130 260% 280% 330% 360% 400% 50%

taken as the point on the ramp where a driver begins to accelerate. This will generally be when his sight line is Table 9.4.3.2 Acceleration Lane Length Adjustment for Grade
such that he can see the acceleration lane ahead and the traffic conditions in the right hand lane of the mainline.

Entry Ramp Design Speed 9.4.3.4 Distance Lg, in Figure 9.4.3.1, is the gap acceptance length. This is the distance that a driver will
Mainline Design Speed
km/h Stop Condition 20 km/h 30 km/h 40 km/h 50 km/h 60 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h
travel at the speed of the mainline traffic in order to find an acceptable gap in that traffic and to enter it in order
to merge with the mainline flow. Minimum Lg is dependent upon the Physical Nose width, varying from 90m
50 60 50 30 - - - - -
for a width of 0.6m to 150m for a width of 3.0m.
60 95 80 65 45 - - - -
70 150 130 110 90 65 - - - 9.4.3.5 The value of La or Lg, which produces the greater distance downstream of a Physical Nose of width
80 200 180 165 145 115 65 - - 0.6 m should be used for parallel ramp entry design.
90 260 245 225 205 175 125 35 -
9.4.3.6 When a two lane entry ramp is required, the merging conditions become more complex. The reason
100 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
for the provision of two lanes can be to allow overtaking of slow moving vehicles on long ramps, or can be
110 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
directly related to the volume of traffic it has to carry. This traffic then has to merge with the mainline flow. In
120 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
some cases, this volume of traffic joining at one point will necessitate the addition of an additional mainline
130 680 665 650 625 595 545 460 380
lane downstream of the junction.
Table 9.4.3.1 Acceleration Length (m) for Entry Ramp and Mainline Design Speeds on Level to 2% Mainline Grade

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9.4.3.7 In the case where an additional lane is not provided (see Figure 9.4.3.2), when the ramp lanes are 9.4.4 Ramp Geometry
running full, merging has to take place in two stages, with first the left hand ramp lane merging and then
the right. This situation should be avoided wherever possible. It will require site specific traffic analysis to 9.4.4.1 Ramp design speed is related to the low volume running speed on the intersecting routes. This

determine appropriate values of Lg and whether it is necessary to introduce staggering of ramp lane tapers. design speed relates to the sharpest or controlling ramp curve which is usually on the ramp proper. These

Substantial acceleration and merging lengths would be necessary to avoid the situation where the traffic ramp design speeds do not apply to the beginning and end of each ramp which should be provided with

behaviour at the end of the merge lane is turbulent and confused. adequate speed change facilities as appropriate. When two highways connected by a junction have different
design speeds, the higher speed should be used.
9.4.3.8 The explanation of the symbols which appear in Figure 9.4.3.2 are as set out in paragraphs 9.4.3.2
Highway (Mainline) Design Speed km/h
through to paragraph 9.4.3.5. Ranges
80 90 100 110 120 130
9.4.3.9 Acceleration lane lengths for a range of ramp and mainline design speeds are shown in Table 9.4.3.1 Upper Range (85%) 70 80 90 100 110 120
Middle Range (70%) 60 60 70 80 90 100
9.4.3.10 In the case where an additional mainline downstream lane is necessary (see Figure 9.4.3.3), the
Lower Range (50%) 40 50 50 60 70 80
traffic in the left hand ramp lane runs into an exclusive additional mainline lane while the right hand ramp lane
merges with the traffic on the additional lane over the length of parallel lane. Traffic from this additional lane Table 9.4.4.1 Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed (km/h) for Varying Mainline Speeds
is then free to weave and merge with other lanes as the flow turbulence downstream of the junction subsides.
9.4.4.2 Desirably, the ramp speed should be approximate to the mainline running speed. Where this is not
The junction merging conditions for this case are similar to those for a single lane ramp entry.
practicable, a lower design speed may be selected, which should not be below the lower speed range figure in
Table 9.4.4.1 above. Upper range speeds are not generally achievable on loops such as those used on half and
full cloverleaf junctions. Design speeds of above 50 km/h involve large areas to accommodate the necessary
curve radii. Such areas are not necessarily available and long loops can involve additional costs for both
construction and for user operation. Minimum values are therefore generally necessary for such ramps and
appropriate signing should be provided.

9.4.4.3 The curve radii which can be achieved for varying design speeds and super-elevation rates are shown
in Table 9.4.4.2 below. Note that super-elevation should normally be limited to no more than 8%. Values in excess
of this may be used only in exceptional circumstances and with specific approval under the design variation
procedure.
(refer to paragraph 9.4.3.3)
Figure 9.4.3.2 Two Lane Ramp
Parallel Entry without Additional Super-elevation
Mainline Downstream Lane Ramp Speed km/h
4% 6% 8% 10% 12%
40 47 43 41 38 36
50 86 79 73 68 64
60 135 123 113 105 98
70 203 184 168 154 143
80 280 252 229 210 194
90 375 336 304 277 255
100 492 437 394 358 328 Table 9.4.4.2 Minimum Ramp Curve Radii
(m) for Varying Design Speed and Super-
110 - 560 501 454 414 elevation

9.4.4.4 Ramp widths may be single lane or wider. Single lane ramps and shoulders must be sufficiently
wide to allow traffic to pass a broken down vehicle. In addition shoulders for all ramp widths must provide the
necessary lateral clearance and allow the horizontal stopping sight distance for the ramp design speed chosen.
Figure 9.4.3.3 Two Lane Ramp Entry Shoulders should be of uniform widths for the complete length of a ramp. Single lane shoulder widths should
with Provision of an Additional
(refer to paragraph 9.4.3.3) be 1.0 m on the left and 2.5 m on the right of the traffic stream. Two lane ramps should have shoulder widths
Downstream Mainline Lane
of 0.6 m on the left and 2.5 m on the right of the traffic stream.

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Radius Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions
on inner (Case 1: one-way single lane (Case 2: one-way single lane which (Case 3: two lanes
edge of which does not allow for passing a allows for passing a stationary operation,
pavement (m) stationary vehicle) vehicle) one-way or two-way)
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9
Width Adjustment for Edge Treatment (no adjustment necessary for other edge treatments)
Non-
Mountable add 0.3m none add 0.3m
curb - one side
Non-
Mountable
add 0.6m add 0.3m add 0.6m
curb - both
sides
Stabilised Deduct shoulder width.
Lane width for conditions B and C
shoulder on Lane width for conditions B and C Deduct 0.6m where shoulder width is
on tangent may be reduced to 3.6m
one or may be reduced to 3.65 m. where 1.2m or wider.
where shoulder is 1.2m or wider.
both sides shoulder is 1.2 m. or wider.

Table 9.4.4.3 Single and Two Lane Ramp Width (m) for Traffic Condition Types and Curve Radii (width includes
allowance for passing a broken down vehicle) - from AASHTO A Policy on GDHS 2011

9.4.4.5 Ramp widths are dependent upon traffic flow conditions. Generally flows in excess of 1500 vehicles
per hour justify a second lane. Three conditions are allowed for as follows:

Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger cars. (ie. only a small volume of trucks or an occasional large truck)
Traffic Condition B: Predominantly passenger cars and medium sized commercial vehicles and with some
semi-trailer vehicles. (ie. moderate volume of trucks – 5% to 10% of total traffic.)
Traffic Condition C: Sufficient buses and heavy commercial vehicles to govern the design. (ie. more than 10%
trucks and larger vehicles.)

9.4.4.6 Table 9.4.4.3 shows the required roadway widths (edge to edge of paved surface), for these three
traffic conditions for a range of inner edge curve radii. Also shown, are adjustments to these widths for various
carriageway edge treatments.

9.4.4.7 Typical ramp sections on tangent alignment are shown in Figure 9.4.4.1. Lane widths shown (3.7 m
and 7.3 m) are minimum values to be adopted. These minimum values should be increased in the following
cases:
a) For Case 2, after deducting the sum of the shoulder widths from the tabulated Roadway Width, if that
dimension is less than 3.7m, then the equivalent Roadway Width from Case 1 values should be used as the
lane width, but with a minimum dimension of 3.7m.
b) For Case 3, after deducting the sum of the shoulder widths from the tabulated Roadway Width, if that
width is less than 7.3m. then a dimension of 7.3m should be adopted as the lane width. If the width after Figure 9.4.4.1 Ramp Cross Sections
deduction is greater than 7.3m, then that wider dimension should be adopted as the lane width.

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Grade Separated Junctions Highway Design Standards 2017
9.5.2 Further Design Information
9.5.2.1 Chapter 12 of the Highway Capacity Manual 2010 gives further information on the categorization of
weaving configurations and some of the limitations on weaving width and length. The same document sets out
methodologies for the analysis of operations in weaving segments.
9.4.4.8 Ramps generally involve a change in roadway level. The vertical alignment used to achieve this 9.5.2 Further Design Information
must be consistent with the design speed chosen. A common ramp profile for a conventional interchange is Weaving Length
9.5.2.1 Chapter 12 of the Highway Capacity Manual 2010 gives further information on the categorization of
an “S” curve. Care must be taken when the mainline is below the cross route that the exit ramp profile allows The length of the weaving segment constrains the time and space in which the driver must make all required
weaving configurations and some of the limitations on weaving width and length. The same document sets
generous sight distance over the crest of the ramp to the ground level junction. For a simple junction, stopping lane changes. Thus, as the length of weaving segment decreases (configuration and weaving flow being
out methodologies
constant), for of
the intensity thelane
analysis of operations
changing, in weaving
and the resulting segments.
turbulence, increases.
sight distance may be sufficient but for a more complex case which might involve a choice of lanes for different
destinations, decision sight distance to the signing may be necessary. 9.5.2.2 Weaving Length
Weaving length L is measured from a point at the merge gore where the right edge of the carriageway
shoulder lane and the left edge of the merging lane(s) are 0.6m apart to a point at the diverge gore.
Weaving length L is measured from a point at the merge gore where the right edge of the carriageway
9.5 TRAFFIC WEAVING shoulder lane and the left edge of the merging lane(s) are 0.6m apart to a point at the diverge gore.

9.5.1 General

9.5.1.1 Where traffic entering and leaving the mainline results in vehicle paths crossing each other, weaving
is taking place. Where this weaving takes place over a relatively short distance and the volume of weaving
traffic large; Then the flow turbulence created can have a significant effect on the level of service experienced by
users and ultimately on the capacity of the segment affected. When traffic weaving cannot be avoided, then the
design objective must be to maintain the level of service of the adjacent segments of the mainline over weaving
segment. Figure 9.5.2.1 Formation of a Weaving Segment
Figure9.5.2.1: Formation of a Weaving Segment
9.5.1.2 Preference should be given to the selection of a junction type which “designs out” or minimises the The length of the weaving segment constrains the time and space in which the driver must make all required
need for traffic weaving. Junctions in which entering traffic joins the mainline upstream of the leaving traffic lane changes. Thus, as the length of weaving segment decreases (configuration and weaving flow being
This definition is the same as those used in previous editions of the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM).
should therefore be avoided where possible. constant), the intensity of lane changing, and the resulting turbulence, increases.
The definition used throughout the HCM2000 were historically tied to the specifics of the design of loop
ramps in a cloverleaf
This definition is the interchange at aused
same as those timeinwhen most editions
previous weavingofsegments were Capacity
the Highway part of such interchanges.
Manual (HCM).
9.5.1.3 When weaving has to occur, it can generally be accommodated at a given level of service by the Modern weaving segments occur in a wide range of situations and designs, and a more general definition of
The definition used throughout the HCM2000 were historically tied to the specifics of the design of loop ramps
proper design of the weaving segment. The controlling factors for design are: length is appropriate.
in a cloverleaf interchange at a time when most weaving segments were part of such interchanges. Modern
n The volume of non weaving traffic passing through the segment. weaving segments occur in a wide range of situations and designs, and a more general definition of length is
The weaving segment length strongly influences lane-changing intensity, demand flow rate in the weaving
The volume of weaving (ie. lane changing) traffic passing through the segment. appropriate.
n segment, number of lanes within the weaving section, average speed of vehicles and average density of
n The complexity of the lane changing manoeuvres required. vehicles. Whensegment
The weaving the density of lane
length changing
strongly is reduced
influences turbulence occurs.
lane-changing Lengthening
intensity, demand flowa weaving
rate in segment
the weaving
both increases
segment, its capacity
number of lanesand improves
within its operation
the weaving (assuming
section, a constant
average speed ofdemand).
vehicles and average density of
n The range of running speeds of traffic using the segment.
vehicles. When the density of lane changing is reduced turbulence occurs. Lengthening a weaving segment
The proportion of the total flow through the segment that is weaving is termed the “Volume Ratio”. Minimum weaving length:
both increases its capacity and improves its operation (assuming a constant demand).
The minimum weaving length Lmin can be at least 300 meters depending on the traffic flow and design speed.
9.5.1.4 The capacity of a weaving segment is any combination of flows that causes the density to reach Moreover
9.5.2.3 for typical minimum
Minimum weaving weaving
length length refer to Table 9.5.2.2 for weaving conditions;
the LoS E/F boundary condition. This is 27.0 pc/km/lane for free flow dual carriageways, or 25.0 pc/km/lane for
multi lane single carriageways. Thus the geometric parameters which affect the capacity are:
Below table depicts the
The recommended minimum
minimum spacing
weaving between
length Lminsuccessive
can be atentries and/or
least 300 exits.depending
meters It is important
on theto traffic
note that
flow
these values speed.
and design represent
An the minimum
absolute distances
minimum between successive
of 120-150m ramps,
can be used; and that
however the designer
all weaving should
lengths shallalways
further
n The configuration of the weaving segment. perform weaving analysis found under HCM standard on a case by case bases as
to verify values.with the required
be checked and analyzed as described under sub-sections 9.5.2.4 to 9.5.2.6 to conform
n The number of lanes. Level of Service and wanted Service Flow Rates.
n The free flow speed of the road. Below figure depicts the minimum spacing between successive entries and/or exits. It is important to note
n The length of the segment. that these values represent the minimum distances between successive ramps, and that the designer should
n The width of the segment. always perform weaving analysis found under HCM standard on a case by case bases to verify values.

n The volume ratio.

