PASSAGE 1

Read the text and answer questions 1–13

The development of plastics

The first plastics were developed as a substitute for natural rubber. Chemically, rubber is a
polymer-a compound containing large molecules that are formed by the bonding of many
smaller, simpler units, repeated over and over again. The same bonding principle-
polymerization-is the basis of the creation of a huge range of plastics by the chemical industry.
The first plastic was developed as a result of a competition in the USA. In the 1860s,$10,000
was offered to anybody who could replace ivory-supplies of which were declining-with
something equally good as a material for making billiard balls. The prize was won by John
Wesley Hyatt, with a material called celluloid. Celluloid was made by dissolving cellulose, a
carbohydrate obtained from plants, in a solution of camphor dissolved in ethanol. This new
material rapidly found other applications in the manufacture of everyday products such as knife
handles and detachable collars and cuffs. But perhaps the best-known celluloid product was
photographic film, without which the film industry could never have taken off at the end of the
19th century.
Celluloid can be repeatedly softened and reshaped by heat, and is known as a thermoplastic. In
1907, Leo Baekeland (1863-1944), a Belgian chemist working in the USA, invented a different
kind of plastic, by causing phenol and formaldehyde to react together. Baekeland called it
Bakelite, and it was the first of the thermosets-plastic that can be cast and moulded while
hot,but cannot be softened by heat and reshaped once they have set. Bakelite was a good
insulator, and was resistant to water and acid. With these properties it was soon being used in
the manufacture of electrical switches as well as a variety of domestic items.
As the century went on, the range of newly developed plastic increased. Chemists began
looking for other small molecules that could be strung together to make polymers. In the
1930s, chemists in Britain discovered that the gas ethylene would polymerize under heat and
pressure to form a thermoplastic they called polythene. Polypropylene followed in the 1950s.
Both are used to make bottles, pipes and plastic bags. A small change in the starting material-
replacing a hydrogen atom in ethylene with a chlorine atom-produced rigid PVC (polyvinyl
chloride), a fireproof plastic suitable for drains and gutters. By adding certain chemicals, a soft
form of PVC can be produced, suitable as a substitute for rubber in items such as waterproof
clothing. A closely related plastic is Teflon or PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene). It produces very
litter friction, making it ideal for produces very litter friction, making it ideal for products such
as non-stick frying pans.
Polystyrene, a hard, clear material like glass, was developed during the 1930s in Germany, and
its applications included food containers and toys. Expanded polystyrene is rigid and is widely
used in packaging and insulation. Polyurethane, developed in the same country, was commonly
produced as a foam which was very useful in the production of insulating materials.
In the 1930s, the first of the man-made fibres was created-nylon. Its inventor was a chemist
called Wallace Carothers (1896-1937), who worked for the Du Pont company in the USA. He
found that under the right conditions two particular chemicals would form a polymer that could
be pumped out through holes and then stretched to form long glossy threads that could be
woven like silk. Its first use was to make parachutes for the US armed forces n World War II. In
the postwar years, it completely replaced silk in the manufacture of stockings.
Many other synthetic fibres joined nylon, including Orion, Acrilan, and Terylene. Today most
garments are made of a blend of natural fibres, such as cotton and wool, and man-made fibres
that make fabrics easier to look after.
Despite its enormous usefulness, plastic has its drawbacks. In fact one its great strengths-its
indestructibility- is its greatest disadvantage. Beaches all over the world, even on the remotest
island, are littered with plastic bottles that nothing can destroy. Nor is it very easy to recycle
plastics, as different types of plastics, as different types of plastic are often found in the same
items and call for different treatments.
Plastics can be made biodegradable by incorporating into their structure a material such as
starch, which is attacked by bacteria and causes the plastic to fall apart. Other materials can be
incorporated that gradually decay in sunlight-although bottles made of such materials have to
be stored in the dark, to ensure they do not disintegrate before they have been used.

