SRI CHAITANYA IIT ACADEMY

BHASKAR BHAVAN
KUKATPALLY.

JR.MPC.
PHYSICS
CDF

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 PHYSICAL WORLD
1. Physics : Physics is the branch of science which deals with the physical properties of matter
and their energies.
2. Gravitational force, Electromagnetic force, Strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force are
the fundamental forces in nature
3. Acceleration due to gravity has no symmetry but Law of gravitation has symmetry.
4. The gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virtue of
their masses. It is a universal force.
5. Electromagnetic force is the force between charged particles.
6. The electric force between two protons, is 1036 times the gravitational force between them,
for any fixed distance.
7. The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
8. The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, about 100 times the
electromagnetic force in strength.
9. The radius of a nucleus is of the order of 1015 m and that of the atom is nearly 1010 m thus
nucleus is 5 order of magnitude greater than the radius of atom.
10. The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the  -decay of a
nucleus.
11. The range of weak nuclear force is exceeding small, of the order of 1016 m .
12. According to Einstein’s theory, as m is equivalent to energy E given by the relation E  mc 2 ,
where c is speed of light in vacuum.
13. The discovery of C.V.Raman is Raman Effect. The Raman Effect deals with scattering of
light by molecules of a medium when they are excited to vibrational energy levels.
14. Chandra sekharlimit,structure and evolution of stars is the contribution of S.Chandra
Sekhar to Physics.

UNITS & MEASUREMENTS

1. Fundamental Physical quantities :
The physical quantity which does not depend upon other physical quantities.
2. Derived Physical quantities :
The physical quantities which can be derived from the fundamental quantities are called as
derived quantities
3. Fundamental units : The units of fundamental physical quantities are called the fundamental
units.
Ex : Kg, m, sec etc.
4. Derived units : The units of derived physical quantity are called the derived units
Ex : m/s, m / s 2 , J etc.
5. Dimensional formula : The expression in which a physical quantity is represented as
mathematical powers of fundamental physical quantity is known as dimensional formula.
6. Dimensions:
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 The dimensions of a physical quantities are the powers to which the fundamental quantities
to be raised to represent that physical quantity
7. Dimensional constant:
Constants having dimensional formula are called dimensional constants.
Ex : Planck’s constant, universal gravitational constant.
8. Dimensionless quantities :
Physical quantities having no dimensional formula are called dimension less quantity
Ex : Angle, strain
9. Principle of homogeneity : Only physical quantities having same dimensions can be added,
subtracted or can be equated
10. Uses of dimensional formula : Dimensional formulae can be used
a) to check the correctness of an equation
b) to convert one system of units to another system
c) to derive relationship among different physical quantities
11. Limitations of dimensional analysis:
1) This method does not give information about dimensionless constants
2) This method is limited to physical relations which are power functions only
3) This method is not suitable to derive relations involving exponential and logarithmic,
trigonometric functions
4) This method is not suitable to derive relation when a physical quantity depends on more
than three other physical quantities
12. In a physical quantity the numerical value is inversely proportional to its units.
1
N  NU  N 2U 2
U
13. Error : The difference between true value and measured value is called Error.
14. Different types of Errors are systematic errors, random errors and gross errors.
15. True Value : The arithmetic mean of a large number of repeated measurements is taken as
the true value or actual value.
16. Accuracy : Accuracy is a measure of the closeness of the measured value to the true value.
17. Precision : Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured by an
instrument.
18. Significant digits: The digits of a number that are definitely known plus one more digit. i.e.
estimated are called the significant digits.
19. The value of unified atomic mass unit (1 amu) = 1.66 1027 kg .
20. Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques, selecting better
instruments and removing personal bias as far as possible.

MOTION IN A STRIAGHT LINE

1. Distance : (a) The total length of the path is known as distance

(b) Distance is a scalar
2. Displacement:
a) The shortest distance between two points with specific direction is known as displacement.
b) Displacement is a vector quantity.
c) Both distance and displacement have same units and dimensions.
d) Units :metre
e) Dimensional formula : M 0 LT
1 0

3. Speed : The rate of change of distance is known as speed.

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 Distance S
Speed = V 
Time t
Speed is a scalar quantity.
4. Velocity : The rate of change of displacement is known as velocity.
Displacement S
Velocity = V 
Time t
Units : m/s
1 1
Dimensional formula : M 0 LT
Velocity is a vector quantity. Both speed and velocity have same units and dimensions.
5. Average speed :
Total distance travelled
=
Total time
Distance travelled = Average speed x time
S  Vave  t
6. Resultant displacement = (Average velocity) X (time); S = V x t
7. If a body cover first half of the total displacement with a velocity v1 and second half with
2v1v2
velocity v2 , then the average velocity is given by Vavg 
v1  v2
8. Average velocity :
The ratio of total displacement to the total time intervel in which the displacement occurs
 x x2  x1
Vave  
t t2  t1
9. Instantaneous velocity : The velocity of a body at any particular instant in its journey is known as
dS
instantaneous velocity. Vinst  Units : m/s
dt
1 1
Dimensional formula : M 0 LT
10. Average velocity and Instantaneous velocity are equal, if the particle is in uniform motion
along a straight line.
11. Acceleration : The rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration
Final velocity - Initialvelocity vu
Acceleration (a) = a=
Time t
The direction of acceleration lies along the direction of change in velocity.
12. Radiation : The negative acceleration is known as retardation.
Anybody travelling with decreasing velocity possesses retardation or deceleration.
1 2
Units : m / s 2 Dimensional formula : M 0 LT
13. Acceleration is maximum at the extreme points of simple harmonic motion.
14. Equations of motion (moving with uniform acceleration)
u = initial velocity, v = final velocity
a = acceleration, s = displacement , t = time of travel
1  1
1) v  u  at 2) S  ut  at 2 3) v 2  u 2  2as 4) S n  u  a  n  
2  2
Where S n is the distance travelled in nth second of its journey?
15. Equations of motion of a freely falling body (take u  0 and a  g )
1  1
1) v  gt 2) S  gt 2 3) v 2  2 gs 4) Sn  g  n  
2  2
16. Equations of motion for a body thrown vertically up  a   g , s  h 
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 1  1
1) v  u  gt 2) h  ut  gt 2 3) v 2  u 2  2 gh 4) hn  u  g  n  
2  2
17. For a body thrown up vertically from the top of a tower (or) a body dropped from a balloon
moving vertically up
1  1
1) v  u  gt 2) h  ut  gt 2 3) v 2  u 2  2 gh 4) hn  u  g  n  
2  2

18. For a body thrown vertically up with an initial velocity ‘u’

a. Maximum height : Maximum vertical distance travelled is known as maximum height
u2
h  h  u2
2g
b. Time of ascent : The time taken by a body to reach the maximum height is known as time of
ascent.
u
ta 
g
c. Time of descent : The time in which body comes down from maximum height is known as time
u
of descent. td 
g
d. Time of flight : The total time for which a body remains in air before reaching the ground is
u u 2u
known as time of flight. T  ta  td   
g g g
19. Time of ascent is equal to time of descent, if air resistance is neglected.
20. If a body is thrown vertically up with a velocity ‘u’ , it returns to ground with velocity ‘v’ which
is equal to magnitude of ‘u’ but opposite in direction i.e., v  u
21. For a body falling freely through a height ‘h’
2h
The time of descent t  The velocity gained V  2 gh
g
22. If a body is allowed to fall freely from the top of a tower of height ‘h’ and another is projected
simultaneously from the foot of tower in the upward direction with velocity u then, they meet after
h
time t 
u
23. Relative velocity : Velocity of one body with respect to that of another body is called relative
velocity. The velocity of ‘A’ with respect to that of ‘B’ is given by VAB  VA  VB
If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are moving at an angle  with one another, then, velocity of ‘A’ with respect to that
of ‘B’ is given by V AB  VA2  VB2  2VAVB cos 

MOTION IN A PLANE
1. The physical quantities having both magnitude and direction and also obeying laws of vector
addition are known as vectors.
2. Different types of vectors
i) Like vectors or Parallel vectors :
Two vectors (representing same physical quantity) are called like vectors, if they are parallel to
each other, however their magnitudes may be different.