9.8
 Grade Separated Junctions
Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT
9
VR
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
NWL= 0 2,034 2,337 2,657 2,991 3,164 3,340 3,703 4,081 4,472
NWL= 2 1,079 1,383 1,702 2,036 2,209 2,386 2,749 3,126 3,517
NWL= 3 602 905 1,225 1,559 1,732 1,908 2,272 2,649 3,040

Table 9.5.2.1 Checking of Maximum Weaving Length used for guidance (in meters)

As VR (Volume Ratio) increases, it is expected that the influence of weaving turbulence would extend for
longer distances. All values of NWL (number of lanes from which a weaving maneuver may be made with one or
no lane changes) are either 0 (two-sided weaving segments) or 2 or 3 (one-sided weaving segments). Having
more lanes from which easy weaving lane changes can be made reduces turbulence, which in turn reduces the
distance over which such turbulence affects segment capacity.

As weaving maneuvering and analysis depend on many factors as drivers behavior, terrain grade, flow rates
(ramp to freeway / freeway to ramp junction / ramp to ramp junctions), number of lanes within the weaving
section, average speed of weaving and nonweaving, free flow speed , volume ratio, number of lane change..
However, when L is smaller than Lmax, it can range from 300 to 750 depending on the level of Service and
Service Flow Rate required.

As all the iterations and computations cannot be shown on one table given the many parameters stated
above, below Table 9.5.2.2 can be used as guidance and are using pre-defined parameters for the sake of
demonstration of a specific case:

Figure 9.5.2.2 Recommended Minimum

Table 9.5.2.2:Ramp Terminal Minimum
Recommended Spacing Ramp Terminal Spacing Freeway FFS = 100 km/h Freeway
9.5.2.4 Maximum weaving length
Maximum weaving
Lmax is the length:
maximum length computed at which weaving turbulence no longer has an impact on operations
Ra
within the segment, or alternatively, on the capacity of the weaving segment. It is computed as per below m p m p
Lmax is the maximum length computed at which weaving turbulence no longer has an impact on operations Ra
equation:
within the segment, or alternatively, on the capacity of the weaving segment. It is computed as per below
equation: Lmax = [5728(1+VR)1.6]-[1566NWL] x 0.3048 (Length in meters.) VFF
Where VRF
1.6
LVR =volume
max = [5.728(1+VR)
ratio = v ]-[1.566N
/v WL] (Length in Ft.)
w

v = total demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h), v=vw+vNW VFR
Where
vw = weaving demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h), vw=vRF+vFR VRR
VR
vNW==volume ratio =demand
nonweaving vw/v flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h), vNW = vFF + vRR
vv= total demand flow ratedemand
= freeway-to-freeway in the weaving
flow rate segment (pc/h), v=v
in the weaving w+vNWin passenger cars per hour (pc/h);
segment
FF VFF: freeway-to-freeway demand flow rate in the weaving segment in passenger cars per hour (pc/h)
vw = weaving demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h), vw=vRF+vFR
vRF = ramp-to-freeway demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h); VRF: ramp-to-freeway demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h)
vNW = nonweaving demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h), vNW = vFF + vRR
v = freeway-to-ramp demand
vFF = freeway-to-freeway
FR demandflow
flowrate
rateininthe
theweaving
weavingsegment
segment(pc/h);
in passenger cars per hour (pc/h); VFR: freeway-to-ramp demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h)
vRFRR= ramp-to-freeway demand flow rate in the weaving segment
v = ramp-to-ramp demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h);
(pc/h); VRR: ramp-to-ramp demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h)
FR = =freeway-to-ramp
vN number of lanes demand
from whichflowa rate in themaneuver
weaving weaving segment (pc/h);with one or no lane changes
may be made v: Total Demand Flow Rate in the weaving segment
WL
vRR = ramp-to-ramp demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h);
Below table 9.5.2.1 provides quick guidance for maximum weaving lengths based on number of lanes from
NWL = number of lanes from which a weaving maneuver may be made with one or no lane changes
which a weaving may be made and volume ratio.
As VR (Volume Ratio) increases, it is expected that the influence of weaving turbulence would extend for
longer distances. All values of NWL (number of lanes from which a weaving maneuver may be made with one
or no lane changes) are either 0 (two-sided weaving segments) or 2 or 3 (one-sided weaving segments). Having

9.9
 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Grade Separated Junctions Highway Design Standards 2017

The service volume in table 9.5.2.2 is desired for a weaving section based on the following characteristics: The considered weaving length “L” shall be greater or equal than “Lmin” and smaller or equal than “Lmax”.
n One-sided major weaving section If L ≤ Lmax refer to below section. Consultants are also advised to use the Highway Capacity Software
(HCS), developed by Transport Research Board (TRB), as an alternative to check the LOS and weaving length
n Demand splits as follows:
calculations.
- VFF = 65% of v
- V RF = 15% of v 9.5.2.5 Weaving Width
- VFR = 12% of v
- VRR = 8% of v Weaving width is defined as the total number of lanes between the entry and exit gore areas, including the
auxiliary lane, if present. As the number of lanes increases, the thoughout capacity increases. At the same
n Trucks = 10%, RVs = 0%
time, the opportunity for lane changing also increases for discretionary lane changes that may take place
n Terrain type: Level Terrain
within the weaving segment.
n Peak Hour Factor: PHF =0.93 If L ≥Lmax, weaving on longer segments is considered separately as merging and diverging movements, with
n Adjustment factor for driver population: fp = 1.00 lane changing tending to concentrate near merge and diverge gore areas. Refer to chapter 13 HCM2010 for
n 
Interchange density (number of interchanges within the weaving segment divided by 6): weaving and capacity analysis for this condition.
ID = 0.62 int/km (or 1 int/mi) Weaving turbulence may exist to some degree throughout longer segments, but operations are approximately
the same as those for basic freeway segments, except for the ramp influence areas near the entry and exit
n Free flow speed of the weaving segment: FFS = 100 km/h
gore areas. Study of these two sources is specifically recommended before starting the design of weaving
n SF (veh/h) is the existing service flow rate for given LOS.
segments for high speed dual carriageways.
It is the maximum rate of flow (for a 15-min interval) that can be accommodated on a segment while
maintaining all operational criteria for given LOS under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. 9.5.2.6 Weaving Methodology

Length of Weaving Section (m) 9.5.2.6.1 The methodology set out in Chapter 12 of the TRB Highway Capacity Manual is aimed at determining
LOS
150 350 450 600 750 150 350 450 600 750 the Level of Service which occurs for a defined set of geometric and operating weaving conditions, rather than
N=3 ; NWL=2 N=3 ; NWL=3 directly fixing one or more of the design parameters to achieve a given LoS under given operating conditions.

SF (veh/h) SF (veh/h)
The method may, however, be used for design purposes by employing it in an iterative manner until an
acceptable combination of geometric features and LOS is found.
A 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,700 1,700 1,700 1,700 1,700
The methodology of this chapter can be used to analyse the capacity and LOS of freeway weaving segments.
B 3,000 3,000 3,100 3,100 3,100 3,100 3,200 3,200 3,200 3,200
First, the analyst identifies the primary outputs typically solved for in a variety of applications including LOS,
C 4,000 4,000 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,200 4,300 4,300 4,300 4,300
number of lanes required (N), weaving segment length required (L), and weaving segment configuration type
D 4,700 4,800 4,900 4,900 4,900 5,100 5,100 5,200 5,200 5,200
(Type). Performance measures related to density and speed are also achievable but are considered secondary
E 5,600 5,700 5,800 5,900 6,100 6,000 6,100 6,200 6,200 6,400
outputs.
N=4 ; NWL=2 N=4 ; NWL=3
Second, the analyst must identify the default values or estimated values for use in the analysis. Basically, the
FFS = 100 km/h

SF (veh/h) SF (veh/h) analyst has three sources of input data:

A 2,100 2,100 2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200
1. Default values found in TRB Highways Capacity Manual 2010,
B 3,900 4,000 4000 4000 4000 4,100 4,200 4,200 4,200 4,200
2. Estimates and locally derived default values developed by the analyst, and
C 5,100 5,200 5,200 5,300 5,300 5,500 5,600 5,600 5,600 5,600
3. Values derived from field measurements and observation.
D 5,900 6,200 6,200 6,300 6,300 6,600 6,700 6,700 6,800 6,800
For each of the input variables, a value must be supplied to calculate the outputs, both primary and secondary.
E 7,500 7,700 7,800 7,900 8,100 8,000 8,100 8,200 8,400 8,500
A common application of the method is to compute the LOS of an existing or a changed segment in the near
N=5 ; NWL=2 N=5 ; NWL=3 term or distant future. This type of application is termed operational, and its primary output is LOS, with
SF (veh/h) SF (veh/h) secondary outputs for density and speed. Another application is to check the adequacy of or to recommend
A 2,600 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,800 2,800 2,800 the required number of lanes, weaving segment length, or weaving configuration given the volume or flow
B 4,700 4,800 4,900 4,900 4,900 5,100 5,100 5,200 5,200 5,200 rate and LOS goal. This application is termed design since its primary outputs are geometric attributes of the
C 6,200 6,300 6,300 6,400 6,400 6,700 6,800 6,900 6,900 6,900 weaving segment. Other outputs from this application include speed and density.
D 7,3000 7,400 7,500 7,500 7,500 8,000 8,200 8,200 8,300 8,300
E 8,400 8,400 8,400 8,400 8,400 10,000 10,200 10,300 10,500 10,700

Table 9.5.2.2 Service Flow Rate under prevailing conditions (SF) (veh/h)
Note: N: number of lanes within the weaving section.
NWL: number of lanes from which a weaving maneuver may be made with one or no lane changes.

9.10
 Grade Separated Junctions
Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT
9
In reference to HCM2010 there are 8 steps for weaving analysis that can be summarized as per below diagram. The capacity of weaving sections shall have adequate length, adequate width, and lane balance. Refer to the
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) (Chapter 13) for more capacity analysis on weaving.
Step 1: Input Data
•Specify geometry, weaving and nonweaving volumes, and the segment's free-flow speed. 9.5.2.6.3 Level Of Service (LOS) Check:

When the mean weaving speed is converted to weaving segment capacity, the results shall be compared to

Step 2: below LOS criteria and assign the appropriate level of service.
Adjust Volume
•Adjust demand volumes to reflect the peak hour factor, heavy-vehicle presence, and driver populaFon.
In general, density thresholds in weaving segments are somewhat higher than those for similar basic freeway
segments (or multilane highways). It is believed that drivers will tolerate higher densities in an area where
lane-changing turbulence is expected than on basic segments.
Step 3: Determine ConfiguraFon CharacterisFcs
•Determine the lane-change characterisFcs that define the effects of configuraFon. Below table shows given LOS for related densities.

Density (pc/mi/lane)
Step 4: Determine Maximum Weaving Length LOS Weaving Segments on Multilane Highway
Freeway weaving Segments
•EsFmate the maximum length for weaving operaFons under the specified condiFons. or C-D Roadways
A 0-10 0-12
B >10-20 >12-24
Step 5: Determine Weaving Segment Capacity C >20-28 >24-32
•If weaving length less than L max, esFmate the weaving segment capacity and the v/c raFo for the exisFng or projected
demand flow rates. D >28-35 >32-36
•If length greater than Lmax refer to chapter 13 of HCM 2010 E >35 >36
F Demand exceeds capacity
Step 6: Determine Lane-Changing Rates Table 9.5.2.3 LOS for Weaving Segments
•EsFmate the rate at which weaving and nonweaving vehicles make lane changes
(v/N)
D=
(SX0.6214)
Where:
Step 7: Determine Average Speeds of Weaving and Nonweaving Vehicles
•EsFmate the average speed of weaving and nonweaving vehicles in the weaving segment; compute the space mean speed of D: Density of passenger cars per kilometer per lane
all vehicles in the weaving segment v : Total demand flow rate in the weaving segment (pc/h)
N: Number of lanes within the weaving section
Step 8: Determine LOS S: Average speed of all vehicles within the weaving segment (km/h)
•Convert the space mean speed to the weaving segment density. Compare the results to the LOS criteria and assign the
appropriate level of service

9.6 REFERENCES
Figure 9.5.2.3 Weaving Methodology Flowchart
Figure9.5.2.2: Weaving Methodology Flowchart
For more information about equations and detailed analysis of each step above, refer to HCM2010 Chapter 12. Below paragraphs The previous sub-sections have covered basic grade separated interchange design requirements. Further
highlight some main constraints for weaving capacity and level of service analysis.
For more information about equations and detailed analysis of each step above, refer to HCM2010 Chapter 12. information on these aspects and other aspects of grade separations can be found in the references provided.
Below paragraphs
9.5.2.6.2 Weavinghighlight
Segment some main constraints for weaving capacity and level of service analysis.
Capacity: 1. AASHTO A Policy on the Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2011.

Weaving Segment Capacity: 2. TRB Highway Capacity Manual 2010

The capacity of a weaving segment is controlled by one of two conditions:
The capacity of a weaving segment is controlled by one of two conditions: 3. UK DMRB Vol 6 Part 4 TD 39/94 The Design of Major Interchanges.
n Breakdown of a of
weaving segment is expected to to
occur
• Breakdown a weaving segment is expected occurwhen
whenthe
theaverage density of
average density of all
allvehicles
vehiclesininthe
the
4. UK DMRB Vol 6 Part 4 TD 22/06 Layout of Grade Separated Junctions.
segment
segment reaches
reaches 43 pc/mi/ln;
27 pc/km/ln; or or
n Breakdown of a weaving segment
• Breakdown of a weaving segmentis expected to occur
is expected to when
occurthewhen
total weaving demand
the total flow rate
weaving demand
exceeds
flow rate exceeds
o 2,400 pc/h for cases in which NWL = 2 lanes, or
- 2,400 pc/h
o for cases
3,500 in which
pc/h NWL
for cases in =which
2 lanes,
NWL or = 3 lanes.

The -capacity
3,500 pc/h
of for cases in
weaving which shall
sections NWL have
= 3 lanes.
adequate length, adequate width, and lane balance. Refer to the
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) (Chapter 13) for more capacity analysis on weaving.