Questions 1–7
Complete the table below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
answer.
Early types of plastic

Name Date Country of origin Properties Common uses

Celluloid 1860s USA Can be soften Billiard

and reshaped by balls(original
heat use): cutlery,
clothing
1
2 1907 USA Can’t be 3 Household
softened after object
setting , good
insulator ,
resistant to
water and acid
Polythene 1930s 4 Can be softened Bottles, pipes,
and reshaped by plastic bags
heat
Polypropylene 1950s bottles; pipes;
plastic bags
Rigid PVC Is 5 external piping
Soft PVC outdoor clothing
Polystyrene 1930s Germany Resembles 6 food containers;
toy
 Polyurethane Germany Usually insulation
manufactured as
a7

Questions 8–13
Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text, choose FALSE if the
statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
8 The chemical structure of rubber is very different to that of plastics.
TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
9 John Wesley Hyatt was an industrial chemist.
TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
10 Celluloid and Bakelite react in the same way to heat.
TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
11 If an object is made of several plastics, these prove hard to break down and reuse.
TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
12 Adding starch to plastic makes it more durable.
TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
13 Containers which are designed to decompose need particular storage conditions.
TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
PASSAGE 2
Read the text and answer questions 14–26

Lean Production innovation – in manufacturing systems

After the First World War, car makers Henry Ford and Arthur Sloan of General Motors moved
world manufacturing from centuries of craft production into the age of mass production.
Largely as a result of this, the United States soon dominated the world economy. After the
Second World War, and approximately a hundred years after Japan opened up to the modern
world, Eiji Toyoda and Taiichi Ohno pioneered the concept of lean production at the Toyota car
company. And now, although superimposing the method on existing mass production systems
causes pain and upheaval, manufacturers around the world are trying to embrace this
innovative system.
Perhaps the best way to describe lean production is to compare it with the two other major
manufacturing systems: craft production and mass production. The craft producer uses highly
skilled workers and simple but flexible tools to make exactly what the customer asks for – one
item at a time. A present day example of this method is the customised production of a few
exotic sports cars. The concept of craft production remains very popular, but the problem with
it is obvious. Goods produced by the craft method – as cars once exclusively were – cost too
much for most of us to afford. So at the beginning of the twentieth century, mass production
was developed as an alternative method. The mass producer uses narrowly skilled professionals
to design products which are then made by unskilled or semi-skilled workers, using expensive,
single-purpose machines. These churn out standardised products in very high volumes. Because
the machinery costs so much, and is so intolerant of disruption, the mass producer keeps
standard designs in production for as long as possible. The result is that the customer gets
lower costs, but at the expense of variety, and by means of work methods which most
employees find boring and dispiriting. By contrast, the lean production system combines the
advantages of craft and mass production, while avoiding the high cost of the former and the
rigidity of the latter. Towards this end, companies appoint teams of multi-skilled workers to all
levels of the organisation , and use highly flexible and increasingly automated machines to
produce goods in enormous volume and variety.
Lean production is so called because, compared with mass production, it uses less of everything
– half the human effort in the factory, half the manufacturing space, half the investment in
tools, and half the engineering hours to develop the new product. It also results in far fewer
defects.
Perhaps the most striking contrast between mass and lean production systems lies in their
production standards. Mass producers set a limited goal for themselves: 'good enough', which
translates into an acceptable number of defects, a maximum acceptable number of inventories,
and a narrow range of standardised products. Lean producers, on the other hand, are unwilling
to compromise standards in any of these areas.
Although cost reduction is the primary objective of the lean production system, it must meet
three other intermediate objectives in order to achieve this: quantity control, quality assurance
and respect for humanity. Firstly, the system must be able to adapt to daily and monthly
fluctuations in demand. Secondly, each separate process must supply only good units to the
subsequent process. Thirdly, in as far as the system uses human resources to attain its cost
objectives, respect for human needs must be cultivated. It should be emphasised that none of
these three objectives can be achieved separately.
The continuous flow of lean manufacturing production relies on two practical mechanisms:
just-in-time and autonamation. Just-in-time means, for example, that in the process of
assembling the parts to build a car, components from the preceding process should arrive at
the next part of the line at exactly the right time and in the correct quantities. If just-in-time is
fully realised throughout the company, then superfluous inventories are completely eliminated
from the factory, making stores or warehouses unnecessary. However, relying solely on a
central planning approach to control schedules for all stages of the production process
simultaneously is very difficult in the case of cars, which consist of thousands of parts. So the
lean system looks at the production flow in reverse; in other words, employees go to the
preceding process to withdraw the necessary quantity of units at the appropriate time. The
preceding process must produce only sufficient quantities of units to replace those that have
been withdrawn, and in turn withdraws the requisite number of components from the process
that precedes it.
Autonamation is the automatic checking for abnormalities in the production process. In order
to realise just-in-time perfectly, only units which are in perfect condition must be allowed to
flow to the next process, and this flow must be regular and uninterrupted. In other words,
quality control must coexist with just-in-time procedures throughout the system. Autonamation
involves building in a mechanism to prevent the multiplication of defects in machines or
product lines. For example, in Toyota factories almost all the machines have been fitted with
stopping devices, and the concept of autonamation has been extended to manual production
lines. If something abnormal happens there, the worker pushes a button to stop the whole line,
and lights, which are hung so high in the factory that they are visible to everyone, indicate the
position of the problem.