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 ii) Equal vectors:
Two or more vectors (representing same physical quantity) are called equal vectors if their
magnitudes and directions are same.
iii) Negative vector : A vector having the same magnitude and opposite direction of a given
vector is called negative vector of the given vector.
iv) Null vector : A vector whose magnitude is zero and whose direction is indetermined is
called as Null vector (or ) zero vector.
^ A
v) Unit vector : A vector whose magnitude is equal to one is called as Unit vector. A 
A
^ ^ ^
Ex :- i , j and k are unit vectors along X,Y and Z axes respectively.
vi) Position vector : The vector used to specify the position of a point with respect to some
fixed point with respect to some fixed point (say origin ‘O’) is called position vector.
a) If P  x, y, z  is a point in 3D space, then the position vector of P is given by
^ ^ ^
r  x i y j z k
b) If A x ,A y ,A z  is a point 3D space, then the position vector of this point is given by
^ ^ ^
A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k
c) Magnitude of A is Ax2  Ay2  Az2
d) If  ,  ,  are the angles made by A with X,Y and Z axes respectively, then
A A A
cos   x ;cos   y ;cos   z
A A A
Where cos  , cos  and cos  are called as direction cosines.
e) The relation between direction cosines is cos2   cos2   cos2   1
3. Resolution of Vectors
The process of dividing a vector into its components is called resolution of vector

i) Horizontal component Ax  A cos  ii) Vertical component Ay  A sin 

iii) Resultant A  Ax2  Ay2
iv) If the horizontal component of a vector is equal to its vertical component, then the angle
made by the vector with X – axis is   450
4. Parallelogram law of vectors :
If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram drawn from a point, the diagonal passing through that point represents their
resultant both in magnitude and direction.
Magnitude of resultant of given two vectors = R = A2  B2  2 AB cos
Where  is the angle between the vectors.
Direction of resultant vectors R .

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 B sin 
Tan  
A  B cos 
Where  is angle made by the R with A .
5. Projectile: A body projected in to air with some velocity at an angle (other than 900 ) with the
horizontal is called a projectile.
6. The path of a projectile us a parabola.
i) If a body is projected at an angle ' ' to the horizontal with an initial velocity ‘u’ its horizontal
and vertical components of initial velocities are
ux  u cos  and u y  u sin  .
ii) After a time ‘t’ the horizontal displacement = x   u cos  t
1
Vertical displacement = y   u sin   t  gt 2
2
 g  2
iii) Equation for the trajectory of the body y  x tan    2 x
 2u cos  
2

7. The velocity of projectile is not zero at any point. Its value is minimum  u cos   at the highest
point of its path. At this point only vertical component of velocity is zero.
8. At any instant of time‘t’ the horizontal component of velocity is vx  u cos  .
The vertical component of velocity is v y  u sin   gt
The resultant velocity is v  vx2  vy2
vy
The direction ‘v’ makes an angle  with horizontal Where tan  
vx
u sin 
9. Time of ascent  ta  
g
u sin 
10. Time of descent  td  
g
2u sin 
11. Time of flight T  ta  td 
g
u 2 sin 2 
12. Maximum height reached = H max 
2g
2uxu y 2  u sin   u cos   u 2 sin  2 
13. Horizontal range R =  =
g g g
14. Angle of projection for maximum range is   45 0

15. Two angles of projection for same range are ' ' and  90    and  45    and  45    also.
16. If the range and maximum height of a projectile are equal, the angle of projection   tan 1  4
R 4
17. The relation between range and maximum height is 
H tan 
R
When   450 then H 
4
18. The path of a body projected horizontally from the top of a tower of height ‘h’ is a parabola.
 g 
The equation of the trajectory is given by y   2  x 2
 2u 
2h
a) The time of descent t 
g

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 2h
b) The horizontal range R  u  t  u
g
c) At any instant ‘t’ horizontal velocity is vx  u , vertical velocity vy  gt
d) The resultant velocity v  vx2  vy2
vy
e) The angle made by V with horizontal is given by tan  
vx
19. Suppose a bomb is dropped from a plane moving horizontally with uniform velocity ‘u’.
The path of bomb as observed by a man stationary on ground is parabola and as observed by
the pilot of the plane is a vertical straight line.

LAWS OF MOTION
1. Newton First law defines inertia and force. Inertia : The inability of a body to change its state of
rest or of uniform motion along a straight line by itself is called inertia. Mass is a measure of inertia.
2. The inability of a body to change its state of rest by itself is called inertia of rest.
3. The inability of a body to change its state of motion by itself is inertia of motion.
4. The inability of a body to change its direction of motion by itself is inertia of direction.
5. Newton’s second law : The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
net external force acting on the body and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
p
Newton second law measures the force F 
t
The product of mass and velocity of a body is called linear momentum, p  mv
mv  mu
F  ma  1 newton = 105 dyne 1 kg wt = g newton
t
6. Apparent weight in a lift = m  g  a  ,
a) Use + sign when acceleration is upwards.
b) Use – sign when acceleration is downwards.
7. When a lift moves downwards with a uniform acceleration or moves upwards with uniform
retardation (a) the apparent weight of a person mass (m) is R  m  g  a  .
Apparent weight decreases.
8. When the lift falls down freely, apparent weight of a person is zero since a = g.
9. When a lift moves upward or downwards with constant velocity, the apparent weight of
a person is mg; since a = 0.
10. The apparent weight of a person in a lift depends on the direction of acceleration.
11. A large force acting on a body for a short time interval is an impulsive force.

12. Impulse is equal to change of linear momentum of the body and given by
I   mv  mu  = change in momentum. Impulse = F x t
13. The area under force-time graph gives impulse.
14. To decrease an impulsive force, time of impulse is increased
15. Newton third law : “To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction”.
i.e. Action = - (reaction)
16. Action and reaction never act on the same body, but act on two different bodies.