9.11
 10
Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Pavement Design
TABLE OF CONTENT

10.1 INTRODUCTION 10-1 10.5 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 10-7

10.1.1 General 10-1 10.5.1 Introduction 10-7
10.5.2 Planned Stage Construction of Asphalt Concrete
10.2 SUBGRADE EVALUATION 10-1 Pavement 10-7
10.2.1 General 10-1 10.5.3 Pavement Selection Factors 10-8
10.2.2 Subsurface Investigation 10-1 10.5.4 Flexible Pavement 10-8
10.2.3 Measures of Subgrade Support 10-1 10.5.5 Rigid Pavement 10-14
10.2.4 Factors to be Considered in Subgrade Support 10-1 10.5.6 Interlocking Block Pavements 10-17
10.2.5 Field Determination of Subgrade CBR 10-2 10.5.7 Gravel Surfacing Pavements 10-19
10.2.6 Laboratory Determination of Subgrade CBR 10-2
10.6 REFERENCES 10-20
10.3 TRAFFIC 10-2
10.3.1 Introduction 10-2
10.3.2 Traffic Forecasting 10-2
10.3.3 Traffic Counts 10-3
10.3.4 Standard Axles 10-3
10.3.5 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axles 10-4

10.4 PAVEMENT MATERIALS 10-5

10.4.1 Introduction 10-5
10.4.2 Unbound (Granular) Materials 10-5
10.4.3 Cement Treated Base Materials 10-5
10.4.4 Asphalt Materials 10-5
10.4.5 Concrete Pavement Materials 10-6
10.4.6 Interlocking Block Pavement Materials 10-7
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES DRAWINGS

Figure 10.5.4.1: Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Table 10.5.4.1: Suggested Levels of Reliability for Various GD 10-01: Typical Flexible Pavement Structure, Edge
Coefficient (a1) of Dense-Graded Asphalt Concrete Based Functional Classifications 10-10 and Joining Details (Scale: N.T.S) 10-21
on the Elastic Modulus 10-9
(from AASHTO, 1993) 10-10 GD 10-02: Typical Rigid Pavement Structure and
Figure 10.5.4.2: Estimation of Aggregate Base Layer Typical Concrete Layout and Joining Details (Scale: N.T.S) 10-22
Table 10.5.4.2: ZR versus Reliability 10-10
Coefficient (a2) for Various Base Strength Parameters 10-9
Table 10.5.4.3: ∆PSI Values Corresponding to Various
Figure 10.5.4.3: Estimation of Granular Sub-Base Layer
Road Classes - Flexible Pavement 10-10
Coefficient (a3) for Various Sub-Base Strength Parameters 10-9
Table 10.5.4.4: Minimum Flexible Pavement Thickness 10-11
Figure 10.5.4.4: Design Chart for Flexible Pavement
Design 10-11 Table 10.5.4.5: Critical Analysis Locations in a Pavement
Structure 10-12
Figure 10.5.4.5: Layered Elastic Inputs 10-12
Table 10.5.5.1: ∆PSI Values Corresponding to Various
Figure 10.5.4.6: Critical Analysis Locations in a
Road Classes - Rigid Pavement 10-14
Pavement Structure 10-12
Table 10.5.6.1: Concrete Block Thickness by Type of
Figure 10.5.5.1: Chart for Estimating Composite
Application 10-17
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction k∞, Assuming a
Semi-Infinite Subgrade Depth 10-15 Table 10.5.6.2: Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement
Categories 10-18
Figure 10.5.5.2: Chart to Modify Modulus of Subgrade
Reaction to Consider Effects of Rigid Foundation Near Table 10.5.6.3: Required Interlocking Block Pavement
Surface (within 3m) 10-15 Thickness by Categories 10-18

Figure 10.5.5.3: Design Chart for Rigid Pavements (1) - Table 10.5.6.4: Required Aggregate Base Course
match line connects to Figure 10.5.5.4 10-16 Thickness (in mm) According to the Expected Traffic 10-19

Figure 10.5.5.4: Design Chart for Rigid Pavements (2) - Table 10.5.6.5: Structural Design for Base Course
match line connected from Figure 10.5.5.3 10-16 and Surfacing 10-19

Figure 10.5.6.1: Typical Interlocking Block Pavement Table 10.5.7.1: Minimum Gravel Wearing Course
Cross Section 10-19 Thickness D1 (mm) 10-19
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10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2.3 Measures of Subgrade Support

10.2.3.1 The measures of subgrade support, that should be considered in the pavement design procedure
10.1.1 General
stipulated in this Highway Design Standard, are mainly: the California Bearing Ratio (CBR), the Modulus of
10.1.1.1 Road pavements should initially be designed using the empirical approach adopted in the AASHTO Subgrade Reaction (K), the Modulus of Elasticity (E), and the Poisson’s ratio (µ) of the soil underlying the
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1993 edition. The empirical design methods should also be compared pavement structure.
with the layered elastic design methods also known as mechanistic design approach. Guidance on the use of
the combined AASHTO/Mechanistic Pavement Design Approach is presented under Clause 10.5.4.15 of this 10.2.4 Factors to be Considered in Subgrade Support
Section.
10.2.4.1 Factors to be considered in determining the design support conditions include:
10.1.1.2 The design of new pavement structures should be based on the actual subgrade strength and 1. Subgrade variability;
deformation properties obtained from geotechnical investigation. This should be carried out along each 2. Sequence of earthworks construction;
specific road design section and the cumulative traffic loading resulting from forecast traffic studies for each 3. Target compaction moisture content and achievable field density;
specific project, over a definite design life. A 20-year design life is recommended as standard design life for
4. Moisture changes during service life;
all road pavements. Alternative multiple stage scenarios can be considered, if necessary, with a minimum first
5. Sub-surface drainage and the depth to the water table; and
stage design period of 10 years subject to the approval of the Overseeing Authority.
6. The presence of weak layers below the design subgrade level.
10.1.1.3 All materials, methods of construction and tolerances used for road pavements must be in
10.2.4.2 Subgrade Variability: Subgrades are inherently variable in nature and reflect the changes in
accordance with the latest revision of the Sultanate of Oman Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge
topography, soil type, and drainage conditions that generally occur along an existing or proposed road
Construction and any special specification approved for use in a specific road project by way of the issue of a
alignment. Hence, the selection of a subgrade design value requires adequate consideration of the degree of
Variation Acceptance Notice by the Overseeing Authority.
variability within a particular project section, and the quantity and quality of data on subgrade properties that
are available to the pavement designer. Accordingly, the design CBR value should be the 85th percentile of all
10.2 SUBGRADE EVALUATION the insitu subgrade CBR values, received from the site investigation for a road, or selected sections of the road.

10.2.4.3 Sequence of Earthworks Construction: Pre-construction planning often allows the use of selected
10.2.1 General
subgrade materials that result in significant construction savings. The pavement design can often be based on
10.2.1.1 The subgrade provides the foundation for the support of the pavement structure. As a result, the the CBR of selected subgrade materials at service moisture and density conditions. Where material selection
required pavement thickness and pavement performance during the road service life will depend largely is not feasible, or where uncertainty exists, a preliminary evaluation of subgrade materials may be necessary.
upon the strength and uniformity of the subgrade. Therefore, insofar as is economically feasible, a thorough This should then be confirmed at the time of construction. Allowances must be made for any changes in
investigation of the subgrade should be made so that the design and construction will ensure uniformity subgrade moisture content that may occur after construction while the pavement is in service.
of support for the pavement structure and realization of the maximum strength potential for the particular
Even where the design cannot be based on selected subgrade material, good management of the earthworks
subgrade soil type.
during construction will ensure that the best available material is used. The careful selection of subgrade
materials during pre-construction will result in a more controlled subgrade.
10.2.2 Subsurface Investigation
The minimum thickness of the subgrade layer underlying the pavement structure should be 200mm in both
10.2.2.1 The characteristics of subgrade soils and the particular features of a site must be known in order cut and fill sections. This layer should have a 4-day soaked CBR of not less than 25%, as per the Standard
to predict pavement performance. Subsurface Investigations, by means of trial pits and/or short boreholes Specification requirements. The 85th percentile of CBR values relevant to the in-situ subgrade material obtained
(wherever deemed necessary), should determine the general suitability of the subgrade soils based on: from samples taken from trial pits excavated during the geotechnical investigation is to be considered in the
Classification of the soil, Atterberg limits, Moisture-Density relation, Degree to which the soil can be Compacted, design of the pavement structures and the upper limit of 25% shall not be exceeded for the Design CBR value.
Expansion characteristics, Susceptibility to Pumping, Presence of problematic soils such as Sabkha, Gypsum, In case of unsuitable material, the depth of replacement of the subgrade shall be as specified under Point 3 of
Sand Dunes, Compressible Clays, etc. Such factors as ground water, surface infiltration, soil capillarity, Clause 2.6.3.1 of Standard Specification Section 2.6.
topography, rainfall, and drainage conditions also will affect the future support rendered by the subgrade
by increasing its moisture content and thereby reducing its strength. All in-situ soils should be classified
according to the AASHTO Classification Standard M145.

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10.2.4.4 Compaction Moisture Content Used and Field Density Achieved: As the strength of subgrade 10.2.6 Laboratory Determination of Subgrade CBR
materials is influenced by compaction and moisture content, consideration should be given during design to
the likely construction densities and the moisture content conditions to be specified for the construction of the 10.2.6.1 This procedure may be used to determine design CBR or modulus when sufficient samples of the

subgrade. subgrade material for the new pavement can be obtained from detailed laboratory investigations and where a
reasonable estimate can be made of likely subgrade density and moisture conditions in service.
While compaction of clay subgrades to a specified density may be achieved at very low moisture contents, this
practice can result in an open soil structure which is likely to weaken considerably on wetting. This weakening 10.2.6.2 Laboratory tests may be undertaken on specimens tested at a density which correspond to those likely
will be compounded by any density loss due to swelling of the clay. to occur in service or at a particular compaction standard and moisture as a characterizing test. Alternatively,
undisturbed samples can be obtained from the field by coring. The test procedures for the laboratory CBR test
10.2.4.5 Pavement Cross-Section and Sub-surface Drainage: Features such as width of paved road surface, are given in ASTM D1883.
relative permeability of pavement layers and the presence and extent of pavement drainage can all have a
considerable effect on subgrade moisture conditions and strength.
10.3 TRAFFIC
Usually the outer regions of the pavement and subgrade are subject to significant changes. If this zone of
significant moisture fluctuation can be removed from the trafficked area by using paved shoulders, and/or
10.3.1 Introduction
subgrade drainage, then more stable moisture conditions may be allowed for in the selection of a design CBR.

Cross section types with relatively high permeability pavement materials and less permeable shoulder materials 10.3.1.1 Pavement deterioration under trafficking is due to both the magnitude of the wheel loads and

can inhibit drainage unless appropriate pavement drainage is provided. These factors must be considered the number of times the load is applied. For pavement design purposes, it is essential to consider not only

when deciding how to divide the total road length into homogenous sub¬sections for design purposes. The the number of vehicles that will use the road over the design life but also the axle loads of these vehicles.

sub-sections should be selected on the basis of essentially constant type and condition of the subgrade material, This is done by converting each axle load to an equivalent number of “Standard Axles” of 80 kN using an

which can then form the basis for determining the design subgrade conditions. empirical relationship and totaling these over the life of the pavement. The conversion to standard axles is
described in more detail in subsequent clauses. Light-weight vehicles cause negligible damage: An axle load
10.2.4.6 Presence of Weak Layers below the Design Subgrade Level: Evaluation of the actual support of 10 kN (1 tonne) has a damaging effect of only 0.00024 standard axles compared to the normal maximum
provided to the pavement structure by the subgrade can be complicated by the strength variations that often axle load of 130 kN (13 tonnes) which has the effect of 6.45 standard 80 kN axles.
occur with depth. It is essential that the potential effects of any weak layers below the design subgrade level
are considered in the pavement design process, particularly for low-strength materials occurring to depths of 10.3.1.2 The pavement designs in these Design Standards are selected on the basis of cumulative traffic to be

about one (1) meter below subgrade level. Where strength decreases with depth, the subgrade may be sub- carried over the design life, expressed in numbers of standard axles. The determination of this number is done in

layered for the purposes of the mechanistic pavement design of flexible pavements and when calculating the three stages:

effective subgrade stiffness for rigid pavement design. For subgrade strengths that are constant or improve 1. The traffic flows for each class of vehicles which is expected to use the proposed road, both at opening and
with depth, the support at the design subgrade level governs the pavement design. subsequently over each year of the design life, must be forecast,
2. The axle loading of each class of vehicle over the life of the road must be estimated,
10.2.5 Field Determination of Subgrade CBR 3. The cumulative number of standard axles to be carried over the total design life must be calculated from
stages 1 and 2.
10.2.5.1 This procedure may be used to determine the subgrade CBR in situations, where soils similar to
those of the subgrade of the road being designed, exist at a density and moisture condition similar to those
10.3.2 Traffic Forecasting
likely to occur in service. Where further disturbance of exposed subgrade soils on new alignments is unlikely,
field CBR testing may also be relevant. In both situations, care must be taken when carrying out the tests that 10.3.2.1 To forecast traffic growth, the following three traffic categories must be considered. Anyone of these
the subgrade is in a critical moisture condition; otherwise, seasonal adjustments may need to be made. A could be dominant or insignificant, depending on the site.
number of field tests may be used to estimate subgrade CBR. The most common test is the Dynamic Cone 1. Normal traffic, which would pass along the route even if no new pavement was provided,
Penetration (DCP) test carried out in accordance with ASTM D6951/D6951M. 2. Diverted traffic, which is attracted to the route because of the improved pavement,

10.2.5.2 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: This test can be carried out in accordance with ASTM D6951/D6951M 3. Development traffic, which arises from either planned or unplanned development along the road corridor.

or any other approved equivalent test. Its use should be considered with caution for coarse subgrades to avoid (This is sometimes termed generated traffic).

misleading results as a result of the influence of large particles. The CBR can be determined from the results
of dynamic cone penetrometer testing by applying the standard relationship between CBR and penetration (in
mm/blow) given in ASTM D6951/D6951M.