Questions 14–20
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Choose the correct number, i-x, in boxes 14-20. List of Headings
i Global resistance to lean manufacturing
ii The historical context iii Procedures for controlling quality
iv The pros and cons of different production systems
ix Working conditions
v The impact on profits
vi Procedures for controlling supply
vii The origin of the term
viii A crucial difference in levels of quality
x Interdependent strategies for controlling expenditure

Questions 21–26
Complete the sentences below.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

A small number of unusual cars are still produced by the 21 method.

Lean production requires staff who are 22 .
Lean production employs fewer people, and uses less 23 , equipment and time.
Storage facilities are not needed if a procedure known as 24 is implemented in the lean
production method.
Autonamation is a procedure for spotting any 25 in the products on a production line.
At Toyota factories, 26 are suspended above manual production lines in order to show where
production has to be halted.
PASSAGE 3
Read the text and answer questions 27–40

How Does Watching Sport Influence the Brain?

A During the epoch when the poet Homer unveiled his grand epic, the ancient Greeks initiated
a festival where men contended in a race of roughly 200 metres. The victor would be rewarded
with a symbolic olive branch. This event, known as the Olympics, has transcended its humble
origins to embody the human quest for progress. The captivating nature of these games raises
an intriguing question: what exactly draws us in as spectators? Is it the thrill of competition, the
beauty of human movement, or something happening within our brains?
B In 1996, three Italian neuroscientists-Giacomo Rizzolatti, Leonardo Fogassi, and Vittorio
Gallese conducted research on the premotor cortex of monkeys and made a groundbreaking
discovery. They revealed a cluster of cells that act as a repository for motor actions, similar to
'grammar of movement'. These cellular networks represent the 'sentences' of full-body motions
that our brains meticulously retain and refine. Take the art of swinging a golf club as an
example. For those who only watch the Masters Tournament on television, playing golf may
appear deceptively effortless. However, for novices, smoothly manoeuvring the asymmetrical
metal club presents a nearly impossible challenge. This is because novices rely on conscious
effort, utilising brain regions adjacent to the premotor cortex. Experts, by contrast, instinctively
execute perfectly balanced movements, as their actions are deeply ingrained and intertwined
with neurons in the premotor cortex. Their swing occurs with the serenity of a refined
autopilot, requiring no conscious control. This neural distinction between novices and experts
provides insight into how long-term training can physically reshape the brain.
C These neurons in the premotor cortex not only help explain why some athletes seem to have
exceptional skills, but they also exhibit a wondrous characteristic that prompted Rizzolatti,
Fogassi, and Gallese to bestow upon them the exalted label of mirror neuron'. They point out
that mirror neurons are activated when a primate performs a particular action, such as grasping
or holding an object, or when it witnesses another individual performing a comparable action.
Humans possess an even more intricate mitor neuron system that reflects the external world in
our brains, enabling us to intemalise the behaviours of others. Nonetheless, these cells
necessitate what scientists refer to as 'goal-orientated movements' to activate. If we stare at a
photograph, a static image of a runner striding ahead, our mirror neurons remain utterly silent.
It is solely when the runner is in action, be it in running, moving, or sprinting, that they are
ignited. Movement, not stillness, is what speaks to our brains.
D Electrophysiological studies have shown that when we observe a golfer or a runner in
action, our own premotor cortex mirror neurons respond as if we were participating in the
activity. This neural mirroring was initially identified in 1954 by French physiologists Gastaut
and Bert, who noticed specific alpha and mu brain wave patterns in humans. The mu signal
plays a role in neural mirroring, remaining active during periods of bodily stillness but
dissipating when we undertake active pursuits like playing a sport or changing TV channels.
Notably, the mu signal also remains subdued while we observe someone else in action, such as
on television, which alludes to the influence of mirror neurons. This suggests that our brains do
not simply passively register what we see, but actively simulate it, engaging systems normally
reserved for action.
E Rizzolatti, Fogassi, and Gallese have coined the term 'direct matching hypothesis' to
delineate the concept of mirror neurons. They asserted that to comprehend the movements of
sports stars, we need to align the visual representation of the observed action with our own
motor representation of the same action. According to this theory, watching an Olympic athlete
can evoke a resonance in the observer's motor system. The observer's 'motor knowledge' is
harnessed to decipher the observed action. However, mirror neurons extend beyond being
merely neural foundations for our sporting inclinations. They also enable observers to enhance
their athletic abilities through the process of observation. It turns out that watching a
remarkable golfer improves our own golfing skills, and witnessing a skilled sprinter actually
bolsters our running speed. This ability to learn through observation is a vital skill. From
language acquisition in infancy to understanding facial expressions, mimicking plays a
fundamental role in our consciousness. The most accomplished athletes possess a premotor
cortex capable of envisioning victorious movements, supplemented by the physical attributes
required to translate those movements into reality. In this way, action and imagination coalesce
to drive performance.
F However, how many among us watch sport in order to enhance our athletic abilities? Most
spectators tune in for the emotional roller coaster, the human drama it encompasses. This
emotional connection finds its roots in mirror neurons, which allow spectators to perceive
athletes' victorious movements and to share in the emotion of their triumphs. This is because
they are directly associated with the amygdala, a key area of the brain responsible for
emotional processing. During the Olympics, mirror neurons in individuals around the world
resonate in unison, and watching sport unifies people. The majority of us may never run a mile
in under four minutes or hit a home run. Yet, as we gather around our televisions, we all briefly
get a taste of the feeling of executing something flawlessly. In those fleeting moments, sport
becomes more than entertainment—it becomes a shared human experience.