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17. Law of conservation of linear momentum :
“The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved”.
18. For translator equilibrium of a body, net external force acting on it is zero.
19. Friction : The property which opposes the relative motion of one body over the surface of
another body is called friction.
20. Advantages of friction :
i) While walking, friction between the ground and shoes prevent us from slipping
ii) Without friction, motion cannot be conveyed by belts from motor to machine
21. Disadvantages of friction:
i) Friction causes wear and teat of moving parts of the machinery.
ii) Friction generates heat in machine parts which damages the machinery.
22. Methods of reducing friction :
i) By polishing ii) By using Lubricants iii) By using Ball bearings iv) Stream lining
23. Types of friction :
There are three types of frictional forces
i) Static friction ii) Dynamic friction iii) Rolling friction
24. Laws of friction :
i) Friction opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact and is always tangential to the
surfaces of contact.
ii) Friction depends on the nature of the two surfaces in contact i.e. nature of materials, surface
finishing etc.
iii) Frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces
iv) Frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction acting on the body.
v) f  R  f   R
Where = coefficient of friction
f
vi) Coefficient of static friction  f s   ms
R
 
vii) Coefficient of kinetic friction f k  K
f
R
f
viii) Coefficient of rolling friction  f r   r ix)  s   k
R
25. Normal reaction (R) :
a) When the body lies on a horizontal surface R  W  mg
b) When the body lies on an inclined surface R  W cos   mg cos 
26. The angle between the normal reaction R and the resultant of f and R is called angle of friction
27. If  is angle of friction and is the coefficient of friction then S  tan 
28. Angle of repose   :
Angle of repose is the minimum angle of the rough inclined plane for which body placed on it may
just start sliding down.
a) If    , the body is at rest on the plane.
Frictional force = mg sin  (self adjusting force)
b) If    , the body just tends to slide down the plane
Frictional force = mg sin   mg cos 
c) If    , the body slides down with accelerationFrictional force = mg cos 
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29. Pulling with inclined force is easier than pushing .
a) In case of a pulling a lawn roller N  mg  F sin 
b) In case of a pushing a lawn roller N  mg  F sin 

WORK – ENERGY – POWER

1. Dot Product or scalar product
Definition of dot product:
The dot product of twonon zero vectors is defined as the product of their magnitudes and cosine
of the angle between them. A, B  AB cos 
Dot product of two vectors is a scalar.
Properties of scalar product :
i) Dot product obeys commutative law A.B  B.A
 
ii) Dot product obeys distributive law A. B  C  A.B  A.C
iii) Dot product can be –Ve, + Ve , or 0
iv) Dot product of unit vectors
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
i .i  j . j  k .k  1
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
i . j  j . k  k .i  0
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
v) If A  A1 i  A2 j  A3 k and B  B1 i  B2 j  B3 k , then , A.B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3
2. Work : Work is said to be done by a force when a body undergoes displacement parallel to the
line of action of the force . Units : S.I. – Joule , CGS – erg. 1 Joule = 107 ergs
3. If a force F acts on a body at an angle  and displaces the body through a distance ‘S’ then, work
done, W   F cos   S  F .S
Work done is a scalar quantity

4.
i) When   900 ,W  0
ii) When 0    900 workdone is positive
iii) When 900    1800 workdone is negative
5. Conditions for zero work
1. when force is zero 2. when displacement is zero
3. when angle between force and displacement is 900
6. Power : The rate of doing work is called power.
work Fs W
Power (P) =  
time t t
F .S
P  F .V
t
Power is a scalar. Units : SI – watt or J/sec 1 Horse Power (H.P) = 746 watt
7. The power of a machine gun firing ‘b’ bullets, each of mass ‘m’ in “t” second with velocity ‘v’ is

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 mnv 2
p
2t
8. Energy : The capacity of doing work is called energy.
a) It is a scalar, its unit is same as that of work.
b) Units : SI – JouleC.G.S. – erg c) 1 k Wh = 3.6 106 J
9. Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or configuration is known as potential
energy.
i) The P.E. of a body at a height h
P.E. = mgh
Where h<<R, where R is the radius of the earth.
Ex : Energy possessed by
1) Bird sitting on a branch of a tree
2) Water stored in the dam
1 1 1 F2
3) The elastic P.E. stored in a compressed spring is P.E. = kx 2  Fx  .
2 2 2 K
Where K is spring constant.
1
10. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. K .E  mv 2
2
Ex : Energy possessed by
(1) A vehicle in motion.
(2) Water flowing along a river.
(3) A bullet fired from a gun.
(4) A satellite going around the earth.
11. A flying bird, movingaeroplane, freely falling body, a body moving on an inclined plane and
oscillating pendulum posses both P.E. and K.E.
P2
12. The relation between K.E and momentum is K .E  KE  P 2 for a given body.
2m
13. Work-Energy theorem : The work done on a particle by the net force is equal to the change in its
1 1
kinetic energy. W  mv 2  mu 2  K f  Ki
2 2
14. Conservative force :
1) A force is conservative if the work done by the force on a body along any closed path is zero.
2) The work done by the conservative force on a body depends only on the initial and final
positions and does not depend on the path followed. Ex : gravitational force.

Non-conservative force :
1) A force is Non-conservative of the work done by the force on a body along a closed path is not
zero
2) The work done by the non conservative force on a body depends on the path followed.
Ex : frictional force.

15. Law of Conservation of Energy: The total mechanical energy of a system is constant if the
internal forces doing work on it are conservative and the external forces do not work.
16. Law of conservation of momentum: m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2v2
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision. This is valid in the absence of
external force and in a given direction.
17. In elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
18. In inelastic collision only momentum is conserved; kinetic energy is not conserved

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19. When two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 undergo head on
elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. If v1 and v2 are their respective
velocities after collision, then
i) m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2v2
1 1 1 1
ii) m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v22
2 2 2 2
iii) v2  v1  u1  u2
 m  m2   2m2   2m1   m2  m1 
iv) v1   1  u1    u2 v) v2    u1    u2
 m1  m2   m1  m2   m1  m2   m1  m2 

20. A bullet of mass m is fired from a rifle of mass M with velocity u. The velocity of recoil of the
mu
rifle is v 
M
21. Coefficient of restitution

e=
Relative velocity of separation after collision v  v 
= 2 1
Relative velocity of approach before collision  u1  u2 
The value of coefficient of restitution (e) is
Independent of the masses and velocities of the colliding bodies. It depends on the nature of
colliding bodies.

22. (a) For perfectly elastic collisions e = 1

(b) For perfectly inelastic collisions e = 0
(c) For other collisions (inelastic collision) ‘e’ lies between 0 and 1.
23. A body freely falls from a height h1 on to a hard floor and rebounds to a height h2 . Then the
h2
coefficient of restitution e 
h1
24. A body freely falls on the ground from a height “h” and rebounces”. The total distance travelled
 1  e2 
by the body before ceases the rebounce is d  h  2 
 1 e 

SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

1. Centre of mass :
Centre of mass of a body is a point, where the entire mass is supposed to be concentrated.
2. Characteristics of centre of mass :
i) Centre of mass system of particles depend on mass of particles and their relative positions.
ii) For continuous distribution of mass, centre of mass depends on mass distribution and shape
of the body.
iii) It is not necessary that a mass should be present at the centre of mass of any system.
Ex : uniform ring, bangle.
iv) It does not depend on acceleration due to gravity
v) Internal forces cannot change the path followed by CM of a system.
vi) In absence of external force.
CM  0 (or) VCM  constant
3.