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10.3.2.2 Normal traffic can be assumed to continue to grow according to current or forecast trends, either 10.3.4 Standard Axles
as a fixed number of vehicles per year or as a fixed percentage of the current total. Diverted traffic can be
considered from an economic perspective. It can be assumed that all vehicles which would save either time 10.3.4.1 For pavement design purposes, the damaging effect of vehicle axles is expressed in terms of a

or money by switching from an existing route to the new pavement would choose to do so. Diverted traffic “standard axle”. This was originally defined in the AASHTO road trial in the USA (in U.S. units) as one carrying

is normally forecast to grow at the same rate as the traffic on the road from which it has been diverted. The 18,000 Ib (8,160 kg). Subsequently this load has been rationalized in SI units to 80 kN (equivalent to 8,157 kg).

quantity of planned development traffic can be estimated from the details of policy plans. The quantity of In order to determine the cumulative axle loads over the design life of the pavement, it is necessary to convert

unplanned development traffic, sometimes called generated traffic, will be more difficult to predict but will be the numbers of each class of heavy vehicles that will use the road, to an equivalent number of 80kN standard

influenced by the availability of land for such development and by experience from previous road projects. axles. Axle loads are related to the standard axle using the following relationship:

Allowance must also be made for the construction traffic, which will be associated with traffic forecasting that Standard Axles = (Axle Load (kg) / 8157)4
must differentiate between light, medium and heavy goods vehicles, as their pavement damaging effects and
For example, axle loads of 5, 8, 10 and 13 tonnes are equivalent to 0.14, 1.00, 2.26 and 6.45 standard axles,
growth rates are different. Most routes will carry approximately similar traffic in both directions over a period
respectively. Table 10.3.4.1 below provides the number of axles, wheels and average number of equivalent
of time, although checks should be made for any unusual directional effects which may occur.
standard axles for common vehicles available in the Gulf Region.

10.3.3 Traffic Counts Class Types

No. of Wheels (on Each Side Range of standard Axles per
Axles of the Vehicle) Vehicle (80KN) (see Note 2)
10.3.3.1 The requirement for counts of present traffic will depend on the type of road project being considered 4 Bus-Coach 2 1+2 0.7-5.0
and the relative magnitudes of flows of the three types of traffic expected to use it. Forecasting normal and 5 PIU Truck 2 1+1 or 1+2 0.1-3.0
diverted traffic will require knowledge of the flows and vehicle composition on existing roads running parallel 6 Rigid Lorry 2 1+2 0.4-7.0
to, or in the vicinity of the proposed road. Obviously, development traffic cannot be counted, but traffic 7 Rigid Lorry 3 1+2+2 1.5-6.0
resulting from planned development should be quantifiable if the general details of the planned residential,
8 Artic. Lorry 3 1+2+2 0.6-10.0
commercial and industrial projects are known. For most roads, it is likely that there will be some relevant traffic
9 Artic. Lorry 4 1+2+22 1.5-10.0
data available but this will probably have to be augmented or updated by further counts.
10 Artic. Lorry 5 1+2+222 2.5-7.0
10.3.3.2 Conventional traffic counts used to justify or to geometrically design, a road project, are usually 11 Artic. Lorry 4 1+22+2 1.5-7.0
based on manual or automatic methods where all vehicles are combined to produce a single Average Daily 12 Artic. Lorry 5 1+22+22 2.0-7.0
Traffic (ADT) figure. The ADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by 13 Artic. Lorry 6 1+22+222 1.5-7.0
365. However, for pavement design purposes, it is essential that classified counts are carried out so that the 14 Trailer 3 +2+22 2.0-7.0
heavy goods vehicles, which cause most of the pavement damage, can be clearly quantified. The counting 15 Trailer 4 +22+22 2.0-10.0
process must yield separate ADT values for each vehicle class. Also for pavement design, it is the traffic in each
Table 10.3.4.1 Standard Vehicle Classes
direction or individual lane, rather than the two-way flow, which is of interest.
Note: 1. L
 ightweight vehicle classes 1,2 and 3 are passenger and small pickup types and are excluded from the Table since their
loading effect in relation to pavement design is negligible.
10.3.3.3 In order to ensure that the ADT and composition percentages are representative of the yearly traffic,
2. W
 ithin the range of standard Axles per Vehicle, the lowest values correspond to the unloaded vehicles and the highest for
the following method should be considered: the fully loaded vehicles
1. Traffic counts are performed on six consecutive working days (excluding Fridays), for both travel directions,
2. Times of abnormal traffic activity should be avoided such as public holidays, etc.
3. During the six days, at least two counts should be for a full 24 hours. The count totals for the other days
should be factored up to obtain 24 hour totals,
4. The average of the six 24 hour counts (total or vehicle class) in each direction should be considered to be
the one-way Average Daily Traffic (total or vehicle class),
5. On heavily trafficked roads, the six-day counts should be repeated several times throughout the year to
ensure accuracy in the ADT values.

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 Sultanate of Oman I Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT Pavement Design Highway Design Standards 2017

10.3.4.2 For each vehicle class, a representative number need to be weighed and the average number of The below equation can be used in order to determine the total design ESALs, as follows:
standard axles for that class determined. This is then applied to all the vehicles of that class for the design
period. The values can vary considerably depending on the proportions of the various vehicle classes and the
degree of loading. On some routes, the loading is very directional. e.g. the approach to a quarry may have Where:
similar vehicle flows in both directions, but empty lorries in one and fully laden in the other, hence axle load Vf = vehicular factor
surveys are essential. G = growth factor

It is important to enforce the legal limits prevailing in the Sultanate of Oman on both axle and gross vehicle D = directional distribution factor

weights, since any potential overloading would cause a significant increase in wear to the pavement and L = lane distribution factor
subsequently early deterioration of the pavement structure. In the case of a 5-axle articulated truck, this can Y = design period in years. Usually the standard design period for road pavement structures is taken as 20 years.
increase from about 4 equivalent standard axles, for the designed weight limit, to 160 for a single overloaded
case. Obviously, not all vehicles will be overloaded to this degree, but the average number of equivalent The vehicular factor (Vf) is determined using the below equation:
standard axles per vehicle for each traffic class will generally be higher if legal limits, related to the vehicle
loads, are not properly imposed and enforced. Where:
Axle load surveys, using portable weighbridges, should be carried out to determine the axle load distribution pi = percentage of total repetitions of the i th vehicle group
of a sample of the heavy vehicles in the vicinity of the road. Data collected from these surveys can then be fi = equivalent axle load factor for the i th vehicle group
used to calculate the mean number of standard axles for a typical vehicle in each class. These values can then m = number of various vehicle classes included in the analysis
be used in conjunction with traffic forecast to determine the predicted cumulative standard axles that the road
The directional distribution factor (D) is expressed as a ratio that accounts for the distribution of ESAL units
will carry during its design life.
by direction. The directional distribution factor D is generally taken as 0.5 (50%) for most roadways, however,
Axle loads can also be measured and counted by weigh in motion (WIM) systems. These involve the it may vary from 0.3 to 0.7 for the cases where more weight may be moving in one direction than the other.
embedment of load sensitive strips or pads, flush with the road surface, across the wheel path. These systems
The lane distribution factor (L) is expressed as a ratio, that accounts for distribution of traffic when two or more
are very attractive because axle loads are measured while vehicles travel at normal speeds. However, WIM
lanes are available in one direction. L factors are as shown in Table 10.3.5.1.
systems require careful, regular calibration and the measurements are affected by the speed of the vehicles,
the transverse position of the vehicle wheel and the smoothness of the road surface. Moderate errors in weight Note may also be taken of lane width in this regard. Narrow lanes
measurement will be converted to much larger errors in the equivalent standard axle values. If WIM systems contribute to wheel track channelization which increases the
Number of Lanes in Percent of ESAL in
are used, it is strongly recommended that check weighing of a sample of the heavy vehicles be carried out tendency for wheel-track deformation either from subgrade or each Direction Design Lane
using conventional weighbridges, either permanent or portable types. pavement deformation (or both). In addition, wheel tracking close
1 100
to the pavement edge can show up weakness in either pavement
In the absence of any reliable axle weight figures, it is suggested that the maximum value of the range of those 2 80-100
lateral support or subgrade in the area most subject to in service
in Table 10.3.4.1 are used. 3 60-80
moisture content variation.
4 or more 50-75
10.3.5 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axles The growth factor (G) is determined from the equation:
Table 10.3.5.1 Lane Distribution Factor (L)

10.3.5.1 In order to determine the cumulative standard axles over the design life of the road, the following
procedure should be followed: Where:
1. Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of vehicle weighed using the results of the traffic survey, g = annual growth rate
2. Determine the average daily one-directional traffic flow for each class of vehicle, n = analysis period in years
3. Make a forecast of the one-directional traffic flow for each class of vehicle to determine the total traffic in
each class that will travel over each lane during the design life,
4. Determine the mean equivalence factor for each class of vehicle and for each direction from the results of
the axle load survey,
5. The products of the cumulative one-directional traffic flows for each class of vehicle over the design life of
the road and the mean equivalence factor for that class should then be calculated and added together to
give the cumulative standard axle loading for each direction.

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10.4 PAVEMENT MATERIALS 10.4.4.2 The asphalt base course layer is the main load bearing-load spreading layer in the pavement structure.
The asphalt wearing course layer is the top layer of the pavement structure placed above the asphalt base
10.4.1 Introduction course or existing asphalt layer. This is the layer on which the traffic runs. All bituminous layers in the pavement
structure should be designed to be impervious to the ingress of water, durable and have high resistance to
The full description and properties of all pavement materials to be used in pavement construction are included
skidding and plastic deformations under traffic loadings. The asphalt concrete mixes should be proportioned
in the Sultanate of Oman Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, (Standard Specifications)
and designed using the Marshall Mix Design Method included under the Asphalt Institute Manual Series No.2.
together with the applicable testing methods which are mainly based on American, British, Australian and other
The asphalt content should be optimized to balance all of the mix properties. The final asphalt concrete mix
recognized International Standards. A brief description of the most commonly used pavement materials is
is the one that will satisfactorily meet all the properties of the established criteria, as illustrated in the Oman
presented below.
Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction.

10.4.2 Unbound (Granular) Materials 10.4.4.3 In addition to the Marshall Mix Design Method and if requested and approved by the Engineer,,
the Contractor shall also carry out confirmatory asphalt concrete mix design for all bituminous layers in
10.4.2.1. Material for use in the imported subgrade, granular subbase course should consist of screened material
accordance with AASHTO R35 “Standard Practice for SuperPave Volumetric Design for Hot-Mix Asphalt
(well graded gravel including sand and silt) or partially crushed material of approved classes. Material for use
(HMA) mix”. The Superpave mix design maintains the basic volumetric properties used in the Marshall
in the aggregate base course construction should consist of crushed stone of approved classes. These unbound
design system with a new compactor and more defined aggregate requirements based on traffic loading.
layers include the part of the pavement structure that should be constructed to provide a stable foundation for the
The Superpave mix design system evaluates the volumetric properties of the compacted samples. These
asphalt layers and to distribute properly and uniformly the superimposed loadings to the subgrade supporting
properties include content air voids in the mix (Va), voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), voids filled with
the entire pavement structure. The material properties of the granular subbase and base layers are covered
asphalt binder (VFA), and dust to binder ratio. The volumetric requirements for this design are as follows:
in greater detail in the Standard Specifications. The material properties of the aggregate base and granular
the criteria for Va is fixed as 4 percent at the number of gyratory repetitions considered in the design (Ndesign);
subbase courses are specified to enable these courses attaining a minimum CBR values (4-days soaked ) of 80%
the criteria for VMA is a function of the nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) adopted in the specific mix; the
and 60% respectively when compacted to 100% Modified Dry Density according to AASHTO T180 standard.
criteria for VFA is a function of traffic level; and the criteria for dust to binder ratio is a function of NMAS. The intent
Before placing the granular subbase material, the subgrade should be properly prepared and compacted as per
of the Superpave method is to evaluate how the mix will consolidate to assure there is sufficient space for binder
the Standard Specifications. Placing, shaping and compacting of the granular subbase and base layers should
to provide long term durability and sufficient aggregate structure to resist secondary densification and plastic
conform, for its full width, to the required grade and should be compacted to the required density before laying
deformation under traffic loading in the field. The volumetric properties of Va, VMA, and VFA together define the
the asphalt layers.
void structure and void requirements for an asphalt mix. The final mix will be the one that satisfactorily meet all
specified properties, as illustrated in the Omani Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction.
10.4.3 Cement Treated Base Materials
10.4.4.4 Performance testing shall be conducted on the various asphalt mixes during the trial mix design
10.4.3.1 A cement treated base layer can be used as a stabilized base course under any type of pavement
stage, as follows:
structure. It is mainly required in pavements subject to heavy traffic volumes since it includes the ability to
1- Dynamic Modulus Simple Performance Test shall be carried out at the mix design stage on the various
distribute loads over a greater area and can resist sub-grade failures more than unbound crushed aggregate
selected asphalt marshal and Superpave mixes of the wearing course and base course layers. The test
base courses. The cement treated base course is composed of mineral aggregate and cement uniformly
shall be conducted in accordance with AASHTO TP-62 “Determining Dynamic Modulus of Hot Mix Asphalt
blended and mixed with water, spread and compacted as specified in the Standard Specifications.
(HMA)” and by the use of the AMPT (Simple Performance Tester) or the Universal Triaxial testing machine.
Dynamic modulus, |E*|, and phase angle, values are to be determined over a range of temperatures and
10.4.4 Asphalt Materials
frequencies.
10.4.4.1 Asphalt concrete is a generic term that includes many different types of mixtures of aggregate 2- 
Model Load Simulation Testing shall be carried out to determine the rutting potential and moisture-
and asphalt cement (binder) produced at elevated temperatures in an asphalt plant. Material for use in the susceptibility of asphalt mixtures at the various selected asphalt Marshall and Superpave mixes of the
construction of the various asphalt layers of the pavement should consist of coarse and fine aggregates and wearing course and base course layers, in accordance with the Accelerated Hamburg Wheel Tracking test
mineral filler and bituminous products including performance graded bitumen, penetration graded bitumen, according to AASHTO T324 standard at 60°C. The test shall be conducted at the mix design stage and its
Polymer Modified bitumen, cutback bitumen, emulsified bitumen and rejuvenating agents. Detailed properties results shall be used as a benchmark for quality control purposes at the construction stage.
and requirements of all these materials are covered in the Standard Specifications. 3- The test method procedures and evaluation criteria for each performance test shall be in compliance with
the requirements specified in Omani Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction.
4- The final mix design for each bituminous layer shall be developed based on the specified volumetric criteria
considering any justified changes that may be needed to suit the HMA paving and performance requirements.