Questions 27–32
Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Choose the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 27-32.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

27 reasons why watching sport can bring emotional satisfaction

28 an explanation of why beginners struggle with sports tasks
29 a factor that can work alongside mirroring in sports competitions to maintain peak
performance
30 a comparison between the mirror neurons of human beings and primates
31 mention of integrating visual and motor processes to understand athletic movements
32 reference to the first discovery of brain activity associated with mirror neurons

Questions 33–35
Choose the correct answer.

33 What point does the writer make about professional athletes in Paragraph B?

A They meticulously plan each phase of their movements.

B They engage in regular practice to retain and refine their skills.
C They actively consider and analyse the actions of their peers.
D They perform their actions without conscious contemplation.

34 In this passage, the writer mentions the example of a remarkable golfer to illustrate

A the critical role of imitation in the formation of consciousness.

B the improvement of sporting ability through watching sport.
C the stimulation of a resonance in the observer's motor system.
D the motivation of the observer's interest and love for golf.

35 the principal motivation for watching sport mentioned by the writer is

A to improve our physical ability by analyzing the athletes’ technical strategies

B to unite viewers from different nations.
C to experience intense positive emotions by immersing oneself in sport.
D to become a sports professional.
Questions 36–40
Choose YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer, choose NO if the statement
contradicts the claims of the writer, or NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer
thinks about this.
36 The emergence of Homer's epic poetry occurred in the same historical period as the
beginning of the Olympic Games.
YES
NO
NOT GIVEN
37 The Italian scientists concluded that the motor actions encoded within the premotor cortex
have no discernible link to unrelated collections of neurons.
YES
NO
NOT GIVEN
38 Spectators can achieve flawless golf swings merely by watching the Masters Tournament
without physical practice.
YES
NO
NOT GIVEN
39 Some neuroscientists believe that certain types of still images might activate mirror neurons
under specific experimental conditions.
YES
NO
NOT GIVEN
40 The mu system is suppressed while we are dynamically involved in a particular activity.
YES
NO
NOT GIVEN
Answers.

Passage 1 Passage 2 Passage 3

Question 1: photographic Question 14: ii The historical Question 27: F
film context Question 28: B
Question 2: Bakelite Question 15: iv The pros and Question 29: E
Question 3: electrical cons of different production Question 30: C
switches systems Question 31: E
Question 4: Britain Question 16: vii The origin of Question 32: D
Question 5: fireproof the term Question 33: D
Question 6: glass Question 17: viii A crucial Question 34: B
Question 7: foam difference in levels of quality Question 35: C
Question 8: FALSE TRUE Question 18: x Question 36: YES
Question 9: NOT GIVEN TRUE Interdependent strategies for Question 37: NO YES
Question 10: FALSE TRUE controlling expenditures Question 38: NO YES
Question 11: TRUE Question 19: en Procedures Question 39: NOT GIVEN
Question 12: FALSE TRUE for controlling supply Question 40: YES
Question 13: TRUE Question 20: iii Procedures
for controlling quality
Question 21: craft, craft
production
Question 22: multi-skilled
Question 23: manufacturing
space
Question 24: just-in-time
Question 25: abnormalities
Question 26: lights