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When two particles of masses m1 and m2 are located on a straight line, their centre of mass lies on
the line joining the two particles. Let r1 and r2 be the distances of the particles from their centre of
mass respectively, then m1r1  m2 r2
4. Coordinates of centre of mass
Let us consider a system of n particles of masses m1 , m2 ,...., mn whose co-ordinates are  x1 , y1 , z1 
 x2 , y2 , z2  , ……..,  xn , yn , zn  respectively. Then co-ordinates of their centre of mass are
m1 x1  m2 x2  ....  mn xn m y  m2 y2  ....  mn yn m z  m2 z2  ....  mn zn
xcm  ycm  1 1 Z cm  1 1
m1  m2  ...  mn m1  m2  ...  mn m1  m2  ...  mn
5. Position vector of centre of mass
Consider two particles of mass m1 and m2 whose position are represented by position vectors r1
m1 r1  m2 r2
and r2 respectively at an instant, then, rcm 
m1  m2
6. Velocity of centre of mass :

m1V1  m2 V2  ...  mn Vn 1 n
V cm  V cm  . mi .V i
m1  m2  ...  mn M i 1

7. Momentum of centre of mass :

n
M V cm  m1V1  m2V2  ....  mnVn M V cm  P1  P2  ....  Pn M V cm   Pi
i 1
8. Acceleration of centre of mass:
m a  m a  ....mn a n 1 n
a cm  1 1 2 2 a cm   mi ai
m1  m2  ...  mn M i 1
9. Centre of gravity : Centre of gravity of the body is a point, through which weight of the body
always acts.
i) Centre of mass and centre of gravity coincide for small bodies and they do not coincide for large
bodies like planets
ii) It depends on acceleration due to gravity
10. Linear momentum of a system of particles : The total momentum of a system of particles is
equal to the product of the total mass of the system and the velocity of its centre of mass, i.e. P =
MV
dP
According to Newton’s second law, Fext 
dt
dP
If , Fext  0 , then  0 , So , P = constant.
dt
11. Vector Product :
The vector product of any two vectors is equal to the product of the magnitude of the two vectors
and the sine of the angle between and the resultant direction is always perpendicular to plane
^
formed by the two vectors. P  Q  PQ sin  n  R
^
Where n is a unit vector normal to the plane formed by P and Q .
The magnitude of R is given by R  PQ sin 

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Properties of Vector Product :
i) Cross product of vectors does not obey commutative law P  Q  Q  P but P  Q   Q  P  
ii) Cross product obeys distributive law of multiplication P  Q  R    P  Q    P  R 
iii) The magnitude of cross product of two vectors is equal to the area of parallelogram with the
two vectors as adjacent sides.

If P , Q are the adjacent sides of the parallelogram OABC, then the area of OABC  P  Q
^
iv) The cross product between two parallel vectors gives a null vector. P  Q = PQ sin  n
When   00 (or) 1800 , then P  Q  0  P  Q  0
v) The cross product between two mutually perpendicular vectors is maximum.
^
P  Q  PQ sin  n
When   900 , then , P  Q  PQ is the vector with maximum magnitude.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
vi) i  i  0 i j  k
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
j j  0 jk  i
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
kk  0 ki  j

12. If the magnitude of dot product of two vectors is equal to magnitude of cross product of those
two vectors then angle between the vectors is 450
A.B  A  B  AB cos   AB sin 
 tan   1    450
13. Examples of cross product :
1) Angular momentum : L  r  p
2) Torque   r  F
d
14. Angular velocity : The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity  
dt
S.I. unit : rad / sec. Dimensional Formula :  M 0 L0T 1 
15. Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity is v  r In vector form, v    r
v2  2 R2
16. Centripetal acceleration aC    2R
R R
17. Angular acceleration : The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.
d
i.e.   S.I. Unit : rad/sec2 Dimensional Formula :  M 0 L0T 2 
dt
18. Kinematical Equations of rotatormotion:
1
1.    0   t 2.    0t   t 2 3.  2  0  2
2
    0 
4. n  0   2n  1 5.    t
2  2 
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Where 0 : Initial angular velocity
 : Final angular velocity after a time ‘t’
 : Uniform angular acceleration
 : Angular displacement
19. Torque :
i) The rate of change of angular momentum is called Torque
dL
i.e.  
dt
ii) The turning effect of a force about the axis of rotation is called moment of force or torque.
iii) Torque : Force x Perpendicular distance of line of action of force from axis of rotation.
i.e.   r  F
  rF sin 
20. Angular momentum (L) : Moment of linear momentum of a particle about axis of rotation is
known as Angular momentum
Angular momentum = linear momentum x Perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.
Angular momentum is an axial vector
In vector form L  r  P L  rp sin  r  Position vector
r sin   Perpendicular distance
dL
ii) The rate of change of angular momentum is torque .i.e.  
dt
L2
iii) Relation between angular momentum and rotational K.E. is KE 
2I
Here, I = moment of inertia

21. Law of conservation of angular momentum :

If there is no resultant external torque on a rotating system, the angular momentum of the system
remains constant both in magnitude and direction.
dL
From Newton’s second law ,  
dt
dL
If   0 , then,  0  L = constant.  I  constant  L  I   I11  I 22
dt
22. Couple :
Two non collinear forces of equal magnitude but opposite in direction acting at two different points
on a body constitute couple
23. Moment of Couple :
It is the product of magnitude of one of two forces of couple and perpendicular distance between
the lines of action of two forces.
24. Moment of Inertia : It is a measure of rotational inertia.
Moment of inertia of a rigid body about a given axis of rotation is the sum of products of the
masses of various particles and square of their perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation
n
I  m1r12  m2 r22  ....  mn rn2 or I   mi .ri 2
i 1

Units : kg. m3 Dimensional formula :  ML2T 0 

25. Theorems of moment of inertia
a) Perpendicular axes theorem :

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The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis passing through a point perpendicular to its
plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes in its
plane passing through the same point I z  I x  I y
b) Parallel axes theorem :
Moment of inertia of a rigid body about any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about
a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the product of the mass of the body and
square of the perpendicular distance between the two axes. I z  I cm  Mr 2
26. Rolling of a body on an inclined plane without slipping:
When a body is rolling down on an inclined plane, velocity of the body when it reaches the bottom
2 gh 2 gl sin 
is given by v  2
= (since h  l sin  )
k k2
1 2 1 2
r r
OSCILLATIONS

1. Characteristics of simple harmonic motions:

i) The motion is periodic
ii) Particle executes to and fro motion
iii) Acceleration is directed towards the mean point
iv) The acceleration is always directly proportional to displacement and which is opposite in
direction to the displacement a    y 
2. Every simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion, but every periodic motion need not be a
simple harmonic motion.
3. Revolution of electrons around the nucleus and revolution of planet around the sun are
periodic but not oscillatory
4. Amplitude :
The maximum displacement of the vibrating particle is called amplitude, represented by ‘A’
(or) a.
5. Time period :
2
The time taken for one oscillation is called T  , Where  angular velocity