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10.4.4.5 A prime coat is a sprayed application of cut back bitumen or emulsion asphalt that should be applied 10.4.4.10 General Guidelines for Performance Graded Asphalt
to the surface of pavement unbound layers in order to fill the surface voids, stabilize the fines and preserve
The Performance Grade (PG) of bitumen shall be selected based on the minimum and maximum pavement
the unbound layers and promote bonding to the overlying asphalt layers. A tack coat is thin bituminous liquid
temperatures and volume and speed of traffic, as explained under Clause 10.4.4.8 of this Section. For general
asphalt (emulsion or cutback bitumen) that should be applied between the asphalt layers to promote bonding
guidance, the following shall be noted:
so that the various asphalt layers will behave as one thick asphalt layer. The properties of prime and tack coats
Whenever required for National and Arterial Roads only, Performance Graded bitumen binder may be
n
are comprehensively covered in the Standard Specifications.
provided in the top two asphalt concrete layers i.e. asphalt concrete wearing course and asphalt binder
10.4.4.6 Cutback bitumen is penetration grade blended with a volatile dilutent which evaporates when applied. course layers, provided the works are done by specialized and qualified Contractor with proven successful
They are classified according to their viscosity and are designated by the prefixes RC or MC (denoting the rate of experience in previous projects.
curing, i.e. RC for rapid curing and MC for medium curing) and the lower limit of the viscosity range at 60oC in cSt The Performance Graded asphalt of the various roads’ categories shall be classified according to the Multiple
n

(Centistokes). The higher limit of the viscosity range is twice that of the lower limit. These are the grades mostly used Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test to AASHTO T350, in accordance with the traffic level envisaged for the
for road construction and paving in tack coat and prime coat applications: “RC-70, RC-250 and MC-30, MC-70, MC- pavement design life and speed, as follows:
250.”
- Roads with Traffic volumes Lower than 10 million ESAL and Speed exceeding 70 km/hr:
10.4.4.7 Penetration Graded bitumens are straight run bitumens classified according to their hardness and Use of PG/ Standard Grade “S”.
are designated by their penetration limits at 25 C in tenths of a mm. The most common penetration grades
o
- Roads with Traffic volumes from 10 million ESAL to 30 million ESAL or with Speed from 20 km/hr to 70 km hr:
used in road applications are 40/50, 60/70, and 80/100. The various grades of penetration graded bitumen Use of PG/ Heavy Grade “H”.
should conform to the requirements of ASTM D946/D946M standard. - Roads with Traffic volumes exceeding 30 million ESAL and high speed exceeding 20 km/hr or for Roads
with Traffic volumes lower than 30 million ESAL and with Speed lower than 20 km/hr: Use of PG/ Very High
10.4.4.8 Performance Graded (PG) bitumen is bitumen which is graded based on its performance at different
Grade “V”.
temperatures. The Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) produced a system of materials selection,
testing, and mixture design named Superpave for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements. The Superpave - Roads with Traffic volumes exceeding 30 million ESAL and with Speed lower than 20 km/hr: Use of PG/
binder specifications are performance based, hence these binders are known as performance graded binders in Extremely High Grade “E”.
contrast to penetration graded binders. Engineering properties believed to be related to the expected performance - For example, bitumen of Performance Grade PG 76-10, when classified according to the traffic level and
(maximum 7-day pavement temperature, minimum pavement temperature, loading duration based on truck speed, shall be specified as follows: PG (76-10) S or PG (76-10) H, or PG (76-10) V, or PG (76-10) E.
speed, and traffic volume) are featured in the PG binder specifications to allow proper selection for a particular When the temperature interval i.e. the range between the PG low and high temperature classifications
n

highway application. Performance graded binder specifications designation is as explained below: exceeds 80 degrees, the asphalt binder shall be modified with approved polymer to satisfy AASHTO M320
requirements and the specified requirements under Table 4.1.6.3 of Section 4 “Bituminous Pavement”.

10.4.5 Concrete Pavement Materials

10.4.5.1 Rigid Concrete pavements are recommended for use instead of flexible pavements in areas subject
to very heavy traffic loadings with slow speeds in order to reduce susceptibility of asphalt to rutting and
potential of plastic deformations under these conditions. Also, rigid pavements should be used in areas subject
to fuel spillage such as lorry parking areas, bus stops, etc.., and to resist high velocity flows at floodways.
A “base” PG binder can be established for any region within the Sultanate of Oman with sufficient climate
Concrete pavements should be designed to have a minimum flexural strength of 4.6 MPa at 28-days. The
data using the procedure detailed in Asphalt Institute Superpave Series No. 1 Chapter 5. The higher the binder
concrete pavement shall consist of jointed plain concrete slabs or jointed reinforced concrete slabs as deemed
high temperature, the stiffer the asphalt is. Conversely, the lower the binder low temperature, the softer it
necessary.
is. “Bumping” or increasing the binder high temperature rating by one or even two grades is predicated on
building in stiffness to handle slow moving or standing traffic, such as at breaking locations, at the approaches 10.4.5.2 The concrete mix design should ensure that the concrete mix formulation meets or exceeds the
of traffic signals, at roundabouts and bus stop lanes or for very high traffic volumes. Stiffer binders are also specification requirements. The mix design is used to establish the proper proportioning of components (cement,
required / desired for certain mix types to insure reliable performance. aggregates, water, pozzolans, and admixtures) in the mixture to achieve the specified properties. Properties
of significant relevance to the quality of the end product are strength, air content, slump, and sometimes the
10.4.4.9 Special Provisions for Roundabouts: The pavement surfacing at roundabouts may consist either of
Coefficient Of Thermal Expansion (COTE). Cementitious materials should consist of Portland cement alone or
Stiff Asphalt Mix (Polymer Modified Bitumen) or Portland Cement Concrete Pavement.
in combination with one or more of blended hydraulic cement, expansive hydraulic cement, fly ash and other
pozzolans, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, and silica fume. Aggregates should consist of crushed stone,
crushed or uncrushed gravel, or natural sand. Approved admixtures should also be added to the concrete mix to
ensure proper workability.

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10.4.5.3 Reinforcing Steel Bars are used in reinforced concrete slabs to control cracking and provide tensile For pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate layer thickness and
capacity. These should be High Tensile deformed steel bars conforming to ASTM A615 Grade 60. Dowel bars are composition. Calculations are mainly concerned with the stresses and strains resulting from the traffic loading
provided at the contraction and expansion joints to provide load transfer, which reduces deflections and stresses and the subgrade response.
due to wheel load applications. Dowel Bars should be High tensile plain steel bars conforming to BS 4449, ASTM
A615/A615M, ASTM A616/A616M, or ASTM A996/A996M, and should be free from burring or other deformation 10.5.2 Planned Stage Construction of Asphalt Concrete Pavement
restricting slippage in the concrete. Coated dowels should conform to the requirements given in AASHTO M254.
10.5.2.1 Planned Stage Construction is the Construction of roads by applying successive layers of asphalt
Tie bars are installed principally in longitudinal joints to keep the two adjoining slabs from pulling away from
concrete according to design and to a predetermined time schedule. Stage construction is advantageous
each other and keep the surface across the joints flat. Tie bars do not significantly assist in load transfer directly
when there is no quite sufficient budget to construct the full thicknesses resulting from the one-stage (20-
but does improve aggregate interlock. Tie Bars should be High tensile deformed steel bars conforming to ASTM
year) design; procedure of which is elaborated in the subsequent sub-sections of this standard. In the stage
A615/A615M, Grade 60.
construction approach, the pavement will be designed for construction in two stages, with the first stage being
10.4.5.4 All joints should be sealed to keep incompressibles out of the joint and to minimize the inflow of water designed for a shorter time period. The procedure is based on the presumption that the second stage will be
to the subgrade. Joint Sealants should be compatible with one another and with joint substrates under conditions constructed before the first stage shows serious signs of distress. The design method involves three steps: (1)
of service and application, as demonstrated by sealant manufacturer based on testing and field experience. first stage design, (2) preliminary design of second stage, and (3) detailed design of second stage overlay.
Cold-Applied, Two-Component, Jet Blast Resistant Joint Sealant should be applied in concrete pavement and 1. First Stage Design: The method is based on the remaining life concept. In this concept, the first stage is
should conform to the requirements of Federal Specification SS-S-200 Type M (Machine Application - Fast designed for a design period less than that which would produce a fatigue failure. Studies have shown
Curing). that a first stage design period of 60 percent of the design period that represents a one-stage design will
produce an acceptable and economical first stage design thickness. The estimated first stage design ESAL
10.4.6 Interlocking Block Pavement Materials will therefore have to be adjusted to provide for the necessary 40 percent (100-60) life remaining at the end
of the first stage design period, as follows:
10.4.6.1 Interlocking concrete paving blocks are manufactured from Portland cement concrete according to
Adjusted First Stage Design TRAFFIC1 = (100/60) x ESAL = 1.67 ESAL1
BS EN 1338 standard and act as the wearing course and a major structural element of the pavement structure.
These blocks usually come in four thicknesses: 50mm, 60mm, 65mm and 80mm depending on the level of 2. Preliminary Second Stage Design Overlay Thickness: The thickness shall also be selected on the basis of the

traffic and as determined in Table 10.5.5.1. The average compressive strength of the blocks should not be less remaining life concept. At the time the original design is prepared, estimate an overlay thickness that will

than 49 N/mm2 and no individual compressive strength results should be less than 40 N/mm2. ensure that the final pavement structure will last for the entire design period (first plus second stage design
periods). The estimated second stage ESAL shall be first adjusted so as to use the remaining life provided
10.4.6.2 The blocks should be laid on a Laying/bedding course layer consisting of naturally occurring sand for in the first design stage. In this procedure, the remaining life is (100-60) which is equal to 40 percent.
or crushed rock fines. The target laying course thickness after compaction should be a maximum of 30mm Adjusted Preliminary Second Stage Design TRAFFIC2 = (100/40) x ESAL = 2.5 ESAL2
in case of stabilized base course and 50mm in case of unbound aggregate base course. Natural sand is also 3. Final Stage Design Thickness: The remaining life concept of stage construction is based on the assumption
applied to fill the joints between the blocks. The jointing sand and laying course material should conform to that the second stage will be placed before the first stage shows serious signs of distress. The preliminary
the requirements of BS 7533 Part 3. second stage design is made at the time of the design of the first stage, and can be used for economic
analysis. However, the pavement may actually be either in better or worse condition at the end of the first
stage time period. For this reason, the procedure for developing the final stage design shall be as follows:
10.5 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
n Conduct a condition survey of the pavement one year before the end of the first stage design period. The
10.5.1 Introduction pavement condition evaluation shall be in accordance with Chapter II “Evaluation Pavement Conditions”
of the Asphalt Institute Manual “Asphalt Overlays for Highway and Street Rehabilitation (MS-17)”.
10.5.1.1 The design of pavement structures aims at determining the number, material composition and n If the pavement appears to be in good to excellent condition with PSI of ±3.5 and the pavement is showing
thickness of the different layers within a pavement structure required to accommodate a given loading regime. little distresses with few or no visible cracks, then an additional survey will be conducted the next year.
This includes the surface course as well as any underlying base or granular subbase layers. This module is
n In case the survey reveals that the pavement is approaching a level where the condition is beginning
focused on the structural design of new pavements.
to deteriorate, but may still be in good condition according to MS-17 procedure, then either apply a
10.5.1.2 Structural design should be carried out so to provide a pavement structure that is sufficient to withstand preliminary overlay as originally designed or design a new overlay using either of the procedures outlined
the traffic loading encountered over the pavement design life. It is recognized that intermittent maintenance and in MS-17.
rehabilitation efforts may be needed to preserve a pavement surface with acceptable rideability and ensure that
the soundness, strength and integrity of the structure will last through its design life. The expected life of a traffic
carrying corridor is generally far in excess of the initial pavement design life. It is therefore important that a life
expired pavement can be used as part of the structure of a subsequent replacement pavement at some time in the
future.

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10.5.3 Pavement Selection Factors An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experiments or experience. Generally, it requires
a number of observations to be made in order to ascertain the relationships between input variables and
10.5.3.1 Selecting a pavement type is an important decision. The American Association of State Highway outcomes.
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide, 1993 Edition, lists the following principal and secondary factors
to be considered in the selection process. These are slightly modified to suit the Omani conditions: 10.5.4.2 Flexible Pavement Design - Empirical Approach: Many pavement design procedures use the
empirical approach such as the AASHTO and TRL Methods. In these empirical methods, the relationships
Principal Factors
between design inputs (e.g. loads, materials, layer configurations and environment) and pavement failure
1.  Traffic volume in terms of (18 kips = 8,160kg) Equivalent standard axles ESAL, percent of heavy trucks,
were arrived at through experience, experimentation or a combination of both.
degree of congestion (resulting from subsequent rehabilitation efforts),
2.  Subgrade soils characteristics (shrink-swell potential, bearing capacity, presence of sand dunes, Sabkha, Empirical equations are used to relate observed or measurable phenomena (pavement characteristics) with
etc.), outcomes (pavement performance). There are many different types of empirical equations available today
but this section will be based on the 1993 AASHTO Guide, basic design equation for flexible pavements. This
3. Climate/weather (high temperature, amount of rainfall),
equation is based on U.S. units, it is widely used and has the following form shown below:
4.  Construction considerations (staged, urgency of quick completion, detour requirements, anticipated future
widening),
5. Cost comparison (life-cycle cost analysis),
6. Conservation of materials and energy,
7. Availability of local materials or contractor capabilities,
8. Traffic safety (surface drainage, maintenance of skid properties). Where:
W18 = predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb) ESALs
Secondary Factors
ZR = standard normal deviate
1. Performance of similar pavements in the area (similar structures with similar traffic history),
So = combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance prediction
2. Adjacent existing pavement sections (continuity of cross section),
SN = Structural Number (an index that is indicative of the total pavement thickness required)
3. Recycling (using material from existing structure or other sources),
ΔPSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the design terminal
4. Traffic noise mitigation,
serviceability index, pt.
5. Incorporation of experimental features,
MR = Subgrade resilient modulus in psi. To convert to MPa, multiply by 145.
6. Local preference.
The structural number, SN can be expressed in general terms as follows:
10.5.4 Flexible Pavement SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2+ a3D3m3 + …..
Where:
10.5.4.1 Flexible Pavement Response: How a pavement/subgrade system responds to applied stresses
determines how it will behave structurally. Stresses and the resultant pavement responses are the combined ai = ith layer coefficient

result of loading, environment, subgrade and pavement material characteristics. Di = ith layer thickness in inches. To convert from mm to inches divide by 25.4.
mi = ith layer drainage coefficient
Flexible pavement performance is an imperfectly understood area of study. The need to predict the way any
given pavement will perform under a particular loading regime is a common requirement and has resulted The application of this formula for example in the case of a 3 layer pavement would be:
in the development of a number of so called design methods over the years. The most successful of these SN = a1 D1 + a2 m2 D2 + a3 m3 D3
are those which predict most accurately and most reliably the behavior of loaded pavements. Of these the so Where:
called empirical and mechanistic approaches are the most commonly used because they relate the imposed a1, a2, a3 = Layer coefficients representative of the Surface, Base, and Granular Subbase Course layers
repetitive stresses and subsequent strains and failure mechanisms with tolerable accuracy. It should be noted, m2, m3 = Drainage coefficient for the Base and the Granular Subbase layers
however, that only a very small proportion of new pavements designed, are monitored over their design lives D1, D2, D3 = Required thicknesses of Surface, Base, and Granular Subbase layers
to test the reliability of design predictions or to identify, (or investigate reasons for,) deviations from predicted
behavior.

The empirical approach uses full scale pavement performance test results such as the AASHTO Road Test
results to correlate measurable parameters (such as subgrade resilient modulus) and derived indices (such
as the structural number and pavement serviceability index) to pavement performance. The mechanistic
approach relates calculated pavement strains and stresses to empirically derived failure conditions.

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The thickness of the required Asphaltic Layer (D1) is then computed as follows:

Where:
SN1 = Structural Number of Asphaltic Layer
a1 = Structural coefficient of Asphaltic Layer

The thickness of the required Crushed Aggregate Base Course (D2) is computed as follows:

Where:
SN2 = Structural Number at top of Crushed Aggregate Base Course.
a2 = Structural coefficient for Crushed Aggregate Base Course.
m2 = Drainage coefficient for Crushed Aggregate Base Course.

The thickness of the required Granular Subbase Course (D3) is computed as follows:
Where:
SN3 = Structural Number at top of Granular Subbase Course.
a3 = Structural coefficient for Granular Subbase Course.
m3 = Drainage coefficient for Granular Subbase Course. Figure 10.5.4.2 Estimation of Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) for Various Base
Strength Parameters
The layer coefficients a1, a2, and a3 for the various pavement layers can be obtained using the charts shown in
Figures 10.5.4.1, 10.5.4.2 and 10.5.4.3 reproduced from the AASHTO Design Manual, Chapter II Clause 2.3.5.

Figure 10.5.4.1 Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient (a1) of Dense-Graded Figure 10.5.4.3 Estimation of Granular Sub-Base Layer Coefficient (a3) for Various Sub-
Asphalt Concrete Based on the Elastic Modulus Base Strength Parameters

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10.5.4.3 Limitations of the Empirical Approach: The AASHTO Road Test was developed for specific conditions 3. 
Pavement structure. The pavement structure is characterized by the Structural Number (SN).
and hence the equations used have certain limitations, as follows: The Structural Number is an abstract number expressing the structural strength of a pavement
1. The equations were developed based on the specific pavement materials, subgrade soils, and environmental required for given combinations of soil support (MR), total traffic expressed in ESALs, terminal
conditions present at the AASHTO Road Test. serviceability and environment. The Structural Number is converted to actual layer thicknesses using
2. The equations are based on an accelerated two-year testing period. a layer coefficient (a) that represents the relative strength of the construction materials in that layer.

3. The loads used to develop the equations were operating vehicles with identical axle loads and configurations, Additionally, all layers below the asphalt concrete layer are assigned a drainage coefficient (m) that represents

as opposed to mixed traffic. the relative loss of strength in a layer due to its drainage characteristics and the total time it is exposed to
near-saturation moisture conditions. Generally, quick-draining layers that almost never become saturated
When using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical equation or any other empirical equation, it is extremely can have coefficients as high as 1.4 while slow-draining layers that are often saturated can have drainage
important to know the equation’s limitations and basic assumptions. coefficients as low as 0.40. If a fundamental drainage problem is suspected, thicker layers may only be of

10.5.4.4 Inputs for the Empirical Approach: The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation requires a number of inputs marginal benefit and a better solution is to address the actual drainage problem by using very dense layers

related to loads, pavement structure and subgrade support. These inputs are: (to minimize water infiltration) or designing a drainage system.
4. 
Serviceable life. The difference in present serviceability index (PSI) between construction and end-of-life
1. The predicted loading. The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
is the serviceability life. Typical values of the total change in serviceability index (∆PSI) depending on the
that the pavement will experience over its design lifetime.
various road classes are as shown in Table 10.5.4.3 below:
2. 
Reliability. The reliability of the pavement design-performance process is the probability that a pavement
section designed using this process will perform satisfactorily under the traffic and environmental Road Classification ∆PSI
conditions for the design period. In other words, there must be some assurance that a pavement will National 1.2
perform as intended given the variability in such things as construction, environment and materials. The ZR Arterial 1.7
and So variables account for reliability. Table 10.5.4.1 below provides the recommended Reliability level as Secondary 2.2
Table 10.5.4.3 ∆PSI Values Corresponding to Various Road
a function of the Road Class. Table 10.5.4.2 provides the factor ZR as a function of the Reliability. Finally, the Distributor/Access 2.7 Classes - Flexible Pavement
standard deviation So is usually taken as 0.45 for flexible pavements.
5. 
Subgrade support. Subgrade support is characterized by the subgrade’s resilient modulus (MR). Intuitively,
Recommended Levels of Reliability ZR the amount of structural support offered by the subgrade should be a large factor in determining the
Functional Reliability
Classification 50 0 required pavement structure. MR is estimated in (psi*) based on the following relationship with Subgrade
Urban Rural Design CBR given by NCHRP:
60 -0.253
National 85 - 99.9 80 - 99.9 MR = 2555 x CBR0.64
70 -0.524
Arterial 80 - 99 75 - 95 *To convert from psi to MPa, divide by 145.
75 -0.674
Secondary 80 - 95 75 - 95
80 -0.841 10.5.4.5 Outputs of the Empirical Approach: The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation can be solved for any one of
Distributor/Access 50 - 80 50 - 80
85 -1.037 the variables as long as all the others are supplied. Typically, the output is either total ESALs or the required
Table 10.5.4.1 Suggested Levels of Reliability 90 -1.282
for Various Functional Classifications Structural Number (or the associated pavement layer depths). To be most accurate, the flexible pavement
(from AASHTO, 1993) 91 -1.34 equation should be solved simultaneously with the flexible pavement ESAL equation. This solution method
92 -1.405 is an iterative process that solves for ESALs in both equations by varying the Structural Number. It is iterative
93 -1.476 because the Structural Number (SN) has two key influences:
94 -1.555 1. The Structural Number determines the total number of ESALs that a particular pavement can support. This
95 -1.645 is evident in the flexible pavement design equation presented above,
96 -1.751 2. The Structural Number also determines what the 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESAL is for a given pavement.
97 -1.881
Alternatively, the AASHTO Empirical approach can be carried out according to the example shown on the
98 -2.054
Chart given in Figure 10.5.4.4 below that is reproduced from the AASHTO Design Manual, Figure 3.1 “Design
99 -2.327 Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for Each Input” included under Part II- Chapter 3
99.9 -3.09 “Highway Pavement Structural Design”. As shown in the example, the chart is entered with the following
99.99 -3.75 variables: Reliability (R%), Overall Standard Deviation (So), Traffic in total ESAL (18 kips Equivalent), and Effective
Table 10.5.4.2 ZR versus Reliability Roadbed Soil/Layer (MR). The four variables are connected with a broken line as shown in the example until the
line intersects with the Design Structural Number Chart, from which the SN can be determined according to
the value of the design serviceability loss, ∆PSI, as shown. Verify by equation for detailed design.

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As illustrated in the example shown in the Chart, the Structural Number for each layer should be determined 10.5.4.7 Surface Treatment: Surface treated roads are suitable for cumulative traffic equivalent to up to 2.5
from this Figure and the relevant layer thickness should be calculated using the equations provided under million standard axles and for access roads with a design speed of less than 60 km/h. Where the CBR of the
paragraph 10.5.4.2. subgrade is greater than 8%, the thickness of construction should be:
1. for <0.5 million standard axles single/double bituminous surface treatment
150 mm aggregate base course
100 mm granular subbase
2. for 0.5 – 2.5 million standard axles single/double bituminous surface treatment
200 mm aggregate base course
100 mm granular subbase

10.5.4.8 Flexible Pavement Design – Mechanistic Approach: It should be noted that the mechanistic approach
also uses empirical observations in the calibration of the way in which the various calculated values relate to
actual failure mechanisms within the pavement/subgrade system.

The mechanistic approach seeks to explain phenomena by reference to physical causes. In pavement design,
the phenomena are the stresses, strains and deflections within a pavement/subgrade system and the physical
causes are the loads and the material properties of the pavement structure and the subgrade. The relationship
between these phenomena and their physical causes is typically described using a mathematical model.
Various mathematical models can be (and are) used. The most common is the layered elastic model.

Together with this mechanistic approach, empirical elements are used when defining what value of the calculated
stresses, strains and deflections result in pavement failure. The relationship between physical phenomena and
pavement failure is described by empirically-derived equations that compute the number of loading cycles to
failure.

The basic advantages of a mechanistic-empirical pavement design method over a purely empirical one are:
1. It accommodates changing load types
2. It can better characterize materials allowing for:
Figure 10.5.4.4 Design Chart for Flexible Pavement Design - Better utilization of available materials
- Accommodation of new materials
10.5.4.6 Minimum layer thicknesses: Since it is generally impractical and uneconomical to place surface,
- An improved definition of existing layer properties
base, or subbase course of less than some minimum thickness, the following are provided as minimum
3. It uses material properties that relate better to actual pavement performance
practical thicknesses for each pavement course:
4. It provides more reliable performance predictions
Minimum Thickness (mm) 5. It better defines the role of construction
Traffic, ESAL’s Asphalt Concrete Aggregate Base *
6. It accommodates environmental (temperature, precipitations, etc. ) and aging effects on materials
Less than or equal to 50,000 40 mm 100 mm
50,001 - 150,000 50 mm 100 mm 10.5.4.9 Mechanistic Layered Elastic Model: Mechanistic models are used to mathematically model pavement
150,001 - 500,000 65 mm 100 mm physics. There are a number of different types of models available today (e.g. dynamic, viscoelastic models)
500,001 - 2,000,000 75 mm 150 mm but this section will present the layered elastic model. This model can easily be run on personal computers and
can be operated using data that can be realistically obtained.
2,000,001 - 7,000,000 90 mm 150 mm
Greater than 7,000,000 100 mm 150 mm A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains and deflections at any point in a pavement structure
Table 10.5.4.4 Minimum Flexible Pavement Thickness resulting from the application of a surface load. Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural
* Whenever required for local, access, distributer and service roads only, that have traffic volumes not exceeding 500,000 ESAL, layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In other words, it is the same everywhere and will rebound
a minimum of 150mm thick aggregate subbase course may be placed directly under the asphalt concrete base layer, provided to its original form once the load is removed. This section covers the basic assumptions and limitations, inputs
that the pavement design approach and material properties are verified by the project Consultant and confirmed by proven
and outputs from a typical layered elastic model.
performance.

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10.5.4.10 Assumptions and Limitations of the Mechanistic Approach: The layered elastic approach requires 10.5.4.12 Outputs of the Mechanistic Approach: The outputs of a layered elastic model are the stresses,
some basic assumptions, which should be considered while reviewing the input and output results: strains, and deflections in the pavement:
1. The pavement layers extend infinitely in the horizontal direction. 1. 
Stress. The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement structure at various
2. The bottom layer (usually the subgrade) extends infinitely downward. points. Stress has units of force per unit area (N/m2, or Pa).
3. Materials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges. 2. 
Strain. The unit displacement due to stress, usually expressed as a ratio of the change in dimension to the
4. The tire pressure is applied uniformly over a circular area. original dimension (mm/mm). Since the strains in pavements are very small, they are normally expressed
in terms of micro-strain (10-6).
10.5.4.11 Inputs for the Mechanistic Approach: A layered elastic model requires a minimum number of inputs 3. Deflection. The linear change in a dimension. Deflection is expressed in units of length (mm or µm).
to adequately characterize a pavement structure and its response to loading. These inputs are:
The use of a layered elastic analysis computer program will allow one to calculate the theoretical stresses,
1. Material properties of each layer
strains, and deflections anywhere in a pavement structure. However, there are two critical locations that are
- Modulus of elasticity, E
often used in pavement analysis (see Table 10.5.4.5 and Figure 10.5.4.6).
- Poisson’s ratio, µ
2. Pavement layer thicknesses Location Response Reason for Use

3. Loading conditions Bottom of asphaltic Used to predict fatigue failure in

Horizontal Tensile Strain
Concrete layer the asphaltic concrete
- Magnitude. The total force (P) applied to the pavement surface
Used to predict rutting failure in
Top of Subgrade Vertical Compressive Strain
-G
 eometry. Usually specified as being a circle of a given radius (r or a), or the radius computed knowing the subgrade
the contact pressure of the load (p) and the magnitude of the load (P). Although most actual loads more Table 10.5.4.5 Critical Analysis Locations in a Pavement Structure
closely represent an ellipse and the tire pressure is not always uniform but these are to be considered also
as limitations to the Mechanistic Approach as previously indicated. 10.5.4.13 Failure Criteria: The main empirical attribute in the mechanistic-empirical design process lies in the
-R
 epetitions. Multiple loads on a pavement surface can be accommodated by summing the effects of development of the equations used to compute the number of loading cycles to failure. These equations are
individual loads. This can be done because we are assuming that the materials are not being stressed derived by observing the performance of pavements and relating the type and extent of observed failure to
beyond their elastic ranges. an initial strain under various loads. Two types of failure criteria are widely recognized, one relating to fatigue
cracking in the asphaltic concrete and the other to rutting initiating in the subgrade. Note that since these
Figure 10.5.4.5 shows how these inputs relate to a layered elastic model of a pavement system.
failure criteria are empirically established, they must be calibrated to specific local conditions.