6. Frequency :
The number of oscillations completed by a particle in one second is called frequency
1
Frequency f  cycles / sec.
T
7. Phase :
Phase is that which denotes the state of vibration with respect to mean position.
8. Displacement, velocity and acceleration of a particle executing simple harmonic motion.
a. Displacement of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by y  A sin t   
Where,   is initial phase ,   angular frequency , A  amplitude
b. Velocity of the particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by
V  A cos t (or) V   A2  y 2
c. Acceleration of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by
a   A 2 sin t    a   2 y
Case (i) When particle at mean position
Displacement y=0 Acceleration A = 0 Velocity V   A (maximum)
Case (ii) When particle at extreme position Displacement y = A
Acceleration a =  A (maximum)
2
Velocity V = 0
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 y
9. Time period of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by T  2
a
Where y = displacement and a = acceleration
10. Simple pendulum :
Time period of simple pendulum executing simple harmonic motion is given by
l
T  2
g
Where l  length of the simple pendulum g  acceleration due to gravity
11. Laws of simple pendulum
 Time period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to square root of its length T  l
 Time period of simple pendulum is inversely proportional to square root of the acceleration due
1
to gravity T
g
a) Time period of simple pendulum is independent of mass and shape of the body so wooden bob
is replaced by identical aluminium bob there will be no change in its time period.
b) When pendulum is taken to the top of a mountain, acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ decreases,
 1 
time period increases.  T   . So, the number of oscillations decreases per day. Hence it
 g 

looses time.
c) When a pendulum clock showing correct time at the equator is taken to poles, then it will gain
 1 
time. Because acceleration due to gravity at poles is maximum, time period  T  
 g 

decreases. So number of oscillations made in the given time increases. Hence clock gains time.
d) If girl stands in a swing, centre of mass goes up. Then length of the oscillation of the swing
decreases, the time period also decreases as T  l . When time period decreases frequency of
1
oscillation increases as T 
n
e) As water begins to drainout from the hollow sphere, the centre of mass of (sphere + water)
system goes down. So the effective length of pendulum increases. As T  l , the time period
(T) also increases.
When water is completely drained out the centre of mass comes to its original position
(i.e.centre of the sphere). So the pendulum will have its original period.
12. Seconds pendulum :
The pendulum whose time period is 2 seconds is called seconds pendulum. Its length on
earth is100 cm.
13. Loaded spring

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i) If a mass M is suspended vertically from a spring and if the spring elongates ‘x’ then spring
F Mg
constant is K   K 
x x
M M x
ii) Time period of this loaded spring is T  2  2  T  2
K Mg g
x
14. Energy of a particle executing simple harmonic motion. Itposses both P.E. and K.E.
K .E  m 2  A2  y 2  ..........(2)
1 1
P.E  m 2 y 2 ..........(1)
2 2
Total energy of the particle = PE + KE
1
TE  m 2 A2 ………..(3)
2
Where A = amplitude, Y = displacement.
a) If amplitude is doubled its energy is increased by four times
b) Simple pendulum moves from extreme to mean position its PE decreases and KE increases
c) When it moves from mean to extreme position, KE decreases and PE increases. But total energy
remains constant.
15. Forced oscillations : The oscillations in
Which a body oscillates under the influence of an external periodic force are known as forced
oscillations.
16. Damped oscillations.
The oscillations in which the amplitude of the body decreases with time are known as damped
oscillations.

GRAVITATION
1) Kepler’s laws:
i) Law of orbits : All planets revolve around sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the foci
of the ellipse.
ii) Law of areas : The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
dA
time. = constant
dt
iii) Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is directly proportional
to the cube of the length of semi major axis of the elliptical path. i.e. T 2 a3 .
Where T is time period of revolution of planet, ‘a’ is the length of the semi major axis or average
distance between sun and planet.

2) Relation between acceleration due to gravity (g) at the surface of a planet and gravitational
GM
constant (G) is g  2
R
2
 h
3) Variation of g with altitude (height) : g h  g 1  
 R
 2h 
If h  R , above equation can be written as g h  g 1  
 R
4) Variation of ‘g’ with depth:
 d
g d  g 1  
 R

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5) Orbital velocity : The speed of a satellite in the orbit is called orbital velocity (or) Velocity
required for a body in order that it revolve round the earth in circular orbit is known as orbital
velocity.
GM
V0 
 R  h
GM  GM 
If ‘h’ is very much less than R then V0  Therefore V0  gR   gR 
R  R 
6) Escape velocity : The minimum velocity with which a body is projected, so that it escapes from
the gravitational field of earth is called escape velocity.
2GM  GM 
Ve   Ve  2 gR  g  2  GM  gR 2 
R  R 

7) Geo stationary satellite :

a) Satellite whose time period of revolution is equal to the time period of revolution of earth (i.e. 24
hours) is called Geostationary satellite.
b) This satellite appears at rest with respect to the earth.
c) The period of revolution of a Geostationary satellite is 24 hours.
d) It rotates from west to east equatorial plane of earth.
Uses :
i) To study the upper layers of the atmosphere.
ii) Used in the weather forecast.
iii) To know the shape and size of the earth.
iv) To identify the minerals and natural resources present inside and on the surface of the earth.
v) To transmit the T.V. programmes to the distant places.
8) Gravitational potential energy : The amount of work done in bringing the body from infinity to
a point is called Gravitational Potential Energy.
Gm1m2
U 
r
9. Basic forces in nature :
i) Gravitational force ii) Electromagnetic force
iii) Strong nuclear force iv) Weak nuclear force
The ratio of strengths of gravitational, weak nuclear, Electromagnetic and strong nuclear forces are
respectively 1:1031 :1036 :1038 .

10. Newton’s law of Gravitation :

The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to product of their masses
Gm1m2
and is inversely proportional to square of distance between them F 
r2
Gm1m2 ^
In vector form F  r
r3
Where G is universal gravitational constant
Value and units of G :In S.I. , G  6.67 1011 Nm2 kg 2
Dimensional formula :  M 1 L3T 2 
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

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1. Elasticity : The property of a material by virtue of which it regains its original size and shape
when deformation force is removed is called elasticity.
Ex : Steel, Rubber.
No body is perfectly elastic, but quartz is the nearest example.
Elasticity is molecular property of matter.
2. Plasticity :
The property of a material by virtue of which it does not regain the size and shape when the
deformation force is removed is called Plasticity.
Ex : Putty dough, Chewing gum, Soldering lead
No body is perfectly plastic but putty is nearest example.
3. Stress :The restoring force per unit area is called stress.
restoring force F
Stress =  Unit : N / m 2 or Pascal.
area of cross section A
Dimensional Formula : M 1L1T 2
If the stress is normal to the surface, it is called normal stress. If the stress is tangential to the
surface, it is called tangential stress.
4. Types of stress:
Normal restoring force
i) Normal stress =
Area of cross section
restoring force
Logitudinal stress =
Area
normal force
ii) Volume stress = Pressure =
Area
It is also called hydraulic stress

Tngential restoring force

iii) Shearing stress :
Area of cross section
5.Strain:
The change in dimension produced per unit dimension is called strain.
change in dimension
Strain =
original dimension
Strain has no units and dimensions.

6. Types of strain:
change in length e
i) Longitudinal strain = 
original length l
change in volume V
ii) Volume strain (or) Bulk strain  
original volume V
Negative sign indicates decrease in volume
iii) Shearing strain:-

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 relative displacement between two layers
Shearing strain =
distance between the layers
x

L
This strain is due to the change in shape of the body.

7. Elastic limit :
The maximum value of the stress with in which the body regains its original size and shape is
called elastic limit.

8. Hooke’s law :
Stress
Within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain. E 
Strain
E = modulus of elasticity S.I. Unit :- N / m 2

Within the elastic limit, stress-strain graph is a straight line passing through the origin.

Slope of the graph is E.