Figure 10.5.4.5 Layered Elastic Inputs

Figure 10.5.4.6 Critical Analysis Locations in a Pavement Structure

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Many equations have been developed to estimate the number of repetitions to failure in the fatigue mode for 10.5.4.14 Typical Flexible Pavement Cross Section and Details: Typical flexible pavement cross section and
asphalt concrete. Most of these rely on the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphaltic concrete pavement edge details are shown on General Drawing GD 10-01. This Drawing also shows typical joint details
layer between the new and the existing flexible pavement structures and between flexible and interlocking concrete
paving block pavements
( ) and its elastic modulus. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and AUSTROADS fatigue formulae
for Asphalt Concrete presented below are widely used and have the following forms: 10.5.4.15 Guidance on the use of the combined AASHTO/Mechanistic Pavement Design Approach:
1. USACE asphalt and subgrade failure criteria: The USACE fatigue criteria used to check the allowable tensile
strains at the bottom of the asphalt layers is as follows: Step 1: Determine the pavement design section i.e. layer thicknesses using the empirical pavement design
x methodology according to the Guidelines provided by AASTHO 1993 method as described in Clauses 10.5.4.2
Allowable Strain Repetitions = 10 to 10.5.4.5 of this Section.
Where:
Step 2: The adequacy of the resulting pavement section (using the minimum asphalt concrete and aggregate
x = 2.68 - 5.0 log - 2.665 log EAC
base and subbase layer thicknesses) obtained according to AASHTO method shall be checked mechanistically
The USACE rutting failure criteria for Subgrade has the following form: as detailed under Clauses 10.5.4.8 to 10.5.4.13 of this Section.

Step 3: Whenever the mechanistic design verification shows deficiency in the pavement load carrying capacity,
the layer thicknesses are to be gradually increased until obtaining a cumulative damage factor that is equal to
or lower than 1.
Where:
= Computed strains at the top of subgrade and bottom of AC layer respectively,
Design Example:
= Modulus of elasticity of the asphalt layer in psi and,
The pavement design of a Secondary Rural Road is required to withstand a traffic volume up to 10 million
MR = Modulus of the subgrade in psi. To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145. ESAL and considering a design subgrade of CBR 15%. Using the empirical design approach described in
sections 10.5.4.2 to 10.5.4.5, the resulting pavement layer thicknesses are determined to be as follows:
2. AUSTROADS asphalt and subgrade failure criteria: The AUSTROADS fatigue criteria used to check the
1- Minimum Layer Thickness according to AASHTO 1993 Method
allowable tensile strains at the bottom of the asphalt layers is as follows:
- 160mm thick Asphaltic Concrete Layer
- 150mm thick Aggregate Base Course,
Where: - 150mm thick Aggregate Subbase Course.
= Maximum horizontal tensile strain at bottom of the asphalt layer(s) (in/in). The adequacy of the pavement section obtained from the empirical approach is inputted into the mechanistic
N = Allowable number of load repetitions approach (using the Everstress Software that is based on finite element techniques) to test for horizontal
RF = desired project reliability factor (AUSTROADS Guidelines, Table 6.14.) tensile strain at bottom of asphaltic concrete layer and the vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade layer.
VB = Volume of binder in asphalt mix. Using the mechanistic design approach, the pavement section obtained through the empirical design method

Smix = Asphalt modulus is shown to be not satisfactory to account for the anticipated traffic loading. In order to meet the mechanistic
analysis requirements, the asphalt concrete layer thickness was increased to 190mm while maintaining the
same thickness of the Aggregate Base Course and Aggregate Subbase Course i.e. 150mm. Thus, the final
The AUSTROADS fatigue criteria used to check the allowable strains at the top of the subgrade layer can be Pavement Section is as follows:
approximated as follows:
2- Final Pavement Section (verified by Mechanistic Approach)
Where: - 190mm thick Asphaltic Concrete Layer
N = allowable number of repetitions of a Standard Axle at this strain before an unacceptable level of permanent - 150mm thick Aggregate Base Course,
deformation develops. - 150mm thick Aggregate Subbase Course.
= Maximum vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade layer (in/in). - Subgrade Layer

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10.5.5 Rigid Pavement 10.5.5.3 Inputs for the AASHTO Method: The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation requires a number of inputs
related to loads, pavement structure and subgrade support. These inputs are:
Rigid pavement structural design is mainly concerned with determining the appropriate slab thickness based
1. The predicted loading. The predicted loading is the predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs that the
on traffic loads and underlying material properties, and joint design. The design approach adopted in this
pavement will experience over its design lifetime, as described in the earlier sections of the Standard.
Design Standard is also based on the AASHTO Guide 1993 Edition. It is an empirical design approach that
relates design inputs (e.g. loads, materials, layer configurations and environment) and pavement failure based 2. Reliability. The reliability of the pavement design-performance process is the probability that a pavement
on experience, experimentation or a combination of both. section designed using this process will perform satisfactorily under the traffic and environmental conditions
for the design period. In other words, there must be some assurance that a pavement will perform as intended
10.5.5.1 AASHTO Method: Empirical equations are used to relate observed or measurable phenomena with given the variability in such things as construction, environment and materials. The ZR and So variables
outcomes. The 1993 AASHTO Guide basic design equation for rigid pavements is based on U.S. units and it account for reliability. Table 10.5.3.1 provides the recommended Reliability level as a function of the Road
has the following form: Class. Table 10.5.3.2 provides the factor ZR as a function of the Reliability. Finally, So is usually taken as 0.35 to
0.4 for rigid pavements.
3. 
PCC elastic modulus. The PCC elastic modulus (Ec) can be estimated from the following relationship
developed by PCA (Portland Cement Association):

Where:
Ec = PCC elastic modulus, in psi [To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145].
Where:
f’c = PCC compressive strength, psi [To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145].
W18 = predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
4. PCC modulus of rupture (flexural strength). The modulus of rupture ( ) is typically obtained from a flexural
ZR = standard normal deviate
strength test. It can also be estimated according to the following relationship developed by PCA (Portland
So = combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance
Cement Association):
D = slab depth (inches) [To convert from mm to inches, divide by 25.4].
pt = terminal serviceability index
Where: N is a value ranging between 9 and 11.
∆PSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the design terminal serviceability index, pt
5. Slab depth. The pavement structure is best characterized by slab depth (D). The number of ESALs a rigid
S’c = modulus of rupture of PCC (flexural strength), in psi [To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145].
pavement can carry over its lifetime is very sensitive to slab depth. As a general rule, beyond about 200 mm
Cd = drainage coefficient
(8 inches) the load carrying capacity of a rigid pavement doubles for each additional 25 mm (1 inch) of slab
J = load transfer coefficient (value depends upon the load transfer)
thickness.
Ec = Elastic modulus of PCC, in psi [To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145].
6. Drainage coefficient. Rigid pavement is assigned a drainage coefficient (Cd) that represents the relative loss
k = modulus of subgrade reaction, in pci [To convert from kN/m3 to pci, divide by 272].
of strength due to its drainage characteristics and the total time it is exposed to near-saturation moisture
10.5.5.2 Limitations on the AASHTO Method: From the AASHTO Road Test, equations were developed which conditions. Generally, quick-draining layers that almost never become saturated can have coefficients as
related loss in serviceability, traffic, and pavement thickness. The AASHTO Road Test was developed for high as 1.2 while slow-draining layers that are often saturated can have drainage coefficients as low as 0.80.
specific conditions and equations used have certain limitations, as follows: If subsurface drainage is expected to be a problem, positive drainage measures should be taken. In general,
the use of drainage coefficients to overcome poor drainage conditions is not recommended (i.e. more slab
1. The equations were developed based on the specific pavement materials, subgrade soil and environmental
thickness does not necessarily solve water-related problems).
conditions present at the AASHTO Road Test.
7. Serviceable life. The difference in present serviceability index (PSI) between construction and end-of-life
2. The equations are based on an accelerated two-year testing period.
is the serviceability life. Typical values of the total change in serviceability index (∆PSI) depending on the
3. The loads used to develop the equations were operating vehicles with identical axle loads and configurations,
various road classes are as shown in Table 10.5.5.1 below:
as opposed to mixed traffic.
4. All transverse joints were the same spacing. All transverse joints used dowel bars. Road Classification ∆PSI
5. All PCC was of the same mix design and used the same aggregate and Portland cement. National 1.4
Arterial 1.9
When using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical equation or any other empirical equation, it is extremely
important to know the equation’s limitations and basic assumptions. Secondary 2.4
Distributor/Access 2.9

 PSI Values Corresponding to Various Road Classes - Rigid Pavement

Table 10.5.5.1 ∆

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8. 
Load transfer coefficient (J Factor). This accounts for load transfer efficiency. Essentially, the lower the J
Factor the better the load transfer. The J Factor for the AASHTO Road Test was estimated to be 3.2. Typical
J factor values are as shown below.

Conditions J Factor
Undoweled PCC on crushed aggregate surfacing 3.8
Doweled PCC on crushed aggregate surfacing 3.2
Doweled PCC on Asphalt Concrete 2.7
(without widened outside lane) and tied PCC shoulders

9. Modulus of subgrade reaction. The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used to estimate the “support” for
the PCC slab by the layers below. Usually, an “effective” k (keff) is calculated which reflects base, Granular
Subbase and subgrade contributions as well as the loss of support that occurs over time due to erosion
and stripping of the base, Granular Subbase and subgrade. The effective k values can be estimated using
Figures 10.5.5.1 and 10.5.5.2 below that are reproduced from the AASHTO Manual Figures 3.3 and 3.4
included under Clause 3.2.1 of Part II-Chapter 3. However, for actual design, it is recommended to refer to
the original charts provided in the AASHTO Manual in order to avoid possible inaccuracies or truncation
errors that may result from the reproduced copies.

Figure 10.5.5.2 Chart

Figure 10.5.5.1 Chart for to Modify Modulus of
Estimating Composite Subgrade Reaction to
Modulus of Subgrade Consider Effects of Rigid
Reaction k∞, Assuming a Foundation Near Surface
Semi-Infinite Subgrade Depth (within 3m)

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10.5.5.4 Outputs of the AASHTO Method: The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation can be solved for any one of The pavement design of concrete pavements should be carried out using the charts shown in Figures 10.5.5.3
the variables as long as all the others are supplied. Typically, the output is either total ESALs or the required and 10.5.5.4. These figures are reproduced from the AASHTO Manual Figure 3.7 “Design Chart for Rigid
slab depth (D). In design, the rigid pavement equation described here is typically solved simultaneously with Pavement Based on Using Mean Values for Each Input Variable” included under Part II- Chapter 3 “Highway
the rigid pavement ESAL equation. The solution is an iterative process that solves for ESALs in both equations Pavement Structural Design”. These charts should be used as shown in the illustrated example by starting with
by varying the slab depth (D). The solution is iterative because the slab depth (D) has two key influences: the effective modulus of subgrade reaction and following the projection lines and touch lines (TL) in a similar
1. The slab depth (D) determines the total number of ESALs that a particular pavement can support. This is way to that explained for flexible pavement in the previous sections above to reach the last chart in which
evident in the rigid pavement design equation presented in this section. the Design Slab Thickness can be determined. However, for actual design, it is recommended to refer to the
2. The slab depth also determines what the equivalent 80 kN (18,000 lb.) single axle load is for a given original charts provided in the AASHTO Manual in order to avoid possible inaccuracies or truncation errors,
pavement. resulting from the reproduced Chart.