9. Young’s modulus (Y) :

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain is called as young’s
modulus.
longitudinal stress Fl
Y 
longitudinal strain Ae
Mgl
If load attached to the wire is M, then F  Mg , and A   r 2 Y  2 N / m 2
r e
If Y is large for a body, it can’t be elongated.

10. Rigidity modulus :

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain is called rigidity
modulus.

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 tangential series F
Rigidity modulus =  
shearing stress A
If  is small for a wire, it can be twisted easily.

11. Bulk modulus (K) :

Within the elastic limit the ratio between volume stress and bulk strain is called bulk modulus.
volume stress
Bulk modulus =
bulk strain
P
K= (- sign shows decrease in volume)
 V 
 
 V 
12. The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called compressibility
13. Poisson’s ratio (  ) :
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
 r 
 
 
lateral strain r 

longitudinal strain  l 
 
 l 

i) As it is a ratio, it has no units and dimensions.

ii) Theoretical limits of   -1 to 0.5
Practical limits of   0 to 0.5
iii) For an incompressible substance   0.5.

14. Thermal force is F  AY  

Thermal force is independent of length of the bar.
Thermal stress (linear compressive stress)
force AY 
= =  Y 
area A

15. The work done in stretching a wire

1
W  Stress  Strain  Volume
2
1 1 e2 AY
W  Fe 
2 2 l
16. Strain energy per unit volume (energy density)
1 1
E =  stress  strain  Y  Strain 
2

2 2
 Stress 
2
 Stress 
Also, E  Y
2Y  Strain 
17. Ductile materials : The materials which show the large plastic range beyond elastic limit are
called Ductile materials.
Ex. Copper, Gold, Lead etc.

18. Brittle materials : The materials which show very small plastic range beyond the elastic limit are
called Brittle materials.
Ex. Glass, Ceramic, Cast Iron etc.
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i) Nearly perfect elastic bodies are quartz fiber & steel
ii) Nearly perfect plastic bodies are clay, wax, butter etc.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1. Average pressure :-
Average pressure is defined as the normal force acting per unit area.
SI unit : Nm 2 (or) Pascal. It is a scalar. Dimensional formula :  M 1 L1T 2 
2. Pascal’s law:-
Pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points which are at same height. A change in pressure
applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally to every point of the fluid and the walls of the
containing vessel.
3. Buoyancy :-
The buoyancy force on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
that body. This statement is true even when the objects float on the surface of a fluid.
density of the object
Fraction of the volume of the object submerged in a fluid =
density of the fluid

4. Stream line flow :-

A fluid flow in which the velocity of all the particles passing through the same point remains
constant, is called streamline flow.
5. Turbulent flow :-
A fluid flow in which the velocity of all the particles passing through the same point is different, is
called turbulent flow.
6. Viscosity :
The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between the layers which
are in contact is called viscosity. SI Unit : N (newton) Dimensional formula :  M 1 LT
1 2

7. When temperature increases viscosity of liquids decreases and viscosity of gases increases

8. Stoke’sformula :

a) Stoke’s formula is given by F  6 rVt

Where F = Viscous force, Vt  terminal velocity
2 2  d1  d 2  g
b) Vt  r Where d1 = density of solid d 2 = density of liquid
9 
9. Critical velocity
Critical velocity is defined as the minimum velocity at which the flow of a liquid changes from
laminar (or streamline) to turbulent state is called critical velocity
R
VC  e
d
Where, Re = Reynold’s Number
 = Coefficient of viscosity
 = Density
d = Diameter of the tube
For stream line flow Re  1000
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For turbulent flow Re  2000

10. Equation of continuity

Equation of continuity is given by
av  const  a1v1  a2v2
Where, a  area and v  velocity

11. Bernoulli’s principle : “When an incompressible and non viscous fluid flowing steadily through
a tube of non uniform area of cross section then at every point in the path of the fluid, the total
energy per unit volume remains constant”.
1
P   hg  V 2  constant
2
For a horizontal pipe
1
P  V 2 = constant
2
1
According to Bernoulli’s principle P
V
12. Torricelli’s theorem :
V  2 gh where V = velocity of efflux

13. Magnus effect :

When the ball is spinning and moving in the air, it experience a net upward force called dynamic
lift. This dynamic lift due to spinning is called “Magnus effect”.
F
14. Surface tension T 
l
S.I. Unit : N/m.
Dimensional formula : M 1L0T 2
Rain drops and bubbles are spherical due to surface tension.

15. Surface Energy :

The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called surface energy
Work done inincreasing surface area
Surface Energy =
increase in surface area
16. Surface tension of a liquid is numerically equal to its surface energy
17. Angle of contact :
The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface and the solid surface, at the point of contact,
inside the liquid is known as angle of contact.

18. Important Points:

i) For pure water and glass, angle of contact is zero.
ii) Angle of contact increases on increasing temperature.
iii) Angle of contact changes on adding impurities to liquids
iv) Angle of contact is independent of inclination of solid
v) If angle of contact is less than 900
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a. The liquid wets the solid surface
b. The liquid spreads on solid surface
c. There is a capillary tube
d. The shape of meniscus is concave.
vi) If the angle of contact is greater than 900 .
a. The liquid does not wet the solid surface
b. The liquid does not spread on solid surface
c. There is a capillary depression
d. The shape of meniscus is convex up.

19. i) Water proofing agents increases the angle of contact.Ex : Wax

ii) Wetting agents reduces the angle of contact. Ex: Soaps, detergents

20. Capillarity :-
The rise (or) fall of liquid inside a capillary tube when immersed in a liquid is called capillarity
Importance of capillarity in daily life :
i) Ink absorbed by paper ii) Water soaked by plant
iii) Oil raised in wick of a lamp iv) water absorbed by towel

21. Surface tension by capillary rise method.

hrdg
T
2 cos 
h : capillary rise
r : Inner radius of bore
d : density of liquid
 : Angle of contact

2T
22. Excess pressure in a liquid drop P 
r
Where T = Surface tension of the liquid r = radius of the drop
2T
23. Excess pressure in an air bubble inside the liquid P  (Just below the surface)
r
Where T = Surface tension of the liquid r = radius of the drop
4T
24. Excess pressure inside a soap bubble in air P 
r
Where T = Surface tension of the liquid r = radius of the drop

25. As temperature increases surface tension decreases except in the case of molten copper and
cadmium.

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1. Temperature : It is the thermal condition of a body which determines its ability to transfer heat
to other bodies
9
2. Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales is F  C  32
5
F  32 C  0 K  273
3. Relation between 0 F , 0C , K is  
180 100 100

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 S  L.F .P
4. General relation for any arbitrary scale of temperature.  Constant
U .F .P  L.F .P
Where ‘S’ is reading on a scale.
LFP = lower fixed point UFP = upper fixed point

5. Coefficient of Linear expansion of solids   : The ratio of increase in length of a metal rod per

10 C rise in temperature to its original length is called linear coefficient of expansion  

 l2  l1 
l1  t2  t1 
 l2  l1  = Increase in length l1 = initial length
 t2  t1  = Increase in temperature.

6. Coefficient of Areal expansion    : The ratio of increase in area of metal plate per 10 C rise in
temperature to its original area is called coefficient of Areal expansion    .


 a2  a1 
a1  t2  t1 
 a2  a1   Increase in area a1  Initial area  t2  t1   increase in temperature

7. Volume Coefficient Expansion   :

The ratio of increase in volume of metal cube per 10 C rise in temperature to its original volume is
V  V 
called coefficient of volume expansion   .   2 1
V1  t2  t1 
V2  V1  = Increase in volume V1 = initial volume
 t2  t1  = Increase in temperature

8. Relation between  ,  and   :  :   1: 2 : 3

 ,  and  are measured in / 0 C
2
9. Relation between  and  is   .
3
10. Variation of density of solids with temperature:
d0  dt 1   t 
d 0 and dt are densities at 0 0 C and t 0C respectively
  Coefficient of volume expansion.
11. Platinum is used to seal with glass due to same coefficient of linear expansion.
12. Anomalous expansion of water:
Generally all liquids expand on heating but pure water contracts from 0 0 C to 4 0 C temperature.
This peculiar behavior of water is called Anomalous expansion of water.
13. Density of water is maximum at 4 0 C (or) 277 Kand minimum volume at 4 0 C (or) 277 K
14. Boyle’s law : : At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
1
proportional to its pressure.  i.e.V  (or ) PV  k
p
If n& T are const.  PV 1 1  PV
2 2

At high temperature and low pressure, gases and obey Boyle’s law.

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15. Charle’s I law : When the presents of a gas is kept constant the volume of a given mass of gas is
V V V
proportional to absolute temperature.(i.e.)  constant  1  2
T T1 T2
Charle’s II law : At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional
P P P
to its absolute temperature.(i.e.) P  T  or   constant (or) 1  2
T T1 T2
16. Volume coefficient of a gas (  ) : Volume coefficient of a gas is the ratio of increase in its
volume per degree rise of temperature to its volume at 0 0 C , keeping the pressure constant
V V V V
  1 2 (or)   2 1
V0t V1t2  V2t1
17. Pressure coefficient of a gas :    : Pressure coefficient of a gas is the ratio of increase in
pressure per degree rise of temperature to its pressure at 0 0 C , keeping the volume constant.
P P P P
  t 0 (or)   2 1
P0t 1 2  P2 t1
Pt
1
18. Relation between  and  : For all gases      0.00367 / 0 C
273.15
19. Ideal gas : The gas which obey gas laws at all temperatures and pressures is called ideal gas.
20. Real gas : The gas which obey gas laws at high temperatures and low pressures only is called
real gas.
21. Real gases behave like an ideal gas at low pressures and high temperatures.
PV
22. Ideal gas equation is : R
T
Where P is the pressure, V is the volume of 1 gram mole of a gas, T is the absolute temperature and
R is the universal gas constant.
R = 8.31 Joule/gm/ K = 2cal / gm / mole /K
PV PV
23. From gas equation 1 1  2 2
T1 T2
P P P
24. If d is the density of the gas = constant.(or) 1  2
dT d1T1 d 2T2
R
25. Boltzmann’s constant: K  and K  1.38 1023 J / K
N
Where N  6.02 10 molecules per mole.
23
N is the Avogadro’s number.

26. The gas equation for unit mass of a gas is PV  rT . Here r = specific gas constant.
Units of r : JKg 1K 1 Dimensional formula : M 0 L2T 2 K 1

27. The relation between R and r is R = Mr. Where M is the molecular weight. Number of moles in
a gas n  m / M .

28. Heat capacity (or) Thermal capacity : The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of a
substance through 10 C is called heat capacity. It is represented by ‘H’
change in heat energy dQ
H= =
rise in temperature dT
Units : JK 1 in S.I. cal / 0 C in C.G.S.

Dimensional formula : ML2T 2 K 1

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29. Specific heat : The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance
through 10 C is called specific heat ‘c’

1 change in heat energy 1 dQ

Specific heat = × c .
mass rise in temperature m dt
Units : J / kg K in S.I. Cal / gm 0 C in C.G.S.
ML2T 2
Dimensional formula :  L2T 2 K 1
M T
30. Relation between heat capacity and specific heat:
1 dQ
Specific heat of a substance is given by c  .
m dt
dQ H
But  H heat capacity c   H  mc
dT m
i) Water has high specific heat, so it is used in radiators
ii) Of all the solids and liquids water has highest specific heat so that water is used in
radiators of motor vehicles
iii) Specific heat of a substance during its change of state is infinity during change of state
dT  0
1 dQ
c  . c   (infinite)
m 0
31. Latent heat :
The amount of heat absorbed (or) released by unit mass of a substance during its change of state at
constant temperature is called latent heat it is denoted by ‘L’
heat energy Q
 Latent heat = 
mass m
Units : J/kg in S.I. Cal / gm in C.G.S.

The amount of heat required for a substance of mass m to change its state is Q  mL
Dimensional formula  L2T 2 

32. Coefficient of Thermal conductivity:

In steady state the quantity of heat Q flowing through a metal rod of length l and cross-section A in
a time t when its ends are at temperature 1 and  2 1  2  is given by

KA 1   2 
Q t
l
Where K is coefficient of thermal conductivity
K depends on the nature of the metal.
It is defined as the rate of flow of heat per unit area and per unit temperature gradient in steady
state.

33. Thermal Resistance : Thermal resistance R of a conductor of length l, cross-section A and

1
conductivity K is given by R 
KA
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34. Black body radiation :-
A body completely absorbing the radiation of all wavelengths falling on it is called a black body.
Black bodies do not exist in nature. Carbon black and platinum black approximately behave like a
black body, but their absorptive is less than 1 in the far infrared region.

35. Emissive power ( e ) :

i) The amount of energy emitted per second per unit surface area of a body at a given temperature
for a given wavelength range   &   d   is called emissive power.
ii) At a given temperature if the radiations emitted have a wave length difference d  , then the
emissive power is equal to e d  .
iii) S.I. unit of emissive power is Wm-2 and its dimensional formula is MT-3.

36. Emissivity (e) : The ratio of radiant energy emitted by a surface to radiant energy emitted by a
black body under same conditions is called emissivity.
For a perfect black body emissivity e = 1.

37. Absorptive Power ( a ) : At a given temperature, for a given wavelength range, the ratio of
energy absorbed to the energy incident on the body is absorptive power.
Amount of radiant energy absorbed
a λ =
Amount of radiant energy incident
For a perfect black body, the absorptive power, a  1.
38. Prevost theory of heat exchange :
i) Every object emits and absorbs radiant energy at all temperatures except at absolute zero.
ii) The rate of emission increases with the increase in the temperature of the body.
iii) If the body emits more radiant energy, than absorbed, its temperature decreases
iv) If the body absorbs more radiant energy than it emits, it’s temperature decreases.
39. KIRCHOFF’S LAW :
i) At a given temperature , for a given wavelength range, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive
power of a substance is constant.
ii) This constant is equal to the emissive power of a perfect black body at the given temperature
e
and wavelength.i.e.,   const  E
a
Where ‘ E ’ is the emissive power of perfect black body. ‘ e ’ and ‘ a ’ are emissive and absorptive
powers of a given substance respectively.
iii) Good absorbers are good emitters
iv) Poor absorbers are poor emitters
40. Sea breezes, land breezes and trade winds are the examples for natural convection.
41. STEFAN’S LAW :
The amount of heat radiated by a black body per second per unit area is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. E  T 4  E   T 4 .
Where   Stefan’s constant
= 5.67 108Wm2 K 4
42. Stefan-Boltizmann’slaw :
i) If a black body at absolute temperature T is surrounded by an enclosure at absolute temperature
Ta , then the rate of loss of heat energy by radiation per unit area is given by, E   T 4  T04 

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ii) For any hot body, E   Ae T 4  T04 
Where ‘e’ is the emissive power and ‘A’ is the area of cross – section of the hot body.
43. Newton’s law of cooling :
The rate of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional to the mean excess of temperature of the
body above that of the surroundings, provided the difference in temperature of the body and that
of surroundings is small.
d   
 K  1 2  S 
dt  2 
d
Here, = Rate of cooling
dt
1 , 2 are the initial and final temperatures of the body respectively.  S is temperature of
surroundings and K is the cooling constant.
Animals curl in winter in order to decrease the area of radiating surface. So rate of cooling is less.