Figure 10.5.5.3 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements (1) - match line connects to Figure 10.5.5.4

Figure 10.5.5.4 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements (2) - match line connected
from Figure 10.5.5.3

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10.5.5.5 Rigid Pavement Design – Joint Details: In addition to basic layer thickness and composition 10.5.5.7 Joint Orientation: Skewed transverse contraction joints can reduce load transfer joint stresses and
calculations, rigid pavement structural design must also consider surface layer joint layout. Joints must be may be beneficial in undoweled JPCP. Typically, joint skew should be limited to a maximum of 1:10 to prevent
designed to minimize slab cracking, joint deflection, joint stresses and roughness as well as to accommodate excessive corner breaks.
the intended joint sealant. Four key design components are essential to meet these goals:
10.5.5.8 Joint Size: Joint width and depth are dependent on two separate things. First, joint depth should
1. Joint spacing 2. Joint orientation
be between 1/4 and 1/3 of the total slab depth to ensure crack formation at the joint. Joints shallower than this
3. Joint size 4. Load transfer design
may not sufficiently weaken the vertical plane. Second, joint width is selected to provide an adequate joint
10.5.5.6 Joint Spacing: Joint spacing influences internal slab stresses, which determine how and where a sealant reservoir. Typically, a contraction joint is first sawed very narrow (3 mm) to control cracking, then later
slab cracks, as well as how much a slab will shrink or expand with temperature changes. Typically, joint spacing widened (10 - 15 mm wide) to create a joint sealant reservoir.
decisions must be made on jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) transverse and longitudinal contraction The size of the joint sealant reservoir should be determined based on recommendations of the manufacturer
joints. Of these, transverse contraction joints involve the most options. Longitudinal joints are typically spaced supplying the approved joint sealant material for each specific sealant. The shape factor is used to determine
at paving lane edges, which make them between about 3 and 6 m apart. Expansion and construction joints are the required depth of sealant. The joint sealant reservoir should be sized to provide proper shape factor W/D for
determined by project geometry, field placement and equipment capabilities. optimum performance according to the Manufacturer’s recommendations. The minimum sawcut width should
Joint spacing is highly dependent on the local environment, materials and subgrade. First, expected be 3mm.
temperature changes will influence slab curling stresses. In general, the greater the temperature changes,
10.5.5.9 Load Transfer Design: Dowel bars for load transfer must typically be provided for all medium to high
the shorter the joint spacing should be. Second, the materials within the PCC slab (the coarse aggregate is of
volume rigid pavements. In general, aggregate interlock becomes ineffective at a joint width of approximately
overriding concern) will influence the slab’s thermal coefficient. The higher the thermal coefficient, the more
1.0 mm and is generally unable to accommodate typical slab edge stresses at transverse joints associated with
a slab will shrink and expand for a given temperature change. Generally, slabs made with limestone coarse
medium to high traffic loading.
aggregate have lower thermal coefficients, while slabs made with quartz or sandstone have higher thermal
coefficients. Third, as the slab expands and contracts, the frictional resistance offered by the base material will The dowel bars should have a minimum diameter of 1/8 the pavement thickness, but not less than 20 mm.
also influence slab stresses. In general, the more frictional resistance, the higher the slab stresses. Typical designs use 450 mm-500 mm long dowel bars at 300 mm on center to center spacing, placed at slab
mid-depth.
Joint spacing is also related to slab thickness. In general, the thinner a slab is, the higher the curling stresses and
thus, the shorter the joint spacing should be. For design purposes, it is recommended to consider joint spacing 10.5.5.10 Typical Rigid Pavement Cross Section and Details: An important aspect for the proper performance
for plain concrete to be less than 24 x slab thickness. Thus, a 230 mm slab should have joints spaced no more of any rigid pavement is the provision of an appropriate load transfer system across the transverse and
than about 5.5 m apart. Also, as a design guide, the ratio of longer side slab length to the shorter side slab longitudinal joints. Typical rigid (concrete) pavement cross section and jointing details are shown on General
length should be kept less than 1.25, to avoid differential thermal stresses due to the geometrical shape of the Drawing GD 10-02. This Drawing also contains a typical transition/joint detail for the interface between the
concrete slab. concrete and any adjacent asphalt pavement.

It is recommended that the L/l ratio (slab length divided by radius of relative stiffness) not to exceed 5.0 when
10.5.6 Interlocking Block Pavements
determining the maximum slab length.
10.5.6.1 Application and Performance Properties: Concrete block paving offers sufficient strength and
The radius of relative stiffness, I, is defined by Westergaard as the stiffness of the slab relative to the stiffness
durability, and is resistant to most chemicals, making it suitable for various applications. The concrete blocks
of the foundation. It is determined by the following formula:
are manufactured and laid as per BS EN 1338 and the structural design procedure should follow BS 7533
Standard. The BS EN standards describe how the performance characteristics are to be assessed with the
relevant test methods and procedures, as detailed below.
Where:
l = radius of relative stiffness, inches. [To convert from mm to inches, divide by 25.4]. 10.5.6.2 Structural Design: This section offers detailed guidance on structural design for various applications
E = modulus of elasticity of the concrete, usually 4 million psi. [To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145]. of concrete block paving.
h = slab thickness, inches. [To convert from mm to inches, divide by 25.4].
Thickness of Concrete Block (mm) Typical Application
u = Poisson’s ratio for concrete, usually 0.15.
50 Driveways, Pathways and Footways
k = modulus of subgrade reaction, pci. [To convert from kN/m3 to pci, divide by 272].
Light Duty Pavements with total cumulative traffic not exceeding 0.5 msa, Cul-de-sacs, petrol
60/65
forecourts, pedestrian areas subject to regular heavy traffic
Transverse joint spacing of 12m is recommended for reinforced concrete pavement structures. Longitudinal
80 Heavy duty pavements 0.5 to 12 msa
joints are to be installed at 3.5 – 4m spacing and preferably along the lane separation lines.
Table 10.5.6.1 Concrete Block Thickness by Type of Application

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Appropriate design methods for the pavement construction including sub-base, and where required, aggregate 10.5.6.6 Pavement Section for Light Duty Pavements: The construction thickness is determined based on the
base thicknesses are dependent upon traffic volumes, in millions of cumulative 80 kN standard axles (msa), category of application, the CBR, and the thickness of each layer obtained from Table 10.5.6.3
as follows:
Aggregate Base Thickness (mm)
Traffic up to 0.5 msa - BS 7533-2, “Pavements constructed with clay, natural stone or concrete pavers, Part 2: Stabilized Sand Laying Paving Thickness
Category CBR of Natural Subgrade
Base (mm) Course (mm) Minimum (mm)
Guide for the structural design of light duty pavements constructed of clay pavers or precast concrete paving < 2% 3% 4% 5% >6%
blocks.” II 400 350 250 150 150 125 30 60
0.5 to 12 msa - BS 7533-1, “Pavements constructed with clay, natural stone or concrete pavers, Part 1: Guide for IIIa 350 300 225 150 150 0 50 50
the structural design of heavy duty pavements constructed of clay pavers or precast concrete paving blocks.” IIIb 300 250 175 100 100 0 50 50
IV 200 150 125 100 0 0 50 50
10.5.6.3 Light Duty Pavements: The British Standard BS 7533-2 provides guidance on the design of lightly
Other roads up to
trafficked pavements for all paved areas subjected to the usual road spectrum of axle loads. This applies to 200 150 125 100 100 100 30 60
100,000 ESAL
areas trafficked by up to 0.5 msa which includes cul-de-sacs, driveways, car parks, precincts, lightly trafficked
Table 10.5.6.3 Required Interlocking Block Pavement Thickness by Categories
roads, private and industrial vehicle parks, estate roads and paved areas.
10.5.6.7 Heavy Duty Pavements: The procedure for the design of paving subject to highway loading
10.5.6.4 Subgrade Properties: The bearing strength of the subgrade should be obtained as this determines
conditions can be calculated from BS7533-1, on which the following guidance is based.
the overall thickness of the sub-base. The strength of the subgrade is represented by the ‘California Bearing
The interlocking pavement structure for heavy duty pavements shall consist of the following sequence of
Ratio’ (CBR). The CBR of the underlying materials should be provided in the results of the site investigation that
layers from top to bottom:
should be carried out along the road alignment.
n Interlocking concrete blocks
10.5.5.5 Design Traffic for Light Duty Pavements: The number of commercial vehicles using the area should
n Sand bedding layer
be obtained. As a guide to typical applications and number of commercial vehicles per day (cv/d) the following
table can be used. n Stabilized Base Course (can be either Cement Stabilized Base Course or Bituminous Base Course depending
on the availability of materials, local expertise and economical aspects)
Maximum
Category cv/d Typical Applications Aggregate Base Course
traffic (msa) n

I 0.5-12.0 - use BS7533-1 n Subgrade Formation

≥5 Lightly trafficked Roads
The thickness of the Aggregate Base Course that shall be laid directly on top of the prepared and compacted
II 0.5 Car parks with occasional heavy traffic
<5 subgrade shall be determined according to the corresponding number of Equivalent Standard Axles ESAL and
Footways overridden by vehicular traffic
Subgrade CBR value, as per Table 10.5.6.4. Whereas, the thicknesses of the remaining layers listed above
III a - <1 Pedestrian areas with occasional vehicular traffic
shall be determined according to the corresponding number of Equivalent Standard Axles ESAL, using Table
III b - Nil Car parks receiving no heavy traffic and footways 10.5.6.5 as applicable for each specific layer.
IV - - Private drives, paths, patio
10.5.6.8 Subgrade Properties: Establish the CBR of the subgrade. The saturated CBR value should be
Table 10.5.6.2 Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement Categories
determined either by laboratory testing or by insitu tests. The degree of subgrade drainage must also be
A typical design life of 20 years is adopted for concrete block paving. The volume of traffic to be carried by considered when deciding the appropriate CBR to be assumed.
the pavement is expressed as ‘standard axles’. This theoretical figure is calculated by taking the number of
10.5.6.9 Design Traffic for Heavy Duty Pavements: Assess the number of commercial vehicles per day
commercial vehicles using the pavement during its design lifetime. Where channelized traffic in highways and
(cv/d) passing in each direction and determine the number of standard axles for the required design life.
roadways occurs, the traffic figure should be multiplied by 3. If the application of this factor results in a total
Convert the commercial vehicles per day (cv/d) to number of standard axles in millions of axles (msa).
design traffic figure greater than 0.5 msa then BS 7533-1 should be used.
10.5.6.10 Thickness of Aggregate Base Course for Heavy Duty Pavements: Use the following table to determine
the thickness of the aggregate base course. The thicknesses are dependent upon the subgrade CBR value and
trafficking. The number of standard axles in Table 10.5.6.4 is based on traffic during the construction phase.

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Subgrade CBR Design Value >2% - <3% >3% - <4% >4% - <5% >5% - <10% >10% - <15% >15% - <30% 10.5.7 Gravel Surfacing Pavements
Untrafficked Surfaces 170 150 150 150 150 150
10.5.7.1 Design Method: Gravel surfacing is suitable only for roads with a design speed of less than 60 km/h
Up to 2000 m or 100 ESAL/day
2
250 190 160 150 150 150
The required gravel thickness should be determined as follows:
Up to 200 ESAL/day 310 240 210 180 150 150
1 Determine the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive strain in the subgrade (D1).
Up to 5000 m2 or 500 ESAL/day 350 270 230 200 160 150
2. Determine the extra thickness needed to compensate for the gravel loss under traffic during the period
Up to 8000 m2or 1000 ESAL/day 400 310 270 225 180 150
between regravelling operations (D2).
Large Development 5000 ESAL/day 450 350 310 270 240 225
3. Determine the total gravel thickness required by adding the above two thicknesses (D1 + D2).
Table 10.5.6.4 Required Aggregate Base Course Thickness (in mm) According to the Expected Traffic
10.5.7.2 Minimum Thickness Required: It is necessary to limit the compressive strain in the subgrade to
10.5.6.11 Thickness of Stabilized Base Course for Heavy Duty Pavements: The thickness of stabilized base
course required can be ascertained from the number of standard axles using the pavement in its design life Thickness of Gravel Course D1 (mm)
and the type of base course employed from the following table: Subgrade Natural Subgrade Initial Daily Number of Commercial Vehicles
Strength Class Equivalent CBR Range % (both directions)
Design in millions of Cement Stabilized Base Bituminous Stabilized Sand Laying Course Block Thickness < 15 15 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 500
Standard Axles Course Thickness (mm) Base Course (mm) Thickness (mm) (mm)
S1 2-5 350 425 500 575
0.5 to 1.5 130 130 30 50, 60, 65 or 80 S2 5-8 225 275 325 375
> 1.5 to 4 130 130 30 80 S3 8 - 12 175 225 250 275
> 4 to 8 180 155 30 80 S4 12 - 15 150 175 200 225
> 8 to 12 230 170 30 80 S5 15 - 30 125 150 175 200
Table 10.5.6.5 Structural Design for Base Course and Surfacing Table 10.5.7.1 Minimum Gravel Wearing Course Thickness D1 (mm)

10.5.6.12 Paving Block Details : A block paved area should be able to accommodate the intended trafficking prevent excessive permanent deformation at the surface of the road. Table 10.5.7.1 gives the minimum gravel
over its design life, without experiencing significant surface deformation. In order to achieve this, the pavement thickness required for each class of subgrade bearing strength and for each range of initial commercial traffic.
must be correctly designed and properly constructed. Close attention to detailing will ensure an aesthetically
The following points should be noted
acceptable block surface able to transmit the applied loads to the structural elements of the pavement layers.
1. The subgrade bearing strength class should be determined based on the CBR results obtained from the site
investigation reports and in accordance with Table 10.5.7.1.
2. No gravel wearing course is necessary on a subgrade with CBR > 30%.
3. No provision has been made for traffic over 500 commercial vehicles per day, because it is thought that
such levels of traffic justify the construction of paved roads.
4. 
In cases where long steep longitudinal gradients (exceeding 50 meters in length) are unavoidable,
consideration should be given to paving the surface to reduce gravel loss and to avoid scour from rainfall.

10.5.7.3 Gravel Loss: An estimate of the annual gravel loss is given by the following equation:
Where:

GL = the annual gravel loss measured in mm.

T = the total traffic volume in the first year in both directions measured in thousands of vehicles.
Figure 10.5.6.1 Typical Interlocking Block Pavement Cross Section R = the average annual rainfall expressed in m.
V = the total rolling terrain length (rise + fall) as a percentage of the length of the road.
The correct level of compaction of each layer of the block pavement will prevent the formation of ruts throughout
f = 0.94 to 1.25 for lateritic gravels.
its life by maintaining the structural integrity of the surface course, and protecting the pavement layers and
subgrade from becoming overstressed. 1.1 to 1.51 for quartizitic gravels.
0.7 to 0.96 for volcanic gravels (weathered lava of tuff).
The main elements of a typical conventional concrete block paved pavement construction are shown in the
1.5 for coral gravels.
cross-section above in Figure 10.5.6.1. The base course and capping layers are dependent on the level of
1.38 for sandstone gravels.
trafficking and ground strength respectively, and may not be present in all pavements.

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10.5.7.4 Total Thickness Required: The wearing course of a new gravel road should have a thickness D
calculated from: D = D1 + N*GL
Where:
D1 = the minimum thickness given in Table 10.5.7.1
N = the period between regravelling operations (in years)
GL = the annual gravel loss.

The regravelling operations should be programmed to ensure that the actual gravel thickness never falls below
the minimum thickness D1.

10.6 REFERENCES

1. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1993 Edition – by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials.
2. Pavement Design Guide, November 01, 2008 – by Texas Department of Transportation.
3. Flexible Pavement Design Manual Document No. 625-010-002-g, March 2008 – by the State of Florida
Department of Transportation.
4. Publication No. FHWA NHI-05-37 May 2006 – NHI Course No. 132040 “Geotechnical Aspects of Pavements”
– by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration.

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GD 10-01 Typical Flexible Pavement Structure, Edge and Joining Details (Scale: N.T.S)

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GD 10-02 Typical Rigid Pavement Structure and Typical Concrete Layout and Joining Details (Scale: N.T.S)

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