THERMODYNAMICS
1. Heat :
Heat is a form of energy which transfers from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature.
Units: Unit of heat in SI – Joule
Unit of heat in C.G.S. – calorie 1 cal = 4.2 J
2. Thermal equilibrium :
Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no exchange of heat energy between
them when they are thermally in contact with each other.

3. Zeroth law of thermodynamics :

If two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with third system C separately, then, they (A, B)
must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

4. Calorie :
Calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from
14.50 C to 15.50 C

5. Internal energy :
Internal energy of a thermodynamic system is defined as the energy possessed by the system by
virtue of its molecular constitution and the position of the molecules.

a) The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of individual molecules in the system is
called internal energy.
Internal energy U = P.E + K.E.
Change in internal energy dU  U f  U i
Where U f is final internal energy
U i is initial internal energy
b) Internal energy of a system increases with temperature.
6. External work done by an ideal gas during expansion, dW = pdV
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7. First law of thermodynamics :
When certain amount of heat is given to a system a part of it is used to increase the internal
energy and the remaining part is used in doing external work.
i) This law is particular form of the law of conservation of energy
ii) dQ = dU + dW
where dQ amount of heat
dU increase in internal energy
dQ  dU  PdV
8. Significance :
a) Heat is a form of energy
b) Energy is conserved in thermodynamic system
c) Every thermodynamic system in equilibrium state possesses internal energy.

9. Specific heats of gases : Every gas has two specific heats

Specific heat of gas at constant volume , Specific heat of gas at constant pressure.

10. Specific heat of gas at constant volume : It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the
1 dQ
temperature of unit mass of gas through 10 C at constant volume, CV  .
m dT
11. Specific heat of gas at constant pressure.
It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 10 C
1 dQ
at constant pressure. CP  .
m dT
12. Molar specific heat at constant volume : It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the
1 dQ
temperature of one mole of gas through 10 C at constant volume. CV  .
n dT
13. Molar specific heat at constant pressure.
It is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of one mole of gas through 10 C
1 dQ
at constant pressure C p  .
n dT
14. Relation between CP and CV
a) CP  CV  R
C
b) The ratio of CP and CV is a constant i.e. P  
CV
15. Law of method of mixtures :
Heat lost by the hot bodies = Heat gained by the cold bodies (when there is no loss of heat to the
surroundings)
16. Mechanical equivalent of heat (or) Joules law :
The amount of work performed is directly proportional to the amount of heat generated W  Q
W = JQ where J = Joules constant (or) mechanical equivalent of heat
17. Isothermal process:
a) The changes in volume and pressure of a gas taking place at constant temperature is called
isothermal process
b) Isothermal process obeys Boyle’s law i.e. PV = constant
c) In this process the system is enclosed with perfect heat conducting walls
d) Due to exchange of heat from system to surroundings (or) vice versa through heat conducting
walls so that temperature of the system is constant. dT = 0

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e) In this process the change in internal energy of the system is zero dU = 0
f) This process is slow process
1  d  1  d 
g) Molar specific heat is infinity in this process C        (infinite)
n  dT  n  0 
P
h) Work done in isothermal process is W  2.302 nRT log10  1 
 P2 
18. Adiabatic process
a) The changes in pressure, volume of a gas taking place at constant heat energy is called adiabatic
process
b) This process do not obey any gas laws but it obeys poisons law
PV  = constant
c) In this process the system is enclosed with bad conductor of heat
d) In this process there will not be any exchange of heat from system to surroundings & vice versa,
through bad conductor of heat so that heat energy remains constant
e) Change in heat energy in this process is zero. i.e., dQ = 0
1 dQ
f) Molar specific heat is zero. i.e., C  . C  0  dQ  0
n dT
g) It is quick and sudden process
Ex : When cycle tube bursts suddenly pressure, volume, temperature of the gas changes but
heat energy remains same.
R
h) Work done in adiabatic process is W  T  T 
1    2 1
19. Triple point : The pressure and temperature at which the given substance can exists in 3 states
(liquid, solid and gas) simultaneously is known as triple point. Pressure and temperatures of triple
point of water are 610.13 Pa and 273.16 K

20. Second law of thermodynamics:

a. Clausius statement
It is impossible for a self acting machine unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from a
body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature (or) Heat cannot flow by it self from a
colder body to a hotter body.
b. Kelvin Plank statement:
It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a cycle to convert the heat energy completely
into work with out any change of working system.

21. Heat engine is a device used to convert Heat energy into work or mechanical energy. Its
efficiency is

 1
 Q  Q2   T1  T2   1  T2
Q1 T1 T1
22. Refrigerator (heat pump) is reverse of heat engine. In the refrigerator, working substance
extracts heat Q2 from cold reservoir at temperature T1 Its coefficient of performance
Q Q2
 2
W Q1  Q2
23.  value never exceed 1 but  value can be greater than 1.

KINETIC THEORY

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1. The average distance covered by a molecule between two successive collisions, is called mean
free path.
2. The relation between pressure, temperature, volume of a gas is PV = KT
T temperature in Kelvin scale
K constant for given sample
3. The perfect gas equation PV   RT
M mass of the gas
 
M0 molar mass
 RT
Above equation can be written as P 
M0
 = density of gas

1
4. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation P  n m v 2
3
Where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and v 2 is the mean of squared
speed.

5. Kinetic interpretation of temperature

1 2 3
mvrms  K BT
2 2
3K BT
vrms 
m
3
6. The translational kinetic energy E  K B NT
2
7. Dalton law of partial pressures :
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of perfect gases is the sum of the individual pressures that
each gas individual pressures that each gas would exert, if it were present alone in the container at
the same temperature.
P  P1  P2  P3 ......
8. Two prominent phenonmena which provide conclusive evidence of molecular motion are
Brownian motion, Diffusion.
9. At low pressures and high temperatures real gases almost behave like an ideal gas.
10. Pressure exerted by a gas is due to the collisions of molecules made on the walls of the
container. Hence it is independent of the shape of the container.
11. Degrees of freedom : The total number of independent modes (ways) in which a system can
possess energy is called degree of freedom (f).
The number of degree of freedom of the system is f  3N  K
Where N is number of independent motions, K is number of independent restrictions.
(i) Mono atomic gas molecule possess 3 degrees of freedom (N =1 , K = 0)
(ii) Diatomic gas molecule possess 5 degrees of freedom (N = 2, K = 1)
(iii) Triatomic gas molecule possess 6 degrees of freedom ( N = 3, K = 3)